Rod Loading of Reciprocating

Compressors
By John D. Mowery - Compressor Tech-1971

The subject of rod loading of reciprocating compressors is of major importance to both designers
and operators of this type of equipment. From the designer's point of view, loads must be kept
within the design limitations placed upon the machine. From the operator's point of view, he must
exercise the compressor at optimum performance without overloading it. Of the loading stresses
considered, the crosshead pin bushing stress must be evaluated, not only for its magnitude, but
also, and more importantly, for its direction of application. Since the crosshead pin bushing
stress (or load) is often the limiting parameter in reciprocating compressor applications, our
discussion will be concentrated about this area.

This subject is especially important to the operator since he oftentimes has direct control of the
loading of the compressor cylinders. The manner in which he loads and unloads these cylinders
can change both the direction and magnitude of the rod load. Thc direction of the rod load alone
has a paramount effect on the lubrication of the crosshead pin bushing. When the load is being
applied to one side of the bushing, some finite amount of clearance develops on the opposite
side. This clearance, illustrated in the accompanying sketch is filled with oil thereby lubricating
and cooling that side of the bushing. In order to lubricate and cool the other side of the bushing,
a clearance must develop there also. A reversal in the direction of application of the load must
occur for this to happen. The magnitude and duration of this reversal must be such that a
complete filling of this clearance space with oil can be effected. This is necessary to achieve
adequate lubrication and cooling.

Reciprocating compressors operating with non-reversing loads are highly subject to bushing and
pin damage. Many past instances have shown that a bushing can fail within a very few minutes
while operating under non-reversing loads. The failed bushing and/or pin will exhibit severe
wiping scars and scratches over approximately 120° of its I.D. and may very possible show
discoloration from overheating. This damage, characteristic of lubrication absence, will appear in
the direction of the applied non-reversing load or in the direction of the dominant load if the
reversal is marginal in character.

The White Superior crosshead pin bushing design has incorporated helical oil grooves on the I.D.
to aid the lubrication. While this design configuration reflects some performance improvements in
non-reversing or marginal reversing load applications, it does not provide a suitable non-reversing
load design that could be used for any non-reversing condition. We must, therefore, continue to
analyze each job to control the rod load in order that the non-reversing condition can be avoided.
But one needs to understand how the rod load develops before he can control it.

The load applied to the crosshead pin bushing is developed from two sources: the forces of
inertia of the reciprocating masses and the forces resulting from compression of gas in the
cylinder. The inertial load is that force which develops as a result of the weight of the piston, rod,
and crosshead assembly being in reciprocating motion.

Figure 1 illustrates the inertial force developed by a typical compressor cylinder. This figure
shows that the inertial force varies with the square of the compressor rotative speed and also
changes directly with the reciprocating weight. One should notice that the inertial load is a
reversing load in that it changes from tension to compression and back during one complete
crankshaft rotation.

Figure I also shows the gas load developed in the same double acting cylinder. The gas load on
each end of the piston is determined by finding the pressure inside each end of the cylinder at
various points in the stroke. This is accomplished by approximating the compression process as
an adiabatic process and using the relationship P2 = P1 (V1/V2) k. This pressure is then
multiplied by the respective piston areas, giving the head end and crank end loads. The total gas
load is simply the sum of these two loads. Again, one should notice that the gas load for a double
acting cylinder also contains a reversal. The net rod load is then found by the algebraic
summation of the inertial load and the total gas load. Figure 1 shows this net rod load and
illustrates that it contains a reversal of some 160˚ for every crankshaft revolution.

Net rod loads for single acting cylinders are determined by the same procedure as for double
acting cylinders. Figure 2 shows the same cylinder in a single acting head end application. As
the figure illustrates, single acting cylinders have reversals, which are both shorter in duration and
smaller in magnitude than in most double acting cylinders. Notice that the reduction in reversal
applies to both the total gas load as well as the net rod load. As shown, if the compression ratio
were even higher, a reversal for the gas load would not occur, a very common phenomenon in
single acting cylinders.

Rod Load Control. – The net rod load can be controlled by altering the constituents which
comprise the rod load, namely the inertial load and the gas load. We then must evaluate how
changes in each effect the rod load.

Inertial Load Changes. – The inertial load is a reversing load and by increasing it, the net rod
load reversal also increases, both in magnitude and duration. Figure 1 tells us that the inertial
load can be increased without a major design change in the equipment by increasing either the
rotative speed or the reciprocating weight. This gives us our first two means of controlling the rod
load. Increasing the rotative speed of the compressor will increase the inertial load and the
amount of reversal. Adding weight to the crosshead and piston assembly will also increase the
inertial load and size of the rod load reversal.

Gas Load Changes. – The effect of the total gas load on the net rod load is quite different from
the inertial effect. Increasing the total gas load may either increase or decrease the rod load
reversal. In a single acting application, for instance, increasing the gas load on the operating end
will decrease the rod load reversal, as can be seen by examining Figure 2. On the other hand,
increasing the gas load on the inoperative end of a single acting cylinder (i.e., opening the crank
end of a small diameter cylinder to discharge pressure instead of suction pressure) would
increase the reversal. Ample precautions must therefore be employed in making changes to the
gas load. The changes that can be made to the gas load are categorized into cylinder
configuration changes and operating condition changes.

Cylinder Configuration Changes. – The end selected for operation (in single acting
applications) will effect the rod load reversal. Operating the crank end, which has a smaller
piston area, will produce a smaller gas load and increase the reversal. Operating the cylinder in a
double acting configuration will obviously increase the gas load and the reversal. The size of the
cylinder bore will effect the reversal in either way. Smaller bores in double acting cylinders tend
to decrease the reversal but decreasing the bore in single acting configurations tends to increase
the reversal.

Decreased cylinder clearance will increase the volumetric efficiency and increase the gas load.
In single acting situations increased gas load will reduce the reversal; and in small diameter
double acting cylinders, the increased gas load will expand the reversal.

Operating Condition Changes. – Reducing the compression ratio will decrease the gas load
and usually improves the rod load reversal. This can be accomplished by either lowering
discharge pressure or increasing the suction pressure. Care must be taken in lowering the
discharge pressure by itself, since this change can effect the reversal in either direction.
Guidelines. – We are now fully aware of the necessity of avoiding non-reversing rod loads. And
we have illustrated various ways of manipulating the loads to accomplish the needed reversal.
We must now apply this knowledge to help us pinpoint non-reversing rod loads, realizing that
when an application contains one of the following conditions, the possibility for a non-reversal is
ever prevalent:

• Slow speed operation by itself is not necessarily a problem. But with other conditions
present, slow speed could be a significant contributor to a non-reversing rod load.

• Non-reversing rod loads occur in single acting operation more than in any other situation.
And single acting head end operation (SAHE) is always more susceptible to non-reversals
than single acting crank end operation (SACE).

• Small bore sizes in double acting cylinders approach a single acting condition and are non-
reversal prone.

• Low volumetric efficiencies (VE) often produce non-reversals. Low VE's result from high
clearances, particularly in unloading sequences where clearance is deliberately added.
When performing unloading, one should always remember that SAHE is more susceptible to
non-reversals than SACE. The head end pockets should be opened first to avoid the non-
reversal.

• High compression ratios are apt to produce non-reversals.

• High cylinder pressures are a natural for non-reversing rod loads. They usually mean high
gas loads, small cylinder bores, and sometimes single acting operation – all susceptible to
non-reversals.

Calculations. – White Superior engineers have developed two Mark II Fortran programs which
are used to evaluate rod loads. One program which is primarily used to size compressor
cylinders for specific applications; calculates the maximum compressive and tensile rod loads
using the operating pressures external to the cylinder (i.e.. external rod load-ERL). The ERL is a
close approximation of the actual rod load and indicates whether a reversal exists and if so its
approximate magnitude and direction. By defining a limit for the ERL, one can also determine if
the magnitude of the rod load exceeds the design loading capability of the machine. This limit is
properly set somewhat below the actual or internal rod load limit (i.e., rod load based on
pressures internal to the cylinder-IRL) since pressure losses occur through the valves thereby
producing a larger ratio inside the cylinder and hence a larger IRL. The use of an ERL limit not
only benefits the engineers at White Superior to quickly evaluate rod loads, but it also enables
customers to periodically examine their rod loads as operating conditions change.

The second program developed at White Superior is used to calculate the IRL (both magnitude
and direction) for any cylinder at any angle of crankshaft revolution from 0˚ through 360˚. The
program considers all of the necessary parameters that can effect the rod load (piston and rod
diameters, stroke, rpm, reciprocating weight, clearances, valve losses, single or double acting,
tandem conditions). The product of this program is a print out, giving for each specified angle of
crankshaft revolution, the HE and CE gas loads, the total gas load, the inertial load, and the net
resultant of these components – the actual rod load. With this data readily available, the
acceptability of the rod load's magnitude and reversal can easily be analyzed.

This discussion was provided to promote a thorough understanding of rod loads, particularly, by
operators. Each application must continue to be analyzed, especially as operating conditions
change, to control the rod load within the machine capabilities such that a satisfactory reversal is
achieved. The tools provided here will aid operators in recognizing the non-reversing possibilities
and how to avoid their occurrence.