WELDING OF

STAINLESS STEELS AND

OTHER JOINING METHODS
TABLE OF CONTENTS FOR THE WELDING HANDBOOK
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................................................2

STAINLESS STEEL WELDING CHARACTERISTICS ..............................................................................................................3

AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS ................................................................................................................................................3
PRESERVATION OF CORROSION RESISTANCE ................................................................................................................................5
Carbide Precipitation..........................................................................................................................................................................5
Stress-Corrosion Cracking ................................................................................................................................................................5
WELDING PREHEATING ......................................................................................................................................................................5

MARTENSITIC STAINLESS STEELS ..................................................................................................................5

WELDING PREHEATING ......................................................................................................................................................................6

FERRITIC STAINLESS STEELS ......................................................................................................................................................7

PRESERVATION OF CORROSION RESISTANCE ................................................................................................................................7
WELDING PREHEATING ......................................................................................................................................................................7

PRECIPITATION HARDENING STAINLESS STEELS..........................................................................................7

WELD ROD SELECTION ....................................................................................................................................7

AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS ........................................................................................................................................................8
MARTENSITIC STAINLESS STEELS ......................................................................................................................................................8
FERRITIC STAINLESS STEELS ..............................................................................................................................................................8
PRECIPITATION HARDENING STAINLESS STEELS ............................................................................................................................8

WELDING PROCESSES FOR STAINLESS STEELS ............................................................................................................10

WELDING DISSIMILAR METALS ......................................................................................................................10

AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS TO LOW CARBON STEELS ........................................................................................................10
PROCEDURES FOR WELDING TRANSITION JOINTS ....................................................................................................................10

FERRITIC AND MARTENSITIC STAINLESS STEELS TO

CARBON OR LOW-ALLOY STEELS ....................................................................................................................................................11

USE OF CHILL BARS........................................................................................................................................11

JOINT DESIGN..................................................................................................................................................11

PREPARATION........................................................................................................................................................................................11

POST/WELD CLEANING AND FINISHING ......................................................................................................12

WELD SPATTER ..................................................................................................................................................................................12
FLUX REMOVAL ..................................................................................................................................................................................12
FINISHING WELDS ..............................................................................................................................................................................12

SOFT SOLDERING............................................................................................................................................13
PROPER CLEANING A MUST ............................................................................................................................................................13
SELECTION OF THE PROPER FLUX ..................................................................................................................................................13
SELECTION OF THE PROPER SOLDER ............................................................................................................................................14
CLEANING AFTER SOLDERING ........................................................................................................................................................14

BRAZING ..........................................................................................................................................................14
The information presented in this section Introduction
was originally produced by the Committee Stainless steels are iron-base alloys containing 10.5% or
of Stainless Steel Producers, American more chromium. They have been used for many industrial,
Iron and Steel Institute. The original architectural, chemical, and consumer applications for over a
Handbook also contained data from ASM half century.
International publication Joining of Reference is often made to stainless steel in the singular
sense as if it were one material. Actually there are well over
Stainless Steels. The Committee of
100 stainless steel alloys. Three general classifications are
Stainless Steel Producers no longer exists.
used to identify stainless steels. They are: 1. Metallurgical
The Nickel Development Institute Structure; 2. The AlSl numbering system: namely 200, 300,
(www.nidi.org) has reprints of this and 400 Series numbers; 3. The Unified Numbering System,
handbook titled “Welding of Stainless which was developed by American Society for Testing
Steels and Other Joining Methods” (A Materials (ASTM) and Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)
designer handbooks series No. 9 002). to apply to all commercial metals and alloys.
It should be noted that the data are Stainless steels are engineering materials capable of
typical or average values. Materials meeting a broad range of design criteria. They exhibit
specifically suggested for applications excellent corrosion resistance, strength at elevated
described herein are made solely for the temperature, toughness at cryogenic temperature, and
fabrication characteristics and they are selected for a broad
purpose of illustration to enable the reader
range of consumer, commercial, and industrial applications.
to make his own evaluation.
They are used for the demanding requirements of chemical
The Nickel Development Institute processing to the delicate handling of food and
reprinted it for distribution in August 1988. pharmaceuticals. They are preferred over many other
Material presented in the hand-book has materials because of their performance in even the most
been prepared for the general information aggressive environments, and they are fabricated by methods
of the reader and should not be used or common to most manufacturers.
relied on for specific applications without In the fabrication of stainless steel products, components, or
first securing competent advice. equipment, manufacturers employ welding as the principal
joining method. Stainless steels are welded materials, and a
welded joint can provide optimum corrosion resistance,
strength, and fabrication economy. However, designers should
recognize that any metal, including stainless steels, may
undergo certain changes during welding. It is necessary,
therefore, to exercise a reasonable degree of care during
welding to minimize or prevent any deleterious effects that may
occur, and to preserve the same degree of corrosion
resistance and strength in the weld zone that is an inherent
part of the base metal.
The purpose of this booklet is to help designers and
manufacturing engineers achieve a better understanding of
the welding characteristics of stainless steels, so they may
exercise better control over the finished products with respect
to welding. In addition to welding, other ancillary joining
methods are discussed, including soldering and brazing.

The Specialty Steel Industry of North America

(SSINA) and the individual companies it
represents have made every effort to ensure that
the information presented in this handbook is
technically correct. However, neither the SSINA
nor its member companies warrants the accuracy
of the information contained in this handbook or
its suitability for any general and specific use,
and assumes no liability or responsibility of any
kind in connection with the use of this information.
The reader is advised that the material contained
herein should not be used or relied on for any
specific or general applications without first
securing competent advice.

2
 Stainless Steel Welding temperatures but less than the melting temperature; and 3) the
base metal which is only moderately warmed or not warmed at
Characteristics all. The three zones are illustrated by the drawing in Figure 1.
Although risking over-simplification, the following discussion
During the welding of stainless steels, the temperatures of will be helpful in understanding the metallurgical characteristics
the base metal adjacent to the weld reach levels at which of stainless steels and how their microstructures can change
microstructural transformations occur. The degree to which during welding.
these changes occur, and their effect on the finished weldment
— in terms of resistance to corrosion and mechanical AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS
properties — depends upon alloy content, thickness, filler Austenitic stainless steels (Table 1) containing chromium
metal, joint design, weld method, and welder skill. Regardless and nickel as the principal alloying elements (in addition to
of the changes that take place, the principal objective in iron) are identified as 300 Series (UNS designated S3xxxx).
welding stainless steels is to provide a sound joint with Those containing chromium, nickel, and manganese (in
qualities equal to or better than those of the base metal, addition to iron) are identified as 200 Series (UNS designated
allowing for any metallurgical changes that take place in the S2xxxx).
base metal adjacent to the weld and any differences in the The stainless steels in the austenitic group have different
weld filler metal. compositions and properties but many common characteristics.
For purposes of discussion, in welding there are three zones They can be hardened by cold working, but not by heat
of principal concern: 1) The solidified weld metal, composed of treatment. In the annealed condition, all are nonmagnetic,
either base metal or base metal and filler metal; 2) the heat- although some may become slightly magnetic by cold working.
affected zone (HAZ) in which the base metal is heated to high At room temperature the 300 and 200 Series stainless steels
retain an austenitic microstructure.
While resistance to corrosion is their principal attribute, they
are also selected for their excellent strength properties at high
or extremely low temperatures. They are considered to be the
most weldable of the high-alloy steels and can be welded by
all fusion and resistance welding processes. Comparatively
little trouble is experienced in making satisfactory welded
joints if their inherent physical characteristics and mechanical
properties are given proper consideration.
In comparison with mild steel, for example, the austenitic
stainless steels have several characteristics that require some
revision of welding procedures that are considered standard
for mild steel. As illustrated in Table 2, the melting point of the
austenitic grades is lower, so less heat is required to produce
fusion. Their electrical resistance is higher than that of mild
steel so less electrical current (lower heat settings) is required
for welding. These stainless steels also have a lower coefficient
of thermal conductivity, which causes a tendency for heat to
concentrate in a small zone adjacent to the weld. The austenitic
stainless steels also have coefficients of thermal expansion
approximately 50% greater than mild steel, which calls for
more attention to the control of warpage and distortion.

Table 2
Comparison of Welding Characteristics of 304 Stainless Steel with Carbon Steel

304

304 requires less heat to produce fusion, which means faster

304 results in the generation of more heat for the

304.
304 conducts heat much more slowly than carbon steel thus

304 at 212 F has a

304 expands and contracts at a faster rate than carbon steel,

3
 An important part of successful welding of the austenitic narrows the choice of a base metal), a greater knowledge of
grades, therefore, requires proper selection of alloy (for both stainless steel metallurgy is desirable.
the base metal and filler rod), and correct welding procedures. Two important objectives in making weld joints in austenitic
For the stainless steels more complex in composition, heavier stainless steels are: (1) preservation of corrosion resistance,
in sections or the end-use conditions more demanding (which and (2) prevention or cracking.

4
 PRESERVATION OF CORROSION RESISTANCE The removal of precipitated carbides from 304 in order to
The principal criteria for selecting a stainless steel usually is restore maximum corrosion resistance can be accomplished
resistance to corrosion, and while most consideration is given by annealing (at 1800 to 2150F) (above the sensitizing range)
to the corrosion resistance of the base metal, additional followed by rapid cooling. Stress relieving a weldment at 1500-
consideration should be given to the weld metal and to the 1700F will not restore corrosion resistance, and, in fact, may
base metal immediately adjacent to the weld zone. Welding foster carbide precipitation in stainless steels that do not have
naturally produces a temperature gradient in the metal being a low-carbon content or are not stabilized.
welded, ranging from the melting temperature of the fused Stress-Corrosion Cracking — The chance of stress-
weld metal to ambient temperature at some distance from the corrosion cracking is another reason for post-weld heat
weld. The following discussion will be devoted to preserving treatment. In the as-welded condition, areas close to the weld
corrosion resistance in the base metal heat affected zone. contain residual stresses approaching the yield point of the
Carbide Precipitation — A characteristic of an annealed material. It is difficult to predict when an environment will
austenitic stainless steels such as 304, is its susceptibility to an produce stress-corrosion cracking and to decide how much
important microstructural change if it is exposed to reduction must be made in the magnitude of residual stress to
temperatures within an approximate range of 800-1650F. avoid its occurrence. To ensure against this stress-corrosion
Within this range, chromium and carbon form chromium cracking in welded austenitic stainless steels is to anneal the
carbides, and these precipitate out of the solid solution at the types which contain regular carbon content, and to stress
boundaries between the grains. The rapidity of carbide relieve the stabilized and extra-low-carbon types.
development depends on a number of factors. The actual
metal temperature between the range of 800-1650F is one WELDING PREHEATING
factor. Chromium carbides form most rapidly at about 1200F, The question often arises whether an austenitic stainless
and the formation falls off to nil at the upper and lower limits. steel should be preheated for welding. In general, preheating
Another factor is the amount of carbon originally present in is not helpful because no structural changes, such as
the material — the higher the carbon content the more martensite formation, occur in the weld or the heat-affected
pronounced the action. Time at temperature is a third factor. zones. In some cases, preheating could be harmful in causing
The effect of carbide precipitation on corrosion resistance is increased carbide precipitation, or greater warpage.
to reduce the chromium available to provide corrosion
resistance. Because low-carbon content reduces the extent to
which carbide precipitation occurs, the low-carbon austenitic MARTENSITIC STAINLESS STEELS
grades may be preferred for weldments to be used in highly Martensitic stainless steels, which are identified by 400 Series
corrosive service. 304 with a maximum carbon content of numbers (UNS desiignated S4xxxx) (Table 3), contain chromium
0.08% is widely used. Also available are low-carbon 304L, as the principal alloying element. In the annealed condition
316L, and 317L with 0.03% carbon. these stainless steels have basically a ferritic microstructure and
321 and 347 contain titanium and columbium-tantalum, are magnetic. On heating beyond the critical temperature, the
respectively, alloying elements which have a greater affinity for ferrite transforms into austenite. If then rapidly cooled to below
carbon than does chromium, thus reducing the possibility of the critical temperature, the austenite transforms into martensite.
chromium carbide precipitation. These stabilized types are In many respects, the martensitic stainless steels are similar to
intended for long-time service at elevated temperatures in a the quenched and tempered carbon or alloy steels whose
corrosive environment or when the low-carbon grades are mechanical properties can be varied through heat treatment.
not adequate. Whether or not the transformations take place depends upon
alloy content, especially the chromium and carbon contents.
Other alloying additions may also affect transformation.

Table 3

5
 As a group, the martensitic stainless steels (hardenable by cause intense stresses to be developed due both to thermal
heat treatment) have certain characteristics in common which expansion and to volumetric changes caused by the changes
influence their behavior when subjected to the temperatures in the crystal structure. Their severity may be sufficient to
encountered in welding. These characteristics are as follows: produce fractures.

1) Their melting points are approximately 2700F, which WELDING PREHEATING

compares with 2800F for mild steel. This means that they Preheating and interpass temperature control are the
require less heat for their melting or that they melt faster best means of avoiding cracking in the welding of martensitic
than mild steel for the same rate of heat input. stainless steels. The preheating temperatures employed are
2) Their coefficients of expansion and contraction are about usually in the order of 400 to 600F. Carbon content is the
the same as or slightly less than the corresponding value most important factor in establishing whether preheating will
for carbon steel. This is in contrast to the chromium-nickel be necessary.
grades whose coefficients are about 45-50% higher than The following guide can be useful to coordinate welding
that of mild steel. procedures with carbon content and to accommodate the
3) The heat conductivity ratings are less than half that of mild welding characteristics of the martensitic grades:
steel depending upon temperature. In this respect, they
are similar to the chromium-nickel grades. Below 0.10%C — Generally no preheating or heat treating
4) Their resistance to the flow of electrical current is higher after welding required.
than that of mild steel. For that reason, less amperage is 0.10 to 0.20%C — Preheat to 500F, weld, and cool slowly.
required for their welding. 0.20 to 0.50%C — Preheat to 500F, weld, and heat treat
after welding.
In the soft annealed condition, a martensitic stainless steel Over 0.50%C — Preheat to 500F, weld with high heat
such as 410 (the general-purpose grade) exhibits maximum input, and heat treat after welding.
ductility. On heating to temperatures above about 1500F, the
metallurgical structure begins to change to austenite; at Post-heating, which should always be regarded as an
approximately 1850F the structure is completely austenititic. integral part of a welding operation on the martensitic types,
Cooling from these temperatures results in the transformation may be accomplished by either of two methods:
of austenite to martensite, a hard, strong, nonductile structure.
Rapid cooling from 1850F results in maximum martensite 1) Anneal at 1500F or higher followed by controlled cooling
content. Cooling from temperatures between 1500-1850F to 1100F at a rate of 50 degrees per hour and then air
results in less martensite. These characteristic reactions to cooling.
heating and cooling determine the welding behavior of the 2) Heat to 1350-1400F and follow with the same cooling
martensitic stainless steels. cycle as described in (1).
Martensitic stainless steels can be welded in any one of
several conditions: annealed, semihardened, hardened, stress If hardening and tempering immediately follow welding, the
relieved, or tempered. Regardless of prior condition, welding post-anneal may be eliminated. Otherwise, anneal promptly after
will produce a hardened martensitic zone adjacent to the weld welding without allowing the part to cool to room temperature.
(where the temperature reaches 1500-1850F). The hardness of Where permissible, the use of austenitic stainless steel filler
the zone will be dependent primarily upon the carbon content metal will help in preventing brittle welds. A ductile weld bead
and can be controlled to a degree by the welding procedure. It is deposited, but, of course, the hardening of the metal in the
should be recognized that the sharp temperature gradients, HAZ will not be eliminated.
which are accentuated by the low rate of heat conductivity,

Table 4

6
 FERRITIC STAINLESS STEELS WELDING PREHEATING
Although little danger exists from excessive hardening in the
Ferritic stainless steels are also straight chromium alloys in
the 400 Series with a microstructure, in the annealed condition, HAZ during welding of ferritic stainless steels, there is a
consisting of ferrite and carbides (Table 4). They are also consideration to use preheating. Heavier sections (about 1/4
magnetic. On heating most ferritic types above a critical inch thick and heavier) are in greater danger of cracking
temperature, the structure becomes austenitic which on during welding. However, the design of the weldment, the
cooling may partially transform into martensite (but not restraint afforded by clamping or jigging, the type of joint, the
sufficiently to impart high strength). Consequently, ferritic ambient temperature, the weld process to be used, and
stainless steels are considered not to be hardenable by heat sequence of welding may have almost as much influence
treatment. Also, there will be a tendency for the ferrite grains to as the material thickness. In actual practice, a preheat
increase in size. temperature range of 300-450F is used for heavier sections.
These two structural features, (a) martensite formation and This point should be explored in the prudent development of
(b) grain growth, result in a reduction of ductility and any welding procedure.
toughness. Also, rapid cooling from temperatures above 700F For the low carbon or stabilized ferritic grades, the use of
may cause intergranular precipitation (similar to carbide preheat is usually undesirable for lighter sections, less than
precipitation in austenitic stainless steels) that results in 1/4 inch thick.
reduced resistance to corrosion. Consequently, the ferritic
stainless steels are not considered attractive from the PRECIPITATION HARDENING
standpoint of weldability.
In the last few years several new ferritic stainless steels have STAINLESS STEELS
been introduced. These steels are characterized by levels of In general, the precipitation hardening stainless steels
carbon and nitrogen substantially below those typically (Table 5) can be readily welded and good mechanical
produced in 430. In most cases these steels are stabilized by properties can be developed in weldments. However,
additions of either titanium or columbium, or the combination of differences in welding properties can be expected. Those
the two. These steels are ferritic at all temperatures below the grades containing only additions of copper or molybdenum
melting point showing no transformations to austenite or produce a molten pool similar to the austenitic stainless steels,
martensite. As is typical of ferritic grades they are susceptible while those grades containing aluminum or unusually high
to grain growth, but at the lowered carbon levels the titanium content may appear noticeably different and possibly
toughness of these grades is significantly higher than the will require a greater degree of protection from the atmosphere
standard grades. during welding.
Changes in structure can occur in the precipitation
hardening grades when they are subjected to the localized
PRESERVATION OF CORROSION RESISTANCE
heat of welding. It will be important to note the condition of the
Although fabricators would much prefer to avoid post-weld
base metal prior to welding; that is, whether it is annealed,
heat treatment, this operation may be vital under some
solution treated, or hardened. The heat of welding will
circumstances to assure adequate corrosion resistance or
invariably produce a solution treated or annealed base metal
mechanical properties. The customary annealing temperature
zone, and the post-weld heat treatments required to harden
is 1450F. The time at temperature depends upon the mass
this zone may involve either single or double treatments.
involved and may vary from only a few minutes for thin-gauge
Because of the many combinations of welding and heat
sheet to several hours for heavy plate.
treatment that can be used with the precipitation hardening
Cooling ferritic stainless steels from the annealing temper-
stainless steels, more-detailed information should be obtained
ature can be done by air or water quenching. Often the parts
from producers.
are allowed to furnace cool to about 1100F, followed by rapid
cooling. Slow cooling through a temperature range of 1050F
down to 750F should be avoided since it induces room- WELD ROD SELECTION
temperature brittleness. Heavy sections usually require at least a Proper weld or filler rod selection is important to achieve a
spray quench to bring them through this range of embrittlement. weld metal with the desired corrosion-resistant and strength
Also, modifications to the steel in the form of titanium or characteristics. A well designed product, for example, can fail
columbium additions help to reduce the amount of in the weld zone if the weld rod selected results in the weld
intergranular precipitation. zone having a lower alloy content than that of the parent metal.

Table 5

7
The characteristics of the weld metal are primarily dependent FERRITIC STAINLESS STEELS
on the alloy content of the filler rod and to a lesser extent on The weld metal of ferritic stainless steels usually is lower in
the degree to which the molten weld metal is protected from toughness, ductility, and corrosion resistance than the HAZ of
the environment. This protection is provided by the shielding the base metal. For this reason, it has been the custom to heat
gases used in certain welding processes or by the action of treat after welding to improve toughness. However, a goodly
chemical fluxes applied to welding rods. amount of welded ferritic stainless steel is placed in service,
The first criteria for weld rod selection is alloy content, and as-welded where the toughness is adequate for the service.
Table 6 lists the filler metals suggested for stainless steels. The As shown in Table 7, an austenitic stainless steel filler metal
following discussion will further help in the understanding of is used frequently to join ferritic base metal to secure a ductile
what filler material to use. weld. For example, 430 is frequently welded with 308 filler
metal. Of course, the use of austenitic filler metals does not
AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS prevent grain growth or martensite formation in the HAZ.
The long list of stainless steel filler metals frequently causes For the low carbon or stabilized ferritic grades, the use of
concern as to how to select the filler metal appropriate for a austenitic filler metal can provide a weld of good mechanical
given application. The general rule most often followed is to properties. The austenitic weld metal should also be selected as
use the alloy most similar to the base metal being welded. The a low carbon grade, e.g., 316L weld wire. The filler metal should
greater amount of chromium and nickel in certain alloys, 308 always be selected so that the chromium and molybdenum
for example, is useful for welding 302 and 304 base metals content of the filler metal will be at least equal to that of the
and hence is standard for all the lower chromium-nickel base base metal. This insures the weld will have adequate corrosion
metals. While the same principle applies to 316, in that the resistance in severe environments. It is generally unnecessary
minimum chromium is higher in the weld metal than the base to post-anneal the weld of a low carbon or stabilized ferritic
metal, the designation of the filler metal is the same. grade when the low carbon austenitic wire is used.
Certain standards of weld metal invariably have a fully However, the use of austenitic filler metal for ferritic stainless
austenitic structure, for example, 310, 310Cb, 310Mo, and steels should not be supplied indiscriminately, because
330. In these, the ratio of ferrite-formers to austenite-formers applications may arise where the difference in color, physical
cannot be raised high enough within permissible limits to characteristics — such as thermal expansion — or mechanical
produce any free ferrite in the austenite. Consequently, these properties may cause difficulty. Also, if the welded part is
weld metals must be used carefully in highly restrained joints annealed after welding, the post-anneal is liable to cause
and on base metals containing additions of alloying elements carbide precipitation that may result in intergranular corrosion
like phosphorus, sulfur, selenium or silicon — such as base of the weld.
metal 302B, 303, and 314.
In selecting welding materials, there is a misconception that PRECIPITATION HARDENING STAINLESS STEELS
the higher the AISI number, the higher the alloy content. This is The selection of a filler metal to weld precipitation hardening
not always true, as in the case of 347, which is a stabilized grade stainless steels will depend upon the properties required of
for preventing carbide precipitation in high-temperature service. the weld. If high strength is not needed at the weld joint, the
347 should not be used as a “general-purpose” filler metal for filler metal may be a tough austenitic stainless steel. When
welding other alloys, because 347 can be crack sensitive. mechanical properties comparable to those of the hardened
The one principal exception in the list of austenitic stainless base metal are desired in the weld, the weld metal must also
steels is 329, which is a duplex (dual-phase) alloy. If welding be a precipitation hardening composition. The weld analysis
of 329 is expected, it is suggested that a stainless steel may be the same as the base metal, or it may be modified
producer be contacted for assistance. slightly to gain optimum weld metal properties.
A great deal of information on weld rod selection is available
MARTENSITIC STAINLESS STEELS from the American Welding Society (AWS), weld rod
The only standard martensitic stainless steels available as manufacturers, and stainless steel producers. Designers are
either covered electrodes or bare welding wire are 410 and encouraged to consult with these sources for help in specifying
420. This sometimes presents a problem in procurement when weld materials, particularly for corrosive applications or when
attempting to secure similar properties in the weld metal as in difficult weld problems are encountered.
the base metal. Except for 410 NiMo, martensitic stainless
steel weld metals in the as-deposited condition are low in
toughness and are seldom placed in service without being
heat treated.
Austenitic stainless steel weld deposits are often used to weld
the martensitic grades. These electrodes provide an as-welded
deposit of somewhat lower strength, but of great toughness.
For as-welded applications in which thermal compatibility is
desired, the 410 NiMo filler metal is a good choice.

8
 Table 6
Electrode
or Filler
Rod

308 weld metal is also referred to as 18-8 and 19-9 composition.

Actual weld analysis requirements are 0.08% max C, 19.0% min
Cr and 9.0 min Ni. 310 weld metal may be used, but the pickup of
silicon from the base metal may result in weld hot cracking.

cracks to form in weld metal. 312 weld metal contains a large

amount of ferrite to overcome this cracking tenndency.

316, 316L, 317, 317-Cbb and 318 electrodes

316 and 317 base metal, full anneal at 1950-2050F.

316 and (317L) base metal, 1600F stress-relief.

321 covered electrodes are not regularly manufactured because

titanium is not readily recovered during deposition.

405 weld metal contains columbium rather than

Remarks on 430 base metal apply.

Remarks on 430 base metal apply.

308 weld metal can be used, but will not display scaling resistance
equal to the base metal. Consideration must be given to difference
in coefficient of expansions of base and weld metal.

Remarks on 410 base metal apply.

Remarks on 410 base metal apply.

9
Welding Processes For Figure 2

Stainless Steels
The two basic methods for welding stainless steels are
fusion welding and resistance welding. In fusion welding, heat
is provided by an electric arc struck between a carbon or
metal electrode (connected to one terminal of a power supply)
and the metal to be welded (which is connected to the other
terminal). In resistance welding, bonding is the result of heat
and pressure. Heat is produced by the resistance to the flow of
electric current through the parts to be welded, and pressure
is applied by the electrodes. Austenitic stainless steels can be
readily welded using any of the arc welding processes TIG,
MIG, MMA and SA. Ferritic stainless steels can be readily
fusion welded. Martensitic stainless steels can be welded by
the TIG or MIG method, but precautions should be taken to
avoid cracking in the HAZ. Please contact the American
Welding Society (www.aws.org) for codes and procedures.

Welding Dissimilar Metals

AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS
TO LOW CARBON STEELS
In joining austenitic stainless steels to carbon steels or low-
alloy steels for low and moderate temperatures (not over
approximately 700F) it is customary to use a stainless steel
welding rod that is sufficiently high in total alloy content to
prevent martensite formation when diluted with carbon steel
while at the same time preserving residual amounts of ferrite,
which counteract the tendencies for hot cracking (at the time
of welding) even under conditions of severe restraint. The overlay or buttered layer that is applied to the carbon
309 is probably used more than any other electrode for steel surface should be of sufficient thickness that the
joining carbon steel to stainless steel (including overlay welding). subsequent welding operation will not adversely affect the
312 also enjoys some usage in joining carbon steel to stainless. carbon steel base metal. If the righthand member of the joint
309 normally contains about 5 to 10% ferrite, while 312 is shown in Figure 2 is solid carbon steel or if the cladding is 304
strongly ferritic. stainless steel, 309 should be used for the overlay operation.
The use of ENiCrFe-2 covered electrodes or ERNiCrFe-6 Great care must be taken in depositing the overlay to keep
bare filler metal will also produce satisfactory welds when carbon steel dilution of the stainless steel weld metal to a
joining the austenitic stainless steels to low-alloy steel, especially minimum. Excessive dilution can cause cracking of the
for elevated-temperature service. stainless steel weld metal. Stress relieving, when required, should
When making a transition joint between austenitic stainless be performed after deposition of the stainless steel overlay.
steel and carbon steel, it is good practice to “butter” the carbon The final weld between the solid stainless steel and the
steel surface with a layer of 309 or other suitable stainless steel buttered surface on the carbon steel can be made with the
weld metal prior to actually joining it to the stainless steel. In this filler metal composition that is normally employed for welding
manner, the portion of the joint where difficulties are most likely the solid stainless steel member or the composition used to
to occur is buttered while there is little restraint on the weld apply the overlay on the carbon steel member.
metal. Following the deposition and inspection of the buttered Another method employs a short stainless steel member that
layer or layers, the joint between the stainless steel member is welded to the carbon steel or stainless clad carbon steel
and the buttered layer will be a conventional stainless steel to member prior to the stress relieving operation. This method
stainless steel joint. The welding rod in this case can be the insures that the final weld will have no effect on the carbon
type normally used to weld the stainless steel member of the steel base metal. Stress relieving is performed while there is
joint (i.e., 308 if the stainless steel member is 304). little restraint on the joint.
The deposition of carbon steel or low-alloy steel weld metal The final weld is a simple stainless to stainless joint. Figure 3
on stainless steel can result in hard, brittle weld deposits which shows the least desirable of the three methods. In this method
frequently crack when deposited and which would be likely to the stainless steel and the stainless-clad carbon steel or
fail in service. Avoid depositing carbon steel or low-alloy steel carbon steel member are beveled and fit up for welding,
weld metal on stainless steel. When this must be done leaving a suitable root gap. The two are then joined, using an
because of service requirements, use the short-circuiting electrode sufficiently high in alloy content that cracking of the
method of metal transfer. stainless steel weld will not occur with normal dilution from the
carbon steel.
PROCEDURES FOR WELDING TRANSITION JOINTS The welding procedure used should hold penetration into
Figure 2 illustrates a method of joining stainless steel the carbon steel to a minimum. One disadvantage with this
components to carbon steel or stainless-clad carbon steel and method is that the most critical portion of the weld is deposited
it is especially useful when stress relief of the carbon steel is while the weld is under restraint. Another is that local stress
needed. This method has been widely used in the welding of relief of the weld must also be performed on a restrained joint.
stainless steel pipe to stainless steel lined carbon steel or low- (A point to remember is that stress-relief temperatures can
alloy steel. result in carbide precipitation.)

10
 Figure 3
Use of Chill Bars
Successful welding of stainless steel by various welding
methods depends to a large extent on the type of back-up bar
or plate used. Experience has indicated that pure copper is
the most satisfactory material for backing up a weld.
The high heat conductivity of such a back-up bar or plate
will prevent its sticking to the weld metal, while its chill-mold
effect will assure a clean smooth weld metal surface. Copper
back-up bars can be made by cutting pieces from copper
plate or sheet. Chill bars serve the best purpose by controlling
distortion on light gauge material, and also help to prevent
excessive burn-through or melting of the base metal.

Joint Design
Probably the most frequently used joint in stainless steel is
the butt joint. On thin sheet metal, a square butt joint may be
used, as shown in Figures 4 and 5. If the members being
joined are thicker than about 1/8 or 3/16 inch, it is necessary to
bevel the edges in order to assure full penetration welds,
FERRITIC AND MARTENSITIC Figure 6. If the base metal is thicker than about 1/2 inch, the V-
joint requires a large volume of weld metal, so U-groove
STAINLESS STEELS TO CARBON (Figure 7) double V- and double U- grooves (Figure 8) are
OR LOW-ALLOY STEELS used, although they are more costly to prepare.
When welding ferritic or martensitic stainless steels to Normally, full penetration welds are essential and therefore
carbon or low-alloy steels for general purposes (not high- conventional backing rings are not used. However,
temperature service), austenitic stainless steel or modified consumable backing rings or inserts (Figure 9), which are
ErNiCrFe-6 filler metal will produce welds of suitable quality melted during the first weld pass and become an integral part
provided that the correct welding procedures are followed. For of the weld, are used successfully.
the low carbon or ferritic grades, the low carbon austenitic filler
metals will produce welds of good mechanical quality while
maintaining corrosion resistance.
PREPARATION
Stainless steels cannot be cut with the ordinary oxy-
There are two methods of making such a joint. The first
acetylene torch. Powder cutting, in which iron powder is
would involve overlaying each member of the joint, utilizing
injected into the cutting stream of an oxy-acetylene torch, is
suitable preheat and postheat treatments as required, and
used as are arc processes such as plasma arc. Stainless
then making a weld without preheat or postheat between the
steels can be severed by using cutting electrodes or even mild
overlayed surfaces. Austenitic stainless steel electrodes such
steel coated electrodes, although these produce a great deal
as 309, which are sufficiently high in alloy content to minimize
of spatter and rough cuts.
the problems from dilution by the carbon steel or straight
The edges of a thermally cut weld joint should be cleaned
chromium stainless steels, are widely used for this application.
by machining or grinding to remove surface contamination,
The welding procedure used should hold penetration into the
particularly iron. Parts to be joined must also be free of oil,
base metal to a minimum. The second method would involve
grease, paint, dirt, and other contaminants.
depositing the weld directly between the two members of the
Because of the relatively high coefficient of thermal
joint. In this case, dilution of the weld metal by both of the base
expansion of the austenitic grades, adequate clamping or
metals must be kept under control while depositing the
jigging devices should be employed to align the work. If it is
restrained weld.

Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6

11
 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9

not feasible to construct accurate jigs and fixtures, tack welds to remove slag. Where extreme corrosion resistance is
may suffice to hold the parts in proper alignment during welding. required, sand blasting should be followed by brief immersion
With light gauge sheet metal, small tack welds every inch or two in a chemical cleaner, such as a solution of nitric acid. A most
are used. In heavier plate, the tack welds need not be spaced important aspect of cleaning stainless steel welds is to use
closely together, but each tack should be substantial. stainless steel brushes and clean grinding wheels (wheels not
contaminated with carbon steel particles). Contamination can
Post/Weld Cleaning cause rust staining and increased corrosion.

and Finishing FINISHING WELDS

Welds and the surrounding area should be thoroughly Stainless steels, in particular, 304 and similar analysis
cleaned to avoid impairment of corrosion resistance. Weld materials, are widely used in food, dairy, drug and processing
spatter, flux, or scale may become focal points for corrosive equipment. To prevent bacterial growth, all fractures, cracks
attack if not properly removed, especially in aggressive and crevices in the weld should be removed, and exposed
environments. Also, the residue from welding should be surfaces be ground and polished to match the parent metal. If
removed before heat treatment for stress relief or annealing. welds are made in prefinished stainless steel, the weld beads
The discoloration by heat, or heat tint, is not necessarily should be held to a minimum size to avoid excessive and
harmful, but should be removed if the weldment is to serve a expensive finishing costs. The chrome-nickel grades are more
decorative purpose. This can be accomplished mechanically difficult to grind than the straight chromium grades, so weld
by using a mild abrasive cleaner, chemically with a phosphoric metal deposits should be as flat as possible. Heat from
acid base cleaner, or electrochemically with commercially- grinding should be held to a minimum also to avoid distortion
available weld-cleaning kits. of thin gauge materials. If the grinding wheels or belts were
used previously on carbon steel, chemical cleaning should
follow to remove any iron particles that might have become
WELD SPATTER imbedded in the stainless steel surface.
When welds are made using stick electrodes, some spatter A technique of butt-welding polished sheets from the
is normal. However, it is easily removed by light grinding reverse or unpolished side has been successful. Sheets are
(aluminum oxide) or wire brushing. Spatter-resisting first sheared from the back side so that any “shear drag” is on
compounds applied before welding reduces this annoyance. the polished side. Full penetration of the joint is achieved with
Tightly adhering slag or scale is easily removed by light a minimum of welding alloy penetrating the polished side.
grinding or sandblasting. Cleaning time is reduced or Relatively light grinding can then be used to prepare the weld
eliminated when welding is done using the inert gas on the polished side for final polishing and blending with the
processes. DO NOT USE IRON OR STEEL WIRE BRISTLES. surrounding area.
USE STAINLESS STEEL WIRE BRUSHES. The gas-tungsten-arc welding method allows a good welder
to produce smooth uniform beads that are easy to grind, polish
FLUX REMOVAL or finish. (Welds on surfaces that have mill-rolled finishes
Most welding flux or slag can be chipped off, but it is better cannot be blended to match the surrounding base metal.
to grind the flux off using clean grinding wheels. Sandblasting Ground or polished finishes, however, can be matched by
with clean silica sand is also an effective and economical way using the same grit and polishing techniques.)

12
 Soft Soldering PROPER CLEANING A MUST
Cleaning any metal before any form of joining or fabrication
Sheet metal soldering today is practically a lost art and has
been largely replaced by welding shops; the reason being, is a must. Dirt, dust, grease, scale, finger prints, etc., should
soldered joints have relatively low strength. However, soldering always be removed by either mechanical or chemical means.
still does have some very important practical and economic Stainless steel nearly always comes from the mill with a surface
applications, such as in architecture, food processing, and film. This film must be removed before fluxing or soldering. Oil
plumbing. Several applications are suggested in Figure 10. or grease can be removed by commercial solvents or alcohol.
Soft soldering is an easy method of joining two sections, or Before fluxing, the area should be wiped with a cloth soaked
pieces, of metal at a low temperature. In the case of stainless with the cleaning agent, then wiped with a clean cloth. (Follow
steel, or a dissimilar metal to stainless steel, such joints are manufacturer’s instructions and provide adequate ventilation.)
used for sealing where strength is not a requirement but a Where possible, tin. Tinning is the act of coating the metal
water tight joint or good appearance is desirable. with tin or solder. It is really spreading out a thin layer of fluxed
Stainless steels generally have good solderability; however, metal so the following layer will provide a strong bond. After
some surface finishes and types of stainless are more difficult tinning, the solders flow easier and are more controllable. Tinning
to flux or wet (tin) than others. Since all metals have a surface is accomplished by applying a coat of solder and quickly “wiping”
oxide as they come from the mill, good joining principles the surface with a cloth or brushing it with a stainless steel wire
require its removal. brush. Tinning will help when using a soldering iron or a torch,
The most common annealed and pickled finishes (#1 or #2) because it reduces the amount of time needed to complete the
or the polished surfaces (#3 or #4) are easier to flux and solder job and it enhances strength and corrosion resistance.
than the highly polished surfaces such as #7 or #8. Surface
finishes that have been temper rolled after conventional SELECTION OF THE PROPER FLUX
annealing and pickling (#2 or #2B) will bond almost as easy as The tenacious oxide film on the surface of stainless steel
the pickled finishes. must be removed before soldering. This is done with an active
Bright annealed finishes are difficult to solder. flux. Commercial acid-type fluxes containing chlorides, such
The 300 Series stainless steels solder with relative ease, as hydrochloric acid or ammonium chloride, can be used, but
while the 400 Series, especially those with high carbon with extreme care — and they should not be used if immediate
content, are somewhat more difficult. and thorough neutralizing and flushing after soldering is not
Also, the molybdenum-bearing stainless steels, such as 316, practical. Residual chloride-containing fluxes can and most
or those containing titanium, may be somewhat difficult. often will cause pitting of stainless steel.

Figure 10

13
 The preferred fluxes are those with a phosphoric acid base To neutralize any remaining harmful flux residue, wash the
because the phosphoric acid is active only at soldering work in a 5% neutralizing solution, rinse with running water and
temperatures. To enhance the fluxing action, the surfaces to wipe dry. The neutralizing solution can be made up by adding
be tinned or soldered should be prepared by sanding with a about 3/4 cup (6 ounces) of sodium carbonate (washing soda)
fine emery cloth. or sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) to 1 gallon of water. Also,
aqua ammonia can be used.
B. Cleaning Method #2. (Use of Water Only)
SELECTION OF THE This method can be used if visual inspection is possible.
PROPER SOLDER First wet the work down with fresh water, and scrub hard with a
Most solders have a melting point under 800F; however, this soft bristle brush. Then use plenty of clean water to remove all
varies several hundred degrees when different combinations of traces of the flux residue, and dry with a clean cloth.
alloys are used. For instance, a 50% tin, 50% lead combination C. Cleaning Method #3. (Use of Weak Acid Cleaning Solution)
will melt at 361F and flow at 421F; while a 62% tin, 38% lead This method is used for shop production work, or for
will melt at 358F; and a 30% tin, 30% lead, 40% bismuth production tinning, but it must be carefully followed to insure
mixture will melt at 198F. However, stainless steel requires, in complete flux residue removal.
most cases, at least 50-50 and some prefer a 60-40 alloy, First, the tinned or soldered parts are placed in a solution of
while others prefer 70-30 mix. If better color match is required, hot water and 5% phosphoric acid to make the flux residue
the higher the tin mix, the better the match. Table 7 suggests soluble in water. After standing for five minutes in this solution,
soft solders for stainless steel industrial sheet metal work. which is agitated, the parts should be thoroughly rinsed in
As for soldering technique, what applies to other metals also water and wiped dry.
applies to stainless steel, except consideration for the low heat The cleaning solution can be made up by adding about 1/2
conductivity of stainless steels. This requires a slightly shorter cup (4 fluid ounces) of commercial 85% phosphoric acid to one
period of heat application to bring the metal up to the gallon of water. Brand-name cleaning solutions can also be used.
temperature at which the solder will flow properly. A 2% hydrochloric acid solution is sometimes used for
cleaning soldered work, but is not recommended for stainless
steel. Hydrochloric acid is strongly corrosive, and if the
CLEANING AFTER SOLDERING solution is not removed completely and immediately, it may
All corrosive flux, vapor and flux residue left on stainless attack stainless steel.
after it is soldered must be removed to preserve its corrosion
resistance.
Strong acid-chloride type fluxes may attack and pit stainless
steels if left on the work, as well as mar the stainless finish.
Brazing
Brazing is a method of joining stainless steels to themselves
Remove spilled fluxes immediately by flushing with water. or to dissimilar metals using a non-ferrous filler wire, powder or
Vapors from the flux also are corrosive and may settle on thin-shim form of alloy that has a melting point above 800F, but
cold surfaces some distance from the joint. Thus, any areas below the melting point of the base metal. Silver-brazing alloys
exposed to flux vapors should be cleaned thoroughly after are available in many different analyses but, in the case of
soldering. There are several ways of removing traces of stainless steel, most contain at least 40% silver. Usually a 45%
corrosive flux and flux residue. silver gives good results since it has excellent capillary flow
and adheres to most stainless steels easily. The alloys range in
A. Cleaning Method #1. (Use of Neutralizer) melting point from 1145F to 1300F and are extremely fluid.
For field jobs or for shop work where every part cannot be Nickel-base brazing alloys are also used with melting points
inspected, this method is the safest to insure a corrosion-free joint. up to 2100-2125F. These permit the use of brazed stainless
First, wet the work with water, then scrub with a soft bristle steel components at considerably higher temperatures than
brush. Be sure to scrub first with plain water and not with with the lower-temperature silver-brazing alloys.
neutralizing solution. If the neutralizing solution is used first, the
flux residue may become insoluble in water and much harder
to remove

14
 Table 7

15