Respiratory System
Respiratory System
Respiratory System
2. Elimination
Elimination of carbon dioxide.
3. Gas exchange
he respiratory system organs oversee the gas exchanges that occur between the blood and the
external environment.
4. Passageway
Passageways that allow air to reach the lungs.
5. Humidifier
Purify, humidify, and warm incoming air.
@rnursingnotes
The Nose The nose is the only externally visible part of the respiratory system.
Nostrils
During breathing, air enters the nose by passing
through the nostrils, or nares.
Nasal cavity
The interior of the nose consists of the
nasal cavity, divided by a midline nasal
septum.
Olfactory receptors
The olfactory receptors for the sense of smell are located in the mucosa in the slitlike superior part
of the nasal cavity, just beneath the ethmoid bone.
Respiratory mucosa
The rest of the mucosal lining, the nasal cavity called the respiratory mucosa, rests on a rich network
of thin-walled veins that warms the air as it flows past.
Mucus
In addition, the sticky mucus produced by the mucosa’s glands moistens the air and traps incoming
bacteria and other foreign debris, and lysozyme enzymes in the mucus destroy bacteria chemically.
Ciliated cells
The ciliated cells of the nasal mucosa create a gentle current that moves the sheet of contaminated
mucus posteriorly toward the throat, where it is swallowed and digested by stomach juices.
Conchae
The lateral walls of the nasal cavity are uneven owing to three mucosa-covered projections, or lobes
called conchae, which greatly increase the surface area of the mucosa exposed to the air, and also
increase the air turbulence in the nasal cavity.
Palate
The nasal cavity is separated from the oral cavity below by a partition, the palate; anteriorly,
where the palate is supported by bone, is the hard palate; the unsupported posterior part is the
soft palate.
Paranasal sinuses
The nasal cavity is surrounded by a ring of paranasal sinuses located in the frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid,
and maxillary bones; theses sinuses lighten the skull, and they act as a resonance chamber for speech.
@rnursingnotes
Pharynx
The pharynx is a muscular passageway about 13 cm (5 inches) long that vaguely resembles a short length
of red garden hose.
Commonly called the throat, the pharynx serves as a common passageway for food and air.
Air enters the superior portion, the nasopharynx, from the nasal cavity and then descends through
the oropharynx and laryngopharynx to enter the larynx below.
Pharyngotympanic tube
The pharyngotympanic tubes, which drain the middle ear open into the nasopharynx.
Pharyngeal tonsil
The pharyngeal tonsil, often called adenoid
is located high in the nasopharynx.
Palatine tonsils
The palatine tonsils are in the oropharynx
at the end of the soft palate.
Lingual tonsils
The lingual tonsils lie at the base of the
tongue.
Larynx
The larynx or voice box routes air and food into the proper channels and plays a role in speech.
Located inferior to the pharynx, it is formed by eight rigid hyaline cartilages and a spoon-shaped flap
of elastic cartilage, the epiglottis.
Thyroid cartilage
The largest of the hyaline cartilages is the shield-shaped thyroid cartilage, which protrudes anteriorly
and is commonly called Adam’s apple.
Epiglottis
Sometimes referred to as the “guardian of the airways”, the epiglottis protects the superior opening
of the larynx.
Vocal folds
Part of the mucous membrane of the larynx forms a pair of folds, called the vocal folds, or true vocal
cords, which vibrate with expelled air and allows us to speak.
@rnursingnotes
Glottis
The slitlike passageway between the vocal folds is the glottis.
Trachea
Air entering the trachea or windpipe from the
larynx travels down its length (10 to 12 cm or about
4 inches) to the level of the fifth thoracic
vertebra, which is approximately midchest.
The trachea is fairly rigid because its walls are
reinforced with C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage;
the open parts of the rings abut the esophagus and
allow it to expand anteriorly when we swallow a
large piece of food, while the solid portions
support the trachea walls and keep it patent, or
open, in spite of the pressure changes that occur
during breathing.
Cilia
The trachea is lined with ciliated mucosa that beat continuously and in a direction opposite to that of
the incoming air as they propel mucus, loaded with dust particles and other debris away from the lungs
to the throat, where it can be swallowed or spat out.
Main Bronchi
The right and left main (primary) bronchi are formed by the division of the trachea.
Each main bronchus runs obliquely before it plunges into the medial depression of the lung on its
own side.
The right main bronchus is wider, shorter, and straighter than the left.
@rnursingnotes
Lungs
Thyroid cartilage
Left Primary Bronchus
Cricoid Cartilage
Trachea Upper Lobe Bronchus
Upper lobe
Lower Lobe Bronchus
Right Primary Bronchus
Upper lobe
Middle Lobe
Lower lobe
Lower lobe
The lungs occupy the entire thoracic cavity except for the most central area, the mediastinum, which
houses the heart, the great blood vessels, bronchi, esophagus, and other organs.
The narrow, superior portion of each lung, the apex, is just deep to the clavicle.
The broad lung area resting on the diaphragm is the base.
Each lung is divided into lobes by fissures; the left lung has two lobes, and the right lung has three.
Pleura
The surface of each lung is covered with a visceral serosa called the pulmonary, or visceral pleura and
the walls of the thoracic cavity are lined by the parietal pleura.
Pleural fluid
The pleural membranes produce pleural fluid, a slippery serous secretion which allows the lungs to glide
easily over the thorax wall during breathing movements and causes the two pleural layers to cling
together.
Pleural space
The lungs are held tightly to the thorax wall, and the pleural space is more of a potential space
than an actual one.
Bronchioles
The smallest of the conducting passageways are the bronchioles.
Alveoli
The terminal bronchioles lead to the respiratory zone structures, even smaller conduits that eventually
terminate in alveoli, or air sacs.
@rnursingnotes
Respiratory zone
The respiratory zone, which includes the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and
alveoli, is the only site of gas exchange.
Alveolar pores
Alveolar pores connecting neighboring air sacs and provide alternative routes for air to reach
alveoli whose feeder bronchioles have been clogged by mucus or otherwise blocked.
Respiratory membrane
Together, the alveolar and capillary walls, their fused basement membranes, and occasional elastic
fibers construct the respiratory membrane (air-blood barrier), which has gas (air) flowing past on
one side and blood flowing past on the other.
Alveolar macrophages
Remarkably efficient alveolar macrophages sometimes called “dust cells”, wander in and out of the
alveoli picking up bacteria, carbon particles, and other debris.
Cuboidal cells
Also scattered amid the epithelial cells that form most of the alveolar walls are chunky cuboidal cells,
which produce a lipid (fat) molecule called surfactant, which coats the gas-exposed alveolar surfaces
and is very important in lung function.
@rnursingnotes
Physiology of the Respiratory System
the body with oxygen and to dispose of carbon
The major function of the respiratory system is to supply
dioxide. To do this, at least four distinct events, collectively called respiration, must occur.
Respiration
Pulmonary ventilation
Air must move into and out of the lungs so that gasses in the air sacs are continuously refreshed, and
this process is commonly called breathing.
External respiration
Gas exchange between the pulmonary blood and alveoli must take place.
Respiratory gas transport
Oxygen and carbon dioxide must be transported to and from the lungs and tissue cells of the body via
the bloodstream.
Internal respiration
At systemic capillaries, gas exchanges must be made between the blood and tissue cells.
Mechanics of Breathing
Rule
Volume changes lead to pressure changes, which lead to the flow of gasses to equalize pressure.
Inspiration
Air is flowing into the lungs; chest is expanded laterally, the rib cage is elevated, and the diaphragm
is depressed and flattened; lungs are stretched to the larger thoracic volume, causing the
intrapulmonary pressure to fall and air to flow into the lungs.
Expiration
Air is leaving the lungs; the chest is depressed and the lateral dimension is reduced, the rib cage is
descended, and the diaphragm is elevated and dome-shaped; lungs recoil to a smaller volume,
intrapulmonary pressure rises, and air flows out of the lung.
Intrapulmonary volume
Intrapulmonary volume is the volume within the lungs.
Intrapleural pressure
The normal pressure within the pleural space, the intrapleural pressure, is always negative, and this is
the major factor preventing the collapse of the lungs.
Nonrespiratory air movements
Nonrespiratory movements are a result of reflex activity, but some may be produced voluntarily such as
cough, sneeze, crying, laughing, hiccups, and yawn
@rnursingnotes
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities
Tidal volume
Normal quiet breathing moves approximately 500 ml of air into and out of the lungs with each
breath.
Inspiratory reserve volume
The amount of air that can be taken in forcibly over the tidal volume is the inspiratory reserve
volume, which is normally between 2100 ml to 3200 ml.
Expiratory reserve volume
The amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled after a tidal expiration, the expiratory reserve
volume, is approximately 1200 ml.
Residual volume
Even after the most strenuous expiration, about 1200 ml of air still remains in the lungs and it cannot
be voluntarily expelled; this is called residual volume, and it is important because it allows gas
exchange to go on continuously even between breaths and helps to keep the alveoli inflated.
Vital capacity
The total amount of exchangeable air is typically around 4800 ml in healthy young men, and this
respiratory capacity is the vital capacity, which is the sum of the tidal volume, inspiratory reserve
volume, and the expiratory reserve volume.
@rnursingnotes
Dead space volume
Much of the air that enters the respiratory tract remains in the conducting zone passageways
and never reaches the alveoli; this is called the dead space volume and during a normal tidal
breath, it amounts to about 150 ml.
Functional volume
The functional volume, which is the air that actually reaches the respiratory zone and contributes to
gas exchange, is about 350 ml.
Spirometer
Respiratory capacities are measured with a spirometer, wherein as a person breathes, the volumes of air
exhaled can be read on an indicator, which shows the changes in air volume inside the apparatus.
Respiratory Sounds
Bronchial sounds Vesicular breathing sounds
Bronchial sounds are produced by air rushing Vesicular breathing sounds occur as air
through the large respiratory passageways fills the alveoli, and they are soft and
(trachea and bronchi). resemble a muffled breeze.
External respiration or pulmonary gas exchange involves the oxygen being loaded and carbon
dioxide being unloaded from the blood.
Internal respiration
In internal respiration or systemic capillary gas exchange, oxygen is unloaded and carbon
dioxide is loaded into the blood.
Gas transport
Oxygen is transported in the blood in two ways: most attaches to hemoglobin molecules
inside the RBCs to form oxyhemoglobin, or a very small amount of oxygen is carried
dissolved in the plasma; while carbon dioxide is transported in plasma as bicarbonate ion,
or a smaller amount (between 20 to 30 percent of the transported carbon dioxide) is
carried inside the RBCs bound to hemoglobin.
@rnursingnotes
Control of Respiration
Neural Regulation
@rnursingnotes
Chemical factors
The most important factors that modify respiratory rate and depth are chemical- the levels of
carbon dioxide and oxygen in the blood; increased levels of carbon dioxide and decreased blood
pH are the most important stimuli leading to an increase in the rate and depth of breathing,
while a decrease in oxygen levels become important stimuli when the levels are dangerously low.
Hyperventilation
Hyperventilation blows off more carbon dioxide and decreases the amount of carbonic acid, which
returns blood pH to normal range when carbon dioxide or other sources of acids begin to accumulate
in the blood.
Hypoventilation
Hypoventilation or extremely slow or shallow breathing allows carbon dioxide to accumulate in the
blood and brings blood pH back into normal range when blood starts to become slightly alkaline.
Terms and Conditions
By purchasing, you agree with the following terms and conditions:
1. You agree that this study guides are simply guides and should not be used over and above
your course material and teacher instruction in nursing school.
2. These study guides are not intended to be used as medical advice or clinical practice,
they are for education use only.
3. You also agree NOT to distribute or share the materials under any circumstances.
RNursing Notes
rnursingnotes
Note: This service is not intended for secure transactions such as banking, social media, email, or purchasing. Use at your own risk. We assume no liability whatsoever for broken pages.
Alternative Proxies: