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AUSTR ALIAN FIELD OR NITHOLOGY
The birds of Christmas Island, Indian Ocean: A review

David J. James and Ian A.W. McAllan
Volume 31 Supplement 2014
AUSTRALIA
Australian Field Ornithology 2014, 31, Supplement

David J. James1 and Ian A.W. McAllan2*
73 Pozieres Avenue, Milperra NSW 2214, Australia

1
2
46 Yeramba Street, Turramurra NSW 2074, Australia
*Corresponding author. Email: ian.mcallan@mq.edu.au
Summary. This paper is an account of all known records of birds from Christmas
Island in the eastern Indian Ocean. It also includes reviews of the history of the
Island’s ornithology, its avian biogeography, the taxonomy of selected endemic taxa,
population estimates of resident species, and current and past threats to its birds.
One hundred and forty-nine species of birds have been recorded from the Island,
of which 14 are breeding landbirds, nine are breeding seabirds, 18 are visitors and
108 are vagrant species. The Island has a high degree of endemism and this is
expressed in the avifauna through 11 endemic taxa among the 23 breeding species.
Biogeographically, Christmas Island is an oceanic island, with breeding and visiting
species originating from several sources including South-East Asia, Australia, the
Palaearctic, pelagic, and other undetermined sources. Links to the Greater Sunda
Islands and Wallacea are very minor. The Island was first occupied by humans in
1888. Since then, three bird species have been introduced (two deliberately) and
four have self-colonised. No bird taxa have become extinct locally, despite several
extinctions of other endemic and indigenous fauna. However, numerous threatening
processes are placing increasing pressure on native birds.
Introduction
The birds of Christmas Island, Indian Ocean, have been reviewed several times,
most recently in 2004 (Sharpe 1900; Chasen 1933a; Gibson-Hill 1947; Stokes 1988;
Johnstone & Darnell 2004a). Nevertheless, there is still a need to better analyse
the status, biogeography and trends of the avifauna, which is highly significant
for several reasons: there are seven endemic species, no fewer for instance than
countries such as Thailand, Costa Rica or Kenya (cf. Clements 2000); the avifauna
includes several globally threatened species; and includes many species that are
vagrants to both the nearby Indomalayan biogeographical region and to Australia
as a political unit. In addition, Christmas Island is biogeographically unique and
poorly studied (James & Milly 2006). Interest in the Island is increasing amongst
ornithologists and birders, particularly from Australia, but also globally (see
below).
Here we review the birds of Christmas Island, assessing the status of the
breeding species and regular visitors, documenting and vetting many additional
records of vagrants, and assessing the significance and biogeographical affinities
of the avifauna.
Christmas Island
Christmas Island is located in the tropical eastern Indian Ocean at 10°28′S,
S2 Australian Field Ornithology D.J. James & I.A.W. McAllan
105°38′E [Figures 1–2 (p. S49)]. It is located ~2600 km north-north-west

of Perth, 2800 km west of Darwin, 350 km south of Java Head in Indonesia,
and 980 km east-north-east of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands. It is administered
as an external territory of Australia. It is 137 km2 in area, with 85 km2 (62%)
protected within the Christmas Island National Park. The National Park also
extends 50 m seaward of the low-water mark for 46 km (63%) of the coastline
(DNP 2002). The Australian Economic Exclusion Zone (EEZ) extends out
200 nautical miles (nm) except near the Indonesian EEZ ~90 nm to the north.
Christmas Island is an isolated oceanic island that has never been connected
to another land mass. It rises from an abyssal plain ~5000 m deep, and has
no offshore islets. A narrow fringing reef 20–100 m wide and 10–20 m deep
completely encircles it before the submerged mountain plunges steeply to
2000 m deep within 5 km of the shore and more gently to 5000 m deep
~30 km away (Gray & Clark 1995). Christmas Island first appeared at the surface
as a volcano c. 44 million years ago where a coral atoll formed (Nunn 1994; Gray
& Clark 1995; Hoernle et al. 2011). This was probably 700 km or 15° of latitude
farther south than at present, from where it has drifted northwards at a rate of a
few centimetres a year (Gray & Clark 1995; DNP 2002). Subsidence of the volcano
or the collapse of its caldera and a series of subsequent uplift events, including
further volcanic activity 4 million years ago and continuing formation of coral
reefs, have created a basaltic core capped with jagged limestone in a series of up
to four tiered terraces [DNP 2002; Hoernle et al. 2011; see Figure 3 (p. S50)]. The
coastline consists mostly of sheer limestone cliffs up to 20 m high with a few small
rubble beaches. The inland plateau is gently undulating with occasional small hills
rising 160–360 m above sea-level. The terraces between the coast and the plateau
are generally narrow and separated by mostly sheer cliffs, which are often tilted
or collapsed (Gray & Clark 1995; DNP 2002). Deep deposits of phosphate occur,
especially on the plateau (Gray & Clark 1995; DNP 2002). Although it is unclear
whether these originate from seabird guano or marine sedimentary deposits, the
best evidence suggests that they are highly modified guano deposits (Weissberg
& Singers 1982). A few small freshwater springs occur on the lower terraces, but
there are no bodies of open water apart from ephemeral puddles.
The climate is equatorial with a wet season (north-westerly monsoons) from
December to April and a dry season (south-easterly trade winds) prevailing for
the rest of the year. The average annual rainfall is 2060 mm, ranging between
a high of 3715 mm and low of 1067 mm (Australian Bureau of Meteorology data
= BOM 2013). The hottest conditions are generally in March and April, and the
coldest in August. The average maximum temperature is 27.3°C and the average
minimum is 22.8°C, with extremes of 31.8°C and 14.1°C, respectively (BOM 2013).
Local sea-surface temperatures are influenced by an upwelling south of Java, and
follow a regular seasonal pattern of minima (<26°C) in August–October and
maxima (>28°C) in February–April (Reville et al. 1990a). The higher productivity
associated with cooler temperatures apparently dictates the highly seasonal
breeding cycles of most seabird species on the Island (Reville & Stokes 1994).
Christmas Island’s biogeography is influenced by both the Indomalayan and
Australasian biota, but belongs to neither; it is biogeographically unique (James
Birds of Christmas Island S3
& Milly 2006). The native vegetation consists of predominantly tall evergreen
rainforests in the interior with semi-deciduous vine thickets on the coastal terraces
[Australian Biological Resources Study 1993; see Figures 4–5 (pp. S50–51)]. The
forests are floristically depauperate, but structurally complex. Approximately 25%
of the Island has been cleared, and comprises open rocky ground and phosphate
mine fields, weed fields, secondary growth and urban areas (Gray & Clark 1995;
DNP 2002). There are at least 250 animals and plants (species and subspecies)
endemic to the Island (James & Milly 2006). Endemic animals, apart from birds,
include five mammals, five reptiles, four marine fish, 13 marine invertebrates and
>200 described terrestrial and subterranean invertebrates. However, there are
probably many more undescribed endemic invertebrates. The land crab fauna
is world-famous for its unparellelled taxonomic and ecological diversities and
its sheer biomass, and investigations continue to discover new endemic species
(Orchard 2012). The endemic Red Crab Gecarcoidea natalis plays a significant
role in determining the floristics and structure of the forests (Hicks et al. 1984;
Orchard 2012), and thus probably the avifaunal composition. The subterranean
invertebrate fauna is poorly known, but may be amongst the most significant in
the world (Humphreys & Eberhard 2001). One endemic genus of small beetles,
Rhyncholobus, has radiated into at least four species, each in a different habitat,
as in Darwin’s finches in the Galapagos Islands (James & Milly 2006). A recent
review (Orchard 2012) suggests that autochthonous radiation may have occurred
in terrestrial and subterranean crabs, but the land area, habitat diversity and
perhaps isolation of Christmas Island are evidently insufficient to facilitate
autochthonous radiation in vertebrate species.
A total of 16 species of birds bred on the Island at the time of human colonisation
in 1888 (Sharpe 1900), although 23 species breed now (Johnstone & Darnell
2004a; James & Milly 2006; Valenzuela & James 2006). As recognised herein,
11 birds are endemic at either the species or subspecies level. Abbott’s Booby
Papasula abbotti is a palaeo-endemic species, so called because it once had a wider
breeding range, but is now confined to the Island. The rest are neo-endemics:
species that have evolved in situ. Six of these are endemic at the species level
(Christmas Island Imperial-Pigeon Ducula whartoni, Christmas Island Swiftlet
Collocalia natalis, Christmas Island Frigatebird Fregata andrewsi, Christmas
Island Goshawk Accipiter natalis, Christmas Island Hawk-Owl Ninox natalis
and Christmas Island White-eye Zosterops natalis), and four are endemic at the
subspecies level (White-tailed Tropicbird Phaethon lepturus fulvus, Emerald
Dove Chalcophaps indica natalis, Great Frigatebird Fregata minor listeri and
Island Thrush Turdus poliocephalus erythropleurus). The swiftlet has been
treated as a subspecies of either the Glossy Swiftlet Collocalia esculenta or Linchi
Swiftlet C. linchi, but is treated here as an endemic species. Similarly, the goshawk
has been treated as a subspecies of the Brown Goshawk (Accipiter fasciatus
natalis) in the past and more recently as a subspecies of the Variable Goshawk
(A. hiogaster natalis) (see Christidis & Boles 2008). No detailed taxonomic studies
have been made of either the swiftlet or the goshawk (but see the Taxonomy and
nomenclature section under Results). Five other species that were present at the
time of settlement are wider-ranging taxa in the tropics and are not confined to
the Island (Red-tailed Tropicbird Phaethon rubricauda, Red-footed Booby Sula
sula, Brown Booby S. leucogaster, Eastern Reef Egret Egretta sacra and Common
Noddy Anous stolidus). Four species have colonised the Island of their own
accord since settlement (Nankeen Kestrel Falco cenchroides, c. 1940s; White-
faced Heron Egretta novaehollandiae, between 1965 and 1977; Lesser Frigatebird
Fregata ariel, probably before 1980; and White-breasted Waterhen Amaurornis
phoenicurus, c. 1992). A fifth species, the Asian Koel Eudynamys scolopaceus,
has been present since c. 2002 and is possibly breeding. With the exception of
the frigatebird, the new species are dependent on secondary habitats and their
colonisation was facilitated by habitat clearance. Three introduced species
have become established (Feral Chicken Gallus gallus, Java Sparrow Lonchura
oryzivora and Eurasian Tree Sparrow Passer montanus). These are largely
commensal with human disturbance and are rarely found in natural habitats. In
addition, 18 species of migrants and 108 vagrants have been recorded on the Island
(this paper). The avian biogeography of the Island is analysed in the Results.
Most conservation issues on the Island stem from a combination of inadequate
quarantine (leading to the establishment of invasive plants and animals) and
inappropriate land management (past land clearing, abandonment of phosphate
mine fields, road verges etc.), which allows invasive species to prosper (James
2007). Wide-scale clearing for mining and municipal purposes, from colonisation
until the early 1980s, removed ~25% of the Island’s original forests. These
areas currently vary from active mine sites, bare limestone pinnacle fields,
abandoned weed fields, secondary-growth forests and revegetation fields to urban
environments. A moratorium on forest clearing since 1988 is tenuously supported
by law, but frequently challenged and seemingly vulnerable. A major threat in
recent years comes from the invasive Yellow Crazy Ant Anoplolepis gracilipes,
which reaches high densities, and alters the forest environment significantly
(O’Dowd et al. 2003). Unfortunately, many other invasive species are present,
including numerous other ant species, centipedes, bees, reptiles, rats, cats and
plant weeds (James 2007). A focus on wide-scale control of Crazy Ants at the
expense of targeted protection for vulnerable remnant populations may have
had severe unintended consequences, such as the extinction of a bat and several
reptiles in the last decade (James & McAllan 2010). In the past, hunting, poaching
and persecution were significant threats (Stokes 1988). We are concerned that
human over-population of the Island is emerging as a serious threat to the biota
that apparently is not being monitored adequately; compare the situation on Lord
Howe Island where the number of humans has a set limit (McAllan et al. 2004).
Methods
Sources of information
Literature was sourced for references to the birds of Christmas Island from several libraries
(see Acknowledgements) and the files held at the office of Parks Australia North, Christmas
Island (hereafter the Parks Office). Much of the recent information on non-breeding species
is in the form of unpublished trip reports by visiting birders. We found some of this on
the internet, but also corresponded with many observers known to have visited the Island.
Records generally run to the end of December 2013 for vagrants and the end of December
2011 for regular and irregular visitors.
For birds that are vagrants to Australian territory, case summaries and reports of the
Birds Australia Rarities Committee (BARC, now BirdLife Australia Rarities Committee)
were sourced from Wingspan, the Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union Report Series
and the BARC homepage (http://users.bigpond.net.au/palliser/barc/barc-home.html).
The unvetted reports series in ‘Twitchers corner’ (Wingspan), ‘Observations’ (Western
Australian Bird Notes), ‘Bird notes series’ (The Bird Observer) and ‘Observations of sea-
birds’ (The Sea Swallow) provided additional records. The equivalent series ‘From the field’
(Oriental Bird Club Bulletin and later BirdingAsia) and ‘Indonesian bird reports’ (Kukila)
were searched for additional information on the status of many visitors and for extralimital
records of Christmas Island seabirds.
A summary of Australian bird-banding data from the Island up to the end of 2011 was
provided by D. Drynan of the Australian Bird and Bat Banding Schemes (ABBBS).
We have inspected the specimens held at the Australian Museum (Sydney), Raffles
Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore (Singapore), Museum
Zoologicum Bogoriense, Bogor (Indonesia), Australian National Wildlife Collection
(Canberra), Museum Victoria (Melbourne), and Western Australian Museum (Perth).
The latter three museums and the Australian Museum have provided full listings of their
holdings from Christmas Island.
DJJ spent ~44 months on the Island between 2002 and 2013, including a period of
residency from December 2003 to April 2007. He undertook research into some of the
resident species and systematically recorded the occurrences of non-breeding species.
IAWM visited seven times between 2005 and 2013 (~2 months in total). All records made by
DJJ & IAWM that are not attributed to a publication are considered previously unpublished.
Species status and biogeography

Species are given population codes based on estimates of the numbers of individuals,
following McAllan et al. (2004), in a review of Lord Howe Island birds:
Rare less than 100 individuals
Uncommon 100 to 1000
Common 1001 to 10 000
Abundant more than 10 000 individuals.
These categories represent the maximum numbers of individuals on the Island during the
year and are not an indication of the likelihood of observing a species. Non-resident species
are either visitors or vagrants. Records of multiple individuals of a species at the same time
(whether or not in a flock) or multiple sightings over an extended period are treated as a
single ‘set’ of records (subject to the clarity of the data set). We have considered a species
to be a regular visitor if it has had 15 or more sets of records, with records in most years
since 1990. If a species has this number of records, but they are clumped in a few years, it is
generally considered an irregular visitor. If there have been fewer than 15 sets of records, we
have considered the species a vagrant.
The status of vagrant and visiting birds to Christmas Island is reviewed and assessed in
both local and regional contexts. To analyse the avian biogeography of Christmas Island, we
classify the breeding species according to the full distribution of their genus, species and/
or subspecies group, depending on what is most appropriate. We classify the non-breeding
species according to their regions of origin and migratory patterns. Those parts of taxon
distributions in the New World are generally not discussed. We use bioregions that are
defined to exclude trans-equatorial migrant birds, so that these species do not mask the
origins of resident avifauna and the source areas of potential colonisers. These and related
terms are defined below.
1. Pelagic species = species that are predominantly marine except when breeding, and
may have climatic or localised ranges, but whose ranges do not correspond with
terrestrial bioregions. Palaearctic migrants are excluded.
2. Palaearctic migrants = species that breed in northern Eurasia and migrate annually
to winter in the tropics or Southern Hemisphere, routinely crossing biogeographical
boundaries in the process.
3. Indomalayan Region species = species from eastern Asia, from south-eastern Siberia
through eastern and southern China to the Indian Subcontinent, Philippines,
mainland South-East Asia, and Greater Sundas, but excluding Palaearctic migrants
(the Oriental Region of some authors: see Clark et al. 1988).
4. Greater Sunda Islands species = species that are characteristic of the Greater Sunda
Islands (Borneo, Sumatra, Java and Bali) in Indonesia, and uncharacteristic of both
Wallacea and the rest of the Indomalayan Region.
5. Wallacean species = species that are characteristic of the islands of Eastern Indonesia
(i.e. the Lesser Sundas, Moluccas and Sulawesi) that lie between Wallace’s and
Lydekker’s Lines (White & Bruce 1986).
6. Australian species = species that are characteristic of areas on the Australian
continental shelf, including Tasmania and New Guinea.
7. Equivocal origins refers to species and subspecies that either do not fit into one of the
categories above, or for which more detailed information on the taxon is required.
8. Introduced by humans = introduced to Christmas Island directly or indirectly by
humans or human activity.
Inskipp et al. (1996) defined an ‘Oriental’ Region that was an artefact: in the north, it
is based on political rather than biogeographic boundaries and, in the south, including
Wallacea on the basis that it was an area of faunal transition between the Indomalayan and
Australian Regions. Inclusion of Wallacea in the Indomalayan Region is biogeographically
incorrect. Wallacea is not only an area of transition, but it is also an area of local endemism,
and therefore it is a region in its own right (Darlington 1957; Simpson 1977; White & Bruce
1986).
Vetting of records
Many bird records from Christmas Island are significant records not only for the Island
itself, but also for Australian territory and/or the nearby Indomalayan Region. All cases
reviewed by BARC are listed here, because BARC does not reject records outright, but either
accepts or does not accept them. Unless otherwise stated, records citing BARC case numbers
were accepted by that committee. We have had to investigate numerous unpublished
and unvetted records and have a responsibility to vet records carefully. Generally, we
have accepted records before 1990 that have been published by the original source (but
not necessarily those that were published secondhand), and all records of species that
are unquestionably regular visitors. With records of vagrants, we have had to weigh the
probabilities and consequences of misidentifications from the details available to us. Some
people might be upset that we have not accepted their records; however, many records of
rare birds from Christmas Island have not been documented carefully or the information
is not readily available. This said, we cannot always know the facts behind past events. We
can emphasise only that future observers must note the local and regional status of the
species that they report, and take the trouble to thoroughly document significant records.
We hope that this review provides observers with a greater understanding of the status of
birds on Christmas Island. Observers often come from Australia not knowing whether to
report a species. For example, the Grey-tailed Tattler Tringa brevipes is a common migrant
species in mainland Australia, but is a rarer bird on the Island than the Malayan Night-
Heron Gorsachius melanolophus.
Taxonomy and nomenclature

Generally, the taxonomy, nomenclature and sequence of birds in this review follow Christidis
& Boles (2008). However, given that the Island is in close proximity to the Greater Sundas
and the Indomalayan Region, we have also consulted relevant texts for these areas (e.g.
Andrew 1992; Inskipp et al. 1996). Nevertheless, there are several instances where the
broad scope of these checklists does not apply to Christmas Island. The few exceptions to
the taxonomy of Christidis & Boles (2008) and other taxonomic issues are discussed in
a separate Taxonomy and nomenclature section in the Results rather than in the species
accounts. Common and scientific names for native plants follow Claussen (2005).
Species accounts
For breeding species, we give: the status and abundance according to the categories already
defined and specific population estimates if they are available; the first report; the dates of
the breeding season; preferred or recorded habitats; the extralimital range, if applicable; and
the conservation status and threats. For breeding marine species, we provide an overview
of marine distribution for endemic taxa or records at sea in local waters for non-endemic
taxa. For vagrant species, we give: the status; number of records; details of known records;
preferred or recorded habitats and locations; range of dates; and the usual distribution.
Regular visitors are treated much the same as vagrants, except that records are summarised
rather than listed in full.
Abbreviations used in the text:
ABBBS = Australian Bird and Bat Banding Schemes
AM = Australian Museum, Sydney
AMNH = American Museum of Natural History, New York
ANCA = Australian Nature Conservation Agency
ANPWS = Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service
ANWC = Australian National Wildlife Collection, Canberra
ARA = Australasian Raptor Association
BARC = BirdLife Australia Rarities Committee (formerly Birds Australia Rarities
Committee)
BOCA = Bird Observers Club of Australia (now incorporated in BirdLife Australia)
BOM = Australian Bureau of Meteorology
CUMZ = Cambridge University Museum of Zoology, Cambridge, UK
EEZ = Economic Exclusion Zone in marine waters surrounding sovereign land
EPBC Act = Australian Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999
IDC = Christmas Island Immigration Detention Centre, Toms Ridge, North West Point
IOSG = Indian Ocean Seabird Group inaugural Conference, 18–22 April 2008
IUCN = International Union for Conservation of Nature, Gland, Switzerland
NHM = The Natural History Museum, Tring, UK [formerly the British Museum (Natural
History)]
nm = nautical miles
NMV = Museum Victoria, Melbourne
NSW = New South Wales
PANCI = Parks Australia North, Christmas Island

Parks Office = offices of PANCI (and formerly ANPWS and ANCA)
SSCSTE = Senate Standing Committee on Science, Technology and the Environment
TSSC = Threatened Species Scientific Committee
WA = Western Australia
WAM = Western Australian Museum, Perth
ZRC = Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore
(formerly the Raffles Museum and the Zoological Reference Collection).
All locations on Christmas Island that are mentioned in the text are listed with latitude
and longitude in Appendix 3.
Results
A history of ornithology on Christmas Island
For convenience, the history of ornithology on Christmas Island can be divided
into six different eras, reflecting changes in the emphasis and the sources of
influence, although these eras are not entirely discrete.
The ‘discovery era’ – 1615 to 1885

The first known sighting of the Island was in early February 1615 when the East
Indiaman, the Thomas, under the command of Richard Rowe, passed an island
said to be ‘length 4 or 5 leagues’ at the latitude of 10°20′S and south-south-east of
the Sunda Strait, though he did not give the Island a name (Rowe in Foster 1897,
overlooked by Foster 1911). Gray (1981) said that the merchant John Milward, also
aboard the Thomas, gave the date of the sighting as 3 February 1615, though we have
found no earlier reference to Milward’s account. The Island appeared as ‘Monĳ’
on a Dutch chart of discoveries in the Malay Archipelago and Australia (Gerritsz
1618–1630; copy viewed in the Mitchell Library, State Library of NSW, with other
copies in Leiden, the Netherlands). It is unclear if ‘Monĳ’ was an annotation to
the original chart because, although the chart is dated 1618, annotations indicate
that the Australian coastline was mapped during voyages between 1616 and
1628. The Dutch continued to use Monij for the Island into the 18th century (e.g.
de Vlamingh in March 1697), and it is found on subsequent maps (Schilder 1985,
undated).
The Island received its present name from Captain William Mynors of the Royal
Mary when he passed it on 25 December 1643 (Foster 1911; Gibson-Hill 1949a).
The first recorded landing and the first mention of the avifauna were made by
William Dampier aboard the Cygnet on 28 March 1688 (Gibson-Hill 1949a; Beken
1998). A landing party from the Cygnet obtained ‘as many Boobies, and Men of
War Birds [frigatebirds Fregata spp.] as sufficed all the Ship’s Company’ (Beken
1998, p. 224). Although it has been presumed that this party landed at the Dales
because the Cygnet was lying off the south-western point (e.g. DNP 2002), it
probably did not (Dampier in Gibson-Hill 1949a). At present, the nearest landing
point for a canoe where nests of boobies and frigatebirds can be accessed on foot is
West White Beach on the Island’s north-west, although the landing may have been
elsewhere. Landings by several later parties were usually poorly documented, but
the Island may have become well known to mariners as a source of food if not
water (Gibson-Hill 1949a; DNP 2002). The first specimen of the endemic ‘Golden
Bosunbird’ Phaethon lepturus fulvus was collected some time before 1760 as it
was first described by Brisson (1760), but whether it was collected on the Island or
at sea is unknown. An attempt was made to explore the Island in 1857 by the crew
of the Amethyst, but the crew members could not get beyond the coastal terrace
(Gibson-Hill 1949a). The Clunies-Ross family established a colony on the Cocos
(Keeling) Islands in the 1820s and occasionally visited Christmas Island to harvest
‘teak’ (Berrya cordifolia) for building ships and houses, and apparently also to
harvest seabirds for food (Gibson-Hill 1949a).
The ‘exploration era’ – 1886 to 1903

In 1886, George Clunies-Ross requested that the British Government annexe
Christmas Island and grant him a lease to cut timber. Meanwhile, Sir John
Murray, who was then writing up the reports from the Challenger Expedition
(1872–1876), asked friends in the Admiralty to collect rock samples on islands
not visited by the Challenger (Williams & Macdonald 1985). In January 1887,
the HMS Flying Fish was returning to the United Kingdom from the Far East
and moored in the cove that now bears her name. The crew could not penetrate
beyond the shore terrace, but Captain Maclear (1887b) collected the first wildlife
specimens, including two of the endemic landbird taxa later named by Sharpe
(1887). Maclear also collected a phosphate specimen. This drove Murray to
push for more exploration. In September 1887, the HMS Egeria visited for
10 days, and a party reached the plateau for the first time on record. The naturalist
J.J. Lister collected wildlife specimens and named the remaining five endemic
landbird taxa (Wharton 1888; Lister 1889). More phosphate specimens were
collected, leading Murray to lobby for British possession. In June 1888, the British
Government claimed sovereignty over Christmas Island, to be administered as
part of the Colony of Straits Settlements (= Singapore). The Clunies-Ross family
established the first small settlement in November 1888. J.N. Ridley, from the
Singapore Botanic Gardens, visited the Island for a day in August 1890 and,
although primarily collecting botanical specimens, provided a descriptive account
of the Island’s environment, including the birdlife. C.W. Andrews, of the British
Museum of Natural History, was sponsored by Murray to spend 18 months on the
Island to collect scientific specimens and study the natural history in 1897 and
1898. Murray’s vision was to document the Island’s environment before it was
forever changed by the imminent mining that he proposed (Murray in Andrews
1900). This was perhaps the first baseline ecological study undertaken anywhere.
The resulting Monograph of Christmas Island (Andrews 1900) made the Island
perhaps the best-studied pristine oceanic island in history; it was a benchmark
study in ecology for its day, and remains an immensely valuable insight into the
Island’s pre-development environment. Andrews collected all of the bird species
then breeding, including the first Abbott’s Boobies from the Island (Sharpe
1900). The specimens of frigatebirds that Andrews collected were a significant
contribution to Gregory Mathews’s (1914) global revision of the Fregatidae,
including the scientific description of the Christmas Island Frigatebird and the
recognition of the local Great Frigatebird as an endemic subspecies, the last of
the endemic birds to be described. In 1898, over 200 people moved to the Island
in preparation for commercial mining. Hugh Ross also collected a few additional
bird specimens, which he forwarded to Andrews. H.E. Durham visited the Island
from December 1901 to February 1902 and collected a few birds now held at the
CUMZ (Benson 1970).
The ‘Singapore era’ – 1904 to 1945

In 1904, the then director of the Raffles Museum, Dr R. Hanitsch, was
commissioned by the Government of the Straits Settlement to assess the status
of the Christmas Island Imperial-Pigeon and the impacts of hunting it. Between
26 September and 6 November, his expedition (which included J.N. Ridley,
P.M. de Fontaine and their collectors) obtained 12 species of birds (Hanitsch 1904,
1905; Ridley 1905, Chasen & Kloss 1924; Morioka & Yang 1996). Apparently,
Hanitsch (1904) produced an unpublished report on the status of the pigeon
(cf. Hanitsch 1905), but no general account of the birds. Ridley (1905) described
aspects of the expedition and gave a detailed account of the flora. In 1908, Andrews
briefly returned to the Island to document changes in the environment after a
decade of commercial mining activities, and observed most noticeably the sudden
extinction of the two endemic and previously abundant rats, the Christmas Island
Burrowing Rat Rattus nativitatis and Maclear’s Rat R. macleari (Andrews 1909).
Two unnamed Dayak (indigenous Bornean) collectors were sent to the Island
by the Raffles Museum in September and October 1923 and collected at least
20 species of birds (Chasen & Kloss 1924; cf. Morioka & Yang 1996). This
collection included the first specimens of the introduced Java Sparrow. In August
and September 1932, M.W.F. Tweedie from the Raffles Museum visited the Island
for 36 days to reassess the conservation status of the Christmas Island Imperial-
Pigeon. In an unpublished report, Tweedie (1932) concluded that, although the
Imperial-Pigeon was less common than in 1904, it was not threatened (Chasen
1933b). Tweedie also collected probably close to 100 specimens of at least
18 bird species. These were reported on as the basis of Frederick N. Chasen’s review
of the Island’s avifauna (Chasen 1933a; Morioka & Yang 1996). Carl A. Gibson-
Hill was the resident medical officer on Christmas Island for 15 months between
September 1939 and November 1940. Under Chasen’s encouragement, Gibson-
Hill made extensive observations on the natural history of the Island and collected
~200 specimens (of 30 bird species) for the Raffles Museum (Chasen 1940,
undated; Gibson-Hill 1947; Wang & Hails 2007). After World War II, Gibson-
Hill published extensively on the birds of the Island (Gibson-Hill 1947, 1949a,b,
1950) and many other aspects of its terrestrial zoology (see Bulletin of the Raffles
Museum, Volume 18).
Several significant specimens collected for the Raffles Museum at both
Christmas Island and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands are no longer present in the
collection at its current home (Morioka & Yang 1996; DJJ; IAWM). One can only
speculate on their whereabouts. Some Raffles Museum specimens, including most
of the type-specimens, were routinely sent over many years to the NHM and other
museums in Europe and the United States of America (Morioka & Yang 1996;
Wang & Hails 2007), though there appear to be few records of this. From 1961, the
collection was in storage and moved at least four times before 1987, when it was
moved to its present location at the National University of Singapore’s Kent Ridge
Campus (Morioka & Yang 1996; RMBR 2008). There is a possibility that some of
the missing specimens from the Indian Ocean Islands are in other museums, but
it is likely that many were lost, destroyed or discarded.
Japanese forces occupied Christmas Island from 31 March 1942 to August 1945,
during which time a significant area of breeding habitat for Christmas Island
Frigatebirds was cleared at the site of the present-day Golf Course (Williams 1971;
DNP 2002).
The ‘post-war era’ – 1945 to 1976

Phosphate mining resumed in December 1945, and gradually became more
mechanised and intense (Williams 1971). In 1948, the Australian and New Zealand
Governments jointly bought the mining interests, but Christmas Island remained
under British rule until 1 October 1958, when Australia gained sovereignty
(Williams 1971; SATCI 1983; DNP 2002). There are no detailed ornithological
records between the departure of Gibson-Hill in 1940 and the early 1960s. For
2.5 years between September 1960 and March 1964, A.J. Pearson spent periods
of residence on the Island and recorded the birds that he observed (Pearson
1966). In June and July 1961, G.F. Mees and E.J. Car collected a few specimens
for the WAM, but published little detail (WAM 1962; Voous 1964; Mees 1966). In
1961 and 1962, the Norwegian marine zoologist I. Vigeland and Captain Oftedal
(master of the Norwegian vessel MS Hoi Houw) collected 46 bird specimens that
were deposited in Oslo, Norway, and Amsterdam, the Netherlands (Voous 1964).
In the 1960s, a series of straight ‘drill lines’ was bulldozed over the Island on a
120-m grid to map phosphate reserves (DNP 2002). Though creating considerable
environmental damage, the drill lines provided unprecedented access to much of
the Island, and in particular facilitated the first detailed studies of Abbott’s Booby.
In June 1965, G.F. and P. van Tets visited the Island and undertook the first local
bird banding (van Tets & van Tets 1966, 1967), and collected a few specimens.
G.F. van Tets returned in the early 1970s to investigate potential bird-strike hazards
at the new Airport (van Tets 1973, 1974b). In 1967, J.B. Nelson spent 8 months
on the Island studying seabirds, particularly Abbott’s Booby. He visited again
briefly in 1974 and December 1976. His research into the seabirds led to several
important scientific works (Nelson 1971, 1972) and allowed him to complete two
seminal works, his review of the breeding biology of the frigatebirds (Nelson 1976)
and his monograph of the Sulidae (gannets and boobies) (Nelson 1978). Nelson
and van Tets both brought the plight of Abbott’s Booby and the rest of Christmas
Island’s birds to international attention, and pressured the British Phosphate
Commissioners and the Australian and New Zealand Governments to protect the
Island’s environment in general and Abbott’s Booby in particular (Nelson 1974a,
1975, 1977; van Tets 1974a, 1975, 1983). Nelson’s (1974a) address at the XVI World
Conference of the International Council for Bird Preservation in Canberra brought
the plight of the Booby to the world stage. A month later, in September 1974, at
Nelson’s recommendation, the British Phosphate Commissioners appointed
D. Powell as the first Conservation Officer. Nelson (1972) also discovered large-
scale harvesting of seabirds for food that was recognised as a significant threat to
the rarer species (Bell in ERTS 1976). In 1975, the private ownership of guns and
sling-shots was banned to curb the hunting pressures on wildlife and, in 1977, the
Christmas Island Imperial-Pigeon was given formal protection. In August 1975,
an ‘environmental survey team’ led by Brian Bell (in ERTS 1976) visited the Island
to assess environmental issues for the Australian Government (SATCI 1983). A
flurry of commissioned investigations into the conservation of Christmas Island
wildlife ensued from 1972 to the 1980s (Stokes 1988).
The ‘ANPWS era’ – 1977 to 1989

Australia remained slower to embrace responsibility for the environmental
management of Christmas Island than to accept sovereignty and the profits of
phosphate mining. In April 1977, D. Merton was appointed as the first Government
Conservator (SATCI 1983), and there was a rapid reduction in poaching (Stokes
1988). F. Crome (1978) visited in 1977 to assess the conservation status of the
Christmas Island Imperial-Pigeon, although the recommendations of his report
were never implemented. Powell continued to study Abbott’s Booby and fostered
an interest in wildlife amongst local residents (Powell & Tranter 1981; Nelson &
Powell 1986). In 1980, various ordinances were passed to increase protection of
the wildlife (SATCI 1983). In April 1980, the Christmas Island National Park was
declared, though at that time it covered only the south-western corner of the Island.
The Park was expanded in 1986, and in 1989 to reach its current area of about two-
thirds of the Island. The main purpose of the Park was to protect the breeding
habitat of Abbott’s Booby. In 1986, the Australian Department of Territories
applied the WA Environmental Protection Act 1986 to formally protect all wildlife.
From 1968 to 1986, there were at least 27 articles and conference resolutions on
conservation of Christmas Island birds (Appendix 1 in Stokes 1988).
The first three Government Conservators, D. Merton, J. Hicks and T. Stokes,
and their colleagues, J. Tranter, H. Yorkston, B. Reville and J.N. Dunlop, studied
the birds and wrote a host of scientific papers, research reports and popular
articles. The Christmas Island Natural History Society was formed and published
a series of books covering many aspects of the Island’s environment, including a
guide to the birds (Reville 1989). Breeding (colonisation) by the Lesser Frigatebird
and White-faced Heron was suspected, Chickens were recorded as feral for the
first time, and Eurasian Tree Sparrows breached the quarantine barrier, all in the
early 1980s (Stokes 1988). During the 1980s, numerous studies of the seabirds
and some landbirds were made (see references under species accounts). In 1987,
the departure of Stokes signalled the end of an era and a more bureaucratic
administration of environmental management on the Island. Stokes’s final legacy
was to consolidate over a decade of research and observations in his general review
of the Island’s birds (Stokes 1988), the first since 1949.
The ‘birders era’ – 1990 onwards

The first visit by birders (as distinct from professional ornithologists) was when
K. Coate led a tour group to the Island in 1990. The next birding visit was by
P. Snetzinger, B. King and H. Buck in August 1991 (Andrew 1997). Observations
Table 1. Bird species that have been recorded on Christmas Island. 1900 = Sharpe
(1900), 1933 = Chasen (1933a), 1947 = Gibson-Hill (1947), 1988 = Stokes (1988),
2004 = Johnstone & Darnell (2004a), and 2013 = this paper.
Category 1900 1933 1947 1988 2004 2013
Landbirds, breeding and 8 8 8 10 11 11

indigenous
Seabirds, breeding 8 8 8 8 9 9
Introduced species (extant 0 1 1 3 3 3
only)
Visitors and vagrants 15 19 27 68 95 126
Unconfirmed species (0) (3) (2) (~4) (~11) (~34)
(supplementary list)
Total number of 31 36 44 89 118 149

confirmed species
from both these visits were not published. Christmas Island came into greater
focus for Australian birders when M. Carter (1994) wrote an article about his trip
in October–November 1993. His visit was prompted by his involvement with a
list for the Island in the fourth edition of the Field Guide to the Birds of Australia
(Simpson & Day 1993) and insider information that the forthcoming checklist
of Australian birds (Christidis & Boles 1994) would, for the first time, include
the Indian Ocean territories. This triggered a succession of birders spurred on
by the sniff of rarities, and well-armed with a newly published field guide to the
Greater Sunda Islands (MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993). Although it is impossible
to be precise about numbers, we are aware of more than 70 visits by more than
400 birders since 1990, which took the bird list from 89 in 1988 to 149 at the end
of 2013 (Table 1, Figure 6). The White-breasted Waterhen and Lesser Frigatebird
were recorded breeding for the first time in 1992 and 2001, respectively (Carter
1994; DNP 2002), and the Asian Koel may have started breeding even more
recently. In September 2006, the inaugural Christmas Island Birdweek had
themes of Christmas Island endemics and seabird research, and was attended by
~40 participants. A small field guide to the resident birds was published in booklet
form for the first Birdweek (Valenzuela & James 2006). Further Birdweeks have
been held in subsequent years. The inaugural IOSG Conference was held on the
Island in April 2008. Many of the otherwise unpublished observations by birders
since 1990 were summarised by Johnstone & Darnell (2004a).
The creation of the Christmas Island National Park, environmental legislation,
and the changing sentiment of the general public mean that the days of collecting
birds are over. However, Parks Australia’s rehabilitation program for injured and
sick birds and the collection of road-kill carcasses have ensured a steady supply of
bird specimens reaching Australian museums in the last decade. Meanwhile, the
conservation status of all species was reviewed (Garnett & Crowley 2000; Garnett
et al. 2011), and National Recovery Plans were prepared for several species.
200 450
Number of visits by observers

400
Number of bird species
350
150
300
250
100
200
150
50
100
50
0 0
Year
Figure 6. Graph of the total number of bird species recorded and total estimated
number of visits by observers recording birds on Christmas Island between 1887 and
2012. Solid line = total number of species, breeding and non-breeding; dotted line =
number of breeding species; dashed line = number of visits by bird observers.
Research continued into the birds during this era, funded by the Australian
Government, industry, and independently. This included studies on the seabirds,
the Christmas Island Goshawk and Christmas Island Hawk-Owl and landbirds in
general (James 2007; James & McAllan 2010). Unfortunately, with few exceptions
(see individual species accounts), most of this work remains unpublished and
unconsolidated.
Future prospects
Modifications of habitats by human colonisation have brought about substantial
environmental and ecological change. Christmas Island is in the midst of a
biodiversity crisis, with many species declining rapidly towards extinction.
Recently, the Christmas Island Pipistrelle Pipistrellus murrayi, an endemic
microbat, was conceded by the Australian Government to have become extinct
(Kamenev 2009; CIEWG 2010), all native reptile species have been reduced to tiny
vestigial populations (James 2007) and as many as three may have become extinct
in the wild in the last few years (K. Retallick pers. comm.; cf. CIEWG 2010). Many
invertebrate species have apparently vanished (James & Milly 2006; James 2007).
Although the causes (and extent) of this crisis have not been fully determined, it is
clear that the interactions between habitat modification and invasive species are
playing a major role. The invasive Yellow Crazy Ant has been the focus of much
attention, research and management efforts (summarised in CIEWG 2010). So far
the birds have not been badly affected, even though six now are listed as nationally
threatened under the EPBC Act. Fortunately, it seems that the immediate threats
to birds posed by the Yellow Crazy Ant and the predicted severe declines in bird
populations (e.g. Garnett & Crowley 2000; Davis 2002; Davis et al. 2008) have
been greatly overestimated, at least in the short term (James & Retallick 2007;
CIEWG 2010; James & McAllan 2010). ‘New’ habitats such as the Airport,
Rubbish Tip, former slurry ponds, mine loading bays and other areas (particularly
those with open rainwater pools), have provided habitat for numerous migrant
and vagrant species that could not otherwise occupy the Island even temporarily.
Habitat modification has paved the way for the colonisation of the Island by four
self-introduced bird species and three species introduced by humans, and more
will likely follow.
It remains to be seen whether the mass declines affecting other groups of the
fauna will also affect the endemic birds. Insular bird faunas are renowned for
their sensitivity and vulnerability to threats associated with human settlement,
especially hunting, habitat modification and invasive species (Milberg &
Tyrberg 1993; Hughes 2004). However, the most recent signs of declining bird
populations on Christmas Island are emerging not in the endemics, but in three
recently arrived species and a wide-ranging seabird (White-faced Heron, White-
breasted Waterhen, Java Sparrow and Red-tailed Tropicbird—see respective
species accounts). The signs indicate perilous times ahead for the fauna of
Christmas Island. It is obvious that the threats to the Island’s biodiversity are
serious, multiple, complex and inadequately understood (James 2007; CIEWG
2010; James & McAllan 2010). Therefore, continuing to focus on a single issue
such as one alien invasive ant species (e.g. Garnett & Crowley 2000; DNP 2002;
Davis et al. 2008) will likely be counter-productive while there are many factors
contributing to biodiversity declines.
Bird specimens held in museums

Specimens of birds from Christmas Island have been collected or retained on a fairly
regular basis since the late 19th century. It is not possible to provide a complete
inventory at present. In Australia, significant collections of most breeding species
and some visitors and vagrants are held at the WAM (>350 specimens), ANWC
(~140), AM (>100) and NMV (~100), dating from the 1960s or later. Overseas,
significant collections are held at the NHM (from the late 19th and perhaps the
mid 20th century: Sharpe 1900) and ZRC (>300 specimens from the early to
mid 20th century: Chasen 1933a; Gibson-Hill 1947; Morioka & Yang 1996; DJJ;
IAWM). Each contains most of the breeding species (except the recent colonists)
and a few visitors and vagrants. Smaller collections are held at the AMNH
(~50 specimens, mostly received by G.M. Mathews from C.W. Andrews, and the
NHM), CUMZ (Benson 1970, 1999), Zoological Museum of the University of Oslo,
Norway (38 specimens, of 14 species), and Zoological Museum of the University
of Amsterdam, the Netherlands (nine specimens, of eight species: Voous 1964).
The type-specimens of most endemic landbird species and subspecies are
held at the NHM (Warren 1966; Warren & Harrison 1971), with some at the
CUMZ (Benson 1999). Those of both endemic frigatebirds are in the Mathews
Collection at the AMNH (Greenway 1973) and that of Abbott’s Booby (collected
on Assumption Island) is in the United States National Museum (Deignan 1961).
It is likely that some specimens collected for the Raffles Museum were traded with
other museums. Christmas Island Frigatebirds collected away from the Island are
held at the AMNH, ZRC, Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense in Bogor, Indonesia

(DJJ), and Turin, Italy (Elter 1986), at least. A specimen of Abbott’s Booby from
the southern coast of Java is held at the Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie,
Leiden, the Netherlands (Becking 1976b). Combined, the collections total over
1400 specimens, of at least 67 species.
Taxonomy and nomenclature

The taxonomy of Christmas Island’s breeding landbirds has long been influenced
by the views of Frederick N. Chasen (1933a, 1935). Chasen felt that the Island’s
biogeographical affinities lay with Wallacea, despite its position being ~1140 km
west of Wallace’s Line. Also, the convention at that time was to lump species.
Consequently, Chasen linked all of Christmas Island’s endemic landbirds to
species from Wallacea, and lumped most of them with their putative relatives.
Chasen’s views have influenced the species-limits of the avifauna from the time of
publication to even the most recent checklists to cover the Island (Peters’ Check-
list series 1931–1986; Inskipp et al. 1996; Christidis & Boles 2008), as well as the
conservation status of several taxa.
White-tailed Tropicbird
The pantropical White-tailed Tropicbird Phaethon lepturus was treated as
monotypic by Marchant & Higgins (1990), but this was not substantiated. In the
Plumages and related sections of that work, a ‘golden morph’ was described with
the implication that it has no geographical restrictions different from the species
as a whole (Marchant & Higgins 1990, pp. 950–951). In the introduction to the
Family Phaethontidae, it was claimed that golden-plumaged forms are probably
better regarded as morphs than as subspecies ‘because they occur in different
proportions in different colonies’ (Marchant & Higgins 1990, p. 935). Most other
authors to consider subspecies have recognised fulvus as a valid and endemic
subspecies, based on the unique intensity and frequency of its golden-coloured
plumage (e.g. Peters 1931; Chasen 1933a, 1935; Condon 1975; Dorst & Mougin
1979; Orta 1992a; Le Corre & Jouventin 1999; Clements 2000; Dickinson 2003;
Gill & Donsker 2012).
Golden-plumaged White-tailed Tropicbirds dominate breeding populations of
the species at only two locations: Christmas Island in the eastern Indian Ocean
and Europa Island, >7000 km away in the western Indian Ocean. This latter form
was recently named P. l. europae, based on its high frequency of golden plumage
(70% of birds) and significantly smaller size than fulvus and nominate lepturus
(Le Corre & Jouventin 1999). However, the strongly ‘apricot’ colour shown by 90%
of Christmas Island fulvus individuals is not present in europae. While examining
a live fulvus in the hand, Le Corre remarked to IAWM that subspecies europae
never shows the same brilliant apricot-coloured plumage as fulvus. Throughout
the rest of the range, only a slight golden tinge to the plumage on the body occurs,
in no more than 15% of any population (Le Corre & Jouventin 1999). The presence
of some white-plumaged birds on Christmas Island (<10%), their apparent
increase in recent years, and apparent assortative pairing (judged by courtship
displays) (Dunlop 1988; J.N. Dunlop pers. comm.; DJJ) indicate that the apricot
plumage is determined genetically. Therefore, fulvus deserves recognition as a

valid subspecies.
Emerald Dove
This complex has two distinctive forms: the nominate indica group, which is found
from South Asia east to the Lesser Sundas and Moluccas, where it is replaced by the
longirostris group, continuing east to New Guinea, Australia and the Pacific. The
groups are differentiated by distinct plumage forms: the silver-crowned western
form and the brown-crowned eastern form. The boundary between the forms
is sharp, being between islands <50 km apart in the centre of Wallacea (White
& Bruce 1986). In addition, Rasmussen & Anderton (2005) cited differences in
vocalisations between the two groupings, and suggested that they were separate
species. Christidis & Boles (2008) did not come to a firm decision on this treatment
and continued to follow the traditional arrangement, but noted that further work
was under way. This split is gaining support (e.g. Gill & Donsker 2012), so we
here point out that the endemic subspecies on Christmas Island, natalis, is allied
with the putative western species ‘Common Emerald Dove’ C. indica. This would
make it a separate species from all other forms of Chalcophaps in Australian
territory, which would belong to ‘Pacific Emerald Dove’ C. longirostris. Note that
the species-group name chrysochlora Wagler 1827 is not available for this eastern
grouping, as it was based at least in part on birds from Java (Schodde & Mason
1997; contra Christidis & Boles 2008).
Christmas Island Swiftlet

The white-bellied swiftlets of the genus Collocalia (sensu stricto, i.e. excluding
Aerodramus) comprise a complex of close to 40 taxa stretching from the
Andaman Islands and the Malay Peninsula through the Indonesian and Philippine
archipelagos to New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and New Caledonia.
Early on, Wallace (1863) recognised two species in the complex: C. linchi, with
plain tails, from Java west to the Nicobar Islands; and C. esculenta, with spotted
tails, from Sulawesi east to the Aru Islands. Lister (1889) described the white-
bellied swiftlet with a spotted tail from Christmas Island as a distinct species,
C. natalis. Oberholser (1906) recognised seven species: C. linchi (Greater Sundas
and northern Philippines), C. marginata (central Philippines), C. dodgei (montane
Borneo), C. uropygialis (Vanuatu), C. neglecta (Timor region), C. esculenta
(Sulawesi to New Guinea) and C. natalis (Christmas Island). Stresemann (1925a)
considered all the forms (including natalis) to be one species, C. esculenta, and
Chasen (1933a, 1935) and Peters (1940) followed suit. Chasen (1933a) considered
the nearest affiliates of natalis to be the distant, but spotted-tailed neglecta and
sumbawae (Sumbawa, Sumba and Flores) and the proximal, but plain-tailed linchi
(Java). Stresemann (1940) softened his view to recognise two ‘natural’ groups
(C. linchi and C. esculenta), and placed natalis with C. esculenta based upon its
spotted tail and despite its proximity to C. linchi. Salomonsen (1983) recognised
the two groupings, C. linchi (Borneo westwards) and C. esculenta (Sumbawa and
Sulawesi eastwards), but did not discuss forms from the Philippines or Christmas
Island. He noted that the esculenta group consistently had tail-spots and naked
or nearly naked tarsi, but that there was considerable variation in the colour of
plumage gloss between populations. He also found that tarsus feathering varied
individually and not geographically. Somadikarta (1986) also recognised two
species with the same names, but different compositions: C. linchi including
subspecies linchi (Java and Nusa Penida), dodgei, ripleyi (montane Sumatra) and
dedii (Bali and Lombok); and C. esculenta, including cyanoptila (Malaya, Sumatra
and Borneo) and all forms to the east of Lombok, west of Sumatra and north of
Borneo. This was triggered by evidence of sympatry in Borneo and Sumatra, but
based on greenish versus bluish gloss in the plumage and the absence or presence
of a feather tuft on the hind toe. Somadikarta (1986) did not refer to Salomonsen or
analyse forms from the Philippines, or from east of Lombok, but kept cyanoptila in
esculenta despite being aware of their differing tail patterns. By contrast and as an
aside, he placed natalis in esculenta (following Stresemann) because of its spotted
tail, and proposed a novel biogeographical boundary in support. He showed that
there is more than one species in the Greater Sundas, but he split some forms from
the Greater Sundas and Lombok into C. linchi and ignored the rest of the complex.
This led to an unnatural grouping under the name C. esculenta of spotted-tailed
forms (east of Lombok) with some plain-tailed forms (from Lombok westwards).
Since then, some authorities have treated the complex as a single species,
C. esculenta (e.g. Christidis & Boles 1994; Inskipp et al. 1996; Schodde & Mason
1997). Others have recognised C. linchi as a second species and kept natalis in
C. esculenta (e.g. Andrew 1992; Chantler 1999; Chantler & Driessens 2000;
Clements 2000; Dickinson 2003; Gill & Donsker 2012). Christidis & Boles (2008)
moved natalis from C. esculenta to C. linchi and, although they emphasised
uncertainty, they unjustly cited support from Somadikarta (1986) and Carter
(1994), who suggested no such arrangement. In fact, Christidis & Boles (2008)
moved natalis to a different species without examining any material, presenting
any new data, or following any existing study.
Some recent genetic studies (Price et al. 2004, 2005; Thomassen et al.
2005; Moyle et al. 2008) have indicated greater speciation in the complex. For
instance, eastern forms representing the esculenta group (nitens from New
Guinea and becki from the Solomon Islands) appear distinct from both Bornean
cyanoptila and linchi. This suggests that no forms in the Greater Sundas belong
in C. esculenta. Birds from the central and southern Philippines form a separate
grouping again, marginata. The Bornean dodgei is not only separate from the
sympatric cyanoptila, but also apparently distinct from its more similar, but
allopatric, relative linchi (sensu stricto), an arrangement implicitly followed by
Myers (2009) and Phillipps & Phillipps (2009). The genetics of natalis has not
been studied in this detail.
Although it is beyond the scope of this paper to revise the taxonomy of the genus,
we have some additional data on natalis. All of ~40 freshly dead natalis examined
on Christmas Island had white tail-spots like those described in the esculenta
group, but lacked a feather tuft on the hind toe like the purported linchi group;
plumage gloss was considered to be dull and oily, somewhat green and certainly
not blue. Specimens of natalis examined at the ZRC and AM show this oily-green
gloss on the top of the head, the upperwings and the uppertail (including the tail-
Table 2. The distribution of selected taxonomic characters amongst the major

biogeographical groups in the broader white-bellied swiftlet complex. Shading shows
matching of characters between natalis and other taxa.
Character natalis esculenta marginata affinis linchi cyanoptila

group group group group group
Tail-spots All Most None None None None
Pale-fringed rump All Some Some Some None None
Reduced gloss on All Some None None None None
upperparts
Green gloss on All Some All Some All None

wings
Blue gloss on None Some None Some None All
wings
coverts). However, the upper-body tracts (mantle, back, scapulars and rump) and
hindneck lack the gloss, and the feathers there are dirty dark grey with narrow
whitish margins that increase rearwards to form pale scaling on the rump and
longest scapulars. This differs from C. (esculenta) cyanoptila, which has a dark
metallic-blue gloss (similar to the Barn Swallow Hirundo rustica, though not as
bright) to all of the upper-body, wing and tail tracts, with no pale margins to any
dorsal feathers (specimens from Singapore, Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo at
the ZRC and field observations in Singapore by DJJ). Specimens of natalis and
cyanoptila are shown in Figure 7 (p. S51). C. (e.) natalis also differs from linchi,
which has a uniform dark oily-green gloss to all of the upper-body, wing and tail
tracts, with no pale margins to any dorsal feathers (field observations in Java by
DJJ). The distinctive grey back and scaly rump of natalis, contrasting with the
oily-green glossy wings and cap, are also readily visible in the field [DJJ; IAWM;
Figures 8–9 (p. S52)].
According to Chantler & Driessens (2000) and Salomonsen (1983), numerous

taxa in the complex have a palish rump caused by lack of gloss and pale shafts
and/or pale fringes to the feathers: from the marginata group in the Philippines—
marginata and septentrionalis; from the affinis group on islands in the Andaman
Sea—affinis and elachyptera; and from the esculenta group east of New Guinea—
stresemanni, tametamele, desiderata, misimae, uropygialis and albidior. Some
taxa in the esculenta group also lack gloss or have reduced gloss to the upperparts,
for example neglecta. However, no taxa in the linchi group show a pale rump or
anything other than entirely green-glossed upperparts. In addition, white spots
on the inner webs of the outer rectrices are found to varying degrees in most taxa
east of Wallace’s Line, but only one taxon to the west of that Line, natalis. The
distributions of these taxonomic characters amongst the major biogeographical
groups in the complex are presented in Table 2. This indicates that natalis shows
the most similarity to taxa in the esculenta group and the least similarity with the
two most proximal groups, linchi and cyanoptila.
It is highly significant that natalis is the only form in the complex to the west
of Wallace’s Line that has a spotted tail. This might be an ancestral character
that links natalis with the esculenta group, and certainly indicates considerable
divergence from linchi, so placing natalis in C. linchi is unsatisfactory. Given the
geographical distance and biogeographical separation between natalis and the
other spotted-tailed forms and considering the apparent speciation elsewhere
in the complex, natalis is likely to have diverged from the eastern birds as well.
Under prevailing taxonomies, placing natalis in esculenta would also make
natalis conspecific with the cyanoptila group, although these two seem the least
similar (Table 2). Therefore, we consider it prudent to treat C. natalis as a separate
species, the Christmas Island Swiftlet, unless compelling evidence is found linking
it to another form in the broader white-bellied swiftlet complex.
Great Frigatebird
The Great Frigatebird Fregata minor was originally described as Pelecanus
minor by Gmelin (1789) based on a colour illustration of a female bird in Edwards
(1758–1764). Unfortunately, the provenance of Edwards’s subject is unknown.
Mathews (1914) described a form of Great Frigatebird as a new subspecies,
F. m. listeri. Mathews intended to represent birds from the eastern Indian Ocean
with listeri, and he based it on type-specimens from Christmas Island. In the same
paper, he mistakenly fixed the type-locality of minor (from Edwards’s illustration)
to Jamaica. Since the species does not occur in the Caribbean, Rothschild (1915)
moved the type-locality of minor to the Indian Ocean, and Lowe (1924) moved it
again to Christmas Island. These actions made F. m. listeri a junior synonym of
F. m. minor.
Females of the Christmas Island form always have a blue bill, whereas females
of all other populations in the Indian Ocean have a pink bill, so Christmas Island
birds are different from others in the Indian Ocean and are a subspecies endemic
to the Island. The female specimen illustrated by Edwards had a pink bill, and
thus Gmelin’s Pelecanus minor did not come from Christmas Island. Therefore,
Mathews’s listeri is a valid name for the endemic subspecies on Christmas Island,
which we hereby use. We intend to publish more on the taxonomy of Fregata
minor elsewhere.
Christmas Island Goshawk

Lister (1889) originally described the Christmas Island Goshawk as a unique
species, Urospizias natalis. In comparing specimens of related species, he
noted that there were no similar taxa in the Indomalayan Region, though this
goshawk was most closely allied to a complex of ~34 taxa ranging from Melanesia
through Australia and New Guinea to Wallacea including Accipiter fasciatus
(Brown Goshawk), A. novaehollandiae (Grey Goshawk), A. hiogaster (Variable
Goshawk), and A. griseogularis (Grey-throated Goshawk) and their subspecies,
and is particularly similar to A. griseogularis (sensu stricto) from Halmahera in
the northern Moluccas.
Chasen (1933a, 1935) subsequently included natalis as a subspecies of fasciatus
following Stresemann (1924, 1925b). Chasen did not have comparative material,
but noted that Stresemann compared natalis with three forms of fasciatus and
one of hiogaster, all from Wallacea. The argument cited by Chasen (1933a)
appears contrived, to confirm Chasen’s preconceived notions that the fauna of
Christmas Island is affiliated with that of Wallacea and that islands rarely give rise
to endemic species. Our data disprove the former notion (see Avian biogeography
p. S28), whereas advances in evolutionary biology and island biogeography leave
the latter idea without any credence.
Wattel (1973) continued to keep natalis as a subspecies of fasciatus. However,
he noted great morphological differences between natalis and the nominate
subspecies, with adult natalis having a plain rufous breast, a generally darker
dorsum and shorter more rounded wings. His measurements indicated that,
although smaller than mainland Australian birds, natalis fits within the size
range of the various subspecies of fasciatus from Wallacea. In addition, Wattel’s
measurements indicated that natalis is larger than all the subspecies of the
novaehollandiae–hiogaster group from Wallacea, except for griseogularis. Often
overlooked is that Wattel found the wing proportions of natalis most similar to
those of A. melanochlamys (Black-mantled Goshawk), a high-altitude species
from New Guinea. Stresemann & Amadon (1979) continued to place natalis in
fasciatus, citing Wattel (1973) as the source for their treatment of the genus—even
though Stresemann died in 1972 before Wattel was published. They did not accept
Brown & Amadon’s (1968) split of griseogularis from novaehollandiae.
D. Rogers (in Marchant & Higgins 1993) listed significant differences between
natalis and mainland Australian subspecies of fasciatus: natalis had considerably
smaller size (though note the variation of fasciatus found by Wattel); much more
rounded wings; shorter plumage sequence to full maturation; and numerous,
substantial plumage differences. Despite these differences, natalis was still kept
in fasciatus. Based on observations and photographs, Carter (1994) suggested
that natalis was more closely related to the A. novaehollandiae–hiogaster
complex, noting the bright-yellow cere and different jizz. Debus (1994) agreed,
and considered the short tarsus, short tail, heavy bill and bright-yellow cere to
be inconsistent with the fasciatus group. Christidis & Boles (1994) and Inskipp
et al. (1996) followed Chasen and others in maintaining natalis within fasciatus,
largely because there were no other taxonomic studies to follow. Ferguson-Lees
et al. (2001) separated the novaehollandiae group (sensu lato) into three species
groups: novaehollandiae, hiogaster and griseogularis. They placed natalis in the
species A. hiogaster, but (inadvertently?) included natalis in the distribution map
of fasciatus. Separation of griseogularis from novaehollandiae was not new, as
it had been done previously by Brown & Amadon (1968), though they had kept
natalis in fasciatus. Similarly, the separation of hiogaster from novaehollandiae
was advocated by Schodde (1977), though he did not circumscribe full species-
limits for hiogaster. However, placement of natalis in hiogaster by Ferguson-
Lees et al. (2001) was novel, and was supported only by supposed and superficial
similarities in plumage between the forms, and without any serious consideration
of phylogeny, convergence, biogeography, etc. This treatment, which puts natalis
1300 km away from its nearest sister taxon on Sumbawa, is similar to the untenable
biogeographic arrangement of the Christmas Island Hawk-Owl (see p. S22; also
Debus 1994; Ferguson-Lees et al. 2001, under the griseogularis account).

Finally, Johnstone & Darnell (2004a) treated natalis as a distinct species
based upon its considerable morphological differences from the fasciatus and
hiogaster complexes. One aspect often overlooked is that the adult plumages of
natalis are sexually dimorphic (Gibson-Hill 1947; DJJ). In addition, recent field
studies (Hurley 2005; Holdsworth 2007; James 2007; DJJ) have revealed that the
taxon’s ecology differs vastly from fasciatus, particularly with regard to roaming
behaviour, diminished territoriality and an absence of aerial displays. Yet, despite
this, Christidis & Boles (2008) merely followed Ferguson-Lees et al. (2001).
Like the fasciatus complex, the hiogaster complex does not reach the
Indomalayan Region, and its presence on Christmas Island is therefore not
parsimonious. Moving a taxon from one species to another without substantive
evidence is not satisfactory, so inclusion of natalis in hiogaster is not followed
here. Leaving natalis as a subspecies of fasciatus is also unsatisfactory, as no
substantive evidence has ever been presented for this equally biogeographically
unlikely possibility. Therefore, in this work, natalis is recognised as a distinct
species until proved otherwise. We concede that the issue will continue to be
debated until a detailed taxonomic study is undertaken, but the treatment offered
here is probably more biogeographically sound than any other proposition.
Christmas Island Hawk-Owl

As with the Christmas Island Goshawk, Lister (1889) originally described the
Christmas Island Hawk-Owl as a distinct species, Ninox natalis. He aligned it with
a group including four other forms from Wallacea that were considered species
at the time (forbesi, hypogramma, hantu, and squamipila—from the most to
the least closely allied). Chasen (1933a, 1935) readily accepted this analysis and
also lumped natalis as a subspecies of forbesi. Peters (1940) combined forbesi,
hypogramma, hantu, squamipila and natalis as a single species (N. squamipila)
with five subspecies. Norman et al. (1998) studied mitochondrial DNA sequences
in selected Ninox taxa, and concluded that natalis, hypogramma and squamipila
(sensu stricto) should best be treated as three separate species. They had no data
for forbesi and hantu, so recommended that these be left with squamipila for the
interim. However, Lister and Chasen had originally allied natalis most closely
with forbesi, and not with squamipila (sensu stricto), a fact apparently overlooked
by Norman et al. (1998). Leaving forbesi in squamipila and removing natalis did
not address the original lumping of forbesi and natalis by Chasen. Subsequently,
Rheindt & Hutchinson (2007) suggested from a small sample of recordings of calls
that the Moluccan forms might be separated at least as forbesi, hypogramma and
squamipila—the latter including hantu. In any case, the treatment of natalis as
a distinct species has since been widely adopted (e.g. Clements 2000; Dickinson
2003; Christidis & Boles 2008), and it makes biogeographical sense.
Number of species
At the end of 2013, a total of 149 species had been recorded definitely from
Christmas Island. This includes 23 breeding species, 18 visitors and 108 vagrants.
In addition, 34 species or species groups are placed on the supplementary list

(Appendix 1) because they were liberated, but are now locally extinct, were
recorded in error, or have been reported, but not confirmed (Table 1). No visitors
are seen in large numbers, although several occur regularly. There are rarely if
ever more than 35 different species present on the Island at any point in time
(DJJ; IAWM). No species of birds have gone extinct on Christmas Island in
historical times. As no fossil or subfossil bones have been found, there are no data
on prehistoric extinctions.
In their recent review, Johnstone & Darnell (2004a) listed 118 species definitely
recorded, with six or seven unconfirmed species. The list in the present work
differs by 22 species recorded for the first time since then, five species that were
overlooked or omitted, four elevated to the confirmed list, and one elevated as
a distinct species (Green-headed Yellow Wagtail Motacilla taivana), but two
considered unconfirmed and thus relegated to the supplementary list. The list has
increased by 57 from 92 (a 62% increase) in the 25 years since Stokes’s (1988)
review, including two new breeding species. In the 36 years since 1977 (the
beginning of the ‘ANPWS era’), the list increased by 89 from 60 (a 148% increase)
at an average rate of about 2.5 (± standard deviation 2.2) additions per year. The
numbers of visits by bird observers increased greatly after 1990. However, the
rate of new bird species recorded on the Island remained the same between 1990
and 2012 as it had been between 1977 and 1990, and yet there is no sign of an
asymptote approaching [Figure 6 (p. S14)].
We suspect that there are always some species of birds present on the Island
that are normally considered vagrant to Australian territory. However, with a
large area to cover and large populations of local birds to distract the observer, the
odds of finding those vagrant birds are often small.
Population estimates of breeding species

Despite the research effort to date, there are few accurate and up-to-date
population estimates for the breeding birds of Christmas Island. Gibson-Hill
(1947) provided estimates that he considered to be of moderate accuracy for the
seabirds and Eastern Reef Egret. It is not clear what survey effort was behind these
estimates, but they were probably extrapolations from small samples. Pearson
(1966) repeated Gibson-Hill’s estimates with little change or new data. Following
visits to Christmas Island in 1965, 1972 and 1974, van Tets (1975) gave population
estimates for each of the species breeding at the time, expressed as numbers of
breeding pairs. Given that he spent only 40 days on the Island, it is likely that
the estimates were based on impressions rather than quantitative surveys, and
they do not seem very accurate. Stokes (1988), in his Table 1, provided estimates
of most seabird populations that were said to be from Stokes (1984), which is an
unpublished reference that we have been unable to trace. Stokes (1985), however,
stated that only three species (the two frigatebirds and Red-footed Booby) were
surveyed by him at that time. An extensive combination of distribution surveys and
density sampling in representative areas provided reasonably accurate estimates
for those three at least.
Table 3. Summary of population estimates for birds breeding on Christmas Island. Sources of data: G-H = Gibson-Hill (1947), N = Nelson
S24
(1972), vT = van Tets (1975), S = Stokes (1988), G & C = Garnett & Crowley (2000), C = Corbett et al. (2003), J & R = James & Retallick
(2007), BE = best estimate. Population estimates: i = individuals, p = breeding pairs, r = reporting rate (%), t = breeding territories. Sources
of best estimates: a = DJJ (this work), i; b = DJJ (this work), p; c = Dunlop (1988), p; d = Corbett et al. (2003), i; e = James (2003), p;
f = Yorkston & Green (1997), p; g = Stokes (1988), p; h = James (2007), i; and j = Hill & Lill (1998a), t. CI = Christmas Island.
Species G-H N vT S G&C C J&R BE

(p) (p) (p) (p) (p) (i) (r)
Feral Chicken >100 (a), i
Red-tailed Tropicbird 400–600 >1000 10–100 1380 >2000 (b), p
White-tailed Tropicbird 300–450 1000–3000 10–100 600 10 000 36 6000–12 000 (c), p
Emerald Dove 100–1000 >1000 2500 900–3500 38 900–3500 (d), i

Australian Field Ornithology
CI Imperial-Pigeon 10–100 500 35 000– 90 35 000–66 000 (d), i

66 000
CI Swiftlet 100 000– 2500 57 5000–10 000 (b), p

1 million
Lesser Frigatebird >10 (b), p
Great Frigatebird 2000– 500–1000 100–1000 3250 3500 (b), p

3000
CI Frigatebird 1000– <2000 100–1000 1620 2250 1200 (e), p

1500
Abbott’s Booby 500–750 2300–3000 100–1000 3000 2500 (f), p

D.J. James & I.A.W. McAllan
Species G-H N vT S G&C C J&R BE
(p) (p) (p) (p) (p) (i) (r)
Red-footed Booby 4500– 5000 10 000– 12 050 12 000 (g), p

6000 100 000
Brown Booby 5000– 2250 10 000– 4910 5000 (g), p

6500 100 000
White-faced Heron 100 (i) <15 (a), i

Birds of Christmas Island
Eastern Reef Egret 15–20 1–10 40 ± 20 (b), p

CI Goshawk 10–100 50–150 75 1 250 (h), i
Nankeen Kestrel 10–100 22 >300 (a), i
White-breasted Waterhen <20 (a), i
Common Noddy 4000– 4000–5500 10 000– 5390 5500 (g), p

5500 100 000
CI Hawk-Owl 10–100 100 600 562 ± 105 (j), t
CI White-eye 100 000– 10 000 80 000– 99 80 000–170 000 (d), i

1 million 170 000
Island Thrush 100 000– 2000 20 000– 70 20 000–50 000 (d), i

1 million 50 000
Java Sparrow 10–100 <50 (a), i

S25
Eurasian Tree Sparrow >1000 (a), i

Garnett & Crowley (2000) provided population estimates for ten species
and subspecies (all the endemic taxa except the Great Frigatebird). With some
exceptions, it is not clear what their estimates were based on, but all of them
were pessimistically low. All ten taxa were said to be declining and Critically
Endangered, mostly from the perceived threats posed by the Yellow Crazy Ant.
Fortunately, a decade later, these dire predictions of decline have not eventuated,
and no significant impacts on birds from ants have been observed.
During an impact assessment of proposed phosphate-mine leases in 2002,
Corbett et al. (2003) generated population estimates for four of the endemic forest
birds. They used the distance sampling technique, which assumes that all birds
present can be seen and counted and that birds do not move during the sampling
period. These assumptions are not easily met, and the sample sizes were too small
to provide accurate estimates, but they are the only quantitative survey estimates
for the species involved.
James & Retallick (2007) established baseline data on the relative abundance
of seven of the landbirds and the White-tailed Tropicbird. Their 511 presence–
absence surveys did not provide population estimates, but produced reporting
rates (i.e. percentage presence) with known statistical accuracies, so that repeat
surveys in the future can determine population trends. The data also provided
information on habitat preferences.
In this work, we have used the most recent published estimates available if they
were based on quantitative survey data. Of course, that does not necessarily mean
that the estimates are accurate. In cases where no quantitative data are available,
we have made estimates based on whatever information was available, particularly
our own field experiences.
The population estimates discussed here are summarised in Table 3. The figures
in the ‘best estimates’ column are discussed in the Species accounts.
Bird banding
Bird banding was first undertaken on the Island in May and June 1965, when
three species were banded by van Tets & van Tets (1967). Most seabird species
were systematically banded in moderate numbers, and other species were banded
opportunistically during the ANPWS era in the 1980s (Dunlop 1987; Stokes 1988).
During the 1990s, a few Christmas Island Hawk-Owls were banded by R. Hill,
and some other species were banded opportunistically. In 2004, a colour-banding
project for the Christmas Island Goshawk commenced (Hurley 2005), and
banding of Abbott’s Booby began in association with tracking studies (Hennicke
2004, 2006). By 2006, increased research on birds saw the expansion of banding
to include the Brown Booby, Red-tailed Tropicbird, Common Noddy and Island
Thrush, as well as other seabirds in tracking studies and birds in rehabilitation
(Table 4). Banding has been an integral focus of the annual Christmas Island
Birdweek since its inception in 2006.
Banding data for Christmas Island (up to the end of 2011) are summarised
in Table 4. Totals of 18 species and 1572 individuals were banded between May
Table 4. Summary of bird banding on Christmas Island. Banding data were provided by the ABBBS, current to the end of 2011. The
longest recovery (i.e. time elapsed from banding to recovery: right column) is given in months. CI = Christmas Island.
Species No. First Last No. First Last Longest

banded banded banded recovered recovery recovery recovery
Red-tailed Tropicbird 365 25-Jun-83 10-Sep-10 5 19-Oct-88 27-Jul-07 69

White-tailed Tropicbird 81 11-Jul-83 15-May-10 1 17-Jun-85 17-Jun-85 <12
Emerald Dove 5 22-Jun-83 27-Jan-85 0
CI Imperial-Pigeon 4 17-Dec-84 7-Sep-85 0
Great Frigatebird 103 1-Mar-83 15-May-11 2 24-May-09 27-Apr-10 29
Birds of Christmas Island
CI Frigatebird 40 2-Mar-83 25-May-10 0

Abbott’s Booby 134 5-Jul-77 2-Sep-10 2 6-Mar-89 6-Mar-89 <12

Red-footed Booby 46 30-May-65 29-Aug-07 1 26-Dec-06 26-Dec-06 <12
Brown Booby 414 20-Jul-74 9-Sep-10 16 22-Apr-85 10-May-09 284
Yellow Bittern 1 16-Dec-85 16-Dec-85 0
Eastern Reef Egret 1 28-Jun-84 28-Jun-84 0
CI Goshawk 145 11-Sep-83 29-Mar-07 179 15-Aug-04 30-Mar-07 31
Nankeen Kestrel 2 3-Mar-84 10-Sep-84 0
Common Noddy 135 14-Sep-83 16-Apr-08 0
CI Hawk-Owl 18 1-Feb-82 13-Nov-95 1 1-May-95 1-May-95 <12
Sacred Kingfisher 1 18-May-84 18-May-84 0
CI White-eye 40 4-Jun-65 6-Feb-82 0
Island Thrush 37 4-Jun-65 9-Sep-08 0
S27
Totals for 18 species 1572 30-May-65 15-May-11 207 22-Apr-85 27-Apr-10

1965 and May 2011. There were 207 recoveries of banded birds between April
1985 and April 2010. Most of these were resightings of colour-banded Christmas
Island Goshawks (James 2007), and other recoveries totalled only 28 individuals
of seven species. There has been only one record of a bird banded on Christmas
Island and recovered at another locality, a Brown Booby banded on 27 August
1974 and recovered exhausted at Nusakembangan on the southern coast of Java
(466 km north-west) at an unspecified time. Only four species have been recovered
>12 months after banding. The longest time between banding and recovery was
for a Brown Booby, banded by T. Stokes in August 1985 and found dead >23 years
later in May 2009 (Hennicke et al. 2012).
Significance of the avifauna

Eleven birds are endemic at either the species or subspecies level. In addition,
the Island Thrush no longer breeds elsewhere in Australia (the Lord Howe and
Norfolk Island subspecies are both extinct) and, within Australian territory, the
White-breasted Waterhen breeds only here and in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands.
Amongst the visitors and vagrants, many species have not been recorded elsewhere
in Australian territory or they have been recorded only very rarely elsewhere in
Australia. Christmas Island is the only breeding location known for the White-
faced Heron and Nankeen Kestrel in the Indomalayan Region as defined by Inskipp
et al. (1996), and several vagrant species have not been recorded elsewhere in the
Indomalayan Region proper.
Christmas Island is listed by BirdLife International as an Important Bird
Area in its own right (Birds Australia 2007). Seven marine bird species breed
in internationally significant numbers that exceed the threshold of 1% of global
populations, and the total number of seabirds easily exceeds the globally significant
threshold of 10 000 breeding pairs. Three of the endemic bird species are listed as
globally threatened by the IUCN (IUCN 2013), and all of these and an additional
three endemic taxa are listed as nationally threatened under Australia’s EPBC Act.
Christmas Island is also one of only two islands in the world where eight species
of ‘Pelecaniformes’ (in the broadest sense, i.e. including Phaethontidae) are found
breeding, the other being San Benedicto off the coast of Mexico (Pitman & Balance
2002).
Avian biogeography
The biogeography of Christmas Island has received little attention and none
recently. Andrews (1900, pp. 299–304) noted that the flora and fauna had strong
affinities to the ‘Indo-Malayan’ biogeographic region (i.e. mainland South-East
Asia and Greater Sundas). Nevertheless, he noted a high degree of endemism—at
that time thought to be 45% of the land fauna, though he suggested that this figure
would fall with further examination of the Greater Sundas fauna. In the late 19th
century, the concept of Wallacea as an area of biogeographic transition was not
fully developed, and Andrews was following the regions defined by Wallace (1876).
Chasen (1933a) seemed convinced that the birds of Christmas Island were
affiliated with the Lesser Sundas, well to the east. However, his arguments,
60
50
Non-breeding
Number of species
40
Breeding
30
20
10
0
IM Wal Aust Pel PM Eq Int
Origin
Figure 10. Origin of birds occurring on Christmas Island. IM = Indomalayan Region,

W = Wallacea, Aust = Australia, Pel = pelagic species, PM = Palaearctic migrants,
Eq = equivocal origins, and Int = introduced by humans.
geological, geographical and taxonomic, were flimsy. He did not recognise any
affiliation between the resident landbirds of the Island and those of mainland
South-East Asia and the Greater Sundas, and so supposed that the affiliations
must lie with the ‘Austro-Oriental’ (= Wallacean) Region. He then lumped most
of the landbirds with species from Wallacea, which consolidated his view of
biogeography. Chasen’s taxonomic decisions have largely been discredited (e.g.
Mees 1957; Norman et al. 1998; see Taxonomy and nomenclature in Methods).
In addition, Christmas Island is >1100 km west of Wallace’s Line at its nearest
point between Lombok and Bali, yet is only 350 km south of the Greater Sundas
(Java) subregion of the Indomalayan Region. In the geological past, the Island
lay farther to the south (Gray & Clark 1995) and so farther from Wallacea and the
Greater Sundas. Currently, winds blow from the south-east (i.e. from continental
Australia) and the north-west (i.e. the Indomalayan Region), but not from the east
(i.e. Wallacea). Gray & Clark (1995) and Stokes (1988) both suggested that the
Island’s biodiversity in general was more closely affiliated with the ‘Indonesian
Archipelago’ and ‘Indo-Malay’ regions, respectively, than with Australia.
We classified the birds recorded from Christmas Island according to categories
of origin (pelagic species, Palaearctic migrants, Indomalayan, Greater Sunda
Islands, Wallacean, Australian, equivocal, and introduced taxa: see Methods). The
classifications are based on the analyses of distribution presented in the species
accounts. Figure 10 shows the geographic origins of breeding and non-breeding
species recorded on Christmas Island. Of the 23 breeding species, nine (39%) are
pelagic seabirds. Amongst the 14 breeding landbirds, two (14%) are Indomalayan
in origin, none are unequivocally Wallacean (contra Chasen 1933a), two (14%) are
Australian, seven (50%) have equivocal origins and three (21%) are introduced.
Of the 126 non-breeding species, 14 (11%) are pelagic, 48 (38%) are Palaearctic
migrants, 36 (29%) are from the Indomalayan Region [one of these (<1%) being
strictly from the Greater Sundas], none are strictly Wallacean, 13 (10%) are
Australian, and 15 (12%) have equivocal origins.
These results fit logically with Christmas Island’s origins and location. It is close
to the boundary of two continental plates and has never been connected to another
landmass. It is thus in neither the Australian nor Indomalayan biogeographic
regions, though it receives migrants and strays from both. More species originate
from the Indomalayan Region than Australia because of the former’s proximity
though, with strong south-easterly winds for much of the year, birds regularly
arrive from Australia. Wallacea is far to the east and across the winds, so has little
if any influence. The Island is south of the Palaearctic, and close to the East Asian–
Australasian Flyway, so is therefore a minor stopover location or overshoot for
Palaearctic migrants. Being oceanic, tropical pelagic species also occur. Although
there is no direct evidence, we suspect that many migrants and vagrants from the
north may reach the Island by moving southwards down the Malay Peninsula,
continuing southwards down Sumatra and overshooting into the Indian Ocean.
Species accounts
All species positively recorded from the Island are documented here and listed
in Appendix 2. An assessment of the status of the species is given at the start of
each account. For vagrants and irregular visitors, the number of records is given,
followed by details of these records. The usual range of the species is summarised
at the end of each account. Unsuccessfully introduced species and species reported,
but considered unconfirmed at this time, are treated similarly in Appendix 1.
Feral Chicken Gallus gallus

Uncommon breeding resident; introduced (>100 birds). Domestic fowl were first
released from the HMS Flying Fish in January 1887 (Maclear 1887b), but there is
no record that those birds survived. Domestic fowl were commonly kept from the
earliest days of settlement, but there are no early reports of feral birds (e.g. Sharpe
1900; Ridley 1905; Chasen & Kloss 1924; Chasen 1933a; Gibson-Hill 1947; Pearson
1966; van Tets 1975, 1983). In the mid 1980s, T. Stokes noted a ‘flock of 10 timid
birds in secondary growth near the Airport on a number of occasions’ (Stokes et
al. 1987, p. 4) that had reportedly been there for many years. Reville (1989, 1993)
implied that strays were present in settled areas in the mid 1980s. In 1993, Feral
Chickens were noted only at the Golf Course and Chinese Cemetery (Carter 1994).
At least four were seen by a Coate’s Wildlife Tours group at Lily Beach in mid
December 1995 (K. Coate in litt.). In 2002, DJJ recorded this species at these
localities as well as the Resort and the Phosphate Dryers (DJJ). From 2002 to
2009, the species increased rapidly, with feral birds throughout the settled areas
and at the Chinese Cemetery, Golf Course, Resort, Linkwater Road, Lily Beach
Road, Lily Beach, the Phosphate Dryers, Rubbish Tip, Recreation Centre, Smith
Point, Daniel Roux Cave, the Dales, Ross Hill Springs, South Point, scattered mine
fields along the North South Baseline and near Egeria Point (K. Retallick pers.
comm.; DJJ; IAWM). Based on this distribution and flock sizes of 5–10, the feral
population would be >100 birds.
The name Feral Chicken is used here. There is no evidence that anything other
than domestic birds has ever been brought to the Island (contra Carter 1994 and
Johnstone & Darnell 2004a). On Christmas Island, Feral Chickens only rarely
resemble the wild Red Junglefowl (Smith 1996; DJJ; IAWM), and cocks never
show the white ear-lappets (DJJ) that are typical of the subspecies spadiceus and
bankiva in Peninsular Malaysia and the Greater Sundas (MacKinnon & Phillipps
1993; Wells 1999). It appears that domestic birds have been released by residents
to various sites throughout the Island in recent years, especially near temples and
natural water sources. These birds are considered noisy pests by many residents,
and the Shire Council has attempted to cull them in settled areas. We recommend
that feral birds be exterminated and domestic birds be regulated to prevent their
straying. Elsewhere in Australia, feral populations of this Asian species are found
on Norfolk Island, the Cocos (Keeling) Islands and North-west Island in the
Capricorn Group, Queensland (Marchant & Higgins 1993).
Garganey Anas querquedula

Vagrant. One record. One female was seen by D. Merton at the South Point slurry
ponds from 26 to 29 November 1978 (Stokes et al. 1987).
This species is a regular, but scarce Palaearctic migrant in mainland South-East
Asia, the Greater Sundas and Wallacea (MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Coates &
Bishop 1997; Robson 2000). In Australia, it is a rare, but regular visitor in the
north and a vagrant in the south (Marchant & Higgins 1990).
Sunda Teal Anas gibberifrons

Vagrant. One or two records, neither confirmed. A specimen was collected for the
ZRC by R. Hanitsch in 1904 (Chasen & Kloss 1924). Chasen (1933a) later listed the
record as Anas gibberifrons gibberifrons, indicating that it was not a Grey Teal
A. [gibberifrons] gracilis, which was then treated as conspecific. The Grey Teal
occurs commonly throughout Australia and New Zealand (Marchant & Higgins
1990), and is uncommon in the eastern Lesser Sundas west to Timor (Young 1996;
Coates & Bishop 1997). Conversely, the Sunda Teal is widespread from Timor to
Sumatra (Young 1996) and is the commonest duck in Java and Bali (MacKinnon &
Phillipps 1993), so is much more likely to reach Christmas Island. This specimen is
not presently in the ZRC (Morioka & Yang 1996; DJJ; IAWM). This lack of certainty
has hindered the Sunda Teal’s recognition on the Australian list (Christidis &
Boles 2008); the record was not accepted by BARC (Case 791). A duck present at
the Sewage Treatment Plant near Smith Point in July 2011 was found dead in early
August 2011 (L. Preston pers. comm.). A photograph of the carcass (courtesy of
L. Preston) shows a small teal with a rich-brown breast and bold white eye-rings,
which is most likely a Sunda Teal (DJJ; IAWM); unfortunately, the specimen was
not kept. Workers at the Sewage Treatment Plant said that this was not the first
record of a duck at this locality (L. Preston pers. comm.).
These would be the only records of the Sunda Teal outside the Greater and
Lesser Sunda Islands, the attributed records from Myanmar in Robson (2000)
being of the Andaman Island Teal A. albogularis (cf. Marchant & Higgins 1990;
Young 1996).
Hardhead Aythya australis

Vagrant. One record. A female-type bird was seen by P. Meek on 21 July 1997
(Eades 1997b).
This species breeds in Australia and is also a vagrant to Wallacea, Java, Bali and
the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (Marchant & Higgins 1990; Andrew 1992; Coates &
Bishop 1997; Herkenrath 2006; Hopton 2006).
Red-tailed Tropicbird Phaethon rubricauda

Common breeding species (>2000 pairs?). Known locally as the ‘Silver Bosun’.
The first record was of observations by J.J. Lister in October 1887 (Lister 1889).
Historical population estimates are listed in Table 3. Stokes (1988, citing Stokes
1984) listed 1380 pairs, although Johnstone & Darnell (2004a, p. 443) cited that
‘Stokes (1984)’ listed 4000–6000 pairs. These are all likely to be underestimates,
considering the inaccessibility of many breeding sites and the protracted breeding
season. In 2005 and 2006, >200 nests were tagged and studied in two coastal sub-
colonies in the Settlement alone (Ishii 2006; James 2007). This area is only 1% of
the coastline and, although the breeding distribution is very patchy, it suggests
that the total breeding population is likely to be in excess of 2000 pairs (DJJ).
Regardless, the Island is easily the largest breeding station of the Red-tailed
Tropicbird in Australian territory (cf. Marchant & Higgins 1990; James 2001a).
It is possible that the population of Red-tailed Tropicbirds expanded
considerably during the 20th century. Gibson-Hill (1947) recorded no nests on
the coastal terrace in 1939–1940, though he was a meticulous observer. Stokes
(1988) found 85 active nest-sites on the coastal terrace between Rocky and North
East Points in 1985–1986. A study by DJJ and others found >200 active nests at
Rocky Point alone in 2005–2006 (Ishii 2006; James 2007). Perhaps the extinct
Christmas Island Burrowing Rat and Maclear’s Rat previously placed a greater
level of control on this tropicbird or, alternatively, human hunting placed pressure
on the population in the mid 20th century.
T. Stokes (1988) banded 160 adult Red-tailed Tropicbirds on the coastal terrace
between Rocky and North East Points in 1985–1986. N. Dunlop and others
commenced an annual colour-banding program of adults at Rocky Point (as a
Birdweek activty) in 2006 (James 2007). Few details have been reported from
either study, but no long-term or long-distance recoveries have been reported.
The breeding season of Red-tailed Tropicbirds is protracted. Eggs are laid from
November to August, peaking in February to May or June (Gibson-Hill 1949b;
Stokes 1988). Very few Tropicbirds are present on the Island in December–
January, indicating some post-breeding exodus and a lull in breeding (DJJ;
IAWM). During incubation, foraging trips routinely last for >6 days and are
>600 km in distance (Sommerfeld & Hennicke 2010).
Breeding sites are always on the ground, either along the coastal terrace near
the edge of the sea-cliff, or in cavities high in the face of the inland cliff (Stokes
1988; Ishii 2006; DJJ). The distribution is very patchy in both habitats. Sea-cliff
locations include the Margaret Beaches, Settlement to North East Point, Low Point,
Steep Point, Waterfall Cove and the northern half of the eastern coast. Inland cliff
locations include the Golf Course cliffs, Steep Point, South Point, Middle Point and
North West Point (Stokes 1988; DJJ). The number of sub-colonies or breeding
clusters is unknown. The presence of displaying adults above the colonies indicates
that there are more colonies or greater concentrations on the sea-cliffs than on
the inland cliffs. In the Rocky Point sub-colonies, the nests tended to be shallow
scrapes under vegetation (e.g. Pemphis acidula, Cabbage Tree Scaevola taccada,
Pandanus Pandanus christmatensis, Pisonia Pisonia grandis and vine tangles),
fallen fronds of Coconut Palm Cocos nucifera, or occasionally rocks (Ishii 2006).
Nest-sites always had >70% shade cover, and nesting density was highest under
Pemphis, presumably because of its consistent shade cover and clear understorey
(Ishii 2006). Nests are often clustered in loose colonies, but also occur in isolated
situations (DJJ). On the inland cliff, nest-sites appear to be in rock cavities, and
are sparser than on the coastal cliffs (DJJ).
Marine records: Some Red-tailed Tropicbirds were seen from the RV Franklin in
waters near Christmas Island in October 1987 (Dunlop et al. 1988a). N. Cheshire
saw a single bird 200 nm south-south-east at 13°34′S, 106°59′E on 12 April 1995,
and one outside the EEZ at 15°S, 107°E on 24 September 1995 (Bourne 1996;
N. Cheshire in litt.).
The Island population of the Red-tailed Tropicbird is not listed as globally
threatened by the IUCN (2013) or under the EPBC Act, as it is considered a
population of a more widely distributed and secure species. Nelson (1972)
recorded that the Tropicbird was shot occasionally for food. Stokes (1988)
estimated that 1.6 km of coastline breeding habitat has been lost to municipal
development, although Tropicbirds’ nests still occur along this coast (DJJ;
IAWM). A study in 2005–2006 found almost 100% losses of eggs or chicks in
each season (Ishii 2006; James 2007). Late in 2006, remote cameras recorded
two incidents of predation of chicks by feral Cats Felis catus and one by a Black
Rat Rattus rattus (James 2007). Almost complete nesting failure in these sub-
colonies continued until at least the 2010 season (Hennicke in Algar et al. 2011).
A long-delayed program has finally commenced to remove cats from the Island
(Algar et al. 2011), but it remains possible that this very important population
of Tropicbirds could collapse. Predictions that Yellow Crazy Ants could cause a
severe population decline (Garnett & Crowley 2000) have so far not eventuated.
There is no information about the effects of El Niño Southern Oscillation events on
nesting success. A study of breeding success of Settlement colonies of Tropicbirds
found that there was a significant reduction in the number of active nests and eggs
as a result of Cyclone Rosie in April 2008, though no adult Tropicbirds were found
dead (Hennicke & Flachsbarth 2009). Cyclonic conditions are rare on the Island,
but such events may become more frequent with climate change.
This species is found in tropical and subtropical waters of the Indian and Pacific
Oceans, breeding at many localities (Nelson 2005). The nearest breeding localities
to Christmas Island are the Cocos (Keeling) Group, eastern Indonesia, Ashmore
Reef and islets off the WA coast, and the Chagos Group, though it is generally
absent from the central Indian Ocean (de Korte & Silvius 1994; Johnstone & Storr
1998; Symens 1999; Johnstone & Darnell 2004b; Milton 2005; Clarke et al. 2011).
Of these localities, the only significant colonies are at Gunung Api and Manuk
Island in eastern Indonesia.
Tarburton (1989) noted latitudinal clinal variation of the wing- and tarsus-
lengths of Red-tailed Tropicbirds throughout the Pacific Ocean, and he considered
the species monotypic. However, his paper found significant colour differences
between the populations of the western (rubricauda—white birds) and eastern
(westralis—pink-tinged birds) Indian Ocean, and between those in the Coral
and Tasman seas (roseotinctus—pink-tinged birds) and those in the remainder
of the Pacific (melanorhynchos—largely white birds). Some authors continue to
recognise these four subspecies, evidently on this basis (e.g. Orta 1992a; Dickinson
2003; Johnstone & Darnell 2004a,b). However, Christmas Island birds are
usually white, with a few showing a very faint tinge of pink flush to the underparts;
the incidence of pink-tinged birds is less than expected for the population of the
eastern Indian Ocean. Size differences between birds in the eastern Indian Ocean
and Coral and Tasman Seas are not significant, and also show clinal variation from
north to south. Birds in southern Tasman populations often have a pink tinge
(IAWM), but Coral Sea populations rarely do (DJJ). Thus, it appears that the pink
tinge also shows latitudinal variation, and is possibly related to the local diet.
Dispersal has been overlooked in the taxonomic discussion. Le Corre et al.
(2003) noted movements across the Indian Ocean, based on single banding
recoveries between Sumatra and Mauritius (Jenkins & Robertson 1969) and
between Sugarloaf Rock, WA, and Réunion Island. This suggests intermixing
between the western and eastern Indian Ocean populations, supposedly the most
different in colour. It thus appears that subspecies are not warranted.
White-tailed Tropicbird Phaethon lepturus fulvus (Front cover)

Abundant endemic subspecies (6000–12000 breeding pairs). Known locally as
the ‘Golden Bosun’. The subspecies fulvus was first described by Brisson (1760)
and again by Brandt (1839) without a type-locality. The first record definitely
from Christmas Island is three specimens collected by J.J. Lister in October 1887
(Lister 1889; two specimens now in the CUMZ), but Grant (1898) was the first to
recognise Christmas Island as the breeding locality of this subspecies. Historical
population estimates are provided in Table 3. Early estimates were probably too
low, because of the concealed rainforest nest-sites (Marchant & Higgins 1990).
Dunlop (1988) undertook the only detailed assessment, to provide an estimate
of 6000–12 000 breeding pairs. James & Retallick (2007) included this species
in forest bird surveys, and recorded it flying over sites in 36.4% of 527 10-minute
surveys. This is easily the largest population of the species in Australian territory,
with all other populations being <100 pairs (Marchant & Higgins 1990). Golden
Bosuns performing raucous communal display flights over the townships are a
unique, striking and common sight that inspires local pride, and they have earned
this bird a deserved iconic status on the Island.
Breeding is aseasonal, with laying in all months (Dunlop 1988; Stokes 1988),
and juveniles grounded when making their sole exit flight from the nest to sea are
recovered in all months (M. Orchard pers. comm.). Dunlop (1988) estimated the
breeding periodicity to be ~10 months apart. Nests are dispersed over much of
the Island, but are more common on the upper terraces than on the shore terrace
(Dunlop 1988). James & Retallick (2007) recorded the species less frequently at
the western end of the Island than elsewhere. The choice of nest-sites is diverse.
Most nests are in hollows in rainforest-canopy trees (Gibson-Hill 1947; Dunlop
1988; Stokes 1988). Some are in tree-hollows outside the rainforest (e.g. Territory
Day Park: DJJ), and some are in epiphytic Bird’s-nest Ferns Asplenium nidus in
the rainforest canopy (DJJ). Nests are also common in limestone cavities in the
sea- and inland cliffs (Sharpe 1900; Dunlop 1988; Stokes 1988; Reville & Stokes
1994), conspicuously so in the Settlement and the ‘incline’ between the Settlement
and Silver City (DJJ; IAWM). One nest (on the ground in the base of a hollow tree)
in Poon Saan was on the footpath outside an unoccupied block of flats and was used
successfully for several years even after re-occupation of the flats (DJJ; IAWM).
One nest was reported in a pipe in the moving phosphate-loading cantilevers at
Flying Fish Cove (Stokes 1988). Nesting was reported in mined pinnacle fields
in the 1980s (Stokes 1988), and it has since been incorrectly assumed that this
occurrence is widespread (e.g. Marchant & Higgins 1990; Corbett et al. 2003;
Johnstone & Darnell 2004a), but we found no evidence of this practice.
Marine records: The distinctive golden birds have been reported widely at sea,
both within the Island EEZ and well outside it. Pearson (1966) saw golden-
coloured tropicbirds 125 km south sometime in 1960–1964. They were reported
at sea in or just outside the EEZ on over 15 other occasions between 1964 and
1999, in different months (Bourne 1970, 1985, 1989, 2000; Simpson 1970; Bourne
& Dixon 1973; Slinn 1994; Cheshire 1995; N. Cheshire in litt.). Of note were
30 birds feeding with other seabirds between 45 and 60 nm east of Christmas Island
on 20 June 1967 (Simpson 1970). Outside the EEZ, Gibson-Hill (1947) reported
golden-coloured tropicbirds at sea off Java Head and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands.
During four marine surveys between 1987 and 1996, golden birds (mostly solitary)
were recorded around Christmas Island between 2°S and 21°S, as far afield as
1340 km east-south-east, 1540 km south-east and 1660 km north-west (Dunlop et al.
1988a, 2001). The Royal Navy Bird Watching Society database contains one record
from the Bay of Bengal near Myanmar (~3200 km north-north-west of Christmas
Island) and five records spread from the northern tip of Sumatra westwards about
halfway to Sri Lanka (2200–2800 km north-north-west) (S. Howe in litt.). It
also has >15 records of golden tropicbirds between southern Sumatra and Java
and the Australian North West Shelf (an area which includes Christmas Island)
and one in the Timor Sea between the northern Kimberley coast, WA, and Timor
(~2200 km east of the Island); essentially, these records are concentrated along the
deep waters of the Java Trench. Dunlop et al. (1988a, 2001) mapped golden-coloured
tropicbirds in deep water with sea-surface temperatures of 24.4–29.6°C and
salinities of 32.65–36.88‰.
The Island population of the White-tailed Tropicbird is not listed as globally
threatened by the IUCN (2013) as it is considered a population of a more widely
distributed and secure species. The subspecies is also not listed under the EPBC Act.
It has been said that the population has been reduced since settlement (Marchant &
Higgins 1990). This is presumably based on the assumption that clearing of 25% of
breeding habitat for mining and municipal purposes would reduce the population,
as there are no data on population changes. There has been a moratorium on forest
clearing since 1988. Historically, the White-tailed Tropicbird was considered
uncommon on the Island, but it is presently conspicuous and usually considered
common. Stokes (1988) reported that feral cats and Christmas Island Goshawks
take nestlings, and its nests may be robbed by rats. Hill (2004a) noted an instance
of an adult being taken by a Christmas Island Goshawk. Recently, Garnett et al.
(2011) considered the subspecies Endangered on the basis of predation by rats
and cats, the limited breeding area, and the suspected threat from hybridisation.
The diverse nesting sites chosen suggest that the Tropicbird would be likely to
adapt to nest-boxes of a suitable design if they ever should be needed. There is no
information on effects of El Niño Southern Oscillation events on nesting success.
The White-tailed Tropicbird is pantropical in distribution, breeding at many
localities, though usually in low numbers (Nelson 2005). The nearest breeding
localities to Christmas Island are the Cocos (Keeling) Group, islets and cliffs on
the southern coast of Java (though the species is evidently absent from most of
Indonesia), the Chagos Group, and occasionally Ashmore Reef and Rowley Shoals
north of the WA coast (de Korte & Silvius 1994; Johnstone & Storr 1998; Symens
1999; Johnstone & Darnell 2004b; Milton 2005; Clarke et al. 2011). However,
all of these populations are small in number and consist entirely of white-morph
birds, so are a different subspecies from fulvus. There has been a suggestion that
there has been an increase in the number of white-morph birds on Christmas
Island in recent decades, from none up to the 1960s, ~5% in the 1970s and 7%
in the 1980s (Gibson-Hill 1947; Pearson 1966; Dunlop 1988). If this is the case,
then it may be the result of recruitment of birds from Indonesia, where there has
evidently been pressure on breeding sites, as White-tailed Tropicbirds there now
breed only on inaccessible cliffs (de Korte & Silvius 1994).
Some taxonomic issues are discussed in Taxonomy (p. S16).
Red Collared Dove Streptopelia tranquebarica

Status uncertain. Five sets of records, but only four are confirmed. One was seen
at the Plantation by S. & A. Keates and F. O’Connor on 30 December 2005 and
1 January 2006 (Anon. 2006a,d; Dooley 2006a; Palliser 2008; BARC Case 472),
and by M. Schulz (pers. comm.) on 2 January 2006. The bird was first reported
to DJJ by H’ng Kim Chey (pers. comm.) on 5 December 2005, and a bird fitting
the general description was reported by J. Hueston (pers. comm.) at Field 19 (off
the Blowholes Track) on 20 November 2005. One was seen and photographed
at South Point Temple on 17–18 January 2008 (Anon. 2008a; Dooley 2008b;
Ramsay 2008b; Roderick 2008; Palliser 2009; Tan S.J. & D. Mantle pers. comm.;
BARC Case 564), where it had been present for 2 weeks. One was seen by a tour
group at the LB3 ponds on 7 December 2009 (Baxter 2009; Anon. 2010a; Eaw
& Dooley 2010; Ramsay 2010a). An adult male seen at the Rubbish Tip from
9 December 2010 to 11 February 2011 was observed by several visiting parties
(James 2010; Anon. 2011a; Carter 2011b; Clarke 2011b; Dooley 2011a; Marsh
2011; Ramsay 2011a; IAWM; BARC Case 683). An adult male was photographed
at the Settlement on 1–8 December 2011 (Baxter 2011b; BARC Case 739). These
are the only records for Australian territory, and probably all represent a single
long-staying adult male.
Northern populations in India and China are migratory over short distances,
but South-East Asian populations are resident (Robson 2000). This species is
known as a vagrant in Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia (Grimmett et al. 1998;
Wells 1999; Robson 2000). The sedentary Philippines subspecies humilis does
not reach Borneo (Kennedy et al. 2000; cf. MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993). The
population in Singapore, recorded only since 1940, is considered feral (Strange
& Jeyarajasingam 1993; Wells 1999; Wang & Hails 2007). The only record for
the Greater Sundas, a sight record in north-western Java in November 1995, was
considered most likely a bird escaped or released from captivity (van Balen 1997).
The only other known occurrences in Indonesia are feral populations in Sulawesi
(Andrew 1992). In this context, the Christmas Island reports may refer to birds
that escaped or were released from ships visiting from South-East Asia, and the
species’ status on the Australian list may be questionable.
Emerald Dove Chalcophaps indica natalis [Figure 11 (p. S53)]

Common endemic subspecies (900–3500 individuals). The first report from
Christmas Island was the collection of the type-specimens of the subspecies
by J.J. Lister in October 1887 (Lister 1889). Three syntypes are in the NHM
(Warren 1966) and four are in the CUMZ (Benson 1999). Van Tets (1975) guessed
the population size to be in the order of 100–1000 pairs (see Table 3). Stokes
(1988) considered that there could be more than 1000 pairs. Garnett & Crowley
(2000) gave the number of individuals as 5000, without explanation. Corbett et
al. (2003) estimated the population by distance sampling to be 900–3500 birds,
although the quiet and inconspicuous nature of the Emerald Dove should lead to
under-sampling by this method. James & Retallick (2007) recorded it in 198 out of
527 10-minute surveys, a reporting rate of 38% that made it the fifth most
frequently recorded of eight species in their forest bird survey.
The Emerald Dove occurs in evergreen and semi-deciduous rainforests,
secondary growth, vegetated urban environments and shady clearings (Gibson-Hill
1947; Stokes 1988; Higgins & Davies 1996), and is largely absent from unvegetated
mining wastelands (James & Retallick 2007). It feeds on the ground, mostly on
fallen fruit, seeds, and perhaps invertebrates (Higgins & Davies 1996). Gibson-
Hill (1947) listed Pawpaw Carica papaya and Rice Oryza sativa as favoured
introduced foods. It walks and runs nimbly, feeding singly, in pairs or family
groups of male, female and up to two juveniles, but never flocks (DJJ; IAWM). It
is seen frequently on shady roadsides and in car parks, where it might seek food
crushed by vehicle tyres (DJJ). It also frequently forages in the forest interior,
even where the undergrowth is very dense (DJJ; IAWM). It usually calls from
perches close to the ground (Reville 1989). Contrary to its reputation elsewhere
(cf. Higgins & Davies 1996), it is far less tame and confiding than the other diurnal
forest birds of Christmas Island (Gibson-Hill 1947; DJJ; IAWM).
The breeding season is October–February, with a peak in November–December
(Gibson-Hill 1947). The nest is a loose platform of twigs with a lining of leaves,
placed in the fork of a thin, horizontal branch of a tree or shrub, 2–3 m above the
ground (Gibson-Hill (1947). DJJ saw one nest in an outer branchlet of a Strangler
Fig Ficus microcarpa 3 m above a road. The clutch-size is two (Gibson-Hill 1947).
The Christmas Island subspecies of the Emerald Dove C. i. natalis has been listed
as Endangered (as a subspecies of Emerald Dove C. indica, sensu lato) under the
EPBC Act since 2005. It is not listed as globally threatened by the IUCN (2013),
as it is considered a subspecies of a more widely distributed and secure species. It
was listed under the EPBC Act following predictions that Yellow Crazy Ants could
cause a severe population decline (Garnett & Crowley 2000; Davis 2002). Garnett
et al. (2011) considered it Near Threatened. Davis et al. (2008) reported a ninefold
decrease in abundance in forest sites invaded by Crazy Ants in 2001. Fortunately,
this has not resulted in an observed decline. James & Retallick (2007) found that
the Emerald Dove remained widely distributed in forested habitats in 2006. The
SSCSTE (1983) and Stokes (1988) listed poaching as a former threat, but there is
no evidence of recent poaching (DJJ). Stokes (1988) listed predation by cats as
definitely occurring and predation at nests by rats as probable, although Higgins &
Davies (1996) mis-cited the latter as definite. However, nests appear to be built in
outer branchlets beyond the reach of rats (Gibson-Hill 1947; DJJ). Emerald Doves
are occasionally killed on the roads by vehicles, although this is unlikely to have a
great impact on population levels (DJJ).
Christmas Island Imperial-Pigeon Ducula whartoni [Figure 12 (p. S53)]

Abundant endemic species (35 000–66 000 individuals). The first record was the
collection of the type-specimen, an adult male, by Captain J.P. Maclear in January
1887 (Maclear 1887a; Sharpe 1887; Warren 1966). Van Tets (1975) guessed the
population to be ~10–100 pairs (Table 3). Garnett & Crowley (2000) gave an
estimate of 1000 individuals, though the population is at least ten times greater
than this (D. James in IUCN 2013). Corbett et al. (2003) estimated the population
by distance sampling to be 35 000–66 000 birds. James & Retallick (2007)
recorded it in 472 of 527 10-minute surveys, a reporting rate of 90%, making it the
second most frequently recorded of eight species in their forest bird survey.
The Christmas Island Imperial-Pigeon is abundant in evergreen, semi-
deciduous and secondary forests. A higher frequency in primary evergreen forests
of the inland plateau has often been reported (e.g. Chasen 1933a; Gibson-Hill
1947; Stokes 1988; Higgins & Davies 1996), but this trend is probably much
less marked in recent years (DJJ) through a reduction in poaching (see p. S39).
The Imperial-Pigeon also occurs in regrowth, weed fields, urban areas and mine
fields, avoiding only the most barren of cleared areas (James & Retallick 2007).
It forages for fruit in the forest canopy, in isolated trees and in shrubs, rarely
singly, usually in small groups to large flocks (Higgins & Davies 1996; DJJ).
Recorded foods include the fruits of ~12 native and three introduced plants and
the leaves of three native species (Higgins & Davies 1996). To that list we can add
the young leaves of Leucaena leucocephala (locally known as Coffee Bush) and
male flowers of Pawpaw (DJJ), as well as their leaves (Woinarski 2014; IAWM).
The introduced and widespread Muntingia calabura (locally known as Japanese

Cherry) has become a very significant source of food, and flocks of several hundred
birds sometimes occur where this plant is common and fruiting (DJJ; IAWM).
The Imperial-Pigeon apparently sometimes forages on the ground for the berries
of Belladonna Atropa belladonna (DJJ). It descends to the ground to drink at
springs (e.g. the Dales) and puddles, sometimes in large congregations, most often
during the dry season (Gibson-Hill 1947; Higgins & Davies 1996; DJJ).
The breeding biology is poorly known. The season is probably late August to
February (Higgins & Davies 1996), but may be more spread, since woodcutters
reported to Gibson-Hill (1947) that the species breeds year-round, peaking from
January to April. Nests are usually in the crowns of tall rainforest trees, but have
been recorded in saplings and vine tangles as low as 4 m above the ground (Hicks
& Yorkston 1982; Higgins & Davies 1996). The nest of twigs is a loose-knit untidy
platform ~20–40 cm in diameter (Gibson-Hill 1947; Hicks & Yorkston 1982).
Detailed observations at a single nest were described by Hicks & Yorkston (1982).
The Christmas Island Imperial-Pigeon is listed by the IUCN (2013) as Near
Threatened despite its having a single small population restricted to one location.
In 2005, the Australian Government did not accept a nomination to list it as
threatened under the EPBC Act on advice from the TSSC (TSSC 2005a). Garnett
et al. (2011) considered it Near Threatened. Historically, the main threat has been
heavy hunting, both legal and illegal (Chasen 1933a; Gibson-Hill 1947; Crome
1978; SSCSTE 1983; Stokes 1988), which largely ceased in 1977 (Stokes 1988), but
hunting still occurs sporadically (DJJ). The Imperial-Pigeon has been considered
to be threatened and declining on at least five separate occasions: 1904 (Chasen
1933a), 1932 (Chasen 1933a), 1940 (Gibson-Hill 1947), 1973 (HRCEC 1976) and
2000 (Garnett & Crowley 2000). On the first, second and fourth occasions, specific
studies were commissioned to investigate, and they each determined that the
Imperial-Pigeon had undergone declines caused by hunting, but could not quantify
the decline (Hanitsch in Chasen 1933a; Tweedie in Chasen 1933a; Crome 1978).
Fortunately, predictions that Yellow Crazy Ants could cause a severe population
decline (Garnett & Crowley 2000) have so far not eventuated. Cats were reported
to take some birds feeding low down in Japanese Cherry trees (Tidemann et al.
1994). Road-kills are scarce (James 2007). The species has recovered rapidly to
very high population levels following the abatement of unsustainable hunting, but
would be likely to be susceptible to future declines if protection were removed.
This species was introduced to the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (presumably
Horsburgh Island) by the Clunies-Ross family, evidently between November 1888
and August 1890 (Ridley 1891; contra Wood-Jones 1909). The last confirmed
record there was in 1906 (Wood-Jones 1909).
Pied Imperial-Pigeon Ducula bicolor

Vagrant. One record. An adult male was collected by Hugh Ross at Flying Fish
Cove on 4 February 1899 (Andrews 1900). Several Pied Imperial-Pigeons were
apparently observed on the Island at this time. Gibson-Hill (1947) listed the
specimen as nominate bicolor, presumably on the basis of distribution.
Nominate bicolor occurs from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands through the
Greater Sundas, Philippines, and Wallacea to western New Guinea; subspecies
spilorrhoa occurs from northern Australia to southern New Guinea (MacKinnon
& Phillipps 1993; Higgins & Davies 1996; Coates & Bishop 1997; Robson 2000).
These two taxa are sometimes treated as separate species (e.g. Gill & Donsker
2012). This is the only record of nominate bicolor from Australian territory.
Savanna Nightjar Caprimulgus affinis

Vagrant. Eight sets of reports, but only one is confirmed. One was caught and
photographed at the Airport by F.A.R. Hill on 30 May 1994 (Andrew & Eades
1994; Palliser 1999; BARC Case 187). Another was reported by Hill in October
1994 (Andrew 1994; Eades 1994; Higgins 1999). During a BOCA tour in October
1996, one was seen at the Airport on 29 October and two or three were seen
on 31 October (Lester 1997; record cited as ‘early Nov 1996’ by Higgins 1999);
apparently these birds were videotaped and were believed to be a male and a
female or immature (Eades 1997a). Although Barkla’s (1996) trip report for this
tour did not list the species, he referred to these sightings in a report of a later trip
(Barkla 2009). Johnstone & Darnell (2004a) reported that the same birds were
still seen there up to mid 1997. A sighting of an unidentified nightjar at the Golf
Course on 13 April 2005 had no supporting details (Brodie-Good 2005), and was
possibly a Common Noddy, a species that flies around the Golf Course at night
(DJJ; IAWM). M. Schulz (pers. comm.) reported an unidentified nightjar flushed
from the side of the road at North West Point in December 2005. A bird was
taped at the Airport and flew in to call-playback on 5 March 2007 (Anon. 2007b;
Baxter 2007; Carter 2007; Dooley 2007b; Ramsay 2007a; R. Baxter in litt.). It
was seen briefly and then called for some hours afterwards; it was also noted at
this locality on 6 and 7 March 2007. A bird with the same call was heard at the
northern end of the Airport by a tour group on 9 December 2009 (Baxter 2009;
Eaw & Dooley 2010). One was seen at the Chalk Pits near the northern end of the
Airport on 18 and 20 February 2012 (Anon. 2012a; Dooley 2012b; Faulkner 2012).
One responded and came to a tape of the species’ call at the Golf Course in early
December 2013 (Baxter 2013).
This polytypic species is a widespread resident of southern Asia, from the
Indian Subcontinent and southern China south to the Philippines, Greater Sundas
and Wallacea; northern populations winter in the Greater Sundas (MacKinnon
& Phillipps 1993; Coates & Bishop 1997; Higgins 1999; Robson 2000). Higgins
(1999) and Johnstone & Darnell (2004a) considered that the photographed bird
from May 1994 resembled nominate affinis from Java and Sumatra. These are the
only reports from Australian territory.
Grey Nightjar Caprimulgus jotaka

Vagrant. One record, unconfirmed. A bird, apparently a female, responded
to playback of the male call at the northern end of the Airport on 10, 13 and
18 January 2012 (O’Connor 2012; IAWM). It flew by (not seen) and called on
10 January, and flew by (seen well) twice without calling on 13 January. On
18 January, it responded to playback by calling and coming in to be seen well.
It also responded to playback and was observed on 16, 18 and 20 February 2012
(Anon. 2012a; Dooley 2012b; Faulkner 2012).
The Grey Nightjar is polytypic. Separation into two species was advocated by
Rasmussen & Anderton (2005) and several later authors, but this was overlooked
by Christidis & Boles (2008). C. jotaka breeds widely in Asia from the Himalayas
in the west to Japan in the east and from southern Siberia south to the Philippines
and the Greater Sundas. Tropical populations are resident, but northern
populations migrate to winter in mainland South-East Asia, the Philippines and
Greater Sundas, with vagrants reaching Wallacea and New Guinea (MacKinnon
& Phillipps 1993; Coates & Bishop 1997; Robson 2000; Rasmussen & Anderton
2005). There are two prior reports from Australia: a photographic record from
Ashmore Reef on 25 December 2003 (Dooley 2005b; Carter 2009; BARC
Case 450) and a photographic record from onboard a ship in the Timor Sea on
23 August 2005 (Dooley 2006b; BARC Case 493; contra Carter 2009).
Christmas Island Swiftlet Collocalia natalis [Figures 7–9 (pp. S51–52)]

Abundant endemic species (~5000–10 000 breeding pairs?). The first record
appears to be sightings of ‘a small Swift’ at Flying Fish Cove by Captain
J.P. Maclear in January 1887 (Maclear 1887a,b). The species was described shortly
afterwards from specimens collected in October 1887 (Lister 1889). Two syntypes
are in the NHM (Warren 1966) and one in the CUMZ (Benson 1999). It is generally
considered to be conspicuous and very common or abundant (Gibson-Hill 1947;
Stokes 1988; Carter 1994; Johnstone & Darnell 2004a). There are no population
estimates based on survey data. Van Tets (1975) guessed the population to be
in the order of 100 000–1000 000 pairs (see Table 3), but this is too high an
estimate for the size of the Island. Garnett & Crowley (2000) gave an estimate of
5000 individuals, but without any explanation. Based simply on the largest
aggregations observed between 2002 and 2007 (of ~1000 individuals) and the
small number of breeding caves known (see p. S42), it is likely that the population
is in the vicinity of 5000–10 000 pairs (DJJ, this work). James & Retallick (2007)
recorded the Swiftlet in 302 out of 527 10-minute surveys, a reporting rate of 57%
that made it the fourth most frequently recorded of eight species in their forest
bird survey.
This aerial species occurs in most habitats around the Island, including
evergreen, semi-deciduous and secondary forests, weed fields, urban areas and
cleared land, but it does not fly over the sea. It usually avoids the forest interior,
but penetrates forest along tracks and other flyways, and sometimes drops down
through gaps in the canopy (DJJ; IAWM). Gibson-Hill (1947) considered it more
common on the inland plateau than on the coastal terraces, but most common on
the western terraces of South Point and least common on the western coast. Large
aggregations of up to 1000 birds congregate over North West Point, sometimes
with vagrant swifts and swallows (DJJ). Stokes (1988) noted a preference for
feeding in open, shady areas, such as along shady roads and forest edges. Carter
(1994) noted a propensity for foraging in low air-space, and the Swiftlet often
almost skims the ground (DJJ; IAWM). It is often seen amongst emergent trees
above the forest canopy (Higgins 1999) and foraging round large Strangler Figs
along roadsides (DJJ; IAWM). There have been no dietary studies for the Swiftlet
on the Island but, like its congeners, it feeds on small insects (Higgins 1999). It is
generally diurnal, but sometimes forages around street-lights after dusk (DJJ).
Several were once seen repeatedly drinking or bathing, while flying, at the pool
above Hughs Dale Waterfall in 2004 (DJJ).
Nests are located in caves, but the Christmas Island Swiftlet has been reported
breeding in only a few caves, all in the first inland cliff, and there have been no
systematic attempts to locate and document colonies or count nests. Reported
sites include Smiths Cave, (Upper) Daniel Roux Cave, Grimes Cave and other
nearby caves on Smith Point, the Managers Alcove, Swiftlet Cave, and unnamed
caves on the western side of South Point, near Hosnies Springs and at Smithsons
Bight (Stokes 1988; Humphreys & Ebehard 2001; James & Milly 2006; M. Jeffery
pers. comm.; DJJ). A. Graham (pers. comm.) found a few pairs breeding under a
house on low pillars at Rocky Point (near the Managers Alcove) in 2004 (James &
Milly 2006). DJJ found a few nesting in the roof of an abandoned building behind
the Kampong in April 2012.
Gibson-Hill (1947) reported a protracted breeding season from September to
March, with two peaks of laying, in October and January. This, coupled with a
40–45-day nestling period, and probably limited post-fledging dependence,
led him to speculate that the Swiftlets might double-brood. The clutch-size is
consistently two (Gibson-Hill 1947). Gibson-Hill (1947, p. 151) described the nest
as being made from lichen and ‘dried fibres of sago palm’, clearly the endemic
Christmas Island Palm Arenga listeri. Higgins (1999) later listed this as the Sago
Palm Metroxylon sago, which does not occur on the Island.
The Christmas Island Swiftlet is not listed as globally threatened by the IUCN
(2013), as it is considered a subspecies of a more widely distributed and secure
species. Garnett et al. (2011) considered it Near Threatened. Stokes (1988)
reported that the large colony at Daniel Roux Cave was abandoned in 1984, and
suggested visits by people as a potential cause. Humphreys & Ebehard (2001)
later recorded breeding there again. Another cave used near the oil terminal at
Smith Point in 2005 was abandoned the following year after the construction of
a pipeline adjacent to the cave entrance (IAWM). Stokes (1988) also considered
that pesticide use might be an indirect threat. Fortunately, predictions that Yellow
Crazy Ants could cause a severe population decline (Garnett & Crowley 2000)
have so far not eventuated. Christmas Island Swiftlets are often killed by vehicles
(van Tets & van Tets 1967), and this mortality shows spikes with increased traffic
associated with development activities, but the levels are not likely to be a threat
to the population (James 2007). James & Milly (2006) noted that the congeneric
Linchi Swiftlet remains very common in Java, where pressures on bird populations
are considerably greater than they are on Christmas Island.
Some taxonomic issues are discussed in the Taxonomy and nomenclature
section (p. S17).
White-throated Needletail Hirundapus caudacutus

Vagrant. At least four sets of records. Johnstone & Darnell (2004a) listed two
unconfirmed records, from November–December 1984 and from November 1995.

Several observers saw two at the Sports Ground on 14 November 2003, and up to
three on 15 November 2003 (Anon. 2004a,b; Barrand 2005a). A bird seen at the
Rubbish Tip on 23 April 2008 had originally been thought to be a Silver-backed
Needletail H. cochinchinensis, but was probably a first-year White-throated
Needletail (Ramsay 2008c; J. Davies pers. comm.; IOSG delegates pers. comm.;
IAWM). Two White-throated Needletails were reported at the Rubbish Tip on
30 November 2008 (Baxter 2008b; Anon. 2009a), and two were reported at the
Settlement on 2 December 2011 (Baxter 2011b).
Nominate caudacutus breeds in northern and central Asia and migrates to
Australasia for the boreal winter; on passage, it is scarce in mainland South-East
Asia, rare in the Greater Sundas and common in Wallacea (MacKinnon & Phillipps
1993; Coates & Bishop 1997; Higgins 1999; Chantler & Driessens 2000; Robson
2000).
Fork-tailed Swift Apus pacificus

Rare irregular visitor. At least 18 sets of records, 16 since 1990. The first occurrence
was three seen by T. Stokes at North West Point on 9 November 1984 (Stokes
et al. 1987). Another two were seen at Flying Fish Cove on 4 and 5 December
1985 (Stokes et al. 1987). Between 1995 and 2011, there were at least 16 reports
(Bartram 1996; Smith 1996; Carter 2000a,b, 2001, 2011b; Anon. 2002b; Holmes
2002; Carter et al. 2008; Baxter 2010b, 2011b; James 2010; K. Coate in litt.;
M. Holdsworth pers. comm.; IOSG delegates pers. comm.; C. Nixon pers. comm.;
L. Preston pers. comm.; DJJ; IAWM). The Swift was reported in only nine of
the 17 years, although annually from 2008 to 2011, which probably reflects the
steadily increasing observer effort. Records are from late October to early May.
It has mostly been seen singly or in small flocks of up to five birds, but 11 were
recorded in April 2008 following Cyclone Rosie. Reported localities include the
Settlement and Kampong, Poon Saan, the Rubbish Tip, Airport, North East Point,
Ma Chor Nui Nui Temple, Margaret Knoll, South Point Temple, North West Point
and Migrant Hill.
This polytypic species breeds widely throughout Asia, and nominate pacificus
migrates to Australia for the boreal winter; on passage, it is locally common in
mainland South-East Asia, the Greater Sundas and Wallacea (MacKinnon &
Phillipps 1993; Coates & Bishop 1997; Higgins 1999; Chantler & Driessens 2000;
Robson 2000).
House Swift Apus affinis

Vagrant. Three sets of records, two confirmed. One was seen by DJJ at the Rubbish
Tip on 3 November 2005 (Dooley 2006a). A swift with a white rump seen at the
Airport on 18 April 2008, several days before Cyclone Rosie, was possibly a House
Swift (D. Stojanovic pers. comm.). At least seven House Swifts were observed
from 23 to 28 April 2008 at the Rubbish Tip, North East Point, Poon Saan, near
Ma Chor Nui Nui Temple and North West Point (Anon. 2008c; Dooley 2008c;
Ramsay 2008c; M. Carter, F. O’Connor & T. Palliser pers. comm.; IOSG delegates
pers. comm.; IAWM; BARC Case 570). These reports followed Cyclone Rosie, and
the birds were probably blown to the Island from near-coastal Sumatra. Singles
were reported from North West Point on 29 November and 3 December 2011
(Baxter 2011b; Dooley 2012a; BARC Case 737).
The House Swift is a polytypic species that breeds widely in southern Asia and is a
locally common resident in mainland South-East Asia and the Greater Sundas but
it is subject to local movement; it appears to be colonising Wallacea. In mainland
Australia, the subspecies subfurcatus has been recorded as a vagrant (Higgins
1999). However, subfurcatus is more southerly and largely sedentary, whereas
the more northerly nipalensis is partly migratory (MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993;
Coates & Bishop 1997; Chantler & Driessens 2000; Robson 2000).
Matsudaira’s Storm-Petrel Hydrobates matsudairae

Vagrant. Four records. One exhausted bird was found by J. Tranter at Flying Fish
Cove on 15 August 1980 (WAM A.16946; Stokes et al. 1987). One bird attracted to
the lights of the Settlement on 7 November 1980 was captured and released the
following day (Stokes et al. 1987). One flew into a window at Flying Fish Cove in
February 1983 (ANWC 37623). One damaged by oil near the Island was received
at the Parks Office on 16 December 1984 and died the following day (ANWC
39154; note that the wrong registration number was given by Stokes et al. 1987).
This species has not been reported at sea in Christmas Island waters.
This species breeds on islands south of Japan and migrates through western
Micronesia and eastern Indonesia to winter in the Indian Ocean, from the coast
of Kenya to the Timor Sea north of Australia, where it is reasonably common,
and in the Pacific east to the Bismarck Archipelago (Marchant & Higgins 1990;
Johnstone & Storr 1998; Cheshire 2010). It has been recorded from the Lombok
Strait east of Bali (Johnstone et al. 1993; Grantham 2000; Mason 2011) as well as
the Sunda Strait (van Balen in Grantham 2000).
White-faced Storm-Petrel Pelagodroma marina

Vagrant. Three records. Dunlop et al. (1996) and N. Cheshire (in Bourne 1996)
recorded this species in ones and twos in April 1995 at five locations between the
WA coast and Christmas Island, but only once in the EEZ, at 13°37′S, 107°06′E.
One was found dead by DJJ and J. Goldberg in a Brown Booby’s nest at Medwin
Point in May 2002 (Johnstone & Darnell 2004a). The carcass was too damaged
for preservation. One juvenile was found recently dead on the deck of a container
ship arriving from the Cocos (Keeling) Group in May 2004 (AM O.71272; DJJ). It
could be construed that this bird was ship-assisted. Regardless, the latitude of the
Cocos (Keeling) Group is only 2° farther south.
This species breeds on islands off New Zealand, southern Australia and in
the southern Atlantic Ocean (Marchant & Higgins 1990). Its winter range is
imperfectly known, though it includes the north-western Indian Ocean. Dunlop
et al. (1996) speculated that White-faced Storm-Petrels breeding in southern WA
follow the Australian coast north to the region of North-west Cape, then branch off
in a north-westerly direction to head for the Arabian Sea. If so, these birds would
pass the vicinity of Christmas and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands. This species has
also been reported from Aceh and the Riau Archipelago in Sumatra (van Marle &
Voous 1988; Rajathurai 1997). It may prove to be a rare passage migrant in seas
surrounding Christmas Island.
Antarctic Prion Pachyptila desolata

Vagrant. One record. One was found washed ashore at Greta Beach on 23 June
2002. It was brought to the Parks Office, but died soon after (NMV B.24118).
This Southern Ocean species is known for the Indomalayan Region only from a
specimen (now lost) collected from the coast of Java (Becking 1976a; Inskipp et
al. 1996).
Bulwer’s Petrel Bulweria bulwerii

Vagrant. Four sets of records. Dunlop et al. (1988a,b, 1996; also Bourne 1989)
recorded the species widely over the eastern Indian Ocean south to 20°S in
October 1987, including at least 12 occasions close to Christmas Island. Birds were
recorded in the 1-degree blocks centred on 11°S, 103°E; 11°S, 104°E; 11°S, 106°E;
11°S, 107°E; and 12°S, 107°E, with further observations south-east almost halfway
to the WA coast. N. Cheshire (in litt.) also noted one bird 134 nm south-south-
east at 12°31′S, 106°49′E on 10 October 1987, and another 99 nm east-south-east
at 11°04′S, 107°01′E on 17 October. Bulwer’s Petrel was less common in the EEZ
during surveys in April 1995, when it was reported only at 11°S, 106°E and 13°S,
106°E. Two birds were seen 135 nm south-east of the Island at 12°06′S, 107°10′E
on 12 October 1999 (N. Cheshire in litt.).
Despite the paucity of records, the evidence suggests that Bulwer’s Petrel is a
regular visitor in low numbers to surrounding seas, though not near the Island
itself, presumably through interference by frigatebirds. Elsewhere, Bulwer’s Petrel
breeds on islands in the subtropical and tropical Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.
Recently, it has been discovered breeding in very low numbers at Round Island,
Mauritius, in the western Indian Ocean (Merton & Bell 2003) and recorded in
the Cocos (Keeling) Group (McAllan et al. in prep.). In the Pacific, the presumed
source of birds recorded near Christmas Island, it breeds from the Ryukyu and
Bonin Groups east to the Hawaiian, Phoenix and Marquesas Islands. Although
there have been some sightings in the Coral Sea and Papua New Guinea (Cheshire
1989, 2010; Anon. 1998), this species is rare in the south-western Pacific, and
birds apparently reach the eastern Indian Ocean through Indonesian waters,
particularly Wallacea (Argeloo & Dekker 1996; Mason 2011).
Wedge-tailed Shearwater Ardenna pacifica

Rare regular visitor. Wedge-tailed Shearwaters are rarely recorded from land and
inshore waters of Christmas Island, but apparently are regular in pelagic waters.
Land-based records: A Wedge-tailed Shearwater was captured and released by
B. Reville at Tai Jin House on 6 October 1985 (Stokes et al. 1987; Marchant &
Higgins 1990). One was seen over the sea from the Settlement some time between
25 December 1999 and 1 January 2000 (Hansboro 2000a). A bird with a broken
wing was found by a resident in the Kampong on 29 September 2005 (AM O.71274).
This species was reported by G. Roberts (in litt.) in May 2007 without details. A
few individuals were seen by IOSG delegates (IOSG pers. comm.; IAWM) over
the sea from the Settlement on 22 April 2008 during Cyclone Rosie. DJJ did not
see this species from shore during >3 years in residence. The Shearwater seems
to avoid the inshore waters of the Island, despite the strong upwellings present,
perhaps to avoid intense competition from the breeding seabirds, or to avoid
kleptoparasitism and harassment from frigatebirds.
Marine records: Wedge-tailed Shearwaters were recorded in EEZ waters in
small to moderate numbers (up to 250+ birds) in January 1964 (Ozawa &
Nakamura 1966), October 1987, April 1995, September–October 1995 and
September–October 1999 (Bourne 1996; Dunlop et al. 1996; N. Cheshire in litt.).
This marine species is pantropical (Higgins & Davies 1990). The nearest
breeding colonies are on North Keeling Island, Ashmore Reef, islands along the
WA coast, and in the Chagos Group (Feare 1984; Burbidge et al. 1996; Symens
1999; Johnstone & Darnell 2004b; Milton 2005; Clarke et al. 2011). It is not
known to breed in Indonesia (de Korte 1984, 1991).
Barau’s Petrel Pterodroma baraui

Vagrant. Two sets of records. One bird was seen 50 nm east of the Island at
10°34′S, 106°35′E on 11 October 1987 and another 27 nm west-south-west at
10°39′S, 105°06′E on 13 October 1987 (Dunlop et al. 1988a,b; N. Cheshire in litt.).
One was seen 75 nm north at 9°15′S, 105°39′E on 15 April 1995 (Bourne 1996;
N. Cheshire in litt.).
Elsewhere in the Indian Ocean, van den Berg et al. (1991) recorded Barau’s Petrel
south of India and Sri Lanka east to near the coast of Sumatra in June–July 1984
and June 1985. P. Meeth saw it south of Java and Sumatra at 7°39′S, 102°45′E in
August 1986, with other sightings south-west towards the Cocos (Keeling) Islands
(Chapman & Cheshire 1987; Marchant & Higgins 1990). This little-known species
breeds on Réunion and Rodriguez Islands in the south-western Indian Ocean
(van den Berg et al. 1991). It may prove to be an uncommon regular visitor to
surrounding seas of the South Equatorial Current (Dunlop et al. 1988a; Johnstone
& Darnell 2004a).
Herald Petrel Pterodroma heraldica

Vagrant. One record. A single live, intermediate-morph bird was found at South
Point on 29 August 2006 and brought to the Parks Office (Palliser & Carter 2012;
BARC Case 640). It was identified by DJJ, held overnight, photographed by
M. Holdsworth and released. This bird had white lores, characteristic of the Pacific
Ocean population (i.e. nominate heraldica, not the subspecies arminjoniana).
The presence of brood-patches on this bird suggests that it was breeding at the
time, although as yet there are no confirmed breeding sites in the eastern Indian
Ocean.
Most Herald Petrels breed on islands in the subtropical Pacific Ocean (Marchant
& Higgins 1990). However, three birds identified as ‘Herald Petrel Pterodroma
arminjoniana’ were seen apparently prospecting or breeding at North Keeling
Island in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands in April 1986 (Stokes & Goh 1987; Marchant
& Higgins 1990). Although these birds were later considered to be Round Island
Petrels P. arminjoniana (DEH 2005), their pale lores definitely identify them
as P. heraldica (J. Darnell pers. comm.; V. Tatayah pers. comm.). The species
has not been recorded on North Keeling Island since, and is not known from the
Indomalayan and Wallacean Regions (Andrew 1992; MacKinnon & Phillipps
1993; Inskipp et al. 1996; Coates & Bishop 1997). Elsewhere in the Indian Ocean,
the species is now known to breed on Round Island off Mauritius, where there
is a small population of ~20 pairs (V. Tatayah pers. comm.). One bird found on
Round Island in April 2006 had been banded on Raine Island, Queensland, in
July 1984 (V. Tatayah pers. comm.). Vagrants have been recorded from WA waters
(Johnstone & Storr 1998; R. Johnstone pers. comm.).
Lesser Frigatebird Fregata ariel ariel

Rare breeding species (>10 pairs). A specimen in the ZRC was collected by
Dr R. Hanitsch in 1904 and labelled as being from the Island (ZRC 3.00267;
Morioka & Yang 1996). This record was not discussed by Chasen & Kloss (1924),
Chasen (1933a) or Gibson-Hill (1947), and was overlooked by subsequent authors.
The specimen has a label annotated in Chasen’s hand (C. Yang pers. comm.) with
‘? minor FNC July 1933’ (DJJ & IAWM). It is a juvenile in worn plumage with
patterning of the underparts consistent with Lesser Frigatebird. The exposed
culmen of 87.3 mm is consistent with female Lesser Frigatebird, and too small
for either sex of the Great Frigatebird (James 2004). It is nonetheless improbable
that Hanitsch, whose collection contained only one frigatebird, would collect
a rarity amongst thousands of Great and Christmas Island Frigatebirds. The
other specimens collected by Hanitsch during that expedition had specific dates
(Morioka & Yang 1996), perhaps indicating that the frigatebird specimen was
collected under different circumstances. It could be that it was collected at sea
during the passage back to Singapore and presented along with the Christmas
Island specimens, but without a label. Lowe (1924) referred to an immature
specimen from ‘Christmas Island’. He did not state which Christmas Island
(there is another Christmas Island in the tropical Pacific, also called Kiritimati,
where frigatebirds breed—Orta 1992b), and did not give the collection details,
but this specimen was evidently in the NHM collection. Lowe (in Chasen 1933a)
subsequently indicated that the locality was possibly in error. The collecting
locality of the ZRC specimen is thus unclear.
The next report was by D. Merton in the late 1970s, although no localities or
exact dates were given (Stokes 1988). Therefore, the first definite record was of
four or five adult males carrying sticks seen by J. Hicks at North West Point on
31 March 1980 (Stokes et al. 1987). An adult male with an inflated gular sac was
seen at the Golf Course on 16 March 1982 (Stokes et al. 1987). An adult female was
seen at Douglas Point on 1 June 1984 (Stokes et al. 1987). An adult female and two
adult males were seen at North West Point on 30 March 1985 (Stokes et al. 1987),
and one of the males was seen to strike at twigs in the canopy, which is a nest-
building behaviour. Subsequently, the species was seen frequently in the western
and northern parts of the Island over the next 2 years, leading to suspicion that
it was breeding, or trying to breed. Two were seen in August 1990, though no
locality was noted (K. Coate in litt.). Since 1990, the species has been recorded in
low numbers by numerous observers on most visits (Carter 1994, 2000b, 2001,
2002, 2004, 2010b, 2011b; Harvey 1996; Hobcroft 1996, 2006; Farnes 1997;
Lansley 1997; Maher 1997; Anon. 1999b; O’Connor 1999; Hansboro 2000a; Smith
2000; Clarke 2001; Barrand & Barrand 2003, 2007; Doughty 2003; Hunter
2004; Langfield 2004; Adams 2005; Barrand 2005b; Brodie-Good 2005; Carter
et al. 2008; Roderick 2008; R. Baxter in litt.; K. Coate in litt.; B. King in litt.;
N. Pamment in litt.; D. Helliar pers. comm.; C. Nixon pers. comm.; DJJ; IAWM).
Between 2002 and 2007, DJJ observed many individuals and pairs, mostly adults,
regularly at many locations around the Island. The frequency of observations is
apparently increasing, though whether this is related to better observer ability or
actual changes in numbers of Lesser Frigatebirds is unclear. However, DJJ noted
unprecedented numbers for the Island in April 2012. There are no definite marine
records from the EEZ, but N. Cheshire saw two possible females just to the south
at 15°S, 107°E on 11 April 1995 (Bourne 1996).
Breeding records: A pair was observed on a nest behind West White Beach in mid
2001 (DNP 2002; Johnstone & Darnell 2004a; J. Middleton & J. Goldberg pers.
comm.). In January 2004, DJJ and C. Surman saw a flock of ~10 juveniles in an
apparent crèche with 100 juvenile Great Frigatebirds at the IDC. In April 2004,
a dedicated survey of the shore terrace of North West Point found one nest near
West White Beach (DJJ & C. Surman). In August–November 2004 and mid 2005,
up to five nests were recorded scattered along the shore terrace of North West
Point, mostly near the tip of the Point (DJJ). A chick found on the ground at Ethel
Beach in mid 2005, and reared by M. Orchard at the Parks Office, was identified
as a Lesser Frigatebird when juvenile (DJJ). During the IOSG Conference in April
2008, male Lesser Frigatebirds were seen carrying sticks at both the north-western
and eastern coasts (IAWM). The size and distribution of the breeding population
remains to be clarified, but is probably >10 breeding pairs.
The Island population of Lesser Frigatebirds is not listed as globally threatened
by the IUCN (2013) or under the EPBC Act, as it is considered a population of
a more widely distributed and secure species. There are no reports of any local
threats to this species.
The Lesser Frigatebird is a pantropical seabird. The nearest breeding colonies
are on North Keeling Island, Ashmore Reef, islands in the Banda Sea of eastern
Indonesia, islands off the Kimberley coast, WA, and in the Chagos Group (de
Korte & Silvius 1994; Johnstone & Storr 1998; Symens 1999; Johnstone & Darnell
2004b; Milton 2005; Clarke et al. 2011). There are several old records from western
Indonesia, though it is unclear if the species bred there (de Korte & Silvius 1994).
There have been recent apparent increases in populations of Lesser Frigatebirds
in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (McAllan et al. in prep.).
The subspecific taxonomy of the Lesser Frigatebird is poorly resolved. Four
Figure 1. Location of Christmas Island
Figure 2. Map of Christmas Island

Figure 3. Terrace profile of Christmas Island. Photo: Ian A.W. McAllan
Figure 4. Evergreen rainforest on Christmas Island. Photo: Ian A.W. McAllan

Figure 5. Semideciduous rainforest on Christmas Island. Photo: Ian A.W. McAllan
Figure 7. Specimens of Christmas Island Swiftlet Collocalia natalis (left two) and
C. (esculenta?) cyanoptila. Note the absence of gloss in the upper-body feather-tracts
of natalis. Specimens are from the ZRC Collection. Photos: David J. James
Figure 8. Christmas Island Swiftlet in flight. Note the absence of gloss in the upper-
body feather-tracts, white tips to rear scapulars and scaly rump; primaries are in moult.
Photo: Tony Palliser
Figure 9. Christmas Island Swiftlet flying. Photo: Jenny Spry

Figure 11. Emerald Dove, adult male. Photo: Ian A.W. McAllan
Figure 12. Christmas Island Imperial-Pigeon. Photo: Ian A.W. McAllan

Figure 13. Great Frigatebird, female. Photo: Ian A.W. McAllan
Figure 14. Great Frigatebird, male. Photo: Max Orchard

Figure 15. Christmas Island Frigatebird, male. Photo: David J. James
Figure 16. Christmas Island Frigatebird, female. Photo: Ian A.W. McAllan
Figure 17. Abbott’s Booby, female. Photo: Tony Palliser
Figure 18. Abbott’s Booby, juvenile. Photo: Ian A.W. McAllan

Figure 19. Red-footed Booby white-tailed brown and white morphs.

Photo: Ian A.W. McAllan
Figure 20. Christmas Island Goshawk, immature female. Photo: Ian A.W. McAllan
Figure 21. Christmas Island Goshawk, adult. Photo: Mark Holdsworth
Figure 23. Christmas Island Hawk-Owl. Photo: Ian Montgomery

Figure 24. Christmas Island White-eye. Photo: Tony Palliser
Figure 25. Island Thrush, adult. Photo: Ian A.W. McAllan

Figure 26. Island Thrush, juvenile. Photo: Ian A.W. McAllan
Figure 27. Java Sparrows. Photo: Tony Palliser

subspecies have been described, of which three are usually recognised. Nominate
ariel has a type-locality of Raine Island, Qld, and that name applies to all Pacific
populations at least (Dorst & Mougin 1979). Matthews (1914) named the eastern
Indian Ocean birds (Bedout Island, WA) as F. a. tunnyi for their larger size, and
the western Indian Ocean ones (Aldabra Island, Mascarenes) as F. a. iredalei for
their smaller size. Rothschild (1915) considered the size difference of tunnyi to be
trivial and synonymised that subspecies under ariel, and subsequently Mathews
(1927) agreed. Most subsequent authorities have recognised ariel from the Pacific
and eastern Indian Oceans and iredalei from the western Indian Ocean, based
on size differences (Peters 1931; Dorst & Mougin 1979; Marchant & Higgins
1990; Orta 1992b; Dickinson 2003; Nelson 2005). Marchant & Higgins (1990)
noted reports of dimorphism in the colours of the bill (pink or blue-grey) and
orbital-ring (red or blue) in females from Aldabra (Diamond 1971; Nelson 1976)
and considered that this might be significant, but had no comparative data from
elsewhere. At Herald Cay in the Coral Sea, on the Lacepede Islands in WA, and at
Christmas Island, female Lesser Frigatebirds show this dimorphism in bill colour,
but the orbital-ring is always red (James 2004). It also seems that blue orbital-
ring colour does not occur in the North Keeling Island population (DJJ; IAWM).
Meanwhile, more specific data on the supposed blue orbital-ring of Aldabra Island
birds are required. In the interim, we recognise the Christmas Island population as
nominate ariel and recognise iredalei from the western Indian Ocean as distinct,
but consider tunnyi synonymous with ariel. Nevertheless, the boundary between
ariel and iredalei in the Indian Ocean remains unclear. The southern Atlantic
form is usually recognised as a separate subspecies, trinitatis (Peters 1931; Nelson
2005).
Great Frigatebird Fregata minor listeri [Figures 13–14 (p. S54)]

Common endemic subspecies (3500 breeding pairs). The earliest records of
frigatebirds on Christmas Island, by Dampier’s party (Dampier in Gibson-Hill
1949a), Captain J.P. Maclear in January 1887 (Sharpe 1887), Lister (1889) in
September 1887, and Ridley (1891) in 1890, cannot be ascribed to species level.
Specimens of this species collected by Andrews were initially listed as Fregata ariel
by Sharpe (1900), although it is clear from Sharpe’s descriptions that they were
F. minor. G.M. Mathews’s (1914) review of frigatebird taxonomy first clarified that
the Great Frigatebird was the smaller of the two species then nesting on the Island.
Mathews’s (1914) description of the subspecies listeri was based on specimens
collected by C.W. Andrews in 1897 (lectotype = AMNH 729553, collected at Flying
Fish Cove in August 1897; Mathews 1914; Greenway 1973). Historical population
estimates are listed in Table 3. Estimates by DJJ of the numbers of breeding pairs
at known sub-colonies between 2002 and 2005 are presented in Table 5; these
represent estimates of the numbers laying in a single year, not the total breeding
population, which divides over 2 or more years (see p. S62). They are extrapolated
from partial counts in some cases or from the distribution (area and density) of
calling birds, especially at inaccessible colonies. The total estimate of 3500 pairs is
250 pairs higher than estimated by Stokes (1988), but is not sufficiently accurate
to be taken as an indication of a change in abundance.
The Great Frigatebird has a protracted breeding cycle, averaging 16 months,

to raise the single chick (Nelson 1976). Successful breeders from one year rarely
if ever attempt to breed in the following year. Juveniles remain dependent until
well into their second year, overlapping the subsequent nesting cycle. Courtship
begins in mid to late January and peaks in April–May, the first signs being males
calling and collecting sticks for nests. Eggs are laid from March to June, but early
nests are generally ransacked or usurped by conspecifics (Marchant & Higgins
1990; DJJ). The first eggs hatch in about late April, and juveniles begin to fly by
early September, but post-fledging dependence continues into the early months of
the following year (DJJ). Known breeding locations are listed in Table 5. They are
mostly on the shore terrace, with a few smaller colonies on the second terrace or
the first inland cliff where it is gradual and vegetated (Stokes 1988; DJJ).
Marine records: Within the EEZ, N. Cheshire (in litt.; partially reported in Bourne
1996) recorded one female 48 nm east of the Island on 11 October 1987, one female
39 nm west-south-west on 13 October 1987, two males 100 nm south-south-east
on 13 April 1995, five feeding 76 nm east-north-east on 1 October 1995, and 11 at
52 nm south-south-east on 7 September 1999. None were identified to subspecies,
and the subspecies listeri has not been observed or collected away from the Island.
M. Orchard and others (pers. comm.) rehabilitated many frigatebirds (mostly
Great) and raised orphan chicks at the Parks Office between 1993 and 2010; DJJ
also observed these birds frequently in 2002–2007. Individual Great Frigatebirds
regularly returned for many years to the feeding station after being reared there.
The afternoon feeding time was clearly known to the birds, though some arrived
in the morning and waited (apparently patiently) for just a small feed, displaying
a very low energy requirement. One female reared from a very small size in 1995
was still returning in 2010. Some adult males regularly attempted to build nests
in trees at the site and call to flying females, though not successfully. Individuals
of the six breeding seabird species other than frigatebirds were also frequently
reared at the Parks Office, but none returned or retained any bonds after their
release. The fidelity of frigatebirds to return to their artificial rearing site and seek
supplementary feeding into adulthood possibly stems from their long juvenile
dependence and their propensity for kleptoparasitism (DJJ). The female that
was still returning in 2010 (since 1995) had an individually recognisable voice,
and evidently readily recognised M. Orchard. This, coupled with observations
at the colonies, indicates that chicks can recognise their parents by call (DJJ;
cf. Marchant & Higgins 1990).
The Island population of Great Frigatebirds is not listed as globally threatened
by the IUCN (2013), as it is considered a population of a more widely distributed
and secure species. The subspecies is also not listed under the EPBC Act. It was
the only bird taxon endemic to the Island that was not assessed by Garnett &
Crowley (2000) or Garnett et al. (2011). Mining and, to a lesser extent, municipal
development have led to the loss of an estimated 48 ha of nesting habitat (Stokes
1988). Dunlop (1986) counted >200 pairs on the 2nd terrace on the western side
of South Point (SWP 5) before the site was mined in the mid 1980s, and there were
probably many more nests elsewhere on South Point before mining. Stokes (1988)
recorded that 21 ha of low-density breeding habitat at Toms Ridge on North West
Table 5. Estimated number of breeding pairs of Great Frigatebirds at known

sub-colonies on Christmas Island in 2002–2005. Estimates were made by
DJJ: * = extrapolated from partial counts, # = based on distribution (area and density)
of calling birds.
Sub-colony location No. of breeding pairs
Golf Course* 400

*
Lily and Ethel Beaches 300
*
Dolly Beach (McMicken Point) 150
*
South Point (eastern shore terrace) 150
*
South Point (eastern 2nd terrace) 50
*
South Point (western shore terrace) 750
#
Middle Point 50
#
Egeria Point (southern shore terrace) 50
*
Martin Point 100
#
North West Point (Toms Ridge) 50
*
West White Beach to North West Point 1000
#
North West Point (2nd terrace) 120
*
Margaret and Rhoda Beaches (2nd terrace) 200
#*
Drumsite (3rd terrace?) 100
*
Phosphate Hill (500 foot Quarry) 30
Total breeding pairs 3500
Point (including the current site of the IDC) were cleared for mining in 1986–
1987. Andrews (1900) recorded breeding at Flying Fish Cove where the species
has not nested for many years (Stokes 1988; DJJ). Some other loss of breeding
habitat has occurred at Lily Beach, Phosphate Hill and the Golf Course (Stokes
1988). Drowning during attempts to scoop up fresh water from artificial sources
whilst on the wing is a recurring threat. During the 1980s, up to 100 birds per
year drowned at the former mine slurry pond and water tanks at South Point
(Stokes 1988; PANCI file archives). Smaller numbers drowned annually in the
1990s at the swimming pool and fountain at the Resort (PANCI file archives;
M. Orchard pers. comm.), and a few drowned in the swimming pools at the
Recreation Centre and the former construction camp on Phosphate Hill, when
these were first constructed in the mid 2000s (DJJ). A few still drown in mud
at rainwater ponds in mine loading bays at LB3, Toms Ridge and elsewhere
(M. Orchard pers. comm.; DJJ). Poaching by flailing had a serious impact in the
past, but ceased after the resettlement of the Cocos Malays in 1977 (Stokes 1988).
There is occasional entanglement of Frigatebirds in discarded fishing line (Stokes
1988; DJJ), though this does not threaten at the population level (DJJ). Birds
rarely if ever hit electrical lines (DJJ; contra Marchant & Higgins 1990). There is
no information about potential impacts from feral species such as the Yellow Crazy
Ant, or threats in the marine range. There is no information about the effects of El
Niño Southern Oscillation events on nesting success. However, it could be that a
reduced nesting participation observed in 2010–2012 (DJJ; IAWM) was related to
the significant La Niña event that took place at that time.
This species is pantropical, though the population in the Atlantic Ocean is small
and restricted (Nelson 2005). The nearest breeding sites are at North Keeling
Island, in the Banda Sea, in the Chagos Group, Ashmore Reef and Adele Island,
WA (de Korte & Silvius 1994; Johnstone & Storr 1998; Symens 1999; Johnstone &
Darnell 2004a; Milton 2005; Clarke et al. 2011). However, all of these populations
belong to a different subspecies from the one on Christmas Island. Some taxonomic
issues are discussed in the Taxonomy and nomenclature section (p. S20).
Christmas Island Frigatebird Fregata andrewsi [Figures 15–16 (p. S55)]

Common endemic species (1200 breeding pairs). The species was described by
G.M. Mathews in 1914 based on specimens collected in the late 1890s (AMNH
729504, 20 November 1897, and AMNH 729505, 19 March 1899; Mathews 1914;
Greenway 1973). AMNH 729504 was probably collected by Andrews, but AMNH
729505 was more likely collected by H. Ross, since Andrews was not present
in 1899 (see Appendix in Andrews 1900). From the descriptions given, Sharpe
(1900) listed F. andrewsi as F. aquila. Historical population estimates are listed in
Table 3. Detailed ground surveys in 2003 provided an accurate estimate of 1200
breeding pairs (James 2003). However, the peculiar biennial breeding cycle of
frigatebirds ensures that nest counts under-estimate the population size by
perhaps 50–150%, depending on the season (Dunlop 1986; James 2003). Survey
data from 2004 and 2005 that could correct for this are being analysed (DJJ).
Nesting of Christmas Island Frigatebirds is seasonally synchronous, but takes
>1 year per cycle (Nelson 1976). Therefore, the population is divided into two or
more stages of breeding at any point in time (James 2003). Courtship and nest-
building activities begin by late January, peak in March, and continue into April.
Laying begins in March and peaks in April, with hatching mostly in May–June.
Juveniles begin to fly in September–October, but remain dependent and close
to nest-trees often until April or May of their second calendar year. They later
apparently depart from the Island with their parents and remain dependent for a
further period, but details of this stage are poorly known.
Currently there are four significant nesting colonies of Christmas Island
Frigatebirds: two on the eastern coast (‘Golf Course’ and ‘southern outlier’ south of
the Golf Course) and two on the northern coast (‘Chinese Cemetery’ and ‘Margaret
Beaches’). All are on the shore terrace except the Chinese Cemetery colony,
which is on the first inland terrace (James 2003). There are also small clusters
of nests in the Settlement near Short Street, the inland cliff at the north-western
end of Flying Fish Cove, and the footslopes of the inland cliff at Smith Point
(DJJ; IAWM). There were formerly large colonies in Flying Fish Cove and on the
northern coast below the Phosphate Dryers (Andrews 1900; Stokes 1988; James
Table 6. Known details (location, and number of Christmas Island Frigatebirds) of

roost-islands used by non-breeding Christmas Island Frigatebirds. CI = Christmas
Island, I = island, Is = islands. Sources: 1 = Chasen & Kloss (1928), 2 = DJJ &
J. Hennicke unpubl. data, 3 = Medway (1966), 4 = Wells (1999), 5 = D. Bakewell &
S. Rajathurai in litt., 6 = N. Brickle & F. Noni in litt., 7 = BirdLife International (2001),
8 = Q. Phillipps in litt., and 9 = Jensen & Tan (2010).
Roost-island Sea No. of CI Frigatebirds Source
Ringi I, Anamba Is South China 14 collected 1

Midai I, Natuna Is South China 1 satellite-tracked to there 2
Renggis I, off Tioman I, South China Accurate counts 3, 4, 5

Malaysia unavailable. ≤300, but
mostly Lesser Frigatebird
Pulau Rambut, Jakarta Bay Java Count of 200, May 2012 6
Unknown I SE of Pulau Java 1 satellite-tracked to there 2
Karimata, Kalimantan Barat,
Indonesia
Unknown I N of Pulau Bangka, Java 1 satellite-tracked to there 2
Sumatra, Indonesia
Ko Bida Sea stacks, Phi Phi, Andaman Frequently 300–500, 7
Thailand possibly ≤800
Mantanai Is, Sabah Sulu ≤130 8
Pulau Kalampunian Damit, near Sulu Regular many years ago, 8
Kota Kinabalu, Sabah current status unknown
Bancauan I, Philippines Sulu ≤100 9
Bancoran I, Philippines Sulu ≤20 9
Tubbataha Reef, Philippines Sulu ≤20 9
Cawili I, Philippines Sulu ≤5 9
2003). The Margaret Beaches colony may represent a relocation of the former
colonies. All colonies are or were in semi-deciduous vine thickets. The woven stick
nests are typically placed high in the canopy or emergent trees, at sites with clear
access and a strong bias to the leeward of the south-easterly trade winds (Stokes
1988; James 2003). Christmas Island Frigatebirds have been recorded nesting in
15 species of tree, of which Sea Almond Terminalia catapa is the most favoured
(54%), followed by Stinking Wood Celtis timorensis (11%), Strangler Fig (8%),
Propeller Tree Gyrocarpus americanus (8%) and Pongamia Pongamia pinnata
(5%) (James 2003).
Marine records: Scattered sight records exist of single birds and of small
flocks of Christmas Island Frigatebirds within the Island’s EEZ (Bourne 1965;
Cheshire 1990; Dunlop et al. 2001; N. Cheshire in litt.), reflecting low observer
effort. Telemetry studies have revealed that nesting Frigatebirds forage in all
directions around the Island, with distance from the Island and duration of the
trip increasing during the course of the nesting cycle (DJJ & J. Hennicke unpubl.
data). Foraging trips lasting a week or more and extending >400 km from the
Island in all directions are routinely undertaken by birds with large chicks.
When not breeding, a significant proportion of the population leaves Christmas
Island to reside temporarily at roost-islands in South-East Asia. Adults depart from
the Island after failed nesting attempts or along with their dependent juveniles
after successful breeding (DJJ). The intervals that they spend away are unknown,
but would obviously depend on the birds’ recent history. Adults may return for
the following nesting season or rest for ≥1 year. Some young birds may spend the
majority of their 5 years of immaturity away from the Island, but some immatures
of all ages can be found on the Island at all times (DJJ; IAWM). Christmas Island
Frigatebirds typically vacate roost-islands daily before dawn and re-collect
in soaring flocks over the islands around dusk, but do not land until after dark
(A. Jensen, Q. Phillipps, N. Brickle, F. Noni, D. Bakewell, S. Rajathurai & K. Jordan
in litt.; DJJ). At least 13 roost-islands regularly used by non-breeding Frigatebirds
have been discovered through observation or by satellite-tracking studies
(Table 6). These are all located in the Java, South China, Sulu and Andaman Seas,
which are shallow, ‘brown water’ seas on the Sunda Shelf. Flocks of 100–≥500
Christmas Island Frigatebirds (often mixed with larger or smaller numbers of
Lesser and sometimes Great Frigatebirds) have been reported at some roost-
islands. Where counts have been made at roost-islands, females are more
common than males (Phillipps & Phillipps 2009; Jensen & Tan 2010), but it has
not been determined whether this reflects differences in behaviour, a skewed sex
ratio or other factors. These roost-islands are evidently important in providing an
opportunity for frigatebirds to remain at sea for extended periods, far from the
breeding colonies, without the need to rest on the water or remain on the wing.
Hundreds of reliable reports of Christmas Island Frigatebirds come from
locations on the Sunda Shelf seas and coastlines (DJJ). Records become sparser
with increasing distance from the Sunda Shelf. Northwards, the Frigatebird has
been recorded round the northern coast of the South China Sea as far as Hong Kong
(Chalmers 2002). Eastwards, there are only four records from Wallacea (Trainor
2004), plus a report from Darwin, NT (McKean et al. 1975), one from the Gulf of
Papua (Simpson 1990), and intriguing reports (with no supporting details) from
Melanesia (Dutson 2001). Southwards, the only records outside Christmas Island
waters are from the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (Stokes & Goh 1987). Westwards, the
Frigatebird is reported rarely from the Andaman Islands, Sri Lanka and India (e.g.
Dwarakanath 1981; Futehally 1981; Di Silva 1990, 1997; Saxena 1994; Warakagoda
1994) although many reports are unconvincing. The farthest and most unlikely
record is of a juvenile in Kenya in 1969 (Mann 1989). It was identified from
photographs by P. Harrison, but has frequently been considered unverified
(C. Mann in litt.). The identification has recently been verified from the
photographs by DJJ, using characters provided by James (2004). BirdLife
International (2001) has the most detailed collation of records published.
This species breeds only on Christmas Island and is not known to have ever
bred elsewhere. The rarest of the world’s five species of frigatebirds, it is listed
as Critically Endangered by the IUCN (BirdLife International 2000, 2001, 2004;
IUCN 2013) and Vulnerable under the Australian EPBC Act. Garnett et al. (2011)
considered it Critically Endangered because of its limited area of breeding
colonies and continuing population decline, but listed mostly speculative threats.
Historically, loss of breeding habitat has been the most severe cause of decline.
There was probably a large colony in Flying Fish Cove before human settlement
(Ridley 1891; Sharpe 1900). A large area of prime habitat was cleared at the Golf
Course during World War II. The ‘dryers colony’ on the northern coast was large
in 1967, affected by phosphate dust from c. 1971, sparsely populated by 1985,
and abandoned by 2003 (Nelson 1972; Stokes 1985; James 2003). Harvesting
Frigatebirds for food also had a severe impact, probably from the early days of
settlement, but ceased from the late 1970s (Nelson 1972; Stokes 1985). James
(2003) detected a decline of 3–16% between 1985 and 2003, but identified no
threats on the Island that could account for this. He speculated that unknown
threats in the marine range might be operating. Certainly, the reliance on seas and
roost-islands over the Sunda Shelf presents a difficult conservation scenario: the
area is highly populated, intensely fished, frequently polluted, and spread across
numerous political jurisdictions where conservation has low priority.
Abbott’s Booby Papasula abbotti abbotti [Figures 17–18 (p. S56)]

Common endemic breeding species (2500 breeding pairs). The species was
described by Ridgway (1893) from a bird collected by Dr W.L. Abbott on
Assumption Island north of Madagascar on 18 September 1892. The first record
from Christmas Island was a specimen collected by Andrews on the eastern coast
in October 1897 (Sharpe 1900).
Historical population estimates of Abbott’s Booby are listed in Table 3. In
addition, there have been six dedicated surveys of the breeding population and
one re-interpretation (Table 7). The rugged terrain and density of forest in the
nesting habitat make thorough surveys an arduous and difficult task. The biennial
nesting cycle (see p. S68) means that only a proportion of the population is
present in any season, so total population estimates must be derived by making
assumptions about the number of absent birds. In addition, factors that might
influence breeding numbers (e.g. habitat clearing, Yellow Crazy Ants and weather)
have seemingly had different influences on all surveys (Table 7). Consequently,
the results are complex and discordant. Building on four earlier surveys, and
being particularly thorough, Yorkston & Green (1992, 1997) produced the best
population estimate to date, of 2500 pairs, though this is now well out of date.
That survey is no longer repeatable because of regrowth on the survey grid lines
and forest thickening induced by Yellow Crazy Ants (P. Green pers. comm.; DJJ).
A rapid and untidy aerial survey by PANCI in 2002 counted ~1500 breeding
sites (actually 1444: James & Milly 2006), but was not checked on the ground for
accuracy or analysed (Olsen 2004b). The claim that the raw count was comparable
with previous surveys (Johnstone & Storr 1998; Olsen 2004a,b) is premature
considering the complex population dynamics (Nelson & Powell 1986) and the
uncertain relationship between the different survey methods. The results from a
second helicopter survey by PANCI in 2009 have not been published. Although
the trend of the surveys appears to show decline followed by recovery (Table 7),
the reality is probably decline followed by no recovery, with any apparent increase
caused by increasingly thorough surveys (Yorkston & Green 1997).
Abbott’s Booby has a protracted breeding cycle, averaging 16 months, to raise
the single chick (Nelson 1971; Nelson & Powell 1986; Reville et al. 1990a). Reville
et al. (1990a) reported that most (80%) successful breeders do not attempt to
breed the following year: 70% wait until 2 years later, and 10% wait even longer;
~5% successfully raise nestlings by laying late (e.g. November) in the following
season. Circumstantial evidence indicates high fidelity to mates and nest-sites
(Nelson & Powell 1986). Numerous authorities have described the nesting season
to include laying from April to July, with a clear peak in May that leads to a peak
hatching period of July (Nelson 1971, 1978; Nelson & Powell 1986). Reville et al.
(1990a) found a strong correlation between this peak hatching period and low
sea-surface temperatures associated with high marine productivity. However,
they also reported a wider spread of hatching dates, from July to October, and
found that chicks hatching earlier and reaching a larger size by November (when
food becomes scarcer) have higher survival rates. In 2004–2007, hatching
peaked as late as August or September (Hennicke 2004, 2006; J. Hennicke pers.
comm.). The magnitude and significance of this possible time-shift has yet to be
explained. Dependent juveniles remain at their nest-sites and are fed by their
parents until June or later of the next year (Reville et al. 1990a). Nests are located
in tall evergreen rainforest trees on the upper terraces and central plateau, mostly
150–260 m asl (Nelson 1971; Reville et al. 1990a), although Yorkston & Green
(1997) found some as low as 100 m asl on the northern coast. Successive surveys
show a gradual expansion of the breeding area (Nelson & Powell 1986; Yorkston
& Green 1997; Olsen 2004a,b). This may be a response to habitat loss and
degradation, which reduces nesting density, forces birds to seek new nesting areas,
and lowers breeding success in some instances (Reville et al. 1990a,b; Boland
et al. 2012). Nests tend to be located in trees that are sheltered from the prevailing
south-easterly trade winds, and on the north-western side of nest-trees. Over
60% of nests are in Planchonella nitida or Syzygium nervosum, and >95% are in
just six species of tree (Powell & Tranter 1981; Nelson & Powell 1986; Yorkston &
Green 1997).
Abbott’s Booby has been listed as globally Endangered by the IUCN for 48 years
(IUCN 1966, 2013), and is also listed as Endangered under the EPBC Act. Garnett et
al. (2011) considered it Endangered. The species was extirpated at other breeding
islands in the Indian Ocean by the early 20th century. Habitat clearance has been
the main threat, and the first declaration of National Park on Christmas Island
was specifically to protect Abbott’s Booby habitat (DNP 2002). Between 1970 and
1974, it was estimated that 25% of the breeding habitat and 15% of the Booby
population were destroyed (HRCEC 1976), and by 1987 one-third of the breeding
habitat had been cleared for mining (Reville et al. 1990b). D. Powell (in Yorkston
& Green 1997) witnessed the direct deaths of many chicks and adult birds, and
Reville et al. (1990a) estimated that 400 breeding pairs were lost. Wind turbulence
Table 7. Population surveys of Abbott’s Booby. Breeding sites = active nests and
dependent juveniles at old nests (i.e. spanning 2 nesting seasons), though definitions
varied slightly between studies; breeding pairs = entire breeding populations estimated
using various assumptions regarding the proportion of birds absent from the Island at
the time of the survey. Sources: 1 = Nelson (1971, 1972), 2 = Powell & Tranter (1981),
3 = Nelson & Powell (1986), 4 = Reville et al. (1990a,b), 5 = Yorkston & Green (1992,
1997), 6 = Olsen (2004a,b), and 7 = PANCI unpubl. data.
Breeding Breeding
Year Timing Survey Source
sites pairs
1967 Before habitat Ground, + return 786 2300– 1

clearing counts 3000
1979–80 During habitat Ground, + return 1351 2
clearing counts
1982 During habitat Ground, + return 1404–1518 1136 3
clearing counts
1983 During habitat Subsample 1900 4
clearing modification of (2)
1991 After habitat Ground 1833 2500 5
clearing and
cyclone
2002 Height of Helicopter 1444 6
Crazy Ant
infestations
2009 During La Niña Helicopter ? ? 7
event
downstream of these clearings led to an estimated decrease in nesting success of

~10% (Reville et al. 1990a,b). Given the species’ low rate of reproduction, this extra
burden is probably a considerable hindrance to recovery. Extensive revegetation
intended to reduce this turbulence has been carried out and continues, but its
effectiveness has not been assessed. Meanwhile, repeated proposals to reopen
old mine sites (for further mining, the IDC, industry, etc.) or clear virgin forest
for mining, present perennial threats (Olsen 2004a; James 2007; CIEWG 2010).
Garnett & Crowley (2000) predicted that a decline in the population of 80% over
three generations would occur with the spread of Yellow Crazy Ants. Fortunately,
this prediction looks unlikely, but changes to forest structure induced by the
Ants may yet cause further decline in the quality of breeding habitat (D. James
in IUCN 2013). With a small population size, stochastic events such as storms
can have considerable impacts (Olsen 2004a). For example, a cyclone in March
1988 (outside the peak of breeding) destroyed one-third of nest-sites, killed one-
third of dependent juveniles, and apparently caused substantially reduced nesting
effort in the following two seasons (Yorkston & Green 1997). Reville et al. (1990a)
considered that nesting success would be higher in El Niño years when Indian
Ocean sea-surface temperatures are lower. In keeping with this, we noted that
there were unusually low numbers of juveniles and attendant adults in December
2010 to January 2011 during a severe La Niña event (BOM 2013).
Marine records: Within the EEZ, two Abbott’s Boobies were seen 8 nm north-
west of the Island on 16 October 1987, one was seen 63 nm north on 15 April 1995,
and one was seen outside the EEZ, 225 nm east-south-east at 11°24′S, 109°22′E on
3 October 1995 (N. Cheshire in litt.). Birds sometimes feed within a few kilometres
of the northern coast, while commuting (DJJ). Tracking studies have shown
that birds brooding small chicks feed throughout a radius of 200–500 km from
the Island, but especially to the north and north-west (Hennicke 2004, 2006).
Reports within the potential range of breeding birds have come from the cold
upwelling near the southern coast of Java (Becking 1976b), Java Head (J.B. Nelson
in Becking 1976b) and the Sunda Strait (P. Andrew pers. comm.). Farther afield
in the Indian Ocean, there are single records from Ashmore Reef, the Exmouth
Plateau and a ‘sub-adult’ from Broome, WA (Hassell & Boyle 2000; Palliser 2005;
BARC Cases 297, 432 & 541), near Scotts Reef (Graff 2013; Watson 2013) and
the Banda Sea (van Balen 1996). Two early sight records from the Chagos Group
(Bourne 1971; Hirons et al. 1976) are not supported by descriptive details (Bourne
& Nelson 1976), but a 1996 record is more plausible (Symens 1999). A recent sight
record from Rota in the Northern Marianas, Pacific Ocean (Pratt et al. 2009), is an
exceptional and surprising record.
Currently, Abbott’s Booby breeds only on Christmas Island, where it is a
relict species. The collection of the first specimen on Assumption Island (north
of Madagascar) followed by two more in 1908 (Fryer 1911) strongly suggests
that it bred there in historical times (Abbott in Ridgway 1895; Bourne 1976),
although Gibson-Hill (1950) and Nelson (1974b) argued that the habitat there
was unsuitable. Formerly, it bred on Mauritius (pre-human subfossil material),
and probably on Rodriguez Island, Mauritius (Nelson 1974b; Bourne 1976; Cheke
2001). Circumstantial evidence that it also nested on Glorieuses, Cosmoleda, the
Seychelles and the Chagos Group is not compelling (Bourne 1971, 1976; Nelson
1974b). Subfossil remains of the nominate subspecies have also been found
in the Pacific at Tikopia in the Solomon Islands and Efate in Vanuatu (Olson &
Warheit 1988; Steadman 2006). A second subspecies, P. a. costelloi, has been
described from subfossils recovered farther east in the Marquesas, central Pacific
(Steadman et al. 1988). The suggestion that a large booby on Cocos Island (Costa
Rica) in the eastern Pacific Ocean (Slud 1967) is, or was, a relict population of
Abbott’s Booby or very similar (Nelson 1974b) was thought improbable by Bourne
(1976). Note however that this was before the description of costelloi. In any case,
Abbott’s Booby bred widely in the tropical Indo-Pacific before the arrival of, and
persecution by, humans.
Red-footed Booby Sula sula [Figure 19 (p. S57)]

Abundant breeding species (12 000 breeding pairs). The first record of the species
from the Island was an adult female specimen collected by Captain J.P. Maclear
in January 1887 (Sharpe 1887). Historical population estimates are listed in
Table 3. The estimate of 12 050 pairs by Stokes (1988, citing Stokes 1984) was
based on a combination of distribution surveys and density sampling (Stokes
1985), and is the only quantitative estimate. Nelson (1972) guessed that there
were 3000 pairs along the northern coast alone. Stokes (1985, 1988) recorded
1058 nesting pairs in 16.4 ha of forest (65 nests per ha) at South Point in 1984 and
1985, before the site was mined.
Breeding is highly seasonal, with nest-building in April and laying concentrated
in May–June (Gibson-Hill 1947; Nelson 1972). Colonies are located primarily in
semi-deciduous forests on the shore terraces and footslopes of the inland cliff, and
in some places on the upper terrace up to ~150 m asl (Gibson-Hill 1947; Stokes
1988). Nests are always in trees, and usually high above the ground. Formerly,
Red-footed Boobies may have nested close to the ground near Lily Beach before
abandoning the practice under hunting pressure (Nelson 1972). In the early
2000s, >50 nests were counted in each of three giant trees (a Strangler Fig and
two Propeller Trees) behind the Golf Course, but two of those fell over, in 2002
and 2005 (DJJ). When a Propeller Tree fell in April 2005, DJJ was nearby and
inspected within 20 minutes of the crash; adult Boobies had been building nests,
but none was killed or injured (DJJ). Red-footed Boobies frequently nest alongside
both Great and Christmas Island Frigatebirds, sometimes within a few metres.
Nest-sites are generally separated from those of Abbott’s Booby, except possibly
on the second terrace above Middle Point, where the two species come very close
(DJJ).
Marine records: Red-footed Boobies are often observed from shore in large flocks
feeding on bait fish driven to the surface by pelagic predatory fish, particularly
Yellowfin Tuna Thunnus albacares (DJJ). Many were seen close to the Island on
21 February 1964 (Slinn 1994). N. Cheshire (in litt.) made many observations from
the RV Franklin over several cruises in October 1987, April and September 1995
and September–October 1999, which included: 11 birds 55 nm north, 32 feeding
75 nm north, 34 feeding 20 nm east-north-east, 60 birds 76 nm east-north-east,
65 feeding 20 nm east, 500 birds 22 nm east flying towards the Island, 15 birds
48 nm east, 30+ feeding 27 nm west-south-west, one bird 83 nm east-south-east,
three adults 90 nm south-east, 100+ adult and 20+ immature birds 52 nm south-
south-east, four birds 97 nm south-south-east, six birds 198 nm south-south-east,
and 400+ birds feeding 8 nm north-west of the Island. During four marine surveys
between 1987 and 1996, Dunlop et al. (2001) recorded Red-footed Boobies on
57 occasions between 9°S and 17°S, over waters with sea-surface temperatures
of 26.2–29.9°C and salinities of 32.65–34.77‰. Records away from the Island
might include birds from other breeding stations. Breeding birds with small chicks
tend to make 1-day (returning at night) or 2-day foraging trips, ranging from near-
shore up to 200 km offshore, with most trips being ≥100 km offshore (Taylor
2010; J. Hennicke pers. comm.).
The Island population of Red-footed Boobies is not listed as globally threatened
by the IUCN (2013) or under the EPBC Act, as it is considered a secure population
of a more widely distributed and secure species. Stokes (1988) estimated that
220 ha of breeding habitat had been cleared up to December 1987, including areas
with densities of up to 65 nests per ha, but a moratorium on forest clearing has
been in place since 1988. Many, possibly 2000 birds per year, were taken for food
up to the late 1970s (Nelson 1972; Stokes 1988). Strong winds sometimes cause
many chicks to fall to the forest floor. There is little information about the effects of
El Niño Southern Oscillation events on nesting success, but La Niña events seem
to reduce nesting success. J. Hennicke (in Taylor 2010) reported low breeding
participation and success in 2010, and suggested that these were related to high
rainfall and high sea-surface temperatures.
Colour morphs and taxonomy: This is a pantropical and monotypic species. It
has been said to have three subspecies (e.g. Dorst & Mougin 1979; Dickinson
2003). However, as noted by Murphy (1936) and Nelson (1978, 2005), these are
based on colour morphs. Colour morphs include largely white birds, white-tailed
brown birds (the brown being of varying intensities), and all-brown birds. The
colour morphs often cluster geographically within island groups. Nevertheless,
the three morphs co-exist, with many island groups having more than one colour
morph freely interbreeding. This confounds the broader geographical boundaries
suggested for subspecies. For example, all the populations of Red-footed Boobies
of the Indian Ocean east to the central Pacific were included in one subspecies,
yet just within the Indian Ocean there is considerable variation. Most populations
in the Indian Ocean are all-white morphs, yet white-tailed brown-morph birds
are (or were) dominant in the western Indian Ocean populations on Europa,
Tromelin, the Glorieuses and Rodrigues Islands, and were also present at Agalega
and possibly St Brandon (Le Corre 1999; Cheke 2001).
The Island population of Red-footed Boobies consists almost entirely of white-
morph birds. The orange-buff wash to the head and underparts in the breeding
plumage is particularly strong in the Island population, suggesting some degree
of genetic separation. The first record of a white-tailed brown-morph bird was in
early June 1967, though no further details were given (van Tets & van Tets 1967;
contra Hennicke 2009). Since then, white-tailed brown-morph Boobies (with
brown scapulars—sensu Nelson 1978; contra Marchant & Higgins 1990) have
been seen on several occasions, including single adults at sea off Lily Beach in July
2005 (DJJ), flying over the Settlement in August 2005 (DJJ), and at Flying Fish
Cove in December 2005 (IAWM). An adult was seen collecting sticks on several
occasions near Ethel Beach in August and September 2007 (Hennicke 2009). An
adult with a damaged wing was being rehabilitated at the Parks Office in April
2008 and was still present in May 2009 (IAWM). At least two Boobies were seen
collecting sticks in May 2009, one at the Chinese Cemetery on 2 May and one near
Ethel Beach on 6–7 May (IAWM). Two were seen returning from the sea in April
2012 (DJJ). Clear sexual dimorphism in bare-part coloration was documented in
breeding colonies in the Coral Sea (James 2001b), but is barely discernible on
Christmas Island (DJJ). Gibson-Hill (1947) described changes in the coloration of
bare parts associated with progressive stages of breeding.
The breeding colonies of Red-footed Boobies nearest to Christmas Island are
on North Keeling Island, Ashmore Reef, islands in the Flores and Banda Seas in
Eastern Indonesia, on the Spratly and Paracel (Xisha) Islands in the South China
Sea, and in the Chagos Group (de Korte & Silvius 1994; Hsu & Melville 1994; Poole
1994; Symens 1999; Johnstone & Darnell 2004b; Clarke et al. 2011). In Indonesia,
Red-footed Booby colonies include both white morphs and white-tailed brown
morphs (de Korte 1984; de Jong 2011), with the colony on Suanggi Island in the
Banda Sea having 5–15% white-tailed brown-morph birds. Indonesian populations
of the Boobies are under threat from human activity, including hunting and
habitat loss, and the Red-footed Booby has long been extinct as a breeding species
in western Indonesia (de Korte & Silvius 1994; de Jong 2011). Continued pressure
on the eastern Indonesian populations may have encouraged movement of birds,
including white-tailed brown-morph birds, into Christmas Island waters.
Brown Booby Sula leucogaster plotus

Abundant breeding species (5000 breeding pairs). The first record appears
to be four specimens collected by C.W. Andrews at Flying Fish Cove in August
and November 1897 (Sharpe 1900). Historical population estimates are listed in
Table 3. Gibson-Hill (1947) and Stokes (1988, citing Stokes 1984) both listed the
population at ~5000 pairs, though neither provided any supporting data. Nelson
(1972) estimated 2250 pairs along the eastern coast alone.
Breeding is probably partly aseasonal (Gibson-Hill 1947; Marchant & Higgins
1990). Laying has been recorded in all months, but there is a strong peak in March–
May (Gibson-Hill 1947; Nelson 1972). There is considerable synchronisation
within sub-colonies, moderate synchronisation between them, and possibly
wide variation in timing between years (DJJ), but the patterns remain to be fully
documented. Nest-sites are mostly along the outer edge of the shore terrace or
on the top edge of the first inland cliff. Where the shore terrace is wide and the
pinnacle terrain is not excessively rugged (such as Middle Point and the eastern
shore terrace of South Point), Brown Boobies nest in loose colonies with spacing
between nests as close as ~2 m. Where the pinnacles are more rugged (e.g. the
western shore terrace of South Point and the Dales coast), the nesting density is
lower, with spacing often dictated by flat spaces in the terrain. On the top of the
inland cliff, spacing is lower again, and often linear, and depends on available
outcrops and high ledges. In some locations, scattered nests occur up to 10 m
inside the forest, both on the shore terrace (e.g. above Margaret Beaches) and
on top of the inland cliff (e.g. east of Egeria Point). Nest-sites are always on the
ground, either under cover of vegetation or in the open (Gibson-Hill 1947; DJJ).
Marine records: Occasional Brown Boobies were seen close to the Island on
21 February 1964 (Slinn 1994). Around 20 birds were seen 45–60 nm east of the
Island on 20 June 1967 (Simpson 1970). N. Cheshire (in litt.) saw this species
within the EEZ in October 1987, April 1995 and September 1999. Locations
included: 75 nm north, 20 nm east-north-east, 20 nm east, 48 nm south-east,
52 nm and 100 nm south-south-east, 27 nm west-south-west and 8 nm north-
west. Brown Boobies were seen singly and in flocks of ≤40, and often feeding.
One was seen just outside the EEZ by D. Balance, at 10°36′S, 105°30′E, on
28 December 1999 (Bourne 2000). Records from farther afield might include birds
from other breeding stations. However, sight records from the cold upwelling
near the southern coast of Java (Becking 1976b) were likely to be of birds from
Christmas Island, since it is the nearest breeding station, and one bird banded
on the Island was recovered on that shore (ABBBS unpubl. data). Dunlop et al.
(2001) commented on the lack of records distant from the Island, and suggested
that the birds forage comparatively close to breeding stations. They mapped
Brown Boobies over deep water with sea-surface temperatures of 24.0–29.9°C
and salinities of 32.65–35.35‰.
The Island population of Brown Boobies is not listed as globally threatened by

the IUCN (2013) or under the EPBC Act, as it is considered a secure population
of a more widely distributed and secure species. Storm swells occasionally cause
extensive destruction of nests in exposed sub-colonies, especially on the western
coast of South Point (DJJ). Some nesting habitat has been lost to clearing, mostly
for municipal purposes rather than mining (Stokes 1988). Minor poaching occurred
historically (Stokes 1988). A small sub-colony on the shore terrace at Low Point
declined from >40 nests in 2002 to ~20 in 2004–2006 and through to 2012 (DJJ;
IAWM), presumably from disturbance by tourists after the 2003 construction of
stairs and a boardwalk made the colony easily accessible. Cat scats are frequent
in Booby colonies, suggesting that cats may take small chicks (Stokes 1988; DJJ).
The invasive Tropical Fire Ant Solenopsis geminata occurs amongst nests on the
eastern shore terrace of South Point, swarming on dead chicks and dropped fish
(DJJ). Ticks (Acari) (rare on the Island) were found in several Booby nests on the
inland cliff above Douglas Point in 2006 (DJJ). There is no information on the
effects of El Niño Southern Oscillation events on nesting success.
This is a pantropical and polytypic species. Nominate leucogaster occurs in the
Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean, subspecies brewsteri and etesiaca in the eastern
tropical Pacific, and subspecies plotus in the Indian and western Pacific Oceans,
including Christmas Island. The nearest breeding colonies are on the Cocos
(Keeling) Islands, Ashmore Reef, islands in the Banda Sea in eastern Indonesia,
and the Spratly Islands in the South China Sea, with larger numbers on islands off
the northern coast of WA and the Chagos Group (de Korte & Silvius 1994; Poole
1994; Johnstone & Storr 1998; Symens 1999; Johnstone & Darnell 2004b; Clarke
et al. 2011).
Great Cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo

Vagrant. About six reports, but only two confirmed records. Three Great
Cormorants were noted by D. Merton and D. Powell in October and November
1977, including two at Flying Fish Cove on 18 October 1977 (van Tets 1978a; Stokes
et al. 1987). A third individual recorded at the same time was said to have perched
for 2 days on a yacht that arrived from the coast of Java, until it was in sight of the
Island (Stokes et al. 1987; ANPWS file, Parks Office). It was probably one of these
birds that was found dead by D. Powell at West White Beach on 6 November 1977
(ANWC 19872), and another from 1977 was donated by D. Merton to the ANWC
(spirit specimen 30438, head only). Both of these individuals have white throats,
and are thus the Australian subspecies carboides (IAWM). One was seen by
D. Merton at Greta Beach, on 8 January 1978, being attacked by frigatebirds, and
another as it flew over Flying Fish Cove on 2 August 1978 (Stokes et al. 1987). One
was recorded by J. Hicks at the Dales on 5 July 1980 (ANPWS file, Parks Office).
A cormorant seen flying past the Settlement by C. Surman (pers. comm.) on 3 July
2004 was said to be too large for a Little Black Cormorant P. sulcirostris and was
probably a Great Cormorant. A Great Cormorant was seen at Flying Fish Cove in
March 2006 (J.N. Dunlop pers. comm.).
This species is widespread in Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia and eastern North
America (Marchant & Higgins 1990). Subspecies carboides breeds in Australia,
where it is widespread and highly nomadic (Marchant & Higgins 1990). The
Eurasian subspecies sinensis is resident in northern South-East Asia and a scarce
visitor to the Malay Peninsula (Robson 2000). This species is extremely rare in the
Greater Sundas: it is not recorded from Java or Bali, is possibly extinct in Sumatra
and rare in Borneo (MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Holmes 1997). In Wallacea,
it has been recorded only from the Kai Islands, where it is likely to have been
subspecies carboides, given the proximity to New Guinea (White & Bruce 1986;
Coates & Bishop 1997; Clements 2000). In this context, the Great Cormorant that
supposedly rode from Java to Christmas Island on a yacht seems implausible.
Little Black Cormorant Phalacrocorax sulcirostris

Vagrant. At least four sets of records. One was seen at the cantilevers at Flying
Fish Cove over 2 weeks in September–October 1986 (Stokes 1988). One was seen
at Flying Fish Cove in August 1990 (Johnstone & Darnell 2004a; K. Coate in
litt.). One was seen by M. Carter at the Settlement in mid November 2001 (Anon.
2002b). One was seen at Flying Fish Cove on 14 March 2002 (Anon. 2002c;
Holmes 2002). An adult female in care at the Parks Office (noted by DJJ on
8 September 2002) subsequently died (NMV B.24012). One was seen at Flying
Fish Cove on 5 December 2002 (Doughty 2003); Johnstone & Darnell (2004a)
listed this record erroneously as January 2003. Single birds were seen by DJJ in
Flying Fish Cove on 19 and 26 April and 25 August 2003. A juvenile was seen at
Dolly Beach on 10 November 2003 (Barrand & Barrand 2003). A single bird seen
by DJJ at Ethel Beach on 8 February 2004 had been present since mid December
2003 (M. Orchard pers. comm.). One was seen by DJJ at Flying Fish Cove on
14 June 2004. One was seen twice at Ethel Beach in late November 2004 (Carter
2004). Many of the records between 2001 and 2004 probably represent multiple
sightings of one or a few individuals.
This species is widespread and common in Australia, New Guinea, and Wallacea
(Marchant & Higgins 1990; Coates & Bishop 1997). It is rare to scarce in the
Greater Sundas except in Java, where it was first recorded in the 1940s but is now
a common breeding species (MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; DJJ). Christmas Island
birds could originate from Australia or Indonesia.
Australian Pelican Pelecanus conspicillatus

Vagrant. Two records. One was seen by D. Powell in October 1978 (Stokes et al.
1987). An emaciated bird was found by J. Hicks at Flying Fish Cove on 23 July
1981 and later released (Stokes et al. 1987).
This species breeds only in Australia, where it is widespread and highly
nomadic (Marchant & Higgins 1990). It is a vagrant to Java and probably Sumatra
(MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993) and a vagrant or irregular visitor to Wallacea
(Coates & Bishop 1997). It has not been recorded in mainland South-East Asia
(Robson 2000). In 1978, an irruption from Australia saw it become widespread
and locally numerous in Wallacea, and vagrants reached New Zealand, the Greater
Sundas, Fiji, Palau and Christmas Island (van Tets 1978b; Marchant & Higgins
1990; MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Coates & Bishop 1997).
Yellow Bittern Ixobrychus sinensis

Vagrant. Eight sets of records. One was captured by D. Powell at Waterfall
Cove on 17 February 1978 and released the next day (Stokes et al. 1987). One
immature was captured, measured, photographed, banded and released near the
Post Office Padang on 16 December 1985 (Stokes et al. 1987). Two photographs,
measurements and a summary of field characters were provided by Stokes (1990).
One was photographed by L. Preston and L. Cash at the LB3 ponds on 17 February
2009 (Anon. 2009b; Dooley 2009a; Ramsay 2009a; L. Preston pers. comm.;
BARC Case 596). A ‘juvenile’ (presumably immature) bird was taken into care
on 15 November 2010, though it subsequently died (L. Preston in Anon. 2011a;
Ramsay 2011a; Palliser & Carter 2013; BARC Case 733). At least seven birds were
present on the Island from late December 2010 to early March 2011 (Anon. 2011a,b;
Baxter 2011a; Carter 2011b; Clarke 2011b; Dooley 2011a,b; Marsh 2011; L. Preston
pers. comm.; BARC Case 734). This included up to six birds seen at the entrance
to the Resort and one bird at the LB3 ponds, all on 5 January (Carter 2011b). One
was found by L. Preston at the LB3 ponds stalking and eating grasshoppers in
the second week of December 2011 (Barrand c. 2011). One was seen at the Resort
entrance on 17 February 2012 (Anon. 2012a; Dooley 2012b; Faulkner 2012). One
was seen in the Settlement in early December 2013 (Baxter 2013).
This monotypic species is a scarce to locally common resident and winter visitor
in mainland South-East Asia, the Greater Sundas, Wallacea, the Philippines and
New Guinea (MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Coates & Bishop 1997; Kennedy et al.
2000; Robson 2000). It has been recorded on several islands in the Indian and
Pacific Oceans and is a vagrant to mainland Australia and the Cocos (Keeling)
Islands (Marchant & Higgins 1990; Baxter 2010b; James 2010; Anon. 2012c;
Dooley 2012a; Watson 2012; BARC Case 678).
Schrenck’s Bittern Ixobrychus eurhythmus

Vagrant. Two records. A single bird was rescued from a cat by S. Kowi in the
Settlement on 18 November 2003, but died shortly afterwards (NMV B.30627;
Barrand et al. 2006; BARC Case 419). A single bird was photographed along
the Dolly Beach Track near Ross Hill Springs on 30 November 2010 (Baxter
2010b; Anon. 2011a; Dooley 2011a; Ramsay 2011a; Palliser & Carter 2012; BARC
Case 677).
Schrenck’s Bittern breeds in northern Asia and is a scarce winter visitor to
mainland South-East Asia, the Greater Sundas, Sulawesi in Wallacea, and the
Philippines (MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Coates & Bishop 1997; Kennedy et al.
2000; Robson 2000). The two records above are the only records from Australian
territory.
Cinnamon Bittern Ixobrychus cinnamomeus

Vagrant. Four records. One was captured by P. Green and A. Yon on 22 February
2002 on a track near the Pink House and taken into care, but subsequently died
(NMV B.24113; Carter 2003; BARC Case 332). One was seen by L. Preston at Gaze
Road in the Settlement on 29 February 2008 and the following day by several
observers (Anon. 2008b; Baxter 2008a; Carter & Carter 2008; Dooley 2008b;
Ramsay 2008c; Palliser 2009; BARC Case 555). It was captured, photographed
and released at Waterfall Cove on 1 March, but was not seen again. A bird of either
this species or Schrenck’s Bittern was seen to land on the phosphate loader in
Flying Fish Cove on 7 December 2009 (Baxter 2009; Ramsay 2010a). A male was
photographed near Ma Chor Nui Nui Temple on 27–28 February 2010 (Anon.
2010b; Baxter 2010a; Dooley 2010a; Ramsay 2010b; R. Baxter & L. Preston pers.
comm.). One was photographed near the entrance to the Resort on 10 February
2011 (Anon. 2011b; Clarke 2011b; Dooley 2011b; Ramsay 2011b).
This monotypic species is common to abundant in mainland South-East Asia,
the Greater Sundas, western Wallacea and the Philippines, with some passage
migration recorded in Malaya (MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Coates & Bishop
1997; Kennedy et al. 2000; Robson 2000). It has recently been reported from
the Vogelkop of western New Guinea (Tindige 2003), though its status there is
clouded by the presence of a cinnamon morph of the Black Bittern I. flavicollis
(P. Gregory in litt.). These were the only records from Australian territory until
two records from the Cocos (Keeling) Islands in early 2011 (Carter 2011a; IAWM)
and one from south of Broome, WA, in December 2011 (BARC Case 730).
Black Bittern Ixobrychus flavicollis

Vagrant. Seven records. One was seen by G. van Tets (1974a) at Ross Hill Springs
on 25 September 1972. One was seen by D. Merton at Ross Hill Springs on
25 November 1978 (Stokes et al. 1987). One was seen on the road verge south of
the Golf Course on 7 March 2002 (Holmes 2002; DJJ), and at the same location by
M. Carter and S. Dooley on 12 March 2002 (Anon. 2002c). M. Orchard captured
and relocated a bird from a pond in a suburban yard in Silver City on 25 December
2005; it was identified as nominate flavicollis by DJJ. One was seen along the
Blowholes Road on 4 December 2009 (Barrand c. 2009), not the Golf Course
Road (contra Ramsay 2010a). One was seen and photographed along the road
to the Resort near Ma Chor Nui Nui Temple from 5 January 2011 to late in that
month (Anon. 2011a; Carter 2011b; Marsh 2011; Ramsay 2011b; DJJ; IAWM). One
bird in the Settlement in late November 2011 was taken into care, but later died
(L. Preston pers. comm.; specimen seen in PANCI freezer on 17 January 2012 by
IAWM).
Nominate flavicollis is a scarce to uncommon resident and winter visitor in
mainland South-East Asia, the Greater Sundas, Wallacea and the Philippines
(MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Coates & Bishop 1997; Kennedy et al. 2000;
Robson 2000). Black Bitterns in mainland Australia are the subspecies australis
and make only local movements (Marchant & Higgins 1990), so it is likely that all
Christmas Island records refer to nominate flavicollis.
Eastern Great Egret Ardea modesta

Rare irregular visitor. No seasonal pattern to occurrence. Two were present on
Phosphate Hill in June and July 1961 (Mees 1966). One was seen near the Golf
Course from 7 April to 5 June 1962 (Pearson 1966). One was seen at the Golf
Course on 24 January 1963, where it was found dead on 29 January 1963 (Pearson
1966). Another was seen on 2 October 1963 (Pearson 1966). It was listed by van
Tets (1974a, 1983) as a rare visitor. Occasional individuals were seen between mid
1983 and early 1987 (Stokes 1988). Johnstone & Darnell (2004a) listed it as a
rare or casual visitor. Since 1990, it has been recorded on numerous occasions
by many observers, particularly from 2002 onwards (e.g. Barkla 1996; Hobcroft
1996; Carter 2001, 2010b; Barrand & Barrand 2003; Barrand 2005b, c. 2009;
K. Coate in litt.; N. Hamilton in litt.; L. Preston pers. comm.; DJJ; IAWM). No
Eastern Great Egrets were present in early 2004, but from May 2004 to early
2006 a bold individual was resident in the north-east of the Island (DJJ). This
individual or another was seen occasionally at South Point and the Rubbish Tip
during the same period (DJJ). It patrolled yards in Poon Saan, Silver City and the
Settlement; it hunted grasshoppers in gardens; it hunted Eurasian Tree Sparrows
at chicken-coops and waited on roof-tops for Sparrows flushed from yards by
people; it lay in wait to hunt Christmas Island White-eyes at bird-baths; it hunted
exotic fish in garden ponds; and it visited Flying Fish Cove to hunt in the tidal
pools. Several residents reported that it cleaned all the fish out of their ponds,
and eventually it was dispatched by locals who had lost their fish. Eastern Great
Egrets have also been noted eating Red-footed Booby chicks in the latter’s nests
behind the Kampong (L. Preston pers. comm.). From June 2005 to early 2006
at least, another two Egrets were present in the north-east of the Island (DJJ).
As a pair, they also hunted at garden ponds, in grassy clearings and were often at
Waterfall Cove. They sometimes walked across the crowns of trees as if they were
on floating water-plants, waiting for flocks of foraging White-eyes. They moved
with the White-eye flocks, seemingly trying to stay ahead of them and anticipate
which way the flock was headed. The Egret has been recorded in all months of
the calendar year since 2002. Locations where it has been recorded include the
Airport, Phosphate Hill, Rubbish Tip, Poon Saan, Drumsite, Flying Fish Cove,
Smith Point, the Settlement, North East Point, Golf Course, Resort, Waterfall
Cove, near Stronach Hill, LB3 ponds and South Point.
As delineated, the species is widely distributed from India to Japan and south
through South-East Asia to Australia and New Zealand, with no subspecies
(Christidis & Boles 2008; Marchant & Higgins 1990). The origins of Christmas
Island birds are unknown.
Intermediate Egret Ardea intermedia

Vagrant. Seven to ten records. Sharpe (1897) exhibited a specimen of this species
collected by C.W. Andrews at a meeting of the British Ornithologists’ Club on
15 December 1897. However, this specimen was not referred to again by Sharpe
(1898, 1900), so cannot be considered a valid record. Subsequent workers listed
the species as a rare visitor (e.g. van Tets 1974a). The first acceptable record was
a bird seen by a BOCA tour group from 25 to 29 October 1996 (Barkla 1996). One
was seen with an Eastern Great Egret by DJJ at the Golf Course on 14 September
2002. Two were seen at the Golf Course in early December 2002 (Doughty 2003).
One was seen by DJJ at the Rubbish Tip on 11 April 2004. One, possibly the same
individual, was seen at the Golf Course on numerous occasions from 9 July to
26 November 2004 by DJJ and by two tour groups between 22 November and
6 December 2004 (Carter 2004; Anon. 2005b). One was seen in March 2008
(R. Baxter in litt.) and, presumably the same bird, near the Chinese Cemetery from
11 to 18 April 2008 (J.N. Dunlop pers. comm.). One was seen at the LB3 ponds on
29 November and 3 December 2009 (Barrand c. 2009) and (probably the same
bird) on several days in January 2010 (Carter 2010b). One was seen by a tour
group at the Golf Course on 25–26 November 2012 (James 2012).
This species is widely, but patchily distributed, in the Old World, mostly south of
the Himalayas in Asia and south of 23°N in Africa. Geographical variation is subtle
and poorly understood, with opinions differing substantially about the number of
subspecies (Sharpe 1898; Kuroda 1936; Deignan 1947; Hancock & Elliott 1978;
Mees 1982; Wild Bird Society of Japan 1982; Hancock & Kushlan 1984; White
& Bruce 1986; Marchant & Higgins 1990; MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Coates
& Bishop 1997; Robson 2000; Kushlan & Hancock 2005). Differentiation of
subspecies is based mostly on coloration of bare parts during the courtship period,
so the origins of Christmas Island birds are unresolved.
Purple Heron Ardea purpurea

Vagrant. One record. A juvenile was seen by P. Snetzinger, B. King and H. Buck
on 23 August 1991 (Andrew 1997; Johnstone & Darnell 2004a; Gentile 2009;
B. King in litt.). Although no description or specific locality was given, this record
of a distinctive species came independently from very experienced observers and
so we believe that it is valid.
This species has a patchy distribution in Europe, Africa and southern and
eastern Asia (Kushlan & Hancock 2005). The northernmost populations of
the Asian subspecies manillensis migrate south to join residents in South-East
Asia, the Philippines, Greater Sundas and Wallacea. It is common in the Greater
Sundas (MacKinnon & Phillips 1993). It was placed on Christidis & Boles’s
(2008) supplementary list on the basis of this record. The only other record from
Australian territory was at Herdsman Lake, WA, on 22 February 2013 (BARC
Case 784).
Cattle Egret Ardea ibis

Vagrant. Five records. Two were seen by T. Stokes at the Airport from 19 to
26 June 1985 (Stokes et al. 1987). One was seen by DJJ at the Airport on 10 March
2002. Two were seen by G. Holmes, M. Carter and S. Dooley at the Airport on
12 March 2002 (Anon. 2002c; Holmes 2002). One was seen by DJJ at the Airport
on 11–12 December 2004. An ‘adult’ was seen at the Settlement on 15 April 2005
(Brodie-Good 2005). One was seen at the cantilevers on 28 April 2008 (Anon.
2008c; Carter et al. 2008).
Subspecies coromanda is widespread and common in Australasia, Wallacea
and southern Asia, including the Greater Sundas (Marchant & Higgins 1990;
MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Coates & Bishop 1997). Christmas Island birds could
originate from any of these localities, and can only be the subspecies coromanda.
Striated Heron Butorides striata

Rare irregular visitor. A specimen of the Asian subspecies amurensis was collected
by two Dayak collectors for the ZRC on 8 November 1923 (ZRC 3.00466; Chasen &
Kloss 1924; Morioka & Yang 1996). Van Tets (1974a) listed it as a rare visitor from
Asia. One was seen at Ross Hill Springs on 17 January 1984 (Stokes et al. 1987).
One immature female donated to the NMV around 2002 (NMV B.24114) is listed
as javanicus on geographical grounds (N.W. Longmore in litt.), but also fits on
measurements (wing-length 174 mm—see Wells 1999). This bird was presumably
the one seen in the Parks Australia freezer in December 2001 by Rohan Clarke
(pers. comm.).
Since 2001, there have been at least 28 records and at least one each year.
Most reports were from the north-eastern coast at Flying Fish Cove, Ma Chor Nui
Nui Temple, the Resort, Waterfall Cove, Ethel Beach and Lily Beach. One was
at Andersons Dale, one at the Rubbish Tip, one at the LB3 ponds and one at the
Plantation. The earliest record in this period was 18 November and the latest was
18 May (Robson 2001; Anon. 2002c, 2003, 2004b, 2005b; Holmes 2002; Carter
2004, 2007, 2010b, 2011b; Johnstone & Darnell 2004a; Barrand 2005b; Carter
& Carter 2008; Baxter 2010b, 2011b; James 2010; Clarke 2011b; Marsh 2011;
J. Adams in litt.; R. Baxter in litt.; K. Coate in litt.; C. Doughty in litt.; D. Mantle in
litt.; L. Preston in litt.; M. Roderick in litt.; D. Torr in litt.; C. Nixon pers. comm.;
DJJ; IAWM). All sightings have been of single birds, but in early 2011 there may
have been up to three birds at different sites in the north-east. There have been
three reports of adults (D. Mantle in litt.; DJJ) and one of an immature (D. Mantle
in litt.). On three occasions, DJJ considered the birds to be an Asian subspecies.
This pantropical species has 23–30 subspecies, including about five in South-
East Asia, three in Wallacea and five to eight in Australasia (Payne 1979; Hancock
& Kushlan 1984; Marchant & Higgins 1990; Clements 2000; Kushlan & Hancock
2005). Birds recorded on Christmas Island apparently all originate from South-East
Asia. Resident birds in the Greater Sundas are of subspecies javanicus, whereas in
the western Sumatran Islands the resident subspecies is spodiogaster (Payne 1979;
Hancock & Kushlan 1984; van Marle & Voous 1988; Kushlan & Hancock 2005);
Morioka & Yang (1996) used the synonym sipora for this population. There are
also two migratory subspecies that could reach Christmas Island. One, amurensis,
breeds in north-eastern China, the Korean Peninsula and Japan, and migrates
to southern China, northern Indochina, Taiwan, the Philippines and northern
Borneo (Payne 1979; Hancock & Kushlan 1984; Kushlan & Hancock 2005). The
other, actophilus, breeds in southern China south to northern Myanmar, Thailand
and Indochina, and is said to migrate south to the Nicobar Islands, mainland
South-East Asia, western Sumatran islands and western Borneo (Payne 1979).
The ZRC holds specimens said to be amurensis from Thailand, Singapore and
Sumatra collected from September to March (Morioka & Yang 1996), indicating
that this subspecies is a migrant to South-East Asia including the Greater Sundas.
Van Marle & Voous (1988) also used amurensis for those Striated Herons that
migrate to Sumatra. Thus, the status of the subspecies wintering in South-East
Asia and the Greater Sundas is not resolved. The frequency of records since 2001,
and their clustering on the eastern coast of the Island, may indicate that a small
number of resident individuals was involved, and breeding is even possible. In this
scenario, they could be either javanicus or spodiogaster (sipora). Conversely, the
narrow range of dates (November–May) could indicate a regular wintering pattern
by individuals of a longer-distance migrant, either amurensis or actophilus.
Chinese Pond Heron Ardeola bacchus

Vagrant. Four confirmed records. A bird at the Rubbish Tip was viewed daily by
M. Carter, R. Baxter and others on 1–16 March 2008 (Baxter 2008a; Carter &
Carter 2008; Moorhead 2008; Ramsay 2008c; Palliser 2009; BARC Case 567).
Early references to this as a Javan Pond Heron A. speciosa were in error (Anon.
2008b; Dooley 2008b; M. Carter pers. comm.). A bird in breeding plumage
was seen at the LB3 ponds from 1 to 6 May 2009 (Ramsay 2009b; L. Preston &
P. Kelly pers. comm.; IAWM; BARC Case 626). Another was seen at the corner
of Phosphate Hill Road and the Lily Beach turnoff in March 2010 (L. Preston
pers. comm.). One (presumably the same bird) was still present there on 2–7 May
2010 when seen by R. Baxter (Dooley 2010b; Ramsay 2010c; L. Preston pers.
comm.). One (possibly the same again) was seen in front of a house in Silver City
on 7 May 2010 (Ramsay 2010c). One was photographed near the entrance to the
Resort on 1–2 June 2011 (Anon. 2011c; Dooley 2011c; Ramsay 2011c; M. Rogers
in litt.). In addition, a single pond heron of unknown species was photographed
by a Coate’s Wildlife Tours group, between Flying Fish Cove and Tai Jin House on
9–16 December 1995 (Andrew 1996a; Anon. 1996b; Harvey 1996; Mitchell 1996a;
K. Coate in litt.). A photograph of this bird appeared in Andrew (1996a). Another
pond heron, thought to be a Chinese Pond Heron, was seen by P. & R. Barrand
and P. & D. Agnew near the Phosphate Dryers stockpile on 17 November 2003,
and distant photographs were obtained (Anon. 2004a,b; Palliser 2006; BARC
Case 452—not accepted to species level). An unidentified pond heron in non-
breeding plumage was seen by DJJ at the LB3 ponds on 8 April 2012.
The Chinese Pond Heron breeds in the boreal summer from north-eastern
India through eastern China and northern South-East Asia (Hancock & Kushlan
1984; Kushlan & Hancock 2005). Northern populations winter in South-East
Asia and the Greater Sundas (Hancock & Kushlan 1984; MacKinnon & Phillipps
1993; Robson 2000). Elsewhere in Australian territory, this species has been
recorded from the Cocos (Keeling) Islands in May 2006 (Carter & Baxter 2007;
BARC Case 488) and January–March 2011 (Baxter 2011a; Clarke 2011a; Marsh
2011; T. Palliser pers. comm.) and the Tanami Desert, NT, in March 2009 (BARC
Case 589). It was reported near Broome, WA, in March 2008 (Birding-Aus
archives), and photographed at Scott Reef in March 2009 (BARC Case 611).
Javan Pond Heron Ardeola speciosa

Vagrant. One record. A bird was seen and photographed at the Golf Course by
L. Preston (pers. comm.) on 12 and 13 June 2010 (Ramsay 2010d). It was in
partial breeding plumage, though lacking the crest plumes. As this species breeds
from December to May (Kushlan & Hancock 2005), it is likely that this bird was
dispersing following breeding.
The Javan Pond Heron breeds in southern Sumatra, Java, southern Borneo,
Sulawesi, and the Lesser Sundas east to Sumbawa, and southern central
Myanmar, central Thailand, Cambodia and southern Vietnam. This species has
been recorded also from Malaya, Sarawak, Sabah and Mindanao, where breeding
is suspected (Kushlan & Hancock 2005). Elsewhere in Australia, this species
has been recorded in Darwin in March 2007, and in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands
from February to December 2009 and again in 2012 (Anon. 2009b; Baxter 2009;
Palliser & Carter 2012; P. Jones pers. comm.; IAWM), and Kununurra, WA, on
13 January 2011 (Palliser & Carter 2012; BARC Case 661).
Pied Heron Egretta picata

Vagrant. One set of records. One was seen by a Kevin Coate Tours group at
Waterfall Cove on 1 December 1994 (Anon. 1995; Smith 2000; K. Coate in litt.).
This bird evidently remained for >4 years, with further sightings in December
1995; January, April, and October–December 1996; March 1997; and April 1999
(Anon. 1996a, 1999b; Barkla 1996; Craig 1996; Hobcroft 1996; Maher 1997;
K. Coate in litt.; F. O’Connor pers. comm.).
This species is found in northern Australia and New Guinea, but is uncommon
and patchy in the southern Moluccas and eastern Lesser Sundas west to Timor and
Sulawesi (Coates & Bishop 1997). It has not been recorded from the Indomalayan
Region proper (MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Robson 2000).
White-faced Heron Egretta novaehollandiae

Rare resident, apparently breeding. Two specimens were collected by C.A. Gibson-
Hill on the north-eastern coast in November 1940 (ZRC 3.00679 and 3.00680;
Gibson-Hill 1947; Morioka & Yang 1996). Voous (1964), Mees (1966) and Pearson
(1966) did not record this species, and van Tets (1974a) considered it rare. By late
1986, it was thought by Stokes et al. (1987) to be common and probably a breeding
resident. The species was reported by all visiting parties since 1990 from whom we
have trip reports, usually without comment. It was noted as common on several
trips by birders and tour groups between August 1990 and December 1999 (e.g.
Carter 1994; O’Connor 1999; K. Coate in litt.). Numbers counted by birders at the
Airport in this period were typically around five or six, though 12 were seen in
November–December 1999 (O’Connor 1999; K. Coate in litt.). K. Coate (in litt.)
was told that up to 40 had been counted by Airport staff and, as a consequence,
many had been culled (see also Smith 2000; Carter 2004). On a following trip
in April 2000, the only White-faced Herons seen were three at Phosphate Hill
and one at the Airport (K. Coate in litt.). In November 2001, eight were seen at
the Airport and two at South Point (K. Coate in litt.). The species was recorded
regularly by DJJ between February 2002 and April 2007. The highest count was
a flock of 15 (including three juveniles) at the Airport on 3 April 2005. Single,
newly fledged juveniles were observed at the Golf Course (24 September 2002 and
17 September 2005) and Silver City (30 October 2004). Other locations where
adults were seen included the Rubbish Tip, Chalk Pits at the northern end of the
Airport, Quarry Road industrial area, Irvine Hill, mine fields along the North
South Baseline, South Point, LB3 ponds, Field 22, the IDC, Drumsite, Smith Point,
Flying Fish Cove, Chinese Cemetery, Norris Point, Ma Chor Nui Nui Temple, the
Resort, and Waterfall Cove. Small numbers were also reported regularly to DJJ by
numerous visiting birders during this period.
M. Orchard (pers. comm.) noticed a decline in numbers between 1993 and the
mid 2000s. This is consistent with Stokes’s (1988) estimate of 100 individuals
versus DJJ’s highest count of 15 over 5 years (with no higher counts by visiting
birders since then), and reports of culling. DJJ noted the species to be very wary
of humans and vehicles, which is consistent with persecution. Direct observation
of nesting on the Island has not been reported. However, the observations of
courtship behaviour (Stokes 1988), and newly fledged juveniles (DJJ), and the
year-round presence and persistence of the species despite reported culling leave
little doubt that it nests on the Island.
This species was originally widespread and partially nomadic in Australia, New
Guinea, New Caledonia and the Lesser Sundas (White & Bruce 1986; Marchant
& Higgins 1990). Although currently thought of as monotypic, birds from New
Caledonia have sometimes been separated as the subspecies nana (Amadon 1942).
The subspecies has colonised several island groups: Norfolk Island and Lord
Howe Island c. 1938, though it has been seen on these islands since at least 1907
(Hull 1910; McAllan et al. 2004); New Zealand in the 1940s, where it continues
to increase in number (Robertson et al. 2007); the Kermadec Group since the
1950s (Turbott 1990); the Chatham Group since the 1970s (Turbott 1990); and
Fiji since 1997 (Dutson & Watling 2007). It has been recorded as a vagrant in
Vanuatu, the Louisiade Archipelago, Bougainville, Guadalcanal, Tonga, the Snares
Islands, Auckland, Campbell and Macquarie Islands, the Cocos (Keeling) Islands,
Bali and, intriguingly, Xiamen Island in China (Stokes et al. 1984; Coates 1985;
Gill 1988; Turbott 1990; Bregulla 1992; MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Heather
& Robertson 1997; Dutson 2001; Kushlan & Hancock 2005). It is believed that
birds recorded from the Moluccas may be wintering birds from farther south
(White & Bruce 1986). Apart from vagrants in Bali and China, it has not been
recorded in the Indomalayan Region proper (MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993;
cf. Robson 2000).
Little Egret Egretta garzetta

Vagrant. At least eight reports, but only four confirmed records. Two birds were
observed and one collected at Norris Point in April 1940 (Gibson-Hill 1947).
The bird collected had completely black feet and soles, making it the subspecies
nigripes (ZRC 3.00610; Morioka & Yang 1996; IAWM). ‘Occasional individuals’
were seen by T. Stokes (1988) between 1983 and 1987. One was seen near the
Airport in August 1990 (Johnstone & Darnell 2004a; K. Coate in litt.). One bird,
which had entirely yellow feet and lower 20–30 cm of its legs, was seen at the Golf
Course on 2 November 1993 (Carter 1994). This bird was undoubtedly nominate
garzetta from South-East Asia. One was seen at the Airport on 15 November 2001
(Carter 2001) and (presumably the same bird) at this locality on 18–25 November
2001 (K. Coate in litt.). One was seen at the Dales on 8 and 11 December 2001
(Clarke 2001; Anon. 2002b). One, of the Australian subspecies immaculata, was
seen and photographed at the LB3 ponds on 27–28 April 2008 (Carter et al. 2008;
T. Palliser pers. comm.). Another of the subspecies immaculata was seen by a tour
group at the northern end of the runway on 1 December 2012 (James 2012).
Little Egrets on Christmas Island should be identified with caution: juvenile
white-morph Eastern Reef Egrets E. sacra frequently show yellow soles or yellow
feet and lower legs, unusual bill colours, and a more gracile shape than adults
(N. Moores in litt.; DJJ). Subspecies immaculata is widely distributed in northern
and eastern Australia, and undertakes long-distance movements on occasion; it
has yellow soles to black feet (Hancock & Kushlan 1984; Marchant & Higgins 1990;
Kushlan & Hancock 2005). Subspecies nigripes has black feet, but occasional
individuals have yellowish soles (Kushlan & Hancock 2005). It breeds in Java,
though the limits of its range are unclear. It is known from the southern Malay
Peninsula, and is said to disperse to Sumatra, Borneo and Wallacea, where visitors
from Australia (immaculata) may also occur (MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993;
Coates & Bishop 1997; Wells 1999; Wang & Hails 2007). These two subspecies
are sometimes synonymised under nigripes (e.g. Marchant & Higgins 1990).
Nominate garzetta has yellow feet and lower legs; it breeds throughout much
of Eurasia, and is a scarce to common resident and winter visitor to mainland
South-East Asia, Sumatra, Borneo, Sulawesi and Ambon (White & Bruce 1986;
MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Robson 2000). It has been recorded at least twice
in mainland Australia (Carter & Menkhorst 2006). Observations on Christmas
Island of the subspecies garzetta can only be of birds originating from South-
East Asia, but, without a description, a ‘nigripes’ could be from Australia, Java or
Wallacea. Christmas Island Little Egrets clearly have multiple origins.
Eastern Reef Egret Egretta sacra

Rare breeding species (40 ± 20 pairs). A white female was collected by Captain
J.P. Maclear in January 1887 (Sharpe 1887). Two specimens were collected
in October 1887, when ‘several’ birds were seen (Lister 1889). Sharpe (1898)
erroneously listed one of Lister’s specimens as a Chinese Egret Egretta eulophotes
(see Appendix 1). At least one bird was either seen or collected in August
1890 (Ridley 1891). Ridley (1905) saw a white egret near North East Point on
29 September 1904 that he thought might have been this species. A specimen was
collected for the ZRC by Dayak collectors on 5 November 1923 (ZRC 3.00546;
Morioka & Yang 1996), which was listed without comment by Chasen & Kloss
(1924). Chasen (1933a) categorised the species as a vagrant, but conceded that
it could be resident. Gibson-Hill (1947) considered it the least numerous of the
resident species, with 15–20 pairs, and grey morphs predominating slightly. He
reported the first breeding record: a nest on the sea-cliff near Dolly Beach in August
1940. Two birds were collected by G.F. Mees in June–July 1961 (WAM A.9279
and A.9280). Van Tets (1975) estimated the population at 1–10 pairs. Stokes
(1988) implied that the estimates of Gibson-Hill and van Tets were accurate. He
also recorded the presence of the species away from the shore at streams, pools
and grassy areas on the shore terrace. Reville (1989, 1993) stated that it could
be found in any open area and on roads in the rainforest, and reported breeding
at Dolly and Ethel Beaches. Most birdwatching tours from 1990 to the present
have noted this species. Between February 2002 and April 2007, DJJ recorded
it regularly at all beaches, the Golf Course and the lower reaches of the Dales.
There appeared to be a communal roost-tree near Ethel Beach, used by perhaps
ten birds at times. The species was also occasionally seen at the Chinese Cemetery
and other locations along the road between the Settlement and Resort, and once
at Smith Point. More significantly, it was regularly recorded in accessible areas
where extensive areas of bare pinnacles extend inland from the sea-cliff (e.g. on
the western coast of South Point). During cruises along the northern, eastern and
western coasts by boat, it was seen at irregular intervals, foraging in tidal pools at
the base of the sea-cliff, perching on top of the cliffs or flying along the cliff-faces.
It was never seen above the shore terrace, in mine fields or on rainforest tracks.
Based on this, the population may be in the order of 40 ± 20 pairs (DJJ), though
this does not imply any increase from earlier estimates. The ratio of white to grey
morphs seemed about even or slightly favouring the grey morph.
This polytypic species is widely distributed along the coasts of the Indomalayan
Region, Wallacea, Australasia and Polynesia (Hancock & Kushlan 1984; Marchant
& Higgins 1990; MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Coates & Bishop 1997; Robson
2000; Dickinson 2003). Subspecies albolineata is said to occur in New Caledonia
and the Loyalty Islands, with nominate sacra occupying the remainder of the
range, including Christmas Island.
Nankeen Night-Heron Nycticorax caledonicus

Rare irregular visitor. No seasonal pattern of occurrence. A male of subspecies
hilli was collected on the north-eastern coast in August 1939 (Gibson-Hill 1947),
but the specimen is not currently in the ZRC (Morioka & Yang 1996; IAWM).
Van Tets (1974a) considered it a rare visitor from Australia. One was seen by
D. Merton at the South Point slurry ponds on 10 June 1977 (Stokes et al. 1987).
A night-heron with rufous plumage seen at Middle Point on 1 October 1984 may
have been this species (Stokes et al. 1987). Since 1995, there have been seven
sets of records involving either one or two birds, including adults and immatures
(Maher 1997; Carter 2001, 2004; Clarke 2001; Anon. 2002b, 2005b,d; Johnstone
& Darnell 2004a; Adams 2005; Brodie-Good 2005; R. Baxter in litt.; K. Coate in
litt.; D. Mantle in litt.; G. Roberts in litt.; T. Low pers. comm.; M. Orchard pers.
comm.; DJJ). One or two adults were seen irregularly at Hughs Dale from 14 June
2004 to May 2007, with over 20 reports in that period. Other reported localities
include the shoreline west of Flying Fish Cove, the Grotto, Waterfall Cove, Ethel
Beach and Ross Hill Springs. There have been no reports since January 2008.
Subspecies hilli occurs in Australia, New Guinea and Wallacea (Marchant
& Higgins 1990; Coates & Bishop 1997), and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, and
is the form that reaches Christmas Island (Gibson-Hill 1947; Morioka & Yang
1996). Apparently, the Philippines subspecies manillensis reaches Borneo, and
formerly bred in small numbers in north-western Java (Marchant & Higgins 1990;
MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993). Other subspecies occur in Micronesia, Melanesia,
New Caledonia, and formerly occurred in the Bonin Islands (Marchant & Higgins
1990).
Malayan Night-Heron Gorsachius melanolophus

Vagrant. At least 12 reports, but only two confirmed records. An immature bird was
flushed by H. Yorkston, M. Stokes and T. Stokes from the shore terrace below Ross
Hill Springs on 29 January 1982 (Stokes et al. 1987). One bird was trapped at Tai
Jin House on 13 December 1982, and identified as immature from measurements
and photographs (J. Hicks and N.W. Longmore in Stokes et al. 1987). Another
immature bird was seen at the Christian Cemetery near the Settlement on
21 January 1986 (Stokes et al. 1987). One subadult was seen on tracks near Jedda
Cave on 7–8 March 2002 (Holmes 2002; Palliser 2004; DJJ; BARC Case 345). A
Gorsachius-type night-heron was seen on the road near Dolly Beach on 2 March
2008 (Anon. 2008b; Baxter 2008a; Carter & Carter 2008; Dooley 2008b; Ramsay
2008c). One was seen on the Winifred Beach Track on 9 March 2008 (Baxter
2008a; Moorhead 2008), but was not accepted by BARC (Case 569). One was
seen on the Winifred Beach Track by C. Boland and M. Gant on 15 January 2009
(C. Boland in litt.). Additional possible sightings were made on this track in early
February 2009 (Barkla 2009) and by Parks Australia staff at Egeria Point in late
February 2010 (Baxter 2010a). At least three Malayan Night-Herons were present
from early December 2010 to early March 2011: one near Ross Hill Springs in
December and early February (Clarke 2011b; Ramsay 2011b; L. Preston pers.
comm.); one 50 m from the start of the Dolly Beach Track near the North South
Baseline in late December until it was found dead (evidently a road-kill) on
19 January (Anon. 2011a; Carter 2011b; Marsh 2011; Ramsay 2011b; L. Preston
pers. comm.; DJJ; IAWM); and one on a track near the Jedda Cave from mid
February to 6 March (Anon. 2011b; Baxter 2011a; Clarke 2011b; Dooley 2011b).
The carcass was forwarded to the AM. One live Night-Heron was observed along
the track to Margaret Knoll between mid December 2011 and 17 February 2012
(Anon. 2012a; Dooley 2012b; Faulkner 2012; L. Preston pers. comm.; IAWM;
BARC Case 735).
This monotypic species is a scarce resident and winter visitor in mainland
South-East Asia, the Greater Sundas, Wallacea and the Philippines (MacKinnon
& Phillipps 1993; Coates & Bishop 1997; Kennedy et al. 2000; Robson 2000).
Elsewhere in Australian territory, it was seen and photographed in the Cocos
(Keeling) Islands in May 2011 (R. Baxter, M. Carter & J. Davies in litt.), but the
record has not yet been vetted.
Japanese Night-Heron Gorsachius goisagi

Vagrant. One record. A tour group led by P. Barrand saw and photographed an
adult on the Blowholes Track over several days from 29 November 2007 (Palliser
2009; P. Barrand in litt.; BARC Case 548). It was originally identified as a Malayan
Night-Heron (Anon. 2008a; Dooley 2008a; Ramsay 2008a).
This rare monotypic species breeds in Japan and winters in the Ryukyu Islands,
Taiwan, and southern China, with records south to the Philippines, Brunei,
Sulawesi and Halmahera, and once on Belitung, Sumatra (Kushlan & Hancock
2005; Iqbal & Takari 2006). This is the only record of this species from Australian
territory.
Glossy Ibis Plegadis falcinellus

Vagrant. Four sets of records. One, possibly a juvenile, was seen by G. Holmes at
the southern end of Quarry Road on 26–28 March 2002 (Holmes 2002). One was
seen at South Point from late January until at least 8 March 2007 (Anon. 2007b;
Carter 2007; Ramsay 2007a; R. Baxter in litt.; L. Preston pers. comm.). Four were
seen at the LB3 ponds on 23 April 2011 and one at the same locality 2 days later
(R. Baxter & L. Preston pers. comm.). One was photographed near the Phosphate
Dryers on 29 April 2011 (R. Baxter pers. comm.; C. Nixon & IAWM). Probably
one of the same individuals was seen on the Blowholes Track on 10 July 2011
(J. Woinarski in litt.), with additional sightings at the Central Area Workshop on
3 September 2011 and LB3 ponds on 18 September 2011 (Anon. 2011d; Low 2011;
N. Hamilton in litt.; D. Binns per L. Preston pers. comm.). One was photographed
by a tour group at a minefield along the North South Baseline, south of the junction
with the East West Baseline on 24 November 2012 (James 2012).
This monotypic species has a large, but patchy, range in the Old and New Worlds.
It is widespread, but highly nomadic in the Malay Peninsula and the Greater and
Lesser Sundas (MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Coates & Bishop 1997; Robson
2000). A small population breeds in north-western Java (MacKinnon & Phillipps
1993), possibly the origin of the Christmas Island birds. However, the species is
also widespread and highly nomadic in Australia (Marchant & Higgins 1990).
Oriental Honey-buzzard Pernis ptilorhynchus

Vagrant. Six reports, but only one confirmed record. One was photographed by
Rohan Clarke near the Airport on 10 December 2001 (Clarke 2001, 2003; Palliser
2004; BARC Case 335). It was initially reported as a Short-toed Eagle Circaetus
gallicus (Anon. 2002b; Stafford 2002a). A large, dark hawk with broad, fingered
wings, a shortish tail and a small head, which was flushed off the Blowholes Track
by DJJ and J. Goldberg on 13 May 2002, was probably this species. A large, pale
hawk with broad, fingered wings, a broad pale band through the shortish tail and a
small head, which was briefly seen flying over the Plantation by DJJ and M. Schulz
on 1 January 2006, was also probably this species. A bird seen at Silver City on
31 January 2011 was initially thought to be possibly a harrier (Marsh 2011), but
was subsequently claimed as an Oriental Honey-buzzard, after subsequent reports
of this species in 2011 (BARC Case 696), but was not accepted. One was present at
the Settlement from late February to at least mid April 2011 (Anon. 2011b; Baxter
2011a; Dooley 2011b; Ramsay 2011b; L. Preston pers. comm.). One was reported
from Margaret Knoll on 19 July 2011 (Anon. 2011c; L. Preston pers. comm.).
In the austral spring, large numbers of this species migrate south down the
Malay Peninsula and Sumatra, and then east through Java and Bali to Wallacea
(Ash 1993; Nijman 2001; Germi 2005), so it is not surprising that stragglers reach
Christmas Island. This species has also been recorded once from Kakadu in the
Northern Territory (Dooley 2005c; Gregory 2007; BARC Case 477). Note that
the spellings ptilorhyncus and ptilorynchus are unjustified emendations of the
original ptilorhynchus (Dickinson 2003; contra Christidis & Boles 2008).
White-bellied Sea-Eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster

Vagrant. One set of records. An immature was present on the Island in 1971 and
1972 (van Tets 1974a). It was first seen by D. Powell in October 1971 and was also
seen by G. van Tets on 29 September 1972.
This monotypic species occurs from India through southern Asia to Wallacea,
New Guinea and Australia (Marchant & Higgins 1993).
Christmas Island Goshawk Accipiter natalis [Figures 20–21 (pp. S57–58)]

Uncommon breeding endemic species (~250 individuals). This is the rarest
endemic bird on the Island (James & Retallick 2007) and one of the most poorly
known birds in Australian territory. The first record was the collection of the
type-specimens by J.J. Lister from 30 September to 9 October 1887 (Lister 1889).
Five syntypes are in the NHM (Warren 1966) and five are in the CUMZ (Benson
1999). Stokes (1988) extrapolated the population to be 50–150 breeding pairs,
based on a habitat extent of 106 km2. Hill (2004a) extrapolated the population
to be 50–100 breeding pairs, based on 101 km2 of available habitat and a possible
density of 0.89–0.96 adult per km2. A colour-banding and resighting study was
commenced in 2004 by the ARA and PANCI (James et al. 2004; Hurley 2005;
Holdsworth 2007; James 2007; James & McAllan 2010). By October 2006,
103 birds were banded and there were 99 resightings of banded birds and
238 sightings of unbanded birds in the study period. From these data, James
(2007) estimated the total population size to be ~250 birds (99/238 = 103/248).
This approximate calculation did not take into account parameters such as natality
and mortality rates, study biases etc. Initial results also showed a nearly 2:1 ratio
of males to females, although this may be because females are less mobile, rather
than less common, than males (Hurley 2005; Holdsworth 2007). A sample of
73 birds banded in 2006–2007 showed an age structure of 37% first-year birds,
14% second-year birds and 49% adult (3+ years) birds (Holdsworth 2007), which
might also be influenced by differential mobility. The project has been ongoing, but
further population data are not yet available. James & Retallick (2007) recorded
the species in only six of 527 10-minute surveys, a reporting rate of 1.1% that made
it the least frequently recorded of eight species in their forest bird survey.
This species may have relaxed territoriality, as some individual adult and
independent immature birds were resighted at opposite ends of the Island, and
were sometimes recorded within a few hundred metres of active nests of other
Christmas Island Goshawks, yet no territorial disputes were observed (DJJ). It
apparently has no aerial displays, such as threat displays and triumph ceremonies
(DJJ), typical of many accipiters (Ferguson-Lees et al. 2001). Its hunting
techniques include capturing prey on the ground, snatching off foliage, and seizing
in the air. Christmas Island Goshawks chase small flying birds through the forest,
pounce on birds and other prey on the ground, and snatch insects from foliage
using ‘short-stay perch-hunting’ (Hill 2004a). The species is attracted to sources
of disturbance, and waits on roadsides apparently for vehicles to flush prey; it also
readily follows people walking or working in the forest (Stokes 1988; DJJ).
Lister (1889) reported the remains of Christmas Island White-eyes, lizards
and large grasshoppers in the stomachs of Christmas Island Goshawks that he

collected. Gibson-Hill (1947) reported on the stomach contents of six Goshawks:
three collected in forest contained remains of Asian Giant Centipedes Scolopendra
morsitans, beetles, Emerald Dove, Island Thrush and rats; three collected near
poultry-runs contained locusts Locusta migratoides, mantids Hierodula dispar,
domestic chicken, Christmas Island White-eye and Java Sparrow. Analysis of
nine pellets from Goshawks captured in June 2004 (James et al. 2004) found
insects (82%—mostly the grasshopper Valanga irregularis), birds (16%) and
reptiles (2%—probably the small, fossorial and introduced Grass Skink Lygosoma
bowringii). Hill (2004a) reported cases of predation on nestling Red-footed
Boobies and an adult White-tailed Tropicbird. DJJ saw Goshawks carrying a nearly
fledged Christmas Island Imperial-Pigeon chick and a half-grown Red-footed
Booby chick, and saw a Goshawk snatch a Giant Forest Gecko Cyrtodactylus
saddleiri from a tree-trunk inside the forest after the Gecko was disturbed by
researchers. A nest found in 2004 contained the remains of an Emerald Dove
chick (M. Holdsworth pers. comm.). Reville et al. (1990a) reported that Goshawks
will take unguarded Abbott’s Booby chicks. Hennicke (2012) observed a Goshawk
disturb an Abbott’s Booby chick from its perch; the chick fell and died, and the
Goshawk fed on the corpse until displaced by a Robber Crab Birgus latro. The high
incidence of nestlings in prey items of the Goshawk indicates that nest-robbing of
birds is frequent.
The Christmas Island Goshawk occurs in evergreen and semi-deciduous
rainforests, secondary growth, edges, roadsides, clearings and urban habitats; it
appears to be absent only from bare pinnacle fields. Reports that it is more a bird of
edges and clearings (e.g. Gibson-Hill 1947; Johnstone & Darnell 2004a) probably
reflect observer bias towards open habitats and easier detection there, because
systematic surveys show that it is commoner inside rainforest (Hill 2004a; DJJ).
Gibson-Hill (1947) listed the breeding season as probably October to the end of
February, based on four nests recorded in November–January. These nests were
untidy platforms of twigs placed in horizontal forks, 8–18 m above the ground.
Hill (2004a) observed four nests, two in Syzygium nervosum in evergreen
rainforest and two in Sea Almonds in semi-deciduous rainforest. These nests were
30–80 cm in diameter and placed in the forks of two or more branches
25–35 m above the ground. The ARA found two nests in August 2004, with laying
deduced to be in July, indicating a wider spread of nesting dates (Hurley 2005).
Both nests were within 10 m of a vehicle track in evergreen forest in the crowns
of Macarangas Macaranga tanarius, 15 and 20 m above the ground, respectively
(Hurley 2005). DJJ found one nest in December 2004 >30 m above the ground
in a horizontal fork of a large rainforest-canopy tree above a vehicle track. There
have been four counts of one chick and one count of two chicks from five nests,
apparently indicating a low reproductive rate (Gibson-Hill 1947; Hurley 2005).
The Christmas Island Goshawk is listed as Endangered (as a subspecies of
the Brown Goshawk A. fasciatus natalis) under the EPBC Act. It is not listed
as globally threatened by the IUCN (2013), as it is considered a subspecies of a
more widely distributed and secure species. Garnett et al. (2011) considered it
Endangered. With 25% of the Island cleared for mining and municipal purposes,
habitat loss is a severe threat to any species with such an intrinsically small
range and low population size. Although Gibson-Hill (1947, p. 146) considered it
‘fairly common over the whole island’, Pearson (1966) saw <10 birds in 2.5 years.
Perhaps this difference was caused by a significant decline between 1940 and 1961,
or perhaps it was a difference in perception. Nelson (1977) asserted that Goshawk
numbers decreased between 1938 and the early 1970s and increased again by
1977, but provided no supporting data. Others have assumed ≥25% reduction in
the population size proportional with habitat loss (e.g. Stokes 1988; Hill 2004a;
Hurley 2005). However, secondary forest and other disturbed habitats, although
not breeding habitat, still provide foraging habitat for breeding adults and
probably a refuge supporting elevated populations of pre-breeding birds (DJJ).
This species was formerly heavily persecuted for attacking domestic poultry,
and was trapped and shot with guns and sling-shots (Gibson-Hill 1947; SSCSTE
1983; Stokes 1988), though this abated after 1977 (Stokes 1988) and is apparently
rare or absent now (DJJ). Fortunately, predictions that Yellow Crazy Ants could
cause a severe population decline (Garnett & Crowley 2000; Hill 2004a) have
so far not eventuated. Hill (2004a) also listed potential threats as confinement
to an island, disease, natural catastrophes, small population size, inbreeding
depression, predation by cats, road-kill and weed invasion. There are few data
to assess the reality of any of these, though the road-kill levels are low (James
2007) and inbreeding depression is not a high risk for species with naturally low
population levels. Potential competition with the self-introduced Nankeen Kestrel
(Hurley 2005) has received little consideration, although the two species largely
occupy different habitats.
Chinese Sparrowhawk Accipiter soloensis

Vagrant. One record. One was seen at the Rubbish Tip on 8 and 9 February
2011 (Anon. 2011b; Clarke 2011b; Dooley 2011b; Ramsay 2011b). This record is
tentatively accepted because photographs confirm the identification, although
formal vetting by BARC is still required. A small immature Accipiter hawk,
thought to be a Chinese Sparrowhawk, was seen to fly past the lookout at Territory
Day Park on 4 December 2002 (Anon. 2003; Doughty 2003).
In the austral spring, thousands of both Japanese A. gularis and Chinese
Sparrowhawks migrate south down the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra, then
west through Java and Bali to Wallacea (Ash 1993; Nijman 2001; Germi 2005),
so it is not surprising that stragglers may reach Christmas Island. Elsewhere in
Australian territory, this species has been seen and photographed in the Cocos
(Keeling) Islands in 2010 and 2011 (Baxter 2010b; Carter 2011a; Clarke 2011a;
Dooley 2012a; Graff 2013; Watson 2013; DJJ; IAWM; BARC Cases 754 & 757) and
on Ashmore Reef on 14 November 2013 (BARC Case 803—under review).
Japanese Sparrowhawk Accipiter gularis

Vagrant. One record. A rufous-breasted adult male was seen well east of LB4
at the Field 23 rehabilitation site over several days, on 10–12 March 2011 and
later that month (Anon. 2011b; Baxter 2011a; L. Preston pers. comm.). This
record is tentatively accepted because photographs confirm the identification,
although vetting by BARC is still required. A bird thought to be a male Japanese
Sparrowhawk was seen on 1 December 1996 (Hobcroft 1996; Eades 1997a). A small
accipiter, possibly this species, was seen on the walking track to West White Beach
in December 2001 (Clarke 2001; R.H. Clarke in litt.). A small accipiter, thought
to be a juvenile male Japanese Sparrowhawk, was seen by DJJ at the Rubbish
Tip on 17 January 2004 (Palliser 2006; BARC Case 418—not accepted). A small
accipiter seen by DJJ and IAWM below Margaret Knoll on 14 December 2005 was
too distant to identify, but was smaller than a Nankeen Kestrel.
In the austral spring, thousands of Japanese Sparrowhawks migrate through the
Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and Java to Wallacea (Ash 1993; Nijman 2001; Germi
2005). Elsewhere in Australian territory, this species was recorded on Ashmore
Reef (Anon. 2012b; BARC Case 747). Recent reports and photographs of birds
considered to be this species from the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (e.g. Baxter 2010b;
Carter 2011a; Clarke 2011a; Dooley 2012a; DJJ; IAWM; BARC Case 802—under
review) have not yet been vetted.
Nankeen Kestrel Falco cenchroides

Uncommon breeding resident. There are probably >300 pairs plus immature
birds, although no accurate estimates have ever been made. The Nankeen Kestrel
currently occurs in much higher densities on Christmas Island than it does on the
Australian mainland. The first record for the Island appears to be observations made
by A.J. Pearson in 1960 when it was already ‘present in large numbers’ (Pearson
1966, p. 69). It was recorded as common in June and July 1961 (Mees 1966),
when it was already widespread and breeding. Mees (1966, p. [10]) estimated the
population at ‘not far below a hundred individuals’ and collected three specimens:
at Toms Ridge, North West Point; on the South Point Road; and at the Golf Course
(WAM A.9272–A.9274). A Mr Forrester told Mees (1966) that Kestrels were
present when he had arrived on the Island 10 years earlier, though they were less
common then. Since they were not reported by Gibson-Hill (1947), Mees deduced
that they arrived between 1940 and 1950. Five specimens were collected by
O. Oftedal and I. Vigeland in 1961 and 1962 (Voous 1964). Van Tets (1975)
gave a population estimate of 10–100 pairs, which Stokes (1988) listed without
updating. James & Retallick (2007) recorded the Kestrel in 117 of 527 10-minute
surveys, a reporting rate of 22% that made it the second least frequently recorded
of eight species in their forest bird survey. Since 1990, it has been reported
by numerous observers; visitors frequently refer to it as abundant, perhaps
because of very high densities at the Airport, Rubbish Tip and Settlement.
K. Coate was told by Airport staff (November 2001) of culling because of aircraft
safety concerns (K. Coate in litt.). However, any culling has had little effect, as it is
still possible to count >20 Kestrels around the Airport on most days (DJJ; IAWM).
Nankeen Kestrel nests have been recorded in introduced palms, on power-
pylons, radio-masts, and ledges of buildings (Reville 1989; DJJ), but the breeding
biology has not been documented in any detail. The Kestrel is most abundant
in open country, and also occurs along roads and cliffs, but is absent in forest
and rare over the forest canopy (James & Retallick 2007; DJJ). Reville (1989)
reported a diet of grasshoppers and lizards. In December 2005 and May 2006,
Schulz & Lumsden (2009) examined pellets from 115 regular feeding sites. The
large grasshopper Valanga irregularis accounted for ~97% of food items, but
other insects (beetles, moths and butterflies) and the introduced Grass Skink
were occasionally present. Remains of the Christmas Island Swiftlet were found at
12% of sites, and these authors speculated that Swiftlets were caught on the wing.
However, given the number of road-killed Swiftlets on the Island, it seems more
likely that Kestrels scavenge these carcasses rather than catch Swiftlets in flight.
Christmas Island White-eyes frequently give alarm calls when Nankeen Kestrels
appear, but there are no records of predation. Although technically indigenous, the
Kestrel probably acts as an invasive predator. It has been suggested (though not
proved) that its predation contributed to the declines of the endemic Christmas
Island Blue-tailed Skink Cryptoblepharus egeriae and Christmas Island Pipistrelle
(Rumpff 1992; James 2005, 2007).
The nominate subspecies breeds on the Australian mainland, Tasmania and
Christmas Island, some birds migrate to Wallacea, and strays occasionally reach
Bali, Java, the Cocos (Keeling) Islands and New Zealand (MacKinnon & Phillipps
1993; Marchant & Higgins 1993; Johnstone & Darnell 2004b). Subspecies baru is
resident in New Guinea.
Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus

Vagrant. Five sets of records. A juvenile was seen by A.J. Pearson (1966) between
27 February and 1 April 1962. At least one bird with heavily streaked underparts
was seen on most days from 28 December 1996 to 3 January 1997 (Anon. 1997b;
Farnes 1997; Lansley 1997); it was at VQ3 Lodge in the Settlement, Drumsite, the
Golf Course and the LB4 Lookout. Lansley (1997) considered that it resembled
Australian birds. One bird was seen at Margaret Knoll on 13 January 2008 by
D. Mantle (pers. comm.). One was seen at the Golf Course on 5 January 2010 by
M. Carter and A. Silcocks (Carter 2010b; Ramsay 2010b). This bird was claimed
as subspecies calidus (which breeds in the Eurasian tundra and is a long-distance
migrant) on the basis of a slender moustachial streak and pale underparts (Carter
& Silcocks 2010). One was seen by B. Blewett at Martin Point in late February 2010
and may have been the same bird seen in January (Baxter 2010a; Dooley 2010a).
One was seen at the Airport on 28 November 2010 (Baxter 2010b). One (possibly
the same bird) was seen at Steep Point on 9 December 2010, the Settlement on
10 December 2010 and 5 January 2011, and the northern end of the Airport on
6 January 2011 (James 2010; Carter 2011b; Ramsay 2011a; DJJ; IAWM).
This cosmopolitan species has many subspecies. Johnstone & Darnell (2004a)
thought that the source of the Christmas Island Peregrine Falcons was probably
one of the migratory subspecies from northern Asia or possibly the subspecies in
the Greater Sundas, ernesti, which is small, dark and sedentary. Dooley (2011a)
reported that both the subspecies calidus and japonensis had been claimed for the
birds observed in late 2010–early 2011.
Baillon’s Crake Porzana pusilla

Vagrant. Two reports, but only one confirmed record. One was caught during
mowing operations at the Airport by Z. Hassan on 31 March 1999 (Carter 2000b).
It was photographed, but subsequently died, and the specimen was apparently
discarded (photographs identified by M. Carter). One was seen at the Parks
Nursery at Drumsite on 3 December 2002 (Anon. 2003; Doughty 2003).
Nominate pusilla (with underparts buff-brown) breeds in northern Eurasia and
southern Africa, and winters in southern Asia, whereas the Australian subspecies
palustris (with underparts blue-grey) is highly nomadic or migratory within
Australia, but apparently does not reach South-East Asia (Marchant & Higgins
1993; Coates & Bishop 1997; Robson 2000). The Christmas Island records lack
descriptions, but possibly could be pusilla.
Ruddy-breasted Crake Porzana fusca

Vagrant. Two records. An adult female was collected by C.W. Andrews on 29 August
1897 (Sharpe 1900). A male was collected by C.A. Gibson-Hill in September 1940
(Gibson-Hill 1947), although the specimen is not presently in the ZRC (Morioka &
Yang 1996; DJJ; IAWM; BARC Case 798—under review).
This polytypic species is found from India to Japan and south to the Greater
Sundas and Wallacea (Marchant & Higgins 1993). These are the only records of
this Indomalayan species from Australian territory.
White-breasted Waterhen Amaurornis phoenicurus

Rare breeding resident (<20 adults). It was first reported on the Island in 1992
(R. Hart in Carter 1994) from the Parks Nursery at Territory Day Park, Drumsite
(M. Orchard pers. comm.). A pair raised two chicks at the Parks Office in April
1993 (M. Orchard in Carter 1994), and this group was also seen from 27 October
to 3 November 1993 (Andrew & Eades 1993; Carter 1994; BARC Case 178). A
pair (presumably the same one) bred successfully at the Parks Office for several
years until one bird was killed on the road; the other bird remained for several
more years, but did not find another mate before disappearing in c. January 2004
(M. Orchard pers. comm.; DJJ). By late 1993, Parks staff had also observed White-
breasted Waterhens at the Power Station, Airport and Golf Course. Between 1993
and 2012, this species was reported by >60 visiting parties (e.g. Anon. 1996a,
1997b, 1999b; Barkla 1996; Craig 1996; Harvey 1996; Hobcroft 1996, 2005,
2006, 2007; Farnes 1997; Lansley 1997; Lester 1997; Maher 1997; O’Connor
1999; Carter 2000b, 2001, 2002, 2004, 2007, 2011b; Hansboro 2000a; Smith
2000; Clarke 2001, 2011b; Holmes 2002; Stafford 2002a; Barrand & Barrand
2003, 2007; Hunter 2004; Langfield 2004; Barrand 2005b; Morris 2005; Rogers
2006; Baxter 2010a,b; Marsh 2011; K. Coate in litt.; N. Hamilton in litt.; IAWM;
BARC Case 291). DJJ made numerous sightings between 2002 and 2007. During
~60 days on the Island in 2002, Waterhens were seen about every second day on
average at ten locations, totalling a minimum of 21 individuals and two breeding
records (summarised in BARC Case 361). A pair at the Resort raised two chicks
to independent juveniles between March and September 2002, in the presence of
two other independent juveniles apparently from an earlier brood. Another pair at
the Rubbish Tip had three chicks in March 2002. DJJ made a similar number of
sightings in 2004, but during >300 days on the Island, and no chicks were seen.
From 2005 to April 2007, DJJ’s sightings steadily decreased in terms of frequency
and the number of sites. This trend continues, with very few records since 2007,
despite numerous visiting birders to the end of 2011 (Carter et al. 2008; Baxter
2009, 2010a,b, 2011b; Carter 2010b, 2011b; James 2010; Clarke 2011b; Marsh
2011; N. Pamment in litt.; D. Helliar pers. comm.; IOSG delegates pers. comm.;
L. Preston pers. comm.; DJJ; IAWM). Carter (2010b) even presumed it to be
extinct on the Island. However, some birds were still present in low numbers
in early 2012 (IAWM). The Island population briefly reached >20 adults in
2002–2004, but has declined since then (Figure 22). The cause of this apparent
decline is probably attributable to feral cats, although there is no direct evidence.
There have been more records from November and December than other months,
but this probably just reflects visits by birders, as the species has been reported
year-round and there were no seasonal patterns to DJJ’s records.
Apart from a pair at North West Point from January 2004 until at least early
2007 (DJJ) and a bird seen at the Central Area Workshop on 6 September 2011
(N. Hamilton in litt.), the White-breasted Waterhen has been recorded only in
the ‘dogs-head’ area north-east of a line from Lily Beach to the Plantation, which
includes the Airport, Phosphate Hill, Rubbish Tip, Irvine Hill, Phosphate Dryers,
Drumsite, Territory Day Park (Parks Nursery), Poon Saan, Silver City, Chinese
Cemetery, North East Point, Golf Course, Norris Point, and the Resort. It favours
disturbed habitats, including grassy clearings and weed thickets. It is fairly shy
and rarely frequents suburban areas. Breeding has been reported in January,
March, April and October, possibly indicating a lack of seasonality.
This species has an extensive range in southern Asia south of the Himalayas,
from India to southern China, mainland South-East Asia, the Greater Sundas,
Sulawesi and the Philippines (Mackinnon & Phillipps 1993; Wells 1999; Robson
2000; Rasmussen & Anderton 2005; Brazil 2009). It colonised the Cocos (Keeling)
Islands in c. 1998 (McAllan et al. in prep.). It is now a common resident there (e.g.
James 2010; Carter 2011a; IAWM). There is also one record from Ashmore Reef
on 25–27 January 2003 (BARC Case 431).
There are differing views on the number of identifiable subspecies for the White-
breasted Waterhen. Named subspecies include nominate phoenicurus (Sri Lanka
and Travancore); chinensis (the remainder of India, where all populations are
resident, east to southern Thailand and China); three resident taxa on the Andaman
and Nicobar Islands (insularis, leucocephala and midnicobaricus), with another
(maldivicus) in the Maldives; javanicus (resident in the Greater Sundas, Malay
Peninsula, Philippines, and Talaud and Sangihe in the North Moluccas); and
leucomelana in the remainder of Wallacea (Peters 1934; Taylor & van Perlo 1998;
Wells 1999; Rasmussen & Anderton 2005). These are often reduced to as few as
three taxa (e.g. Ripley 1977; Dickinson 2003). The recent consensus is that at least
Indian birds are the same as Sri Lankan birds, and that resident leucomelana is
recognisable. The resident birds in Malaya and the Greater Sundas (javanicus)
24
Number of individuals
19
14
-1
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Year
Figure 22. Ad hoc count data for the White-breasted Waterhen on Christmas Island
from 1992 to 2012 (n = 62). Counts exclude chicks; counts of zero are displayed as ‘–1’
to distinguish from missing values. See text for data sources and interpretation.
are smaller than migratory birds from the north and should be recognised (e.g.
Mees 1986; Wells 1999). Consequently, the birds that colonised Christmas Island
[and the Cocos (Keeling) Group] might be javanicus or the migratory population,
which is either chinensis (if it is valid) or else phoenicurus. Since the Waterhen is
resident on Christmas Island, it is most likely javanicus.
There are three specimens of the White-breasted Waterhen from the Island. A
WAM specimen (WAM A. 26879) is unsexed but, from its wing-length of 144 mm
(Johnstone & Darnell 2004a), it is either a male javanicus or a very large female,
bordering on the size of a small migratory bird. An adult female in NMV has a
wing-length of only 143 mm (NMV B.24008; N.W. Longmore pers. comm.), fitting
into the size range of javanicus. However, an adult female in the AM has a wing-
length of 160 mm (right wing of AM O.71277, measured by IAWM), placing this
bird firmly in the size range of migratory birds. It is therefore possible that more
than one subspecies is involved, but it is clear that more work is needed on the
taxonomy of the species. The subspecies found in China has expanded into Japan
in recent decades (Taylor & van Perlo 1998).
Watercock Gallicrex cinerea

Vagrant. Five to seven sets of reports, but only three confirmed records. An
unknown number was reported by locals in December 1972 and January 1973
(van Tets 1974a, 1983; Marchant & Higgins 1993 erroneously listed the end-date as
January 1983). One was seen by Stokes (1988) at the Golf Course in January 1982.
One immature or female-type bird was seen at the spring north of the Resort on
30 December 1999 (Hansboro 2000a; BARC Case 283). One immature or female-
type bird was seen by DJJ and J. Middleton near the Pink House on 8 March
2002 (Palliser 2004; BARC Case 346). One juvenile male was regularly seen and
photographed at the Golf Course from 6 January to 11 February 2011 (Anon. 2011a;
Carter 2011b; Clarke 2011b; Dooley 2011b; Ramsay 2011b; DJJ; IAWM; BARC
Case 695). Up to three birds were observed near North East Point in early March
2011 (Baxter 2011a). One male in breeding plumage was seen at the entrance to
the Resort on 30 April 2011 (C. Nixon pers. comm.; IAWM).
This monotypic species occurs in southern Asia from India east to Japan
and south to the Philippines, the Greater Sundas and occasionally Wallacea
(MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Marchant & Higgins 1993; Coates & Bishop 1997;
Robson 2000). These are the only records from Australian territory (Marchant &
Higgins 1993), apart from recent records from the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (e.g.
Chongkin et al. 2009; James 2010; Carter 2011a; Clarke 2011a; Dooley 2012a;
BARC Cases 566, 681 & 740) and Ashmore Reef (Graff 2013; Watson 2013; BARC
Case 773).
Black-tailed Native-hen Tribonyx ventralis

Vagrant. One record. One was seen by F. O’Connor and S. & A. Keates on Irvine
Hill Road and near the Rubbish Tip on 3 and 5 January 2006 (Anon. 2006a,d;
F. O’Connor pers. comm.) and photographs were shown to DJJ.
This Australian species is prone to large irruptions, and vagrants have reached
Tasmania and New Zealand (Marchant & Higgins 1993), though it is unknown
from Wallacea and the Indomalayan Region proper (cf. Andrew 1992; Inskipp et
al. 1996).
Eurasian Coot Fulica atra

Vagrant. One record. One was seen by J. Hueston and DJJ at the LB3 ponds from
6 to 17 April 2005 (Adams 2005; DJJ). The subspecies was not determined.
Nominate atra ranges widely in Eurasia, and is a rare visitor to Borneo,
Java and Bali, but has not been recorded from Sumatra or Australian territory
(MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Marchant & Higgins 1993). Subspecies australis is
widespread in Australia (Marchant & Higgins 1993). The Eurasian Coot colonised
New Zealand in the 1950s and is spreading there (Robertson et al. 2007), and may
have colonised lowland New Guinea in the 1970s (Coates 1985). Vagrants have
been reported from Norfolk Island, Lord Howe Island, and Wallacea (Coates &
Bishop 1987; Marchant & Higgins 1993).
Sooty Oystercatcher Haematopus fuliginosus

Vagrant. One record. One was reported by W.H. Butler at Smith Point on 2 October
1983 (Stokes et al. 1987).
Though not usually considered a long-distance vagrant, there are two other
records of this species outside continental Australia. A single sight record from
Lord Howe Island in March 1987 was probably this species (McAllan et al. 2004)
and a single bird of subspecies opthalmicus was well documented in south-eastern
Bali in April 1997 (Mason 1997). Apart from the Bali record, this species is unknown
from the Indomalayan Region proper (Andrew 1992; Inskipp et al. 1996).
Black-winged Stilt Himantopus himantopus

Vagrant. At least 13 sets of records, ten since 1990. Five birds were seen by
J. Lattin at the Airport in April 1983 (Stokes 1988). Three immature birds were
seen at temporary ponds in mining areas on the western end of the Island on
23 May 1985, where two remained for a week and the third until 6 June 1985 (Stokes
et al. 1987). One was caught by two boys at Flying Fish Cove on 20 November 1988
and handed to Parks staff (D. Philips, ANPWS file). It is now a spirit specimen
in the WAM (WAM A.26482). Johnstone & Darnell (2004a) listed two birds
photographed by Airport staff and other sightings since the 1990s without specific
details. An adult male leucocephalus was seen by DJJ at the Chalk Pits near the
Airport on 5, 12 and 19 September 2004. An adult leucocephalus was seen by DJJ
at the LB3 ponds from 28 March to early May 2005 (also Anon. 2005d; Brodie-
Good 2005), and a juvenile leucocephalus was seen by DJJ at Flying Fish Cove
on 1–3 May 2005. A first-year immature leucocephalus was photographed at the
Pink House in early May 2005 by A. Gorge (photographs identified by DJJ). An
adult leucocephalus at the Airport from mid August to at least early December
2006 was seen by many observers (Anon. 2007c; DJJ & IAWM). One was reported
by G. Roberts (in litt.) in May 2007. An immature was seen at Waterfall Cove in
mid December 2007 (Hobcroft 2007; H.H. Tan pers. comm.). One (presumably
the same bird) was seen at Ethel Beach on 13 January 2008 (D. Mantle pers.
comm.). An immature leucocephalus was photographed by P. Harlow and J. Hall
in front of the Kampong on 14 August 2010 (P. Harlow pers. comm.). An adult
and an immature leucocephalus were found at Flying Fish Cove from 29 May to
2 June 2011 (Ramsay 2011c; N. Hamilton in litt.; M. Rogers pers. comm.) and
(presumably the same birds) again on 22–23 July 2011 and at Isabel Beach on
22 July (Low 2011; J. Woinarski in litt.; M. Holdsworth pers. comm.). Records
are thus from almost every month. So far, only subspecies leucocephalus has been
identified on Christmas Island.
Subspecies leucocephalus breeds in Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea,
probably Wallacea and sparsely in Java, Bali and Sumatra; it is an uncommon
visitor to the western Sumatran islands and Borneo, and vagrants have reached
Norfolk and Lord Howe Islands, several subantarctic islands, Ashmore Reef and
the Cocos (Keeling) Group (MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Marchant & Higgins
1993; Coates & Bishop 1997; Kemp 2000; Iqbal et al. 2009; McAllan et al. in
prep.). Nominate himantopus is widespread though patchy in Eurasia and
scarce in mainland South-East Asia. Vagrants reach the Philippines and Borneo
(MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Marchant & Higgins 1993; Robson 2000) and
could reach the Island.
Pacific Golden Plover Pluvialis fulva

Rare regular visitor between September and mid March. An immature male was
collected by C.W. Andrews at Flying Fish Cove on 14 November 1897 (Sharpe
1900). Gibson-Hill (1947) collected a specimen at Rocky Point on 12 November

1939 (ZRC 3.02669; Morioka & Yang 1996; IAWM). One was collected by J. Hicks
at the Airport on 20 January 1981 (AM O.56513). This species was considered to
be a regular visitor between September and April by Gibson-Hill (1947) and Stokes
(1988), but in only November and December by Johnstone & Darnell (2004a).
Since 1990, it has been reported in singles and small flocks by at least 25 visiting
parties in most years (Carter 1994, 2000b, 2004; Barkla 1996; Hobcroft 1996,
2005, 2006; O’Connor 1999; Clarke 2001; Holmes 2002; Doughty 2003; Morris
2005; K. Coate in litt.; IAWM). Most records since 1990 were between October
and mid March. DJJ recorded a small flock on every one of many visits to Low
Point between the months of October and February in 2002–2006. The earliest
arrival date was 9 September (in 2004) and the latest date was 13 March (also in
2004) (DJJ). The largest flock was 31 at the Airport on 1 December 2010, with
similar numbers reported through to January 2011 (Baxter 2010b; James 2010;
Carter 2011b; DJJ; IAWM). Most records have been from Low Point. One bird was
seen at the Sports Ground on 17 November 1999 (Carter 2000b).
This Palaearctic migrant reaches the Greater Sundas and Australia regularly
(MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Marchant & Higgins 1993).
Grey Plover Pluvialis squatarola

Vagrant. Six records. A flock of up to 17 birds was seen by D. Merton at the Airport
in September 1978, and a few were seen in November 1978 (Stokes et al. 1987). One
was seen at Flying Fish Cove from 30 November to 7 December 1994 (K. Coate in
litt.). One was seen by DJJ at Low Point in company with 11 Pacific Golden Plovers
on 31 October 2005. One was seen by M. Holdsworth (pers. comm.) at Low Point
during Birdweek on 2–6 September 2006. One was seen at an unspecified location
on 28 November 2008 (Baxter 2008b). One was seen at ponds near South Point in
late November 2010 (L. Preston pers. comm.).
Little Ringed Plover Charadrius dubius

Vagrant. Two records, but neither is confirmed. One to two birds were seen by
D. Merton and J. Tranter at the South Point slurry ponds on several days from
23 September to 26 October 1978 (Stokes et al. 1987). This record was considered
unverified by Marchant & Higgins (1993). One was seen well (as close as 4 m) and
photographed at temporary ponds on Phosphate Hill from 21 to 23 April 2009
(Dooley 2009b; D. Helliar pers. comm.; cf. Anon. 2009c).
This Palaearctic migrant reaches the Greater Sundas regularly and Australia in
very small numbers (MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Marchant & Higgins 1993).
Kentish Plover Charadrius alexandrinus

Vagrant. Two records, but only one confirmed. In February 1994 F.A.R. Hill saw ‘a
Red-capped or Kentish-type Plover’, but the views ‘were less than ideal’ (Andrew
& Eades 1994). One female in non-breeding plumage was seen by DJJ at Flying
Fish Cove on most days from 17 April to 15 May 2005 (Anon. 2005c; Palliser &
Carter 2012; BARC Case 641).
This Palaearctic migrant reaches the Greater Sundas regularly, though it is a
vagrant to Australia (MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Marchant & Higgins 1993).
The 2005 record was the third for Australian territory.
Lesser Sand Plover Charadrius mongolus

Vagrant. At least five records. It was listed by van Tets (1974a) as a regular visitor,
but no records were given. Likewise, Stokes (1988) listed it as a regular visitor, and
indicated that he had seen the species, but no records were mentioned. One was
seen at Ethel Beach in late November 2001 (K. Coate in litt.). Single individuals
were seen by DJJ at Flying Fish Cove on 13–15 September 2002, 23 October
2004, and 27 March 2005. One was seen at the Airport from late November to
9 December 2010 (Baxter 2010b; James 2010).
Greater Sand Plover Charadrius leschenaultii

Vagrant. Twelve sets of records ranging from September to December, six since
1990. Two females were collected by J.J. Lister in October 1887 (Lister 1889). An
adult female was collected by C.W. Andrews at Flying Fish Cove on 14 November
1897 (Sharpe 1900). A male was collected for the Raffles Museum by their Dayak
collectors on 5 November 1923 (ZRC 3.02372; Chasen & Kloss 1924; Morioka &
Yang 1996). A female was collected for the Raffles Museum by M.W.F. Tweedie
on 16 September 1932 (ZRC 3.02373; Morioka & Yang 1996). The species was
considered to be a regular visitor by Gibson-Hill (1947), van Tets (1974a, 1983)
and Stokes (1988). One juvenile was found dead by G.F. van Tets at the Golf
Course on 19 September 1972 (ANWC skeletal specimen 23127). One was seen by
a BOCA tour group at the Airport on 28–29 October 1996 (Barkla 1996). One was
seen at Ethel Beach in late November 2001 (Johnstone & Darnell 2004a; K. Coate
in litt.; J. Adams pers. comm.). Two were seen at Ethel Beach on 13 December
2001 (Clarke 2001; Anon. 2002b). Two were seen by DJJ at Flying Fish Cove on
11, 13 and 21 September 2002, and one was there on 14 September 2002. One was
seen by DJJ at the Airport on 28 September 2005. Two were seen at South Point
from 31 October to 1 November 2008 (N. Pamment in litt.). One was seen at the
Settlement on 19 September 2010 (L. Preston pers. comm.).
Oriental Plover Charadrius veredus

Vagrant. Eight sets of records. One female was collected by O. Oftedal on 1 October
1961 (Voous 1964). Van Tets (1974a) described this species as a rare migrant. Up
to five were seen by D. Merton and J. Tranter at the Airport and South Point slurry
ponds on several days between 21 September and 26 November 1978 (Stokes et

al. 1987). Two were seen at the Airport on 8 November 1984 (Stokes et al. 1987).
One was seen at the Airport on 9 December 1995 (Harvey 1996; Anon. 2006e;
K. Coate in litt.). The species was seen by a BOCA tour group on 28–31 October
1996 (Barkla 1996). One was seen at the Airport on 5 December 1996 (Hobcroft
1996). Two were seen at the Airport between 30 November and 5 December 1998
(Johnstone & Darnell 2004a; K. Coate in litt.). One was seen at the Airport on
15 November 2001 (Carter 2001). One was seen at Ethel Beach in late November
2001 (K. Coate in litt.).
This Palaearctic migrant reaches the Greater Sundas rarely and northern
Australia regularly (MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Marchant & Higgins 1993).
Masked Lapwing Vanellus miles

Vagrant. Four sets of records. An unknown number was seen by G.F. Mees and
E.J Carr between 14 June and 15 July 1961 (WAM 1962; Pearson 1966; G.F. Mees
pers. comm.). Two were observed by J. Lattin at the Golf Course in September
and October 1982 (Stokes 1988). A female specimen dating from 1982 at the
ANWC (37620) must be one of these. Three birds were seen at the Airport over
several days in June 2008 (Anon. 2008c; D. Hobcroft pers. comm.). These birds
then moved to the Golf Course by September, and were present until at least late
October 2008 (N. Pamment in litt.; L. Preston pers. comm.). Two were seen at
the Settlement in August 2011 (L. Preston pers. comm.). The specimen from 1982
and the birds seen in 2008 were of the nominate subspecies found in northern
Australia and southern New Guinea.
The southern subspecies novaehollandiae of this Australasian species has
expanded its range to include Lord Howe Island, New Zealand, the Chatham
Islands, Kermadec Islands and New Caledonia, with recent records from Norfolk
Island and Fiji (Marchant & Higgins 1993; Dutson & Watling 2007). Nominate
miles is an irregular visitor to the southern Moluccas and eastern Lesser Sundas,
and a vagrant to the Solomon Islands (White & Bruce 1986; Coates & Bishop
1997; Trainor et al. 2009). This species is unknown from the Indomalayan Region
proper (cf. Andrew 1992; MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Robson 2000).
Pin-tailed Snipe Gallinago stenura

Status uncertain, though probably a rare regular visitor. At least 18 reports,
but only the four specimen records can be considered confirmed as there are
identification difficulties with live birds. Only one record has been submitted to
BARC (BARC Case 304), but was not accepted. Nevertheless, Pin-tailed Snipe
from Christmas Island has been removed from the BARC review list, which
suggests that BARC considers the Pin-tailed Snipe to be sufficiently regular
on the Island that records do not need vetting. An adult male was collected by
C.W. Andrews on 1 December 1897 (Sharpe 1900). Two specimens in the AM
(AM O.56461 and O.56462) were collected on 8 December 1981, by H’ng Kim
Chey and J. Hicks, respectively. These specimens were overlooked by Stokes et al.
(1987), Stokes (1988) and Johnstone & Darnell (2004a). One bird was seen well
on the roadside verge near Poon Saan during heavy rain on 12 December 1995
(Andrew 1996a; Harvey 1996; K. Coate in litt.). One unidentified snipe seen near
North West Point in early January 1996 was possibly this species (Anon. 1996a;
Craig 1996). One was found dead under a power-line near the Sports Ground
on 10 January 1996 (Anon. 1996a; K. Coate in litt.). The specimen had 27 tail-
feathers and was undoubtedly this species (K. Coate in litt.). It was handed to the
Parks Office, but apparently the specimen was not kept. Two were photographed
at the Airport on 5 December 1996 (Hobcroft 1996). One was seen at the Rubbish
Tip on 28 December 1996 and others were heard at the Airport (Farnes 1997;
Lansley 1997). A possible snipe was heard calling at night near the Airport in mid
March 1997 (Maher 1997). One was flushed several times from long grass near
the Golf Course from 30 November 1998 to 5 December 1998 (K. Coate in litt.).
Two were seen at Poon Saan on 30 December 1999 (Hansboro 2000a,b; Palliser
2004; BARC Case 304—not accepted). One was seen on the Golf Course on
16 November 2001 (Carter 2001; Anon. 2002a; Stafford 2002a). One was seen at
the Resort entrance on 13 December 2001 (Clarke 2001; Stafford 2002a). One was
seen at Low Point on 8 March 2002 and another was seen near Migrant Hill on
30 March 2002 (Holmes 2002). Four were seen at the former go-kart track near
the Sports Ground on 15 March 2002 (Anon. 2002c). Three were seen by DJJ
at Phosphate Hill airport beacon on 16 March 2002. One was photographed by
DJJ and C. Surman at the Pink House on 17 December 2003. Up to 10 snipe were
scattered around the Airport apron at night on 29 March 2007 (M. Holdsworth,
N. Mooney, P. Menkhorst & M. Webb pers. comm.; DJJ). Two were seen at the
LB3 ponds by M. O’Connell on 4 January 2010 and one at the same place by
M. Carter on 6 January 2010 (Carter 2010b; Ramsay 2010b). Three or more birds
at the LB3 ponds in January 2012 could have been Swinhoe’s Snipe G. megala
rather than Pin-tailed Snipe (L. Preston pers. comm.; IAWM). The earliest date
that a snipe was seen was 16 November and the latest was 29 March.
The Pin-tailed Snipe is a Palaearctic migrant and reaches the Greater Sundas
regularly, the Cocos (Keeling) Group in most years, and northern Australia
irregularly (MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Higgins & Davies 1996; IAWM).
Swinhoe’s Snipe Gallinago megala

Vagrant. One definite record. One bird photographed at the Pink House on
17 December 2003 (DJJ) was previously considered to be this species, and accounts
for the listing by Valenzuela & James (2006); it is now thought that this was a
Pin-tailed Snipe (D. Hobcroft pers. comm.; DJJ). A bird found injured (believed
to have hit overhead wires) at the Pink House on 9 December 2009 by E. Johari,
F. Fadli and S. Sharif was taken into care, but subsequently died (Anon. 2010a;
Ramsay 2010b; M. Orchard pers. comm.). The frozen specimen was identified by
M. Carter (Carter 2010a, pers. comm.).
This Palaearctic migrant reaches the Greater Sundas regularly and northern
Australia irregularly (MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Higgins & Davies 1996).
However, in Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula and Singapore, it is a rare winter
visitor, and Pin-tailed Snipe outnumber Swinhoe’s Snipe by more than ten to one
(van Marle & Voous 1988; Wells 1999; Wang & Hails 2007).
Bar-tailed Godwit Limosa lapponica

Vagrant. Four records. One was caught and identified by A.J. Pearson on
26 October 1963 (Pearson 1966). One was seen at the Airport in late November
2001 (K. Coate in litt.; J. Adams pers. comm.). One was seen at the Airport on
8 and 10 December 2001 (Clarke 2001; Anon. 2002b). One was seen at the Airport
from 5 November to 9 December 2010 (Baxter 2010b; James 2010; L. Preston
pers. comm.).
(MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Higgins & Davies 1996).
Little Curlew Numenius minutus

Vagrant. Four records. One of several birds was collected by J. Hicks on
20 January 1981 (AM O.56481; Stokes et al. 1987); the birds were in the company
of a flock of Pacific Golden Plovers. One was seen at the Airport on 19 November
2005 (Barrand 2005b; Anon. 2006c), and (presumably this same bird) was found
injured there on 23 November 2005, and died the same day (AM O.71279). One
was seen and heard in flight by DJJ at the Golf Course on 2 September 2006. One
was photographed at the Airport on 5 November 2010 (L. Preston pers. comm.).
Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus

Vagrant. Eight to nine records. Adult male and female Whimbrels of subspecies
variegatus were collected at Flying Fish Cove by C.W. Andrews on 17 November
1897 (Sharpe 1900). Another adult female was collected at the same place by
Andrews on 26 December 1897 (Sharpe 1900). Although there were no further
records, it was described as a regular visitor by Gibson-Hill (1947) and van Tets
(1974a). An immature male found by D. Merton at Drumsite on 8 September 1977
was injured and subsequently died (ANWC 19873). One Whimbrel was seen
on the road-side verge near Poon Saan during heavy rain on 12 December 1995
and (presumably the same bird) at Flying Fish Cove and the Settlement over
the next few days (Andrew 1996a; Harvey 1996; K. Coate in litt.). One was seen
by a BOCA tour group on 25 and 29 October 1996 (Barkla 1996). One found by
C. Davies was seen by DJJ at the Chinese Cemetery on 20–24 September 2004.
One was seen near the Golf Course on 10 December 2010 (James 2010). One was
present at Flying Fish Cove from late December 2011 to at least 17 January 2012
(L. Preston pers. comm.; IAWM). One was seen by a tour group at the Golf Course
on 26–27 November 2012 (James 2012).
Eastern Curlew Numenius madagascariensis

Vagrant. One record. One was seen by a Coate’s Wildlife Tours group at the Airport
on 7 December 1994 (Anon. 1995; Smith 2000; K. Coate in litt.).
Terek Sandpiper Xenus cinereus

Vagrant. One record. A single bird was seen by D. Merton and J. Tranter at the
South Point slurry ponds over 6 days from 6 November 1978 (Stokes et al. 1987).
Common Sandpiper Actitis hypoleucos

Rare regular visitor between August and April. A pair was collected in Flying
Fish Cove by J.J. Lister in October 1887 (Lister 1889). Gibson-Hill collected one
near Rocky Point in November 1939 and three in November 1940, at Flying Fish
Cove, Isabel Beach and Waterfall Cove (Morioka & Yang 1996). This species was
considered to be a regular visitor in the austral summer by Gibson-Hill (1947),
van Tets (1974a, 1983), Stokes (1988) and Johnstone & Darnell (2004a). One
(possibly a male) found dead by G.F. van Tets at the Golf Course on 19 September
1972 was preserved as a skeleton (ANWC 23160). The Common Sandpiper has
been reported by numerous visiting parties in most years since 1990 (Carter
1994, 2001, 2002, 2004, 2011b; Barkla 1996; Craig 1996; Harvey 1996; Hobcroft
1996, 2005, 2006, 2007; Farnes 1997; Maher 1997; O’Connor 1999; Smith 2000;
Clarke 2001, 2011b; Holmes 2002; Barrand & Barrand 2003; Doughty 2003;
Langfield 2004; Barrand 2005b, c. 2009, c. 2011; Morris 2005; Rogers 2006;
James 2010; K. Coate in litt.; B. King in litt.; D. Mantle in litt.; N. Pamment in
litt.; D. Helliar pers. comm.; IAWM). All records were of singles, pairs or flocks
of three. Some observers reported sightings from different parts of the Island,
leading to cumulative totals of five to eight. Most records since 1990 were between
late October and early April. DJJ recorded the earliest arrivals by late August in
every year between 2003 and 2006 except for 2004 (when the earliest arrival was
1 August). One or two birds were almost invariably present (if not always visible)
at Flying Fish Cove from September through to March in 2003–2006. Most birds
leave by the end of March, and the latest record appears to be 27 April (D. Helliar
pers. comm.). Most localities where this species has been recorded are on the
coast, and include Flying Fish Cove, Isabel Beach, Rocky Point, Waterfall Cove,
Ethel Beach, Low Point, Lily Beach, Greta Beach, Dolly Beach, Medwin Point, the
Blowholes, Middle Point, Winifred Beach, the Dales coast, Margaret Beaches and
Smith Point. A record from the Chalk Pits near the Airport on 2–3 April 2002
(Holmes 2002) is exceptional for its distance from the coast.
This species is a Palaearctic migrant that reaches the Greater Sundas and
Australia regularly (MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Higgins & Davies 1996).
Grey-tailed Tattler Tringa brevipes

Vagrant. Seven records. A female was collected at Flying Fish Cove by Hugh Ross
on 22 September 1898 (Andrews 1900). One was seen by D. Merton at Flying Fish
Cove on 9 December 1977 (Stokes et al. 1987). One seen by D. Merton at Ross Hill
Springs on 30 September 1978 (Stokes et al. 1987) seems an unlikely record on the
basis of habitat. One was seen at Waterfall Cove on 7 December 1996 (Hobcroft
1996). One was seen at Dolly Beach in April 2000 (Smith 2000; K. Coate in litt.).
One was photographed at Flying Fish Cove on 3 October 2010 (L. Preston in litt.),
where two were seen on 25 September 2011 (N. Hamilton in litt.).
This Palaearctic migrant is rare in Sumatra and uncommon in Java and Borneo,
but regularly visits Australia (MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Higgins & Davies
1996; Grantham & Kemp 2000).
Common Greenshank Tringa nebularia

Vagrant. Nine sets of records. One was collected by Dr R. Hanitsch in 1904 and
deposited at the ZRC (Chasen & Kloss 1924), although this specimen can no longer
be located (Morioka & Yang 1996; IAWM). Van Tets (1974a, 1983) considered this
species to be a regular visitor. Two were seen by a Coate’s Wildlife Tours group
at South Point on 12 December 1995 (Andrew 1996a; Harvey 1996; K. Coate in
litt.). One was seen at Waterfall Cove in mid January 1996 (K. Coate in litt.). One
was seen at the Airport on 30 April 1996 (T. Palliser pers. comm.). Two Tringa
individuals were reported at ponds near Drumsite between 19 November and
5 December 1998 by two independent parties (K. Coate in litt.; A. Richards in
litt.), but were identified as a Common Greenshank and a Marsh Sandpiper
T. stagnatilis by one and as two Common Greenshanks by the other. One Common
Greenshank was heard by DJJ at the IDC site on 22 October 2004. One was seen
at Waterfall Cove from 25 to 27 November 2004 (Carter 2004; DJJ). It was also
seen by a Coate’s Wildlife Tours group sometime between 28 November and
1 December 2004 (Langfield 2004). At least one was seen at the LB3 ponds on
28 November 2010 (Baxter 2010b; L. Preston pers. comm.). One was seen at the
Rubbish Tip on 9 December 2010 (James 2010).
Marsh Sandpiper Tringa stagnatilis

Vagrant. Probably only one record. One was reported by D. Merton at the Airport
on 6 November 1978, though there are no verifying details (Stokes et al. 1987). A
Marsh Sandpiper in company with a Common Greenshank was reported at ponds
near Drumsite between 19 November and 5 December 1998 (A. Richards in litt.),
but later observers at this site saw only two Common Greenshanks (K. Coate in
litt.). A report of this species from Waterfall Cove on 23 November 2004 was later
withdrawn (R. Baxter in litt.).
Common Redshank Tringa totanus

Vagrant. One record. A male specimen was collected by C.A. Gibson-Hill at
Flying Fish Cove in September 1939 and deposited at the ZRC (Gibson-Hill 1947),
although it can no longer be located (Morioka & Yang 1996; DJJ; IAWM). It was
said to be a regular visitor by van Tets (1974a, 1983).
This Palaearctic migrant reaches the Greater Sundas regularly and Australia and
the Cocos (Keeling) Islands rarely (MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Higgins & Davies
1996).
Wood Sandpiper Tringa glareola

Vagrant. Fourteen sets of records, nine since 1990. A female was collected by
Gibson-Hill (1947) at Flying Fish Cove on 7 November 1940 (ZRC 3.03139; Morioka
& Yang 1996). Five were seen by B. Bell at the South Point slurry ponds in mid
August 1975 (Stokes et al. 1987). Several were seen by D. Merton and J. Tranter at
the same spot in late January 1978 and from 20 September to 25 November 1978
(Stokes et al. 1987). Two were seen at the Airport on 25 September 1984 (Stokes
et al. 1987). Stokes et al. (1987) considered that this species may be a frequent
visitor. ‘Several’ were noted at a ‘pool in an old mine site’ in August 1990 (K. Coate
in litt.). One juvenile was seen by DJJ at the Blowholes Road on 10 September
2002. One was seen by DJJ at the Golf Course on 11, 12 and 14 September 2002.
One was photographed by J. Pilgrim and seen by DJJ at the corner of Murray
and Research Station Roads in September 2005. Two were seen by DJJ at the
Phosphate Dryers on two consecutive days in late October 2006. One was seen at
pools by the road near Grants Well on 12 January 2008 (D. Mantle pers. comm.).
One was seen at the LB3 ponds from 19 to 27 April 2008 (Carter et al. 2008;
Y. Cherel, C. Feare & D. Stojanovic pers. comm.), with another there from 26 to
30 November 2008 (Baxter 2008b). One was at the Rubbish Tip on 28 November
and 9 December 2010 (Baxter 2010b; James 2010).
(MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Higgins & Davies 1996). Most records are from
August to November, presumably on southern passage. It might prove to be a
regular passage migrant.
Ruddy Turnstone Arenaria interpres

Rare irregular visitor. This species was considered to be a regular visitor by van
Tets (1974a) and Stokes (1988), although there appear to be no documented
records before 1993. However, there have been few reports since 2006. Three
were seen at Low Point on 31 October 1993 by M. Carter (1994). It has since been
seen by at least ten visiting parties in some, but not all, years since 1993 (Carter
1994, 2000; Barkla 1996; O’Connor 1999; Smith 2000; Clarke 2001; Barrand &
Barrand 2003; Hobcroft 2005; Morris 2005; K. Coate in litt.; L. Preston in litt.).
In addition, DJJ saw this species six times at Low Point between 2002 and 2006.
The earliest date recorded by DJJ was 9 September (in 2002) and the latest
was 23 January (in 2004). Smith (2000) reported four birds in late April 2000,
presumably northward migrants. This was one of the largest recorded flocks. Most
sightings were between October and January and involved single birds, but groups
of two to five have been reported. The Ruddy Turnstone has been recorded only at
Low Point, Ethel Beach, and once each at Waterfall and Flying Fish Coves. At Low
Point, it is usually in mixed flocks with the more common Pacific Golden Plover
(DJJ).
This Palaearctic migrant reaches the Greater Sundas, Australia and the Cocos
(Keeling) Group regularly (MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Higgins & Davies 1996).
Great Knot Calidris tenuirostris

Vagrant. One record. A dead bird was ‘handed to Parks’ on 23 November 1988
(WAM A.26543; D. Phillips in ANPWS files).
Red Knot Calidris canutus

Vagrant. One record. A single bird was seen in a yard in Silver City on 22 September
2011 (J. Woinarski in litt.).
This Palaearctic migrant is a rare passage migrant and very rare boreal winter
visitor in the Greater Sundas (MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993), but a common and
regular winter visitor in Australia (Higgins & Davies 1996).
Sanderling Calidris alba

Vagrant. Five records. An adult was collected by C.W. Andrews in 1897 or 1898,
though no details were given (Sharpe 1900). Up to five were seen by D. Merton
and J. Tranter at Greta Beach, Flying Fish Cove, the Airport and the South Point
slurry ponds on 6 days between 12 October and 26 November 1978 (Stokes et al.
1987). A specimen was collected in December 1988 (WAM A.26880). One was
seen by DJJ at Flying Fish Cove on 7 May 2005. One was seen at Flying Fish Cove
by a tour group on 30 November 2009 (Barrand c. 2009).
Red-necked Stint Calidris ruficollis

Vagrant. At least nine records, eight since 1990. A juvenile male and juvenile
female were collected by C.W. Andrews at Flying Fish Cove on 20 September 1897
(Sharpe 1900). This species was considered by Gibson-Hill (1947) as probably
a regular visitor in small numbers, though he gave no records. It was seen by a
BOCA tour group on 28–29 October 1996 (Barkla 1996). A road-killed bird was
found by P. Crabtree at the Resort on 17 November 1999 (Carter 2000b). One
was seen at Waterfall Cove on 24 November 2001 (Johnstone & Darnell 2004a;
K. Coate in litt.; J. Adams pers. comm.). Fifteen were seen at the Chalk Pits near
the Airport on 7 April 2002 (Holmes 2002). A juvenile was photographed at Ethel
Beach by R. Stephenson on 1 November 2007 (photographs identified by DJJ).
One was seen at a puddle near Lily Beach on 23 April 2008, after Cyclone Rosie
(Anon. 2008c; J.N. Dunlop pers. comm.). Two birds were seen near South Point
on 1–2 November 2008 (N. Pamment in litt.). One in breeding plumage was seen
at the LB3 ponds on 1 May 2009 (L. Preston pers. comm.; IAWM).
Long-toed Stint Calidris subminuta

Vagrant. Three records. Two males were collected from a flock of three Long-toed
Stints at Dolly Beach in September 1940 and deposited at the ZRC (Gibson-Hill
1947), although these specimens can no longer be located there (Morioka & Yang
1996; DJJ; IAWM). One Stint was seen by D. Merton at the South Point slurry
ponds on 21–22 September 1978 (Stokes et al. 1987), and two at this locality by
J. Tranter on 3 November 1978 (Stokes et al. 1987).
Pectoral Sandpiper Calidris melanotos

Vagrant. One record. One was photographed by L. Preston on the shoreline at
Flying Fish Cove on 6 September 2013 (L. Preston in litt.; photographs identified
by DJJ & IAWM).
This species breeds largely in the Nearctic, from Alaska east to Hudson Bay,
with smaller numbers breeding on the northern Siberian coast, west to the
Taimyr Peninsula. Most birds winter in South America, though small numbers are
reported in most years in southern Australia and New Zealand (Higgins & Davies
1996). It is a vagrant to Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Papua New Guinea and
the Solomons, but is so far unknown from Indonesia and Malaysian Borneo
(MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Coates & Bishop 1997; Robson 2000; Mann 2008;
Myers 2009; Phillips & Phillips 2009; Dutson 2011). There is a recent record from
the Cocos (Keeling) Group (P. Jones in litt.).
Sharp-tailed Sandpiper Calidris acuminata

Vagrant. Four sets of records. Up to five were seen by D. Merton at the South Point
slurry ponds and the Airport on 4 days between 15 October and 26 November 1978
(Stokes et al. 1987). One was seen at the quarry near the Airport between 19 and
26 November 1998 (A. Richards pers. comm.). One was seen at the Airport on three
occasions in mid November 1999, and six were at this locality on 18 November
1999 (Carter 2000b). At least one was found at the LB3 ponds on 28 November
2010 (Baxter 2010b). One was seen at the Airport on 10 December 2010 (James
2010).
This Palaearctic migrant reaches the Greater Sundas rarely and Australia
regularly (MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Higgins & Davies 1996).
Curlew Sandpiper Calidris ferruginea

Vagrant. Six sets of records. Up to five were seen by D. Merton and J. Tranter at the
Airport and the South Point slurry ponds on 10 days between 23 September and
12 November 1978 (Stokes et al. 1987). A specimen in the WAM (WAM A.26543)
is dated as 1 December 1988. Five Curlew Sandpipers were photographed by
Z. Hassan at the Airport on 18 November 1999 (Carter 2000b). One adult in non-
breeding plumage was seen by DJJ at the LB3 ponds on 30–31 March 2005 (Anon.
2005c). Two were seen at South Point on 14 October 2010 (L. Preston in litt.). One
was found dead by J. Woinarski at Flying Fish Cove on 2 October 2011 (specimen
seen in PANCI freezer by IAWM).
Red-necked Phalarope Phalaropus lobatus

Vagrant. One record. One was seen swimming off Smith Point by a Peregrine
Tours group on 8 December 2002, and later being chased by Christmas Island
Frigatebirds (Anon. 2003; Doughty 2003).
This Palaearctic migrant migrates and winters mainly at sea, and reaches the
Greater Sundas and Australia regularly (MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Higgins &
Davies 1996).
Oriental Pratincole Glareola maldivarum

Rare irregular passage migrant. Four sets of records before 1990. An immature
female was collected by C.W. Andrews on 3 October 1897 (Sharpe 1900). A female
was collected for the Raffles Museum by their Dayak collectors on 8 November
1923 (ZRC 3.03494; Chasen & Kloss 1924; Morioka & Yang 1996). D. Merton saw
two at the South Point slurry ponds on 31 October 1978 and 53 at the Airport
on 6 November 1978 (Stokes et al. 1987). A flock of 37 was seen by D. Phillips
at the Airport on 19–20 November 1988 (ANPWS file, Parks Office). Since 1990,
the species has been recorded on at least 27 occasions, though some of these may
have been sightings of the same individuals (Andrew 1996a; Barkla 1996; Harvey
1996; Hobcroft 1996, 2007; Carter 2001, 2007; Holmes 2002; Barrand & Barrand
2003, 2007; Johnstone & Darnell 2004a; Anon. 2007b; Ramsay 2007a; Baxter
2008b, 2009, 2010b, 2011b, 2013; Barrand c. 2009, c. 2011; K. Coate in litt.;
J. Adams pers. comm.; R. Baxter pers. comm.; DJJ). It is recorded in most, though
not all, years. Records are from two distinct periods of the year, 3 October to
9 December and 9 March to 23 April, coinciding with the southward and
northward migrations, respectively. Most reports are from mid November to early
December. Small flocks are often seen, usually ranging from 5 to 25 birds, though
singles are also reported. On 9 March 2007, an exceptional flock of 500 was noted
in flight at the Airport, and 310 were counted on the ground shortly afterwards;
these sightings followed Cyclone Jacob, which came within 250 km to the south
of the Island on 8 March (see Anon. 2007b; Carter 2007; Ramsay 2007a; BOM
2013). Sightings have been made near cleared areas, including the Airport, Sports
Ground, Rubbish Tip, Settlement, quarries and car parks. On 1 December 2009,
a flock of nine was observed approaching South Point over the ocean (Barrand
c. 2009).
Australian Pratincole Stiltia isabella

Vagrant. About nine sets of records. Around 30 birds were recorded by G.F. Mees
at cleared land near South Point sometime between 5 June and 14 July 1961
(Voous 1964; Mees 1966). Two of these were collected in June for the WAM (WAM
A.9271 and A.9272). One male and two females were collected by O. Oftedal on
1 October 1961 (Voous 1964). Three were seen by B. Bell at the Airport in mid
August 1975 (Stokes et al. 1987). An immature was seen at the Blowholes on
25 May 1984 (Stokes et al. 1987). About 50 birds (immatures and adults) were
seen at the Airport from 25 September to December 1984 (Stokes et al. 1987).
Another 10 were seen there on 5 July 1985 (Stokes et al. 1987), and one in August
1990 (Johnstone & Darnell 2004a; K. Coate in litt.). One in the Settlement
was photographed by P. Maberly and seen on several days by DJJ in mid May
2005. At the IDC site in 2005, DJJ saw five on 5 June, three on 6 July and six on
18 July. At the Airport in 2005, DJJ saw six on 9 August, four on 13 August, five
on 4 September, three on 11 September and two on 18 September. At least four
were present at the Airport from 19 July until at least early September 2011 (Anon.
2011d; Low 2011).
This short-distance migrant breeds in Australia, and is a regular winter visitor to
New Guinea and Wallacea and an erratic visitor to the Greater Sundas (MacKinnon
& Phillipps 1993; Higgins & Davies 1996; Coates & Bishop 1997).
Brown Skua Stercorarius antarcticus

Vagrant. One record. One of the subspecies lonnbergi was seen by N. Cheshire
52 nm south-south-east of Christmas Island at 11°22′S, 105°47′E on 7 September
1999 [N. Cheshire in litt.; an incorrect date was provided by Eades (1999) and
Johnstone & Darnell (2004a)].
This species breeds on subantarctic islands and disperses north to around
25°N (Olsen & Larsson 1997). Vagrant birds have been recorded throughout the
northern Indian Ocean.
Pomarine Jaeger Stercorarius pomarinus

Vagrant. One set of records. N. Cheshire saw a single bird in the EEZ at 13°39′S,
107°01′E on 12 April 1995, another just outside the EEZ at 16°S, 107°E on 17 April
1995, and one outside the EEZ at 11°40′S, 109°40′E on 18 October 1987 (Bourne
1996; N. Cheshire in litt.).
Arctic Jaeger Stercorarius parasiticus

Vagrant. Two reports, but only one confirmed record. An immature was found on
Lily Beach Road on 5 January 1983, and died later that day (Stokes et al. 1987).
It was measured and a written description taken, but was not preserved. Another
small jaeger was found dead in mid 1979 (Stokes et al. 1987). Photographs were
sent to several seabird experts, who thought that it was either an Arctic Jaeger or
a Long-tailed Jaeger S. longicaudus.
This Palaearctic migrant reaches the Greater Sundas rarely and Australia
Common Noddy Anous stolidus pileatus

Abundant breeding species (5500 breeding pairs). C.W. Andrews collected an
adult male at Rocky Point on 15 November 1897 and an adult female at Flying Fish
Cove the following day (Sharpe 1900). Andrews (1900) noted that this species
bred on the sea-cliffs around the Island. Historical population estimates are listed
in Table 3. Gibson-Hill (1947), Nelson (1972) and Stokes (1988, citing Stokes
1984) all estimated the population size at up to 5500 breeding pairs, though none
provided any data.
Gibson-Hill (1947) described the Common Noddy as a breeding visitor, being
plentiful during the breeding season from April to November, with a general
exodus from December to March. Dunlop (1987) estimated the laying period to
be concentrated between May and July, but also recorded a brooding bird on
1 April and considered the breeding cycle to finish in September. Reville (1989,
1993) considered that most members of the population are migratory and breed
between April and September, but small numbers are sedentary and breed on the
northern coast in November–March. At least the extent of the exodus apparently
varies between years: often some birds are present year-round (Pearson 1966;
Stokes 1988; DJJ), but birds were almost completely absent from January to
April in 2011 (Carter 2011b; Clarke 2011b; IAWM), which was a La Niña year.
Gibson-Hill (1947) recorded nest-sites only on ledges on the sea-cliffs, except for
one nest found in a Pandan (probably Pandanus christmatensis) crown projecting
over a sheltered beach. Pearson (1966, p. 68) reported nesting in trees at ‘one
or two places’ on the shore terrace. Stokes (1988) recorded that there were few
nests along the exposed coasts, such as Smithsons Bight and the north-eastern
coast, but noted more nesting in forest trees on the terraces (for example, behind
the Golf Course, at Ethel Beach and South Point) than on the cliffs. Pointing out
the difference from Gibson-Hill’s (1947) account, Stokes (1988) speculated that
nesting in trees might be a recent habit for the Noddy on Christmas Island. During
DJJ’s time on the Island, Noddies nested in all these habitats, as well as in the
crowns of Coconut Palms at the Golf Course. The latter habitat resource was not
present during Gibson-Hill’s time and apparently not exploited during Stokes’s
time. There are no data to indicate if this apparent expansion of nesting habitats
within 70 years is associated with an increase in the population size or is merely a
shift away from cliff sites.
Marine records: Two possible Common Noddies were seen at 9°36′S, 107°06′E
by A.R. Louch on 7 February 1988 (Bourne 1989). In surveys in April 1995,
N. Cheshire (in litt.) saw 100 feeding 20 nm east of the Island on 14 April and 100
feeding 20 nm east-north-east on 15 April. In surveys near the Island in September

and October 1995, the only Noddies seen were 50+ noted at Flying Fish Cove on
29 September (N. Cheshire in litt.).
The Common Noddy is not listed as threatened under the EPBC Act or by the
IUCN (2013), and there is no evidence of any decline in the Island population.
The SSCSTE (1983) recorded that hunting was heavy and could wipe out the
species, although hunting abated from 1977 (Stokes 1988) and has not occurred
to any significant extent recently (DJJ). Stokes (1988) listed rats, cats, hunting
and clearing of habitat as impacting on the species’ numbers, but considered it
to be still common. Few nests would be accessible to cats (DJJ). Black Rats are
abundant in the cavities of some sections of the sea-cliffs (DJJ), so it is plausible
that they have caused Noddies to favour nesting in trees and/or have reduced
nesting success on cliffs, but there are no data available to assess this. There is no
information about the effects of El Niño Southern Oscillation events on nesting
success.
This polytypic species is pantropical, but only subspecies pileatus occurs in the
Indian and western Pacific Oceans (Higgins & Davies 1996). However, Higgins &
Davies (1996) stated that birds breeding from WA north to the Savu Sea, Indonesia,
perhaps warrant subspecific separation, although the variation is very slight. The
nearest breeding colonies are in the Cocos (Keeling) Group, Lari Larian off the
south-eastern coast of Kalimantan, Gunung Api and Manuk in Eastern Indonesia,
Layang-Layang in the Spratly Islands in the South China Sea, the Chagos Group,
Ashmore Reef and islands off the WA coast (de Korte 1991; de Korte & Silvius
1994; Poole 1994; Johnstone & Storr 1998; Symens 1999; Johnstone & Darnell
2004b; Milton 2005; Clarke et al. 2011).
Lesser Noddy Anous tenuirostris

Vagrant. One set of records. Up to nine were found roosting on the phosphate-
loading cantilevers in Flying Fish Cove by M. Carter and R. Baxter from
29 February to 8 March 2008 (Anon. 2008b; Baxter 2008a; Carter & Carter
2008; Dooley 2008b; Ramsay 2008c). Up to ten were noted there from 11 to
24 April 2008 (J.N. Dunlop pers. comm.; IOSG delegates pers. comm.; IAWM),
with smaller numbers recorded through to 28 April 2008 (Carter et al. 2008).
This species breeds only in the tropical and subtropical Indian Ocean, the nearest
locations being the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Ashmore Reef (in small, irregular
numbers), the Houtman Abrolhos Islands and the Chagos Group (Johnstone &
Storr 1998; Symens 1999; Clarke et al. 2011; McAllan et al. in prep.). Records from
the Java Sea in de Korte (1984, 1991) reverted to Black Noddy A. minutus without
explanation in de Korte & Silvius (1994), and the Lesser Noddy was not recorded
for Indonesia by Andrew (1992). The nominate subspecies breeds in the western
Indian Ocean, and subspecies melanops breeds in the Houtman Abrolhos Islands
(Higgins & Davies 1996; Bourne 1997). However, the validity of these subspecies
has not been tested, and the subspecific identities of birds breeding closest to the
west (Cocos) and the east (Ashmore) likewise have not been determined, so the
identity of birds reaching Christmas Island is uncertain.
White Tern Gygis alba

Vagrant. Two records. An immature bird was observed by J.N. Dunlop over the
ocean at Rocky Point on 10 January 1985 (Stokes et al. 1987). A White Tern was
reported on a buoy in Flying Fish Cove c. 9–12 December 1995 (Andrew 1996a).
The breeding location nearest to Christmas Island is the Cocos (Keeling) Islands,
where at least 2000 individuals nest on North Keeling Island and smaller numbers
on the Southern Atoll (Stokes et al. 1984; Hopton 2006). This species is very rare
in South-East Asia, including the Greater Sundas and Wallacea (MacKinnon &
Phillipps 1993; Coates & Bishop 1997; Robson 2000), and also rare in northern
Australia (Higgins & Davies 1996). MacKinnon & Phillipps (1993) erroneously
stated that this species breeds on Christmas Island.
Bridled Tern Onychoprion anaethetus

Vagrant. One set of records. At least six birds were noted by IOSG delegates on a
boat trip along the northern coast from Flying Fish Cove to North West Point on
19 April 2008 (Anon. 2008c; J.N. Dunlop, M. Le Corre & M. Orchard pers. comm.).
Up to four were seen on mooring buoys off Smith Point, Flying Fish Cove and the
Settlement from 20 to 24 April 2008 (IOSG delegates pers. comm.; IAWM).
This pantropical seabird has gaps in its distribution in the Atlantic, central
Indian and eastern Pacific Oceans (Higgins & Davies 1996). The breeding locations
nearest to the Island are islets off the southern coast of Java (de Korte 1991). There
are large colonies in Indonesian waters and on Ashmore Reef and on islands off
the WA coast (de Korte 1991; Johnstone & Storr 1998; Milton 2005; Clarke et al.
2011).
Sooty Tern Onychoprion fuscata

Rare visitor. Sooty Terns are rarely recorded from land and inshore waters, but
apparently are regular in pelagic waters. One specimen collected by D. Powell (no
recorded details) was registered at the AM on 14 November 1984 (AM O.58478;
Stokes et al. 1987). One specimen in the WAM was collected on 21 December 1987
(WAM A.26479). One bird was seen in flight near the Settlement on 15 November
1999 (Carter 2000b). One was found by S. Comport at Silver City on 12 March
2004 but died overnight (bird sent to WAM). One seen by DJJ was perched on the
coastal cliff near the Golf Course on 11 July 2004. One was seen by DJJ at Flying
Fish Cove on 29 July 2005. One was found at the Airport on 2 February 2006, but
later died (AM O.71276). More than three, including immature birds, were seen
from shore by IOSG delegates at the Settlement on 22 April 2008 at the height
of Cyclone Rosie (Anon. 2008c; C. Feare pers. comm.; IAWM). One immature
bird hit a building at the IDC on 22 April 2008 and later died (J.N. Dunlop &
M. Orchard pers. comm.). One was seen offshore from the Settlement on
10 February 2011 (Clarke 2011b).
Marine records: Large numbers were reported by the crew of the Umitaka-maru
to the north-west of the Island in January 1963 (Ozawa et al. 1966), although Ozawa
& Nakamura (1966) acknowledged that the crew had difficulties distinguishing
Sooty Terns from Common Noddies, and never recorded Common Noddies near
Christmas Island. Sooty Terns were seen near Christmas Island on at least four
occasions in October 1987 by observers aboard the RV Franklin (Dunlop et al.
1988a); N. Cheshire (in litt.) recorded Sooty Terns in the one-degree blocks
centred on 10°S, 104°E and 12°S, 106°E in April 1995, and saw ~50 Sooty Terns
south-south-east of the Island on 7 September 1999.
This marine species is pantropical (Higgins & Davies 1996). The breeding
locations nearest to Christmas Island are the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Ashmore
and Cartier Reefs, the Houtman Abrolhos Islands, Lari Larian off the south-
eastern coast of Kalimantan, Layang-Layang in the South China Sea, Gunung Api
in the Banda Sea and the Chagos Group (Feare 1984; de Korte 1991; de Korte &
Silvius 1994; Poole 1994; Burbidge et al. 1996; Symens 1999; Clarke et al. 2011).
Little Tern Sternula albifrons

Vagrant. One set of records. One was reported at Flying Fish Cove by T. Smith
(1996) between 27 October and 1 November 1995, on 3–12 January 1996 by
M. and J. Craig (Anon. 1996a; Craig 1996), and in mid January 1996 by K. Coate
(in litt.). Two were recorded at Flying Fish Cove in mid April 1996 (K. Coate in
litt.).
The Little Tern breeds from Europe east to the Middle East, eastern Asia and
Australia (Olsen & Larsson 1995). There was a resident population breeding
on Java and Bali in Indonesia, and there is a migrant population from eastern
Asia (MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Wells 1999), suggesting that more than one
subspecies is involved, as in Australia. However, de Korte (1991) noted that there
have been no recent breeding records of this species from Indonesia. The origin of
the birds reported from Christmas Island is unknown.
Gull-billed Tern Gelochelidon nilotica

Vagrant. Two sets of records. N. Cheshire photographed one perched on a
mooring buoy in Flying Fish Cove on 29 September 1995 (Eades 1995; Andrew
1996a; Bourne 1996; Johnstone & Darnell 2004a). One was seen by DJJ in 2004
at the Airport on 19 and 25 September and 16 October and then at Drumsite on
18 and 23 October. This was an adult of the Asian subspecies affinis in non-
breeding plumage.
Subspecies affinis breeds widely in Asia south to eastern India and southern
China, and moderate numbers regularly winter in western and northern Australia
(Robson 2000; Rogers et al. 2005). Nominate nilotica breeds in northern Eurasia
and migrates at least as far south as northern mainland South-East Asia (Robson
2000).
Whiskered Tern Chlidonias hybrida

Rare irregular visitor. About 17 sets of records. D. Powell collected a specimen,
without recording a date or locality. Stokes et al. (1987) stated that this was sent
to the AM and registered as AM O.58479. However, that number refers to another
species from a different locality. Presumably Powell’s specimen is AM O.67055,

which is a Whiskered Tern that was presented by T. Stokes. This juvenile female
was registered in 1996, but was freeze-dried, a method used at the AM only during
the mid 1980s. Seven birds were seen by D. Merton at the Airport on 23 September
1978 (Stokes et al. 1987). Since 1990, there have been at least 15 records scattered
through the year, without seasonal pattern (Harvey 1996; Hobcroft 1996; Holmes
2002; Johnstone & Darnell 2004a; Dooley 2009b; Ramsay 2009b; Anon. 2011c;
K. Coate in litt.; M. Rogers in litt.; J. Wieneke in litt.; P. Kelly pers. comm.;
L. Preston pers. comm.; DJJ; IAWM), mostly at Flying Fish Cove and Smith
Point, with single sets of records at Isabel Beach, the Airport, LB3 ponds and near
Stronach Hill. They were mostly single birds, but occasionally two or three. Most
of the few birds that were aged were adults (DJJ), but an immature barely out of
juvenile plumage and an adult in moult were photographed at a temporary pond
near Stronach Hill on 26 May 2011 (N. Hamilton in litt.).
This is an Old World species, found in Africa, southern Europe, and east to
eastern Asia and Australia (Olsen & Larsson 1995). The nominate subspecies
breeds in Africa, Europe and Asia, whereas subspecies javanicus breeds in
Australia and New Guinea. Records from the Greater Sundas and western
Wallacea are of wintering birds of both subspecies (Mees 1977; White & Bruce
1986). The breeding locations nearest to Christmas Island are in north-eastern
India, southern China, and Australia. Christmas Island records could be of either
or both subspecies.
White-winged Black Tern Chlidonias leucopterus

Vagrant. Six records. One was seen by DJJ at Flying Fish Cove on 19 April 2003.
One was seen during Birdweek in September 2007 (J.N. Dunlop pers. comm.).
One was seen by IAWM at the Airport on 11 April 2008, and one was seen on
a mooring buoy by J.N. Dunlop, M. Le Corre and M. Orchard (pers. comm.) in
Flying Fish Cove on 19 April 2008 (Anon. 2008c). One was seen by a tour group at
Flying Fish Cove on 5 December 2009 (Baxter 2009), and one was seen there on
8–9 January 2010 (Carter 2010b).
This monotypic species is a Palaearctic migrant that winters south to Africa,
southern Asia and Australasia (Higgins & Davies 1996). The birds recorded on
Christmas Island appear to be passage migrants.
Common Tern Sterna hirundo

Vagrant. Six records. One was seen at Flying Fish Cove on 9 January 1996 (Anon.
1996a; Craig 1996). Two were seen at Flying Fish Cove on 2 May 1996 (T. Palliser
pers. comm.). One was seen at the cantilevers in Flying Fish Cove on 14 and
19 November 1999 (Carter 2000b). One was seen in the Settlement on 26 April
2000 (Smith 2000; K. Coate in litt.). One was reported in December 2000 by a
Coate’s Wildlife Tours group (Johnstone & Darnell 2004a). One was seen at Flying
Fish Cove on 7 December 2001 (Clarke 2001).
This Palaearctic migrant reaches the Greater Sundas irregularly and Australia
Lesser Crested Tern Thalasseus bengalensis

Vagrant. Five records. One was seen by R. Downes at Flying Fish Cove on
22 November 2000 (Downes 2001); a barely adequate description was given. One
was found by P. Whittington and IAWM at Flying Fish Cove on 23–24 April 2008,
following Cyclone Rosie. It was observed and photographed on 26–27 April by
T. Palliser, M. Carter and F. O’Connor (pers. comm.). It was extremely pale and
was at one point suggested to be an Elegant Tern T. elegans (Anon. 2008c; Dooley
2008c; M. Carter in litt.). However, the plumage patterns and coloration fit the
nominate subspecies of Lesser Crested Tern endemic to South Asia and found
east to Singapore (specimens examined at the ZRC: IAWM). R. Baxter (in litt.)
photographed one in non-breeding plumage at Waterfall Cove in late November
or early December 2010. One was photographed at buoys off Smith Point in late
December 2011 (L. Preston pers. comm.). Two were reported without any details
being noted in early December 2013 (Baxter 2013). The nominate subspecies
is considerably paler than the Crested Tern T. bergii, whereas the Australasian
subspecies T. bengalensis torresii is only slightly paler.
This marine and mostly tropical species breeds widely from the Mediterranean
to Africa and India, with a large break in breeding distribution to the Australasian
subspecies (see Higgins & Davies 1996). The nominate subspecies is a common
winter visitor to the Greater Sundas (MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993) and is
abundant in the Java Sea during the austral summer (DJJ), but there are no other
reports from Australian territory, though it is likely that birds observed at the
Cocos (Keeling) Group in December 2011 are also this subspecies (M. Roderick
pers. comm.).
Crested Tern Thalasseus bergii

Vagrant. Three records. A specimen in the WAM was collected supposedly by
B. Reville on 9 July 1987 (WAM A.21490). A single immature Crested Tern was
photographed in August 1990 (Johnstone & Darnell 2004a; K. Coate in litt.). One
was seen by DJJ at Flying Fish Cove on 7 May 2005.
This marine species breeds over a large area along the coasts and offshore
islands of the Indo-Pacific and is common in Australia and Indonesia (de Korte
1991; MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Higgins & Davies 1996).
Mew Gull Larus canus

Vagrant. One record. One was seen and photographed by K. Shurcliff and
D. Houghton near the Airport from 25 to 29 March 2001 (BARC Case 315). It
was in either second-year or adult plumage, and was most likely the subspecies
kamchatchensis (Eades 2001b; Palliser 2003; Johnstone & Darnell 2004a).
There are no records of this Holarctic species from South-East Asia, including
the Greater Sundas, Wallacea and the Philippines (Andrew 1992; MacKinnon &
Phillipps 1993; Coates & Bishop 1997; Kennedy et al. 2000; Robson 2000). The
Mew Gull has not been recorded elsewhere in Australian territory (Christidis &
Boles 2008).
Asian Koel Eudynamys scolopaceus

Rare regular visitor or resident. More than 35 records, four confirmed by BARC; all
records are since 2002. A ‘koel’ was heard calling by P. Green (pers. comm.) in one
of the settled areas in about September 2002. A single male ‘koel’ was recorded
at Territory Day Park and the Parks Office by S. Pell and B. Bucholtz between
27 November and 4 December 2003, and was heard by M. Orchard in this area
over a slightly longer period (Anon. 2004a,b; M. Orchard pers. comm.). A first-
winter male photographed by DJJ at the Parks Office on 14–15 July 2004 was
the first record identified as Asian Koel (Palliser 2007; BARC Case 436). A pair
was seen by DJJ at Rocky Point on 10, 22 and 31 August 2004, after reports by
locals of calling birds (BARC Case 635). Another pair was recorded regularly
(16 observations) by DJJ in Silver City from 18 August to 20 December 2004
(Palliser & Carter 2012; BARC Case 635). From late 2004 to 2012, pairs and single
birds were reported regularly in the Settlement and Silver City (and once in Poon
Saan) by numerous observers, tour parties and local residents (Carter 2004, 2010b,
2011b; Anon. 2005a,b, 2011a; Barrand 2005b, c. 2011; Hobcroft 2005, 2007;
Barrand & Barrand 2007; Dooley 2008a, 2010a,c; Baxter 2009, 2010b, 2011a,b,
2013, in litt.; Eaw & Dooley 2010; James 2010; Ramsay 2010a,b, 2011a; Low 2011;
Palliser & Carter 2012; N. Hamilton in litt.; L. Preston pers. comm.; DJJ; IAWM;
BARC Cases 637 & 643). In December 2010, the simultaneous presence of different
pairs at Rocky Point and Silver City was confirmed (James 2010). Records are
from all months of the year, but are more frequent from August to January, when
pairs are calling in the Settlement and Silver City. Away from the urban areas,
koels have been reported near the Dales on 23 September 2006 (heard only—
M. Holdsworth pers. comm.), the Rubbish Tip twice (Barrand 2005b; Anon.
2006c; Dooley 2007c; Ramsay 2007b; G. Roberts in litt.; DJJ), Waterfall Cove on
29 February 2008 (heard only—Carter & Carter 2008), and the Chinese Cemetery
three times (Barrand c. 2011; Baxter 2011a; IAWM). Many sightings of Asian Koels
are made in or near the figs Ficus saxophila and Pawpaw (L. Preston pers. comm.;
DJJ; IAWM).
At least four first-winter males (with some retained juvenile plumage) have
been recorded several times (Hobcroft 2007; cf. Dooley 2008a; DJJ; IAWM).
One seemed to be paired with an adult female at Rocky Point in December 2010
(DJJ). There have been two records of juveniles: one seen by DJJ at the Parks
Office in October 2006, and one seen by DJJ & IAWM at Silver City in December
2010 and January 2011 (see also photograph in Baxter 2010b). On 6 January
2011, this last juvenile was associating with a pair of adults that seemed to be
maintaining a territory there, as they had done for several years. It is unlikely that
this juvenile migrated to the Island and was accepted by the calling pair in Silver
City. Given this, and the apparent influx of the species, its regularity, pairing,
calling and territoriality, it seems highly probable that the Asian Koel now breeds
on Christmas Island. The only potential host of this obligate brood-parasite would
be the Island Thrush.
This polytypic species is widespread in southern Asia, from India and southern
China south to the Greater Sundas and Wallacea. It is generally considered that
the northern subspecies chinensis is a winter visitor to southern mainland South-
East Asia and the Greater Sundas, and that subspecies malayanus is resident in
the same areas (Wells 1999; Robson 2000; Dickinson 2003). To the contrary,
apparently only malayanus is represented in the ZRC collection from mainland
South-East Asia (DJJ). However, the Christmas Island koels appear more
likely to be chinensis than malayanus. Firstly, Wells (1999) and Payne (2005)
differentiated malayanus by its warm rufous tones in adult female plumage from
chinensis with its colder dark and white tones. Females on Christmas Island are
consistently cold-toned and lack rufous tones to the feathers (DJJ). Secondly,
juvenile specimens of malayanus from Singapore, Malaysia and Vietnam (ZRC)
have predominantly brown plumage (including remiges and rectrices) and a
blackish head (DJJ). Conversely, two juveniles seen on the Island were black with
fine white spots dorsally and white scaling on the vent, and four first-winter males
had retained juvenile remiges and rectrices that were predominantly black (DJJ;
IAWM). The only other records of this species from Australian territory are from
the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, largely since 2007 (Palliser & Carter 2012) except for
a possible sighting in November 1999 (McAllan et al. in prep.).
Horsfield’s Bronze-Cuckoo Chalcites basalis

Vagrant. Two sets of records. An immature female was collected by C.W. Andrews
in 1897 or 1898 (Sharpe 1900). An adult was seen at North East Point on 21 April
2008 (IAWM; see also Anon. 2008c). An immature bird was photographed at
South Point on 26 April 2008 (T. Palliser pers. comm.).
This species breeds in Australia, and part of the population moves north in the
austral winter to Wallacea and the Greater Sundas, rarely reaching Singapore
(MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Higgins 1999; Wang & Hails 2007).
Pallid Cuckoo Cacomantis pallidus

Vagrant. Two records. One was observed by D. Powell and D. Merton near Migrant
Hill on 20 October 1977 (Stokes et al. 1987). An immature that had been struck
by a vehicle was found by H’ng Kim Chey on 28 December 1980 (WAM A.16947;
Stokes et al. 1987).
This species breeds in Australia and is a vagrant to the Lesser Sundas and
southern New Guinea (White & Bruce 1986; Coates & Bishop 1997; Higgins 1999).
It is unknown from the Indomalayan Region proper (cf. Andrew 1992; MacKinnon
& Phillipps 1993; Inskipp et al. 1996; Robson 2000).
Himalayan Cuckoo Cuculus saturatus

Rare regular passage migrant. Only one record before 1990. Previously
considered to be the Oriental Cuckoo C. optatus, but see p. S118. Southward
passage migrants from Asia reach the Island most years between mid
October and mid December. Johnstone & Darnell (2004a) described it as a
rare or casual visitor in October–January. One was seen by J. Lattin at the
Settlement on 7 November 1982 (Stokes 1988). One was seen at the Airport on
29 October 1996 (Lester 1997). It was reported in singles and small flocks by at
least 12 visiting parties in most years since 2001 (Clarke 2001; Anon. 2002b,
2003, 2004b, 2005b, 2006c,d, 2007a; Barrand & Barrand 2003; Doughty
2003; Carter 2004; Barrand 2005b; Hobcroft 2005, 2006; Baxter 2010a,b;
C. Surman pers. comm.; IAWM). DJJ saw five different (recognised by plumage
and location) birds in November 2004, five in October–November 2005, and four
in November 2006. The earliest date recorded was 17 October (in 2005) (DJJ) and,
apart from a few in January and February 2010 (Baxter 2010a; Carter 2010b), the
latest was 18 December (in 2006) (Hobcroft 2006), indicating that most records
are from the southward passage migration. Most birds have been hepatic-morph
females or juveniles, but a few grey-morph adults have been identified. Himalayan
Cuckoos were mostly seen on the margins of secondary forests along roads and
tracks, or at the Rubbish Tip. Other localities include Phosphate Hill, Irvine Hill,
North West Point, the Dales Track, Winifred Beach Track, South Point, Pink
House, Grants Well and Margaret Knoll. Several were noted eating the caterpillars
of nymphalid butterflies (DJJ).
Payne (2005) and King (2005) recommended that the traditional Oriental
Cuckoo C. saturatus (sensu lato) be treated as three separate species, the Oriental
Cuckoo C. optatus, the Himalayan Cuckoo C. saturatus (sensu stricto) and the
Sunda Cuckoo C. lepidus, mainly because of differences in vocalisations. Christidis
& Boles (2008) accepted this taxonomy although Erritzoe et al. (2012) continued
to consider saturatus and optatus the one species. Mainland Australian records
are all of optatus, with the exception of two specimens whose measurements
indicate they might be saturatus (Rogers in Higgins 1999). The proportion of
saturatus versus optatus increases from east to west across Indonesia (Cramp
1985); optatus is virtually the only form in Micronesia and the most common
form in Wallacea; the two are equally common in Borneo, Java and perhaps
the Philippines; and saturatus is common in Sumatra where optatus is almost
unknown (Cramp 1985; van Marle & Voous 1988; Higgins 1999; Kennedy et al.
2000; Payne 2005; Phillipps & Phillipps 2009). C. optatus also migrates earlier
than C. saturatus, moving through the Philippines, Wallacea and New Guinea
from early September onwards (Higgins 1999); and large numbers of (evidently)
optatus move past Ashmore Reef in September and October (M. Carter pers.
comm.; DJJ). Conversely, C. saturatus migrates through the Malay Peninsula
in October and November, to winter in Sumatra and Java from November to
February (van Marle & Voous 1988; Higgins 1999; Wells 1999). We consider the
Christmas Island records likely to be saturatus (cf. Johnstone & Darnell 2004a)
that have overshot their wintering destination in Sumatra, based on the location of
the Island south of Sumatra and the late timing of their appearance. Since the birds
do not call on Christmas Island, measurements or specimens would be desirable.
C. saturatus has not been confirmed elsewhere in Australian territory, but vagrant
‘Oriental Cuckoos’ in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands are also likely to be saturatus.
Large Hawk-Cuckoo Hierococcyx sparverioides

Vagrant. One record. A first-year bird was seen by DJJ and IAWM at the Rubbish
Tip on 15 December 2005 (McAllan & James 2008; see also Anon. 2006c; Dooley
2006a; Palliser 2008; BARC Case 494).
This species breeds from the Himalayas to eastern China, and south to northern
Myanmar, Thailand and Indochina (Payne 2005). It winters south to the Greater
and Lesser Sunda Islands and is an uncommon winter (i.e. austral summer) visitor
to Java (MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Payne 2005). The only other records from
Australian territory are several sightings from the Cocos (Keeling) Islands since
December 2010 (Baxter 2010b, 2011a,b; Barrand c. 2011; Carter 2011a; Clarke
2011a; Anon. 2012a; Dooley 2012a; P. Jones pers. comm.).
Christmas Island Hawk-Owl Ninox natalis [Figure 23 (p. S58)]

Common endemic species (562 ± 105 breeding pairs). The first record of the
Christmas Island Hawk-Owl was the collection of the holotype, an adult male, by
J.J. Lister in October 1887 (Lister 1889; Warren 1966). Van Tets (1975) guessed
the population to be in the order of 10–100 pairs, and Stokes (1988) and Olsen
& Stokes (1989) guessed it to be ~100 pairs. Using data from radio-tracking,
territory mapping and census by playback of calls, Hill & Lill (1998a) found that
Hawk-Owls were uniformly distributed through primary evergreen and semi-
deciduous rainforests at a density of 5.5 ± 1.0 territories per km2, and a much
lower density in secondary vegetation, which translated to a population estimate
of 562 ± 105 breeding pairs. Low & Hamilton (2013) undertook a playback census
limited to roads over 20 nights in mid 2011. They recorded 32 individuals at
22 sites although it is not clear how many sites they surveyed in total. They
suggested that the total population was within the range estimated by van Tets
(1975) and Stokes (1988) of 10–100 pairs. While acknowledging certain survey
limitations, Low & Hamilton (2013) recommended urgent, more extensive surveys.
PANCI conducted nocturnal listening surveys using a methodology similar to that
of James & Retallick (2007) except that they were nocturnal. These were repeated
four times each year at ~105 sites in 2006, 2012 and 2013, and had reporting
rates that indicated that the population was stable (DNP 2014; J. Woinarski pers.
comm.; DJJ). Although 20 years old, the population estimate of Hill & Lill (1998a)
still appears to be the most accurate available.
The Christmas Island Hawk-Owl occurs in all evergreen and semi-deciduous
forests on the coastal and inland terraces and the plateau, suburban gardens and
some secondary forests (Hill & Lill 1998a; Hill 2000; DJJ). Hill & Lill (1998a)
assumed that densities are lower in modified and disturbed habitats. Only four
nests have been located, three by J. Young (Hill & Lill 1998a) and one by DJJ in
2004. All were in hollows in large emergent Syzygium nervosum, three on the
inland plateau and one on the coastal terrace. However, the Hawk-Owl maintains
territories in locations without this tree species, so presumably nests in the hollows
of other tree species (Hill 2000), and the possibility that the availability of this
tree limits the population (Hill 2000, 2004b) seems unlikely (DJJ). The breeding
season has not been determined accurately as only a few nests have been recorded,
but signs of breeding have been recorded in all seasons of the year (Higgins 1999).
Hill & Lill (1998b) analysed the characteristics of roost-sites in some detail.
The diet consists primarily of large arthropods (crickets, grasshoppers, mantids,
cockroaches, cicadas, moths and spiders), supplemented with small vertebrates
[geckoes, skinks, rats and small birds (Christmas Island White-eyes)] (Gibson-
Hill 1947; Kent & Boles 1984; Phillips et al. 1991; Hill & Lill 1998b). This includes
introduced and indigenous species (Kent & Boles 1984). Higgins (1999) listed the
endemic Christmas Island Pipistrelle in the diet, but this was only speculative
(cf. Olsen & Stokes 1989). Observed foraging strategies include snatching prey
from foliage in the understorey, perch-hunting around clearings, and sallying for
moths at street-lights (Olsen & Stokes 1989; Hill & Lill 1998a; DJJ).
This species is listed as globally Vulnerable, as it has a single small population
restricted to one location (IUCN 2013). It is also listed as Vulnerable under
the EPBC Act and by Garnett et al. (2011). Hill & Lill (1998a) and Hill (2000,
2004b) listed the main threat as introduced diseases, but this is speculative. Hill
(2000) listed predation by feral cats and death from vehicle collisions as potential
threats, but concluded that neither was significant in the mid 1990s. Fortunately,
predictions that Yellow Crazy Ants could cause a severe population decline (in
this case by swarming nest-sites and killing chicks: Garnett & Crowley 2000; Hill
2004b) have so far not eventuated. Impacts of habitat modification by weeds
and Yellow Crazy Ants have been flagged (Hill 2004b), but not assessed. Other
potential threats, such as attacks by feral bees or centipedes and the recent loss of
prey such as endemic geckoes and skinks have not been considered. It has been
deduced that the clearing of 25% of the Island led to a population reduction of 25%
and proportionately increased the species’ vulnerability to extinction (Hill 2000).
However, some breeding pairs have large parts of their territory in secondary
growth and urban habitats (Hill & Lill 1998a; DJJ). It is also likely that secondary
growth unsuitable for breeding provides refuge for fledged juveniles, increasing
their survival, which in turn provides some resilience in the population dynamics.
Common Kingfisher Alcedo atthis

Vagrant. Five records, four confirmed. A single bird was reported on at least
four occasions at Andersons Dale by J. Barkla and C. Lester from 30 October to
1 November 1996 (Barkla 1996; Eades 1997a; Lester 1997). Although it was seen
well, no description has been published or submitted to BARC. One was seen by
DJJ at Flying Fish Cove on 11 September 2002, and observed at close range for
25 minutes (Stafford 2002b; Palliser 2004; BARC Case 364). It was probably a
juvenile female of the subspecies bengalensis. One was seen at Waterfall Cove
on 5–7 May 2006 (Anon. 2006b,e; Baxter 2006; Dooley 2006c; Palliser 2008;
BARC Case 486). One, probably an adult female, was photographed on a rock on
the eastern side of Flying Fish Cove on 7 December 2006 (Rogers 2006; Anon.
2007a,c; Dooley 2007a; Palliser 2009; BARC Case 523). A juvenile was seen and
photographed as it fed at an ornamental pond at Drumsite on 13–14 September
2008 (Dooley 2008d; R. Stephenson, K. Retallick, M. Orchard & L. Preston pers.
comm.; Anon. 2008d; Ramsay 2008e). Widely circulated photographs confirmed
the identification. These are the only records from Australian territory.
This species is widespread in Eurasia and its geographical variation is subtle,
with many subspecies recognised (Cramp 1985; Fry & Fry 1992). The Common
Kingfishers seen in 2002 and 2008 were possibly the subspecies bengalensis,
which breeds in southern and eastern Asia and winters south to the Greater
Sundas and Wallacea (Fry & Fry 1992). This subspecies lays as early as January,
and this is consistent with the worn juvenile plumage noted in September; the
more northern subspecies lays from April onwards.
Sacred Kingfisher Todiramphus sanctus

Vagrant. About nine records. A live bird was found on the road at night at Smith
Point on 14 May 1984 (Stokes et al. 1987). It was photographed, banded and
released. An unidentified kingfisher seen in front of Tai Jin House on 12 and
16 April 1984 may have been this species (Stokes et al. 1987). A pair was seen in
front of the (mine) General Manager’s Residence at Rocky Point on 9 June 1985
(Stokes et al. 1987). One was seen by DJJ at Norris Point on 7 February 2002.
One bird was seen in the Settlement in about March or April 2004 (C. Surman
pers. comm.). One was picked up off a driveway and released by J. Hueston (pers.
comm.) in the Settlement in mid 2004. One was seen by numerous observers,
including two tour groups, at the eastern end of the Settlement and at the Chinese
Cemetery in late November and early December 2004 (Carter 2004; Anon. 2005b;
R. Baxter in litt.; DJJ). One was photographed by P. Maberly at the Settlement
in mid April 2005 (identity confirmed by DJJ & IAWM). One was seen at Ethel
Beach on 17 December 2006 (Hobcroft 2006; Anon. 2007a,c). One was reported
by a tour group near the Resort entrance in November 2008 (R. Baxter in litt.).
This species breeds in Australia, New Zealand and several south-western Pacific
Islands. Nominate sanctus from Australia is a widespread non-breeding visitor
to the Greater Sundas, Wallacea, New Guinea and the Bismarck and Solomon
Islands (Higgins 1999).
Collared Kingfisher Todiramphus chloris

Vagrant. Up to seven reports, but only two confirmed records. Single birds were
seen by A.J. Pearson on 8 May, 6 June and 20 September 1962 and on 26 September
1963 (Pearson 1966). Van Tets (1974a) listed it as a rare visitor. Johnstone &
Darnell (2004a) listed a record for 22 October 1977 that we have been unable to
trace. One was seen by D. Merton at Lily Beach on 7 September 1978 (Stokes et
al. 1987). Higgins (1999), followed by Johnstone & Darnell (2004a), erroneously
listed this record as April 1978. One bird seen by a tour group and photographed in
the Settlement on 7 May 2006 (Baxter 2006; R. Baxter in litt.) looked like an Asian
form of Collared Kingfisher, but responded to call-playback with a call sounding
like that of a Sacred Kingfisher, so its identification has been questioned. However,
Collared Kingfishers in Singapore (subspecies humii) have one call that is virtually
identical to the common kek kek kek... call of the Sacred Kingfisher and readily
respond to playback of Sacred Kingfisher calls (DJJ; IAWM), so this record can
be accepted as Collared Kingfisher. One bird, photographed by L. Preston (pers.
comm.) at the Settlement on 24 May 2009, was not identified to subspecies level,
but was not one of the Australian subspecies (Anon. 2009c; details confirmed by
J. Davies & M. Carter). One was supposedly photographed by a local observer at
Flying Fish Cove in the period June–September 2011 (N. Hamilton in litt.). As
several of the records lack details, they may have been of the Sacred Kingfisher,
which may not have been adequately considered (Johnstone & Darnell 2004a).
The Collared Kingfisher is widespread, with numerous subspecies scattered
from the Red Sea through South and South-East Asia to Australia and the Pacific
east to Samoa (Fry & Fry 1992). Christmas Island birds are likely to be from South-
East Asia and most likely subspecies humii, but possibly the inland armstrongi
(Fry & Fry 1992; Robson 2000; cf. Wells 1999). The taxonomy of this complex is
in disarray, with widely differing opinions, but few data in the literature, and there
could be several species included under this name. The relationships between
T. sanctus, T. c. humii and Australian subspecies of T. chloris require inspection.
Dollarbird Eurystomus orientalis

Vagrant. Five sets of records. One was seen by A.J. Pearson on the north-eastern
coast from 28 January to 2 February 1963 (Pearson 1966). One was seen on three
occasions south-east of the LB4 Lookout from 28 December 1996 to 3 January
1997 (Anon. 1997b; Farnes 1997; Higgins 1999). One was seen near the corner of
Murray Road and the East West Baseline on several days in March 2007 (Anon.
2007b; Baxter 2007; M. Holdsworth pers. comm.). One was seen 1.5 km west
of LB3 along the East West Baseline in early December 2011 (M. Roderick pers.
comm.). One, considered to be the ‘Asian race abundus’ and possibly the same
bird, was seen in Poon Saan on 7 December 2011 (Barrand c. 2011). One (of an
Asian subspecies) was found in the Airport car park by P. Kyne and M. Jackson at
dusk on 24 November 2012, but could not be relocated the next day (James 2012).
This polytypic and highly migratory species is widespread from southern and
eastern Asia to New Guinea and Australia. Fry & Fry (1992) recognised nine
subspecies, of which three are widespread migrants and six are insular endemics.
Subspecies pacificus breeds in Australia and the Lesser Sundas and migrates
north to New Guinea and Wallacea for the austral winter; nominate orientalis
breeds in eastern Asia to mainland South-East Asia, with migratory and sedentary
populations; subspecies calonyx (of which abundus is a synonym—see Fry 2001)
breeds in north-eastern Asia and migrates to mainland South-East Asia and
the Greater Sundas in the boreal winter. The insular subspecies are generally
sedentary (Fry & Fry 1992; MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Coates & Bishop 1997;
Higgins 1999; Wells 1999; Robson 2000). The exact distributions are confused
and the situation is not helped by apparent intergradations of orientalis with both
pacificus and calonyx. Any of orientalis, calonyx or pacificus may reach Christmas
Island, but birds consistently appear different from Australian pacificus. Only
pacificus has been confirmed in Australian territory (Higgins 1999), but several
of the numerous records from the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (e.g. Moorhead 2008;
D. Hadden in litt.; D. Hobcroft in litt.; DJJ; IAWM) were not pacificus and
resembled calonyx. The subspecies calonyx is more common than orientalis as
a migrant crossing from the Malay Peninsula to Sumatra (Wells 1999), and is
perhaps more likely to reach Christmas Island. Species boundaries in the complex
deserve more attention. A pair of nominate orientalis courtship-feeding in
Singapore in January 2012 had quite different calls from pacificus from Australia,
and did not respond to playback of pacificus calls (DJJ).
Fairy Pitta Pitta nympha

Vagrant. One record. One foraging 50 m before the end of Winifred Beach Track
was videotaped on 11 November 2012 (Graff 2013; Watson 2013; B. Moloney &
T. Detto in litt.; BARC Case 769). This is the second Australian record, the first
being at Derby, WA, in December 2007 (BARC Case 748).
This species breeds in eastern China, Taiwan, South Korea, and southern Japan.
It winters in southern China, Laos, Vietnam and Borneo, where it is nevertheless
rare (MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Robson 2000; Dickinson 2003; Brazil 2009).
Blue-winged Pitta Pitta moluccensis

Vagrant. Two records. A specimen in the CUMZ was collected by H.E. Durham on
14 December 1901 (specimen 27/Pit/1/r/1; Benson 1970); Benson identified the
subspecies as nominate moluccensis. A Blue-winged Pitta was found dead floating
on the ocean near Thundercliff Cave on the north-western coast on 25 February
2010 (Anon. 2010b; R. Baxter 2010a; Dooley 2010a; Ramsay 2010b; specimen
now in AM, W. Boles pers. comm.). There are four other records of vagrants to
Australia, all in WA (Johnstone & Hamilton 1995; also BARC Case 219).
This species is not known from Java immediately to the north, though it is
considered a regular visitor in the boreal winter to southern mainland South-East
Asia and Sumatra, and is occasionally reported from Borneo (van Marle & Voous
1988; Wilkinson et al. 1991; Andrew 1992; Holmes 1997; Robson 2000).
White-bellied Cuckoo-shrike Coracina papuensis

Vagrant. One record. One was seen by DJJ near the Old Chinese Cemetery on
Quarry Road at Phosphate Hill on 8 June 2005.
This species is found in Australia, New Guinea, the Bismarck and Solomon
Islands and the Moluccas, but is unknown in the Indomalayan Region proper
(Andrew 1992; Higgins et al. 2006). White-bellied Cuckoo-shrikes recorded
sporadically in the Lesser Sunda Islands west to near Timor appear to be vagrants
of the northern Australian subspecies hypoleuca (cf. White & Bruce 1986).
Brown Shrike Lanius cristatus

Vagrant. Seven reports, but only three confirmed records. One was seen by
A.J. Pearson on 7 April 1962 (Pearson 1966). No details were provided, and
the record is not usually considered to be substantiated (e.g. Christidis & Boles
1994) though, given the later records, it was probably valid. One was seen by J. &
B. Watson, R. Farnes, P. Lansley and P. Milburn in thick vegetation opposite
the Golf Course from 28 December 1996 to 3 January 1997 (Anon. 1997b; Eades
1997a; Lansley 1997; Lansley et al. 2003; BARC Case 299). One adult, believed to
be the same bird, was seen at the same location on 16 March 1997 (Anon. 1997c;
Maher 1997; Lansley et al. 2003). One was seen by A. Richards and Reg Clark
on 20 and 22 November 1998 near ‘phosphate mining buildings’ (Anon. 1999a;
Palliser 2000; BARC Case 260). This record was erroneously listed as December
1998 by Johnstone & Darnell (2004a). One was seen in Silver City on 24–27 April
2000 (Anon. 2000b; Coate 2000; Smith 2000; K. Coate in litt.). It was thought to
be either subspecies confusus or lucionensis (Smith 2000), but no substantiating
details were provided. One was reported by E. Ervasti and G. Lindstrom at the
High School in Drumsite on 4 March 2001 (Robson 2001). One was seen by Rohan
Clarke at Poon Saan on 12–13 December 2001 (Anon. 2002b; Stafford 2002a;
Palliser 2003; BARC Case 329). The rufous coloration on the back and rump and
a large pale area on the forehead suggest that it was most likely the subspecies
superciliosus, which winters south to Sumatra, Java and the Lesser Sundas
(Lefranc & Worfolk 1997; BARC Case 329).
This polytypic species breeds in North-East Asia, south to southern China, and
winters in India, Sri Lanka, southern and coastal China, and South-East Asia
(Lefranc & Worfolk 1997). All four subspecies reach the Greater Sundas. These
were the only records from Australian territory until a sight record of subspecies
lucionensis from Ashmore Reef in November 2011 (Dooley 2012a; R. Clarke pers.
comm.).
Tiger Shrike Lanius tigrinus

Vagrant. One record. A female Tiger Shrike was found by J. Pridham (pers.
comm.) at North East Point on 23 April 2008 and seen by numerous others on
the same day and through to 28 April (Anon. 2008c; Carter et al. 2008; Dooley
2008c; Ramsay 2008c; Palliser 2009; IOSG delegates pers. comm.; IAWM; BARC
Case 562). Another shrike with a reddish-brown back, possibly this species, was
briefly seen at the Rubbish Tip on 23 April 2008 (P. Whittington pers. comm.).
These observations followed Cyclone Rosie, so the birds were probably blown to
the Island from near-coastal Sumatra.
This species breeds in eastern China, south-eastern Siberia, Korea and Japan,
and winters in southern China and South-East Asia (Coates & Bishop 1997;
Lefranc & Worfolk 1997). This was the first live record for Australia; one found
road-killed near Fremantle, WA, may have been ship-assisted (Christidis & Boles
2008). Since the 2008 observations, there has been a report in April 2010 of the
same individual at Browse Island in the Kimberley, and at Ashmore Reef (Anon.
2010c; BARC Case 792), and several reports from the Cocos (Keeling) Islands
from November 2012 to February 2013 (Graff 2013; Watson 2013; G. Christie,
P. Jones, J. Weigel & B. Moorehead in litt.).
Oriental Reed-Warbler Acrocephalus orientalis

Vagrant. Two records. One was seen and heard at close range by a tour group led by
C. Doughty at the Settlement on 4, 8 and 9 December 2002 (Anon. 2003; Doughty
2003). A single bird was found by L. Preston (pers. comm.) at the entrance to the
Resort in early January 2011. It was photographed and its call taped by several
birders through to early March 2011 (Baxter 2011a; Carter 2011b; Marsh 2011;
L. Preston pers. comm.; DJJ; IAWM).
This Palaearctic migrant breeds in south-eastern Siberia, northern and central
China, Korea and Japan, and migrates south to winter in eastern India and South-
East Asia, with lower numbers in New Guinea (MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993;
Baker 1997; Coates & Bishop 1997). It has been reported from northern Australia
and Ashmore Reef on numerous occasions. BARC has accepted nine records, and
Higgins et al. (2006) accepted several more.
Pallas’s Grasshopper Warbler Locustella certhiola

Vagrant. One record. A single bird found by IAWM at North East Point on
21 April 2008 was later heard and sometimes glimpsed by others (R. Crawford,
J. Pridham, D. Stojanovic, E. Wagner, P. Whittington, M. Carter, T. Palliser &
F. O’Connor pers. comm.) until 28 April. Sound-recordings by IAWM were
identified by P. Holt and K. Bishop (Anon. 2008c; Dooley 2008c; BARC Case 576).
This Palaearctic migrant breeds in south-eastern Siberia and central Asia east
to northern China. It winters in central and southern India, mainland South-
East Asia, the Philippines (Palawan) and the Greater Sundas (MacKinnon &
Phillipps 1993; Baker 1997; Robson 2000; Wells 2007). This is the first record
from Australian territory, though it has since been recorded at Ashmore Reef on
8 April 2011 (BARC Case 731). It was mistakenly listed as the Manchurian Reed-
Warbler Acrocephalus tangorum by Ramsay (2008c) and Pallas’s Leaf Warbler
Phylloscopus proregulus in early printings of Slater et al. (2009).
Dusky Warbler Phylloscopus fuscatus

Vagrant. One record. One was seen and heard at the Settlement on
3–4 May 2009 (Ramsay 2009b; Palliser & Carter 2012; IAWM; BARC Case 620);
identity was confirmed by P. Holt and P. Morris from sound-recordings by IAWM.
This Palaearctic migrant breeds in south-eastern Siberia and central Asia east
to central China. It winters in central eastern India, South-East Asia south to
Malaysia and Singapore (Baker 1997; Rasmussen & Anderton 2005; Wang & Hails
2007; Wells 2007), but has not been reported from the Greater Sundas. This is the
first record from Australian territory.
Christmas Island White-eye Zosterops natalis [Figure 24 (p. S59)]

Abundant endemic breeding resident (80 000–170 000 individuals). The first
record may have been sightings of ‘a little flycatcher of the same sombre colour’
by Captain J.P. Maclear in January 1887 (Maclear 1887a, p. 13; 1887b, p. 510).
However, the species was described from specimens collected by J.J. Lister from
30 September to 7 October 1887 (Lister 1889). Three syntypes are in the NHM
(Warren & Harrison 1971) and another three are in the CUMZ (Benson 1999).
Another early specimen was said to be in the collection of Canon Tristram, but
was destroyed with damage to the Liverpool Museum, UK, in World War II (see
Benson 1999). Visitors generally consider the White-eye to be abundant. The
only survey-based population estimate is 80 000–170 000 individuals, derived
from distance-sampling surveys (Table 3; see Corbett et al. 2003). This equates
to 8–17 birds per hectare (assuming 100 km2 of suitable habitat), which might be
an overestimate, but is reasonable. James & Retallick (2007) recorded it in 506 of
527 10-minute surveys, a reporting rate of 99% that made it the most frequently
reported forest bird in their study, and found no significant difference in habitat
preferences or distribution across the Island. It is abundant in all habitats except
where there are no trees or shrubs (DJJ; IAWM).
Despite the abundance and conspicuous nature of this species, it is very
poorly known. It is very gregarious, forming flocks of up to ~100, but usually
10–30 birds. It forages from the top of the canopy to the ground, with no
competitors. Food includes nectar, fruit, seeds and insects (caught by gleaning),
but few specific details have been published (Higgins et al. 2006). Introduced
plants are important in the diet in disturbed habitats (Gibson-Hill 1947), especially
the Japanese Cherry (DJJ). The White-eye is abundant deep inside evergreen
and semi-deciduous forests (James & Retallick 2007), where the fruits and/or
flowers of Strangler Fig, Macaranga, Stinking Wood and Tristiropsis acutangula
seem important (DJJ). Davis et al. (2008) observed 44 instances of White-eyes
‘attacking’ the introduced scale insects.
Breeding is thought to be from September to January (Gibson-Hill 1947), but
otherwise breeding biology is very poorly known (Higgins et al. 2006).
This abundant species seems secure at present. It is listed as globally Near
Threatened (IUCN 2013), although BirdLife International (2004) considered it
Vulnerable because it has a small population restricted to two localities. Garnett
et al. (2011) considered it Near Threatened. It was previously listed as globally
Critically Endangered but, fortunately, predictions that Yellow Crazy Ants could
cause a severe population decline (Garnett & Crowley 2000) have so far not
eventuated. In 2005, a nomination for listing as Endangered under the EPBC Act
was not accepted on advice from the TSSC (TSSC 2005b). Davis (2002) found no
evidence of impacts from Yellow Crazy Ants. Re-analysing the same data, Davis
et al. (2008) claimed that the White-eye actually benefitted from ant invasion,
presumably related to an increase in honeydew-secreting scale insect prey because
of the mutualism between the ants and the scale. Stokes (1988) listed cats and
probably rats as occasional predators. Small numbers of White-eyes are taken
by Christmas Island Goshawks (Lister 1889; Gibson-Hill 1947) and visiting
Eastern Great Egrets (DJJ), and the White-eye gives alarm calls in the presence
of Christmas Island Hawk-Owls (Hill & Lill 1998b), Nankeen Kestrels (DJJ) and
larger vagrant species (e.g. Horsfield’s Bronze-Cuckoo: IAWM). It is only rarely
killed by cars (James 2007).
This species is endemic to Christmas Island. It was introduced to Horsburgh
Island in the Cocos (Keeling) Group supposedly between 1890 and 1895 (Wood-
Jones 1909), but more likely by the Clunies-Ross family between November 1888
and August 1890 (Ridley 1891), and remains extant there today (IAWM; DJJ).
Mees (1957, p. 200) considered it ‘a distinct species without close relatives’.
Barn Swallow Hirundo rustica

Rare regular visitor and passage migrant between August and April. A juvenile
female of subspecies gutturalis was collected by C.W. Andrews at Flying Fish Cove
on 16 October 1897 (Sharpe 1900). This species was considered a regular visitor
by Gibson-Hill (1947), although he did not document any records. This species
was listed as a regular visitor between September and November by van Tets
(1974a, 1983) and between September and January by Stokes (1988). Johnstone
& Darnell (2004a) described it as a moderately common visitor mainly between
October and January, with odd records in April. They claimed that all records
are referrable to H. r. gutturalis, which is likely to be correct on geographical
grounds, but supported only by the 1897 specimen. It was reported in singles and
small flocks by at least 36 visiting parties in most years since 1990 (Carter 1994,
2000b, 2001, 2002, 2010b, 2011b; Barkla 1996; Craig 1996; Hobcroft 1996, 2005,
2007; Smith 1996; Anon. 1997a, 2002c; Farnes 1997; Lester 1997; Maher 1997;
O’Connor 1999; Coate 2000; Hansboro 2000a; Smith 2000; Clarke 2001, 2011b;
Holmes 2002; Stafford 2002a; Barrand & Barrand 2003; Doughty 2003; Hunter
2004; Barrand 2005b, c. 2009; Morris 2005; Rogers 2006; Baxter 2008a, 2011b;
Carter & Carter 2008; Carter et al. 2008; Low 2011; R. Baxter in litt.; K. Coate in
litt.; N. Hamilton in litt.; N. Pamment in litt.; D. Helliar pers. comm.; IAWM).
The number of birds seen in any one season can vary considerably (DJJ). This
species has been recorded from all months except May–June, but most records
are from late October to mid April. The spread of dates has grown in recent years
as a result of increasing observer effort. A single record for the month of July
(30 July 2004: DJJ) is the earliest arrival date and 27 April (in 2008) is the latest
date (Carter et al. 2008). The pattern of records suggests that some birds winter
on the Island for up to 3 months, but many are passage migrants. Larger flocks
included ≥20 in December 1996 and January 1997 (Farnes 1997), 14 in March 1997
(Maher 1997), ~12 in April 2000 (Smith 2000), 20 in April 2002 (Holmes 2002),
and 15 in March 2004 (DJJ). Localities where it has been recorded are mostly in
the north-east, and include the Rubbish Tip, Phosphate Hill, Airport, Phosphate
Dryers, Drumsite, Poon Saan, Flying Fish Cove, the Settlement, Chinese Cemetery,
North East Point and the Golf Course, as well as North West and South Points.
This Palaearctic and New World migrant reaches the Greater Sundas and
northern Australia regularly (MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Higgins et al. 2006).
Tree Martin Petrochelidon nigricans

Vagrant. Between two and seven records. One possible Tree Martin seen at the
Rubbish Tip on 2–3 November 1993 (Carter 1994) was later submitted as an
Asian House Martin Delicon dasypus to BARC, but not accepted, leaving the
bird’s identity in doubt (Palliser 2004; BARC Case 320—not accepted as Asian
House Martin). It was listed as an Asian House Martin by Johnstone & Darnell
(2004a). N. Cheshire saw one bird on board the RV Franklin at 12°00′S, 106°30′E,
97 nm south-south-east of Christmas Island on 13 April 1995 (Casement 1996;
N. Cheshire in litt.). One was seen by DJJ at the Rubbish Tip on 11 April 2004,
at the Parks Office on 31 May 2004, and at the Rubbish Tip from 30 October to
19 December 2004 (seven sightings), and was also seen by two tour groups
between 22 November and 3 December 2004 (Carter 2004; Langfield 2004). One
was seen by DJJ at the Rubbish Tip from 27 March to 8 May 2005 (six sightings),
and again on 7 August 2005. The records from 2004–2005 probably represent a
single, long-staying individual.
This Australian species is a regular visitor to the Moluccas and Lesser Sunda
Islands, and has been observed to breed on Alor in the Lesser Sundas (White &
Bruce 1986; Holmes 1995). It is unknown from the Indomalayan Region proper
(cf. Andrew 1992; MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Inskipp et al. 1996).
Red-rumped Swallow Cecropis daurica

Vagrant. Eight reports, but only one confirmed record. Eight were seen by
T. Stokes, P. Goh and B. Reville at the LB4 Lookout on 17 January 1986
(Stokes et al. 1987). Two were seen at Migrant Hill between 28 October and
1 November 1995 (Eades 1995; Smith 1996; T. Smith pers. comm.). Two were
seen on 1–2 December 1996 (Hobcroft 1996). Three were seen at the Golf Course
on 18 November 1999 (Carter 2000b; BARC Case 289). Four Swallows were
seen by DJJ on the Dales Road near the IDC on 7–8 November 2005 (Anon.
2006a,c; Dooley 2006a), and one was seen here by DJJ and a tour group led by
P. Barrand on 12 November 2005 (Barrand 2005b; Anon. 2006c). A single
Swallow was seen by T. Low and DJJ at the Plantation in early January 2006.
One was reported at Migrant Hill by a visiting British tourist in November 2011
(L. Preston pers. comm.). Two were photographed by a tour group at the Golf
Course on 28 November 2012 (James 2012).
This species breeds from northern Africa and southern Europe east across
Asia to eastern China and Japan. It is very scarce in Sumatra, Borneo and Bali,
but unknown from Java and Wallacea (van Marle & Voous 1988; Andrew 1992;
Coates & Bishop 1997; Holmes 1997; Mason 2011). It has been reported on several
occasions in northern Australia. Higgins et al. (2006) suggested that it may be a
regular visitor there, though Christidis & Boles (2008) listed it as a vagrant.
Asian House Martin Delichon dasypus

Rare regular visitor. Sixteen or more sets of reports, all since 1990, six confirmed
by BARC. One was seen by P. Milberg and K. Coate at the LB4 Lookout on
25 November 1996 (Anon. 1997a; Coate 1997; Eades 1997a; K. Coate in litt.). The
first confirmed record was of up to 20 seen on 1–6 December 1996 at the Airport
and Drumsite by D. Hobcroft (Hobcroft 1996; Eades 1997a; BARC Case 313).
The five other confirmed records are two at the Rubbish Tip on 15–16 April 2003
(BARC Case 384), two at the Airport on 4 March 2007 (BARC Case 531), 5–8 at
Margaret Knoll on 13 January 2008 (BARC Case 565), at least five on 23–28 April
2008 at North East Point, near Ma Chor Nui Nui Temple and North West Point
(BARC Case 573), and one at North West Point on 28 November 2009 (BARC
Case 681). Since 1997, this species has been reported by numerous observers and
parties (Anon. 1997c, 2002b, 2006a,c, 2007b, 2011a; Maher 1997; Carter 2001,
2007; Stafford 2003; Palliser 2004, 2009; Barrand 2005b, c. 2009; Hobcroft
2005; Baxter 2007, 2009, 2010b, 2011b; Dooley 2007b, 2008b,c, 2012a; Ramsay
2007a, 2008b,c, 2010a, 2011a; Carter et al. 2008; Roderick 2008; Eaw & Dooley
2010; James 2010; L. Living & E. Fothergill in litt. to M. Carter 2003; N. Pamment
in litt. 2008; IOSG delegates pers. comm. 2008; J.C. Taylor pers. comm. 2005;
DJJ; IAWM). Most records have been at North West Point, but other locations
include the Settlement, Quarry Road (Phosphate Hill) and South Point. The
earliest report was on 31 October (in 2008), and the latest was on 28 April (in
2008). Flock sizes have varied from one to 30 (Baxter 2011b). On Christmas
Island, the Asian House Martin has not been seen to perch; perching is rarely
recorded in this species (Robson 2000; Wells 2007).
Nominate dasypus is a long-distance migrant and is the only form recorded
from the Malay Peninsula southwards. It is fairly common in southern mainland
South-East Asia and sporadic in the Greater Sundas (MacKinnon & Phillipps
1993; Robson 2000). The species has not been reported in Wallacea (Coates &
Bishop 1997) and is rare in the Philippines (Kennedy et al. 2000). Elsewhere in
Australian territory, there is one confirmed record of a single bird on the Cocos
(Keeling) Islands in March 2007 (Baxter 2007; BARC Case 530).
Blue-and-white Flycatcher Cyanoptila cyanomelana

Vagrant. Two sets of records and up to seven reports, three of which are
confirmed. One first-winter male with turquoise-blue wings was seen at Silver
City on 7–8 December 2003 by DJJ (BARC Case 408). In late 2006, there was an
unprecedented series of reports by multiple observers involving between four and
seven birds (Anon. 2007a). In November 2006, a small, bright, blue, black and
white bird was seen by L. Preston (pers. comm.) in Kampong; this description fits
an adult male Blue-and-white Flycatcher. A week later, a brightly coloured, blue,
black and white flycatcher was seen by M. Bramson and L. Barrow at North West
Point near the IDC; it was reported to DJJ and identified as an adult male Blue-
and-white Flycatcher from the plates in Robson (2000). A first-winter male was
photographed on a track 1.7 km north of Grants Well on 2 December 2006 (Rogers
2006; Anon. 2007a; Dooley 2007a,c; Palliser 2009; BARC Case 515). A different-
plumaged first-winter male was photographed at the Sports Ground on multiple
occasions on 3–8 December 2006 (Palliser 2009; BARC Case 516). A first-winter
female was photographed at the Winifred Beach Track turnoff on 16 December
2006, and a first-winter male was seen at the same place on 18 and 20 December
2006 (Hobcroft 2006; Anon. 2007c; DJJ).
This species breeds in eastern Asia, migrates through South-East Asia, and
winters in the Greater Sundas and the Philippines (Robson 2000). It is a regular
visitor in Borneo, but is uncommon in Java and Sumatra (MacKinnon & Phillipps
1993). There are three records from elsewhere in Australia: an adult male found
dead near Cossack, WA, on 5 December 1995 (BARC Case 242); an adult male at
Broome Bird Observatory, WA, on 15–19 November 2002 (Hassell et al. 2003;
BARC Case 370); and a male seen at the Cocos (Keeling) Islands in March 2011
(Baxter 2011a).
Island Thrush Turdus poliocephalus erythropleurus

[Figures 25–26 (pp. S59–60)]
Abundant endemic breeding resident (20 000–50 000 individuals). The first
record was the collection of the holotype of the subspecies by Captain J.P. Maclear
in January 1887 (NHM 1887.5.1.21; Maclear 1887a; Sharpe 1887; Warren &
Harrison 1971). Visitors generally consider this species common or abundant. The
only survey-based population estimate is 20 000–50 000 individuals, derived

from distance-sampling surveys (Corbett et al. 2003). This equates to 2–5 birds
per hectare (assuming 100 km2 of suitable habitat), which seems reasonable.
James & Retallick (2007) recorded it in 356 of 527 10-minute surveys, a reporting
rate of 70% that made it the third most frequently reported forest bird in their
study. It is more frequent in evergreen forest than in disturbed habitats (James
& Retallick 2007). However, it is still common in regrowth and suburban yards
(DJJ), but tends to shun areas with dense undergrowth, especially thickets of
pandans Pandanus christmatensis and P. elatus (Stokes 1988; James 2007;
L. Olsen & J. Murakami pers. comm.), although it does forage on open ground in
and around pandan thickets (DJJ). It is absent from natural and mined pinnacle
fields (James & Retallick 2007; DJJ). It is tame and confiding, and particularly
active at dawn and dusk, though it can be active throughout the day. Adults
vigorously defend fairly small breeding territories. It usually occurs singly, in
pairs or family groups and rarely flocks of up to five birds (James 2007; James &
Retallick 2007; L. Olsen & J. Murakami pers. comm.; DJJ; IAWM).
The Island Thrush mostly forages on the ground, using perches as lookout posts
and for roosting. However, it occasionally forages on tree-trunks (Gibson-Hill
1947) and the walls of buildings and window sills, but not in foliage or aerially
(DJJ). The most common item in the diet is probably millipedes (Diplopoda), but
beetles (Coleoptera) are taken frequently (James 2007; L. Olsen & J. Murakami
pers. comm.; DJJ). The Thrush also eats earthworms (Annelida) (Carter 2000b)
and probably a wide range of other invertebrates (Clement & Hathway 2000).
One hand-reared juvenile captured and ate Daddy-long-legs spiders Pholcus
sp. (though they were not favoured) and an Asian House Gecko Hemidactylus
frenatus (DJJ). Terrestrial slaters (Isopoda) are avoided (DJJ). Strangely, Davis
(2002) considered the Thrush a frugivore.
Breeding peaks between October and March, but may occur throughout the
year (Higgins et al. 2006; DJJ). Nests have been reported in Bird’s-nest Ferns, in
creepers (especially Hoya aldrichi), tree-hollows and nooks in the aerial roots of
Strangler Figs, in forks of trees (including at 1 m in a Coffee Bush), in a dense exotic
palm, in a tin can on a pole leaning against a Poinciana Delonyx regia, on ledges
in buildings, and on a step-ladder in a carport (Higgins et al. 2006; James 2007;
L. Olsen & J. Murakami pers. comm.; DJJ). The breeding cycle from courtship to
independence of juveniles takes c. 1 month, and the raising of two, three or four
broods in succession is probably common (Reville 1993; James 2007; L. Olsen &
J. Murakami pers. comm.; DJJ). At one nest, the adult pair had a dependent
juvenile while incubating another clutch of two eggs, and once these eggs had
hatched the adults ignored the juvenile, which stopped begging, but continued
to forage in the territory (James 2007; L. Olsen & J. Murakami pers. comm.).
Independent birds form flocks of 5–20, often with a mix of older and younger
juveniles (James 2007; L. Olsen & J. Murakami pers. comm.; DJJ).
The Island Thrush is not listed as globally threatened by the IUCN (2013), as it
is considered a subspecies of a more widely distributed and secure species. The
Christmas Island subspecies was listed as Endangered under the EPBC Act in April
2005, because of a perceived threat from the Yellow Crazy Ant (Garnett & Crowley
2000). Davis (2002) and Davis et al. (2008) found variations in abundance and
nesting success of the Thrush associated with different levels of infestation by
Yellow Crazy Ants, and feared a population decline of the Thrush. Yet, over a
decade later, the Thrush remains abundant throughout the forests of Christmas
Island (James & Retallick 2007; DJJ; IAWM). Stokes (1988) listed bird trapping,
cats and rats as threats, but considered the population of the Island Thrush to be
very abundant and in no danger of extinction; trapping no longer occurs (DJJ).
Occasional Thrushes are killed by cars (DJJ). Garnett et al. (2011) considered the
Christmas Island subspecies of the Island Thrush to be Near Threatened.
This species has ~50 subspecies spread widely from Taiwan through the
Philippines, Greater Sundas, Wallacea, Melanesia south to New Caledonia and
east to Samoa (Clement & Hathway 2000; Clements 2000). Two other subspecies
from the Australian territories of Norfolk and Lord Howe Islands are both extinct
(Higgins et al. 2006). The localised and insular subspecies are largely confined to
mountain peaks above 2000 m or small oceanic islands (MacKinnon & Phillipps
1993; Clement & Hathway 2000). T. p. erythropleurus was introduced to several
of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, supposedly between 1890 and 1895 (Wood-Jones
1909), but more likely by the Clunies-Ross family between November 1888 and
August 1890 (Ridley 1891). It was last reported there in 1941 (Gibson-Hill 1949b).
Purple-backed Starling Sturnus sturninus

Vagrant. Two records. One was observed by G. & G. Goodreid in their garden in
Poon Saan and verified by F.A.R. Hill on 4 June 1996 (Andrew 1996b; Goodreid
& Goodreid 1996; Palliser 1999; BARC Case 213). A female or juvenile was
photographed at the Settlement on 28 November 2011 (Baxter 2011b; Dooley
2012a; L. Preston pers. comm.; BARC Case 736).
This species breeds in northern China, Mongolia, south-eastern Siberia and
Korea, and winters to South-East Asia and the Greater Sundas (Feare & Craig
1998; Wells 2007). Apart from a bird found in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands in
December 2010–January 2011 (Baxter 2010b; Marsh 2011), these are the only
confirmed records from Australian territory.
Java Sparrow Lonchura oryzivora [Figure 27 (p. S60)]

Rare resident; introduced (<50 birds in 2012–2013). The first recorded birds were
collected by two Dayak collectors in October–November 1923 (Chasen & Kloss
1924); this would include an unregistered ZRC specimen, which is moulting from
immature to adult plumage, and was collected on the Island on 17 November 1923
(IAWM). Since this species was not recorded in 1908 by Andrews (1909), Stokes
(1988) deduced that it had been introduced between 1908 and 1923.
Gibson-Hill (1947) recorded the Java Sparrow’s range in 1940 as including the
6-mile (10-km) length of the North Coast Road (i.e. from Settlement to Waterfall
Cove where there was a string of huts, vegetable gardens and chicken-runs along
the water-pipeline, but no Golf Course; cf. Adams & Neale 1993) and south along
the railway line for 2 miles to near the present location of the Plantation. The same
range was also reported in 1961 (Mees 1966). Mees collected two specimens at
the Grotto near the Golf Course in June and July 1961 (WAM A.9273 and A.9421;
IAWM). According to Forshaw & Shephard (2012), the Sparrow was present at
the Golf Course, the Chinese Cemetery and throughout the settled areas in the
1980s. Higgins et al. (2006) wrote that it occurred at the Airport, but this was an
incorrect interpretation of van Tets (1983), who merely speculated that it could
colonise there. Since 1990, it has been recorded by numerous visiting parties, in
all months, from Settlement (Flying Fish Cove, Kampong, Post Office Padang, and
the Cocos Padang east to Rocky Point), Chinese Cemetery, Silver City (all suburban
areas), Poon Saan (all suburban areas including Taman Sweetland), Drumsite (all
suburban areas, Parks Office, Territory Day Park and Nursery) and the Phosphate
Dryers.
The range appears to be contracting gradually. The last sightings east of the
Settlement were at the Chinese Cemetery in February and March 2002 (DJJ); this
coincided with the closure in about 2001 of the chicken-battery that was located
between the Christian and Chinese Cemeteries, which had supported large flocks
of Java Sparrows (M. & B. Orchard pers. comm.). The Sparrow has rarely been
reported in the Kampong since 1994. From 2002 to 2007, DJJ found it to be
scarce at Drumsite. The only recent sighting beyond Drumsite was a report at the
Phosphate Dryers in November 2003 (Barrand & Barrand 2003). In November
2012, it was found only in Poon Saan despite a concerted search over several days
at the Settlement and Drumsite (DJJ).
Reported numbers vary widely, and appear to fluctuate. Gibson-Hill (1947)
considered the species to be very plentiful in 1939–1940. Van Tets & van Tets
(1967, p. 316) reported ‘large numbers’ and ‘flocks of 50 or more’. In the late 1980s,
Reville (1993) considered the population level to be ~200–300 birds, and it was
probably ~300 birds in the period 2002–2007 (DJJ). The highest counts since
1990 were ~100–140 birds in Poon Saan in March 2002 (Carter 2002; Holmes
2002; DJJ), though obviously this was only part of the population. Available
counts of Java Sparrows between 1995 and 2012 are plotted in Figure 28. The data
are from a wide variety of sources (Anon. 1996a, 2002c; Farnes 1997; Maher 1997;
Carter 2000b, 2004, 2010b, 2011b; Hansboro 2000a; Clarke 2001, 2011b; Holmes
2002; Barrand & Barrand 2003; Langfield 2004; Morris 2005; Hobcroft 2006,
2007; Rogers 2006; Carter & Carter 2008; Carter et al. 2008; Barrand c. 2009,
c. 2011; Baxter 2010a, 2011a,b; James 2010; Marsh 2011; R. Baxter in litt.;
K. Coate in litt.; B. King in litt.; N. Pamment in litt.; DJJ; IAWM), so it should be
noted that they were not collected systematically and they are counts of birds in
one or more flocks and are not population estimates. Nevertheless, the data show
that the counts peaked around 2002 and then declined substantially through
to 2010, with the suggestion of some recovery in 2011. This might indicate that
(1) the population level fluctuates over periods of years or decades (e.g. according
to environmental conditions such as rainfall), (2) the population is in rapid decline
(in which case it might not persist longer than a few more years), (3) mobile flocks
follow fluctuating resources and therefore their visibility changes or (4) there are
too many biases in the data set. Perhaps all are partly true, but the long-term pattern
160
140
Number of individuals
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Year
Figure 28. Ad hoc count data for the Java Sparrow on Christmas Island from 1995 to
2013 (n = 51; see text for data sources and interpretation).
and the concurrent decline in range best support explanations (1) or (2). The
population was apparently <50 birds at the end of 2012, although this number
may change rapidly.
The Java Sparrow population is heavily dependent on anthropogenic food
sources, such as rice grain, bread and chicken food (accessed at chicken-runs),
on lawns, and occasionally at feeding tables (Gibson-Hill 1947; DJJ). Gibson-
Hill (1947) also reported that Sparrows feed on the seeds of grasses and Stinking
Passion Flower Passiflora foetida along the edge of clearings. Barrand & Barrand
(2003) reported them feeding on seeding grass on the road edge. DJJ recorded
a flock of 48 on the road verge in Poon Saan in March 2004 and a pair at the
Parks Office several times in 2005 feeding on the seeds of Gomphrena Weed
Gomphrena celosioides. In a yard in Silver City in 2004, DJJ frequently observed
Sparrows climbing the seed stalks of Golden Beard Grass Chrysopogon aciculatus
(a common lawn grass on the Island) to bend them over and access the ripening
seeds. In April 2011, IAWM observed nine feeding at length on a limestone cliff
behind houses in the Settlement, where there was no obvious seed—possibly they
were feeding on the soil for minerals. A flock at Poon Saan in April 2011 may have
been feeding on fallen seeds from she-oaks Allocasuarina sp. (IAWM). Artificial
water sources (especially bird-baths) appear to be very important (M. Carter in
Forshaw & Shephard 2012; DJJ).
Gibson-Hill (1947) found six Java Sparrow nests between May and August,
and Reville (1993) reported a nest in May. DJJ recorded adults carrying nesting
material in July, newly fledged juveniles in June, older (but still dependent)
juveniles in August, and flocking, newly independent juveniles in July. Perhaps
exceptionally, K. Coate (in litt.) reported several pairs with juveniles at Poon Saan
in November 2001. Four of Gibson-Hill’s (1947) nests found in cavities were not
completely closed over at the top, whereas two in bushes were globular. Reville
(1993) reported a nest in a hollow branch of a Coral Tree Erythrina variegata.
M. Orchard (pers. comm.) reported Java Sparrows nesting in the axillary cavities
of Date Palms Phoenix dactylifera along Murray Road opposite the Parks Office
in the late 1990s, and DJJ suspected similar activity at the Cocos Padang in the
mid 2000s.
This species is gregarious and sometimes forms large flocks at food sources
(Higgins et al. 2006). Independent juveniles sometimes form separate flocks from
adults (DJJ). At feeding sites, the Java Sparrow sometimes forms mixed flocks
with Christmas Island White-eyes (Gibson-Hill 1947) and Eurasian Tree Sparrows
(DJJ; IAWM).
It has been claimed that the Java Sparrow could pose a threat to native species
by carrying or harbouring disease (Hill 1997a, 2004a). Based on this speculation,
Bomford & Sinclair (2002, p. 34) even categorised it as a ‘serious threat to the
environment ... as a possible vector of disease to the endangered Christmas Island
Hawk Owl’. We agree with Forshaw & Shephard (2012) that this accusation is
unjustified. The Java Sparrow on Christmas Island is now just as insular as the
Hawk-Owl after at least 87 years of quarantine, no avian diseases have ever
been identified on Christmas Island, and there is no evidence that the Hawk-
Owl is facing decline. This population of Java Sparrows is more likely to have
conservation value as a disease-free population of a globally threatened species.
Individuals are occasionally killed by cats (Higgins et al. 2006; K. Coate in litt.),
cars (K. Coate in litt.; DJJ), Christmas Island Goshawks (Gibson-Hill 1947; Hill
2004a; DJJ) and by entanglement in chicken-coops (S. Comport pers. comm.;
A. Graham pers. comm.; DJJ). Circumstantial evidence indicates that the Island’s
population of Java Sparrows is likely being displaced by the other introduced
granivorous passerine, the Eurasian Tree Sparrow (Higgins et al. 2006; Forshaw
& Shephard 2012; DJJ). The shift of people away from a village lifestyle, such
as occurred along the water-pipeline and railway before World War II (Adams &
Neale 1993), probably led to a reduced distribution and population level of Java
Sparrows (DJJ).
This monotypic species is indigenous to Java, Bali and Kangean, though it has
been widely introduced elsewhere (MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Higgins et al.
2006; Wells 2007). Elsewhere in Australian territory, it was introduced to the
Cocos (Keeling) Islands in the 19th century, but is no longer extant there (Higgins
et al. 2006). Given the previous movement of shipping, the Christmas Island birds
could have originated directly from Java or from the Cocos (Keeling) Islands.
Eurasian Tree Sparrow Passer montanus

Common resident; introduced (>1000 individuals). The first report was of several
birds observed by D. Powell in the Flying Fish Cove area from March 1983,
although this species was possibly present up to 2 years beforehand (Stokes et
al. 1987). In late 1986, ANPWS staff attempted to eradicate the small flock in
the Wharf area by capturing them, but none could be captured (Stokes 1986a,b).
When Stokes left the Island in 1987, numbers had grown (but were still <20),
and it was probable that the Sparrow had bred (Stokes 1988; Reville 1989, 1993).
K. Coate (in litt.) considered it to be common around the Settlement in August
1990, and in December 1998 he noted flocks of 30–50, and estimated that there
were 250–300 birds in the settled areas of the Island. Carter (2000b) noted a
great increase in numbers between his visits in 1993 and 1999. There were likely
to be >1000 individuals by 2005 (DJJ).
Between 2002 and 2007, DJJ noted that the species was common throughout
the residential areas of the Settlement (from the boat ramp in western Flying
Fish Cove to Rocky Point and up Gaze Road to the George Fam Centre), Silver
City and Poon Saan. Higher estimates of birds observed in the Settlement alone
include 150–200 (and a flock of 120) in November 1999 (Carter 2000b), 50 in
mid December 2007 (Hobcroft 2007) and several hundred in May 2009 (IAWM).
In April 2012, DJJ recorded multiple flocks (at least five) of ~100 birds at the
Settlement alone. It is less common at Drumsite. DJJ recorded it commonly at
the High School, but rarely elsewhere. Sightings increased gradually in eastern
Drumsite (from the Parks Office to the shops) from c. 2005 to 2007, but it was
much less common there than in the lower residential areas. The situation was
little changed at Drumsite in April 2012 (DJJ). This suggests that at the time the
Eurasian Tree Sparrow was still colonising Drumsite. By 2012, it was not found
outside residential areas. Subject to anthropogenic food supplies, this highly
commensal species could potentially colonise Phosphate Hill (e.g. the Hospital,
light industrial area, Recreation Centre, Rubbish Tip and Airport), along the
incline and conveyor between the Phosphate Dryers and the Wharf, the Resort,
and the IDC at North West Point. It is unlikely to colonise undisturbed sites. It is
probably heavily reliant on anthropogenic food sources, but also feeds on lawns
(DJJ; IAWM). It frequents chicken-pens and yards where free-range or ‘stray’
chickens are fed. Many congregated daily at the Noodle House in the Settlement
to feed on food scraps, especially cooked rice, that are deliberately left for them
(M. Carter in Johnstone & Darnell 2004a; DJJ; IAWM).
Newly fledged juveniles were observed by DJJ at Silver City in July 2004.
Most nests are probably located in cavities in buildings. However, DJJ observed
apparent nest building in cavities in the inland cliff behind the Cocos Padang and
Temple Court in the Settlement. Suitable nesting sites in the limestone cliffs are
likely to be abundant.
It has been claimed that the Eurasian Tree Sparrow could pose a threat to
native species by carrying or harbouring disease (Hill 1997a,b, 2004a,b). It could
potentially displace the other introduced granivorous passerine, the Java Sparrow,
through competition (Higgins et al. 2006). Individuals are occasionally killed by
Eastern Great Egrets and possibly by Christmas Island Goshawks and feral cats
(DJJ).
This species is found throughout the Palaearctic south to India, South-East Asia,
the Greater Sundas, Philippines and Wallacea (Wells 2007). The subspecies on
the Island is unknown. The initial appearance of small numbers in the Wharf area
indicates that the original colonists reached the Island by ship (Stokes et al. 1987;
Higgins et al. 2006). The nearest subspecies to Christmas Island is malaccensis,

which occurs throughout South-East Asia, Sumatra, Java and Bali (Clements
2000; Robson 2000; Johnstone & Darnell 2004a). According to Filewood
(1996, p. 28), ‘the subspecies is Oriental, supposedly from a vessel from Hong
Kong (where P. m. saturatus is native), but the birds could have joined the ship
elsewhere’. We have found no other account suggesting that the Eurasian Tree
Sparrow came from Hong Kong. Phosphate has been exported from Christmas
Island to many Oriental nations, but rarely if ever to Hong Kong, although many
ships are registered there. However, many ships go to Indonesia, Singapore and
Malaysia. These ports are only a few days away, and there is a good chance that
individuals or a small flock of Sparrows from these similar climates could survive
such a journey. Circumstantially, we think it more likely that the subspecies
introduced is malaccensis.
[‘Yellow Wagtail’ complex Motacilla aff. flava]

‘Yellow Wagtails’ M. flava (in the widest sense) are rare regular migrants
on Christmas Island between late September and May. Up to 22 subspecies
have been recognised in the complex, but Alström & Mild (2003) recognised
only 13. ‘Yellow Wagtails’ have complex plumage variation with moderate
sexual dimorphism, strong seasonal variation, different adult and first-year
plumages and complex geographical variation. Field characters for separating the
various forms are subtle and are still being investigated, especially for first-year
birds (Alström & Mild 2003).
Three taxa (subspecies) have been reported from the Island. The
recognition of several species within this complex by Christidis & Boles
(2008) means that at least two species occur on Christmas Island: the
Eastern Yellow Wagtail M. tschutschensis and Green-headed Yellow Wagtail
M. taivana. Many Island records that lack sufficient detail for identification to
species level as currently delineated are now summarised. Individuals were
reported in December 1977, October 1978 and January and March 1985 (Stokes
et al. 1987). ‘Yellow Wagtails’ have been reported at least 12 times by visiting
parties since 1990 [Andrew & Eades 1993 (photographed); Carter 1994, 2000b,
2004; Barkla 1996; Harvey 1996; Smith 1996; Lester 1997; O’Connor 1999;
Coate 2000; Smith 2000; Barrand & Barrand 2003; Doughty 2003; Langfield
2004; Baxter 2006; K. Coate in litt. (photographed)]. These records were all of
singles or pairs, except for a flock of four at the Rubbish Tip on 16 November
2003 and six at the same place on 5 December 2003 (Barrand & Barrand 2003;
Doughty 2003). DJJ saw five individual juveniles of unknown type between
2003 and 2005. The earliest date in any year, for 30 records (whether identified
to species or not), was a juvenile Eastern Yellow Wagtail M. tschutschensis on
18 September (in 2003) (DJJ), and the latest date in any year was a Green-headed
Yellow Wagtail M. taivana macronyx on 6 May (in 2004) (DJJ). Most records
were from October to December, with only two in September, one in January, two
each in April and May, and none in February and March. Individuals and flocks
were rarely present for more than a week, indicating that ‘Yellow Wagtails’ are
passage migrants (mainly on southern migration) rather than visitors. The largest
numbers recorded were flocks of 12 (all juvenile Eastern Yellow Wagtails)

on 24 October 2005 and nine (eight juvenile and one adult Eastern Yellow
Wagtail on 31 October 2004 (DJJ). Locations where unspecified ‘Yellow Wagtails’
have been recorded include the Rubbish Tip, Plantation, Phosphate Dryers,
Central Area Workshop, Winifred Gate, Flying Fish Cove, Rocky Point, North East
Point, Resort, LB3 ponds and the Blowholes Track.
As a group, the ‘Yellow Wagtails’ breed in northern Eurasia and migrate south
to Africa and southern Asia.
Eastern Yellow Wagtail Motacilla tschutschensis

Rare regular passage migrant. Up to 20 reports. Three immature birds were
collected by C.W. Andrews at Flying Fish Cove in 1897 and 1898 (one in October
1897) (Sharpe 1900). The specimens were said to be simillima (= tschutschensis) by
Gibson-Hill (1947); however, this could be confirmed if the specimens were still
at the NHM. Adults in breeding plumage or traces of it were seen by DJJ on 16 April
2003, 11 December 2003, 31 October 2004 and two on 23 October 2005; and by
IAWM on 22–23 April 2008. DJJ closely inspected juveniles on several occasions,
and tentatively identified many as tschutschensis: one at the Rubbish Tip on
18–30 September 2002; one at the Phosphate Dryers on 16 April 2003; one at
the Plantation on 30 October 2004; 5–9 at the Rubbish Tip on 8 days between
30 October and 15 November 2004 (accompanied by an adult with traces of
breeding plumage on 31 October); five at the Rubbish Tip on 23 October 2005
(accompanied by an adult in breeding plumage); 12 at the Rubbish Tip on
24 October 2005; seven at the Rubbish Tip on 31 October 2005; one at
the Winifred Gate on 24 October 2005; and 1–5 at the Rubbish Tip on
3–5 November 2005. These were identified as tschutschensis based on the
following combination of characters: pale, broad supercilium extending well
posterior to the eye; broad dark eye-stripe broadening into a distinctly triangular
patch on the ear-coverts that is darker around the edges and paler in the centre, and
is therefore paler than the nape; distinct, pale moustachial stripe separated from
the pale throat by a thin, dark and broken malar stripe; and at least two bold, pale
bars on the wing-coverts. One was photographed at South Point on 1 November
2008 (N. Pamment in litt.). A bird at the Chinese Cemetery on 4–5 December
2009 was identified as an Eastern Yellow Wagtail (Barrand c. 2009; Baxter 2009;
Ramsay 2010a), as were others seen in September 2010 (Ramsay 2010d), one at
the Rubbish Tip on 28 November 2010 (Baxter 2010b; Ramsay 2011a) and one
in the Settlement on 29 November 2011 (Baxter 2011b). One was seen at the Golf
Course in early December 2013 (Baxter 2013). The recorded dates range from
18 September to 23 April. Most records are from September to early December,
with a few records from April of birds on the return migration, a pattern that
matches records of the unidentified forms.
M. tschutschensis (formerly known as M. flava simillima) apparently is the most
common form of ‘Yellow Wagtail’ in Australia (Schodde & Mason 1999), and it is
a widespread wintering species in South-East Asia, including most of Indonesia
(MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Robson 2000; Alström & Mild 2003).
Green-headed Yellow Wagtail Motacilla taivana

Vagrant. At least three records.
Nominate taivana. Two adults in mostly breeding plumage were seen by DJJ
at the Rubbish Tip on 7 and 11 December 2003. One juvenile seen by DJJ and
IAWM at the Rubbish Tip on 18 November 2006 was tentatively identified as
M. t. taivana. It showed a dark eye-stripe that, although broadening posterior
to the eye, did not form a distinctly triangular patch, was not pale in the centre,
and was concolorous with the nape; and it lacked a dark malar stripe and hence
a pale moustachial stripe. The status of M. t. taivana in Australia is uncertain
(Schodde & Mason 1999), but it is widespread in South-East Asia, including Java
and Wallacea (White & Bruce 1986; MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Robson 2000;
Alström & Mild 2003).
Subspecies macronyx. One adult male in fresh breeding plumage was seen
by DJJ at North East Point on 6 May 2004. An adult male was photographed
at the Settlement on 3 May 2009 (Anon. 2009c; Ramsay 2009b; IAWM).
M. t. macronyx (or perhaps M. flava thunbergi?) has been reported once in NSW
(Schodde & Mason 1999), and there are reports from the Cocos (Keeling) Islands
(Baxter 2006), and Broome, WA (T. Palliser in litt.). This subspecies is widespread
wintering in mainland South-East Asia (Robson 2000) and, although not noted
by MacKinnon & Phillipps (1993), it was listed for Sumatra by van Marle & Voous
(1988).
Citrine Wagtail Motacilla citreola

Vagrant. One record. A single female was seen and photographed by L. Preston
at the LB3 ponds on 5 May 2009 (L. Preston pers. comm.; Anon. 2009c; Ramsay
2009b; BARC Case 597).
This species breeds from central Europe east through central Asia to central
China and south to the Himalayas and south-western China (Alström & Mild
2003; Tyler 2004; Wells 2007). It winters in Iran, Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka and
South-East Asia, though may not yet have been recorded from the Greater Sundas
(MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993). This is the third record for Australian territory.
Grey Wagtail Motacilla cinerea

Rare regular visitor between August and January, with very rare passage migrants
recorded in April and May. An adult male was collected by C.W. Andrews at Flying
Fish Cove on 7 October 1897, and identified as subspecies melanope (Sharpe
1900). It was listed as a rare visitor by van Tets (1974a, 1983). Several were seen
at various locations by D. Merton in November 1977 and September–October
1978 (Stokes et al. 1987). Several were seen at various locations between August
and December in 1983 and 1984 (Stokes et al. 1987). Stokes (1988) listed it as
a regular visitor between September and January. Johnstone & Darnell (2004a)
described it as a moderately common and fairly regular visitor between October
and April, and suggested that robusta is the most likely subspecies. It was reported
in singles and small flocks by at least 37 visiting parties in most years since 1990
(Eades 1995; Andrew 1996a; Anon. 1996a, 2000a, 2002b, 2004a, 2005b, 2006d;
Craig 1996; Harvey 1996; Mitchell 1996a,b; Smith 1996; Farnes 1997; O’Connor
1999; Carter 2000b,c, 2001, 2004, 2011b; Coate 2000; Hansboro 2000a; Clarke
2001, 2011b; Stafford 2002a; Barrand & Barrand 2003; Barrand 2005b, c. 2009;
Hobcroft 2005; Morris 2005; Dooley 2006a; Rogers 2006; Baxter 2009, 2010a,b,
2011b, 2013; Ramsay 2009c, 2010a,b,d, 2011a; James 2010; Low 2011; Marsh
2011; K. Coate in litt.; N. Hamilton in litt.; B. King in litt.; N. Pamment in litt.;
IAWM). DJJ also recorded the species >70 times between 2002 and 2006. In the
period 2003–2006, the earliest arrivals were in mid to late August each year, the
earliest date being 12 August (in 2003). Numbers accumulated gradually so that
by September or October there were usually several individuals or small flocks
spread over the Island, amounting to up to 10 birds. By December, they tended
to congregate in slightly larger flocks, often at the Plantation or Rubbish Tip. By
mid January each year, most had left the Island, and the latest date for wintering
birds was 23 January (in 2003) (DJJ). A straggler was noted in late February (in
2010) (Baxter 2010a). Later in the year, passage migrants have been recorded on
11 April in 1996 (Mitchell 1996b); 6 May in 2004 (DJJ) and 7 May in 2010 (Baxter
in Ramsay 2010c). From August to November, many Grey Wagtails observed by
DJJ were in first non-breeding plumage (which is similar to adult non-breeding
plumage, but with a pale base to the lower mandible, faint pale fringes on feathers
on the crown, mantle and wing-coverts, and a buff wash to the supercilia and
breast), but by December immature birds were rarely distinguished (DJJ). Larger
flocks of Grey Wagtails reported include seven in January 1996 (Anon. 1996a;
Mitchell 1996a), five in December 2001 (Clarke 2001), eight in November–
December 2004 (Anon. 2005b, 2006e), six in December 2005 (DJJ & IAWM),
nine in December 2009 (Ramsay 2010a), and up to 11 in December 2009–January
2010 (Carter 2010b; R. Baxter pers. comm.). Field guides generally suggest that
Grey Wagtails prefer habitats near water, particularly forest streams. However,
in the absence of fresh water on Christmas Island they often occur on roads and
tracks, particularly in the shade of large trees such as figs. Localities where the
species has been recorded are spread across the Island and include the Rubbish
Tip, Phosphate Hill, Irvine Hill, Plantation, Phosphate Dryers, Drumsite, Poon
Saan, Flying Fish Cove, the Settlement, North East Point, Golf Course, Resort,
Waterfall Cove, Ross Hill Springs, South Point, LB3 ponds, Pink House, Grants
Well, Central Area Workshop, LB4, North West Point, almost the entire lengths of
Murray and North West Point Roads, and numerous other roads and tracks on the
central plateau and coastal terraces.
This species breeds in the Palaearctic south to southern Europe, Iran, the
Himalayas and central China, and winters in Africa, South and South-East Asia,
the Greater Sundas and Wallacea (Alström & Mild 2003; Tyler 2004). Elsewhere
in Australian territory, it is known only as a vagrant.
White Wagtail Motacilla alba

Vagrant. Seven sets of reports, of up to 12 separate sightings, but only five
confirmed records. A ‘pied’ wagtail was seen by M. Orchard (pers. comm. to
M. Carter) at South Point in October or November 1993. Two adult males of
subspecies leucopsis were seen by P. Maher at the quarry near the Airport on
17 March 1997 (Anon. 1997c; Maher 1997), but without details this record is
unconfirmed. A bird described as a cross between a Willie Wagtail Rhipidura
leucophrys and a Magpie-lark Grallina cyanoleuca was seen by J. McDonald
(pers. comm.) at South Point in late February 2002. An adult male of subspecies
leucopsis was seen by DJJ and G. Holmes (2002) at the Rubbish Tip on 4–5 March
2002 (BARC Case 350). A first-year individual (probably female) of subspecies
ocularis was seen by M. Carter and S. Dooley at the LB3 ponds on 11 March 2002,
and a different first-year individual (probably a male) also of subspecies ocularis
was seen at the Rubbish Tip on 11–12 March 2002 (Carter 2002; Holmes 2002;
Dooley 2005a; DJJ; BARC Cases 339 & 340). A further two different males in
non-breeding plumage of subspecies leucopsis were photographed on 17 March
2002 at the Rubbish Tip and South Point (Carter 2002; Dooley 2005a). To
summarise, there were at least five individuals recorded between 4 and 17 March
2002, three leucopsis and two ocularis; both ocularis and one leucopsis records
were submitted to BARC and accepted. One bird was seen flying over the Poon
Saan shops by DJJ on 10 March 2005, but the subspecies was not determined.
A male leucopsis, probably in first-summer plumage, was observed by DJJ at
close quarters for >1 hour in the Settlement on 4 April 2006 (Palliser & Carter
2012; BARC Case 639). One bird of subspecies leucopsis was seen by R. Baxter,
S. Pell and DJJ at the Rubbish Tip on 10–14 March 2007 (Ramsay 2007a; BARC
Case 568). One bird of subspecies leucopsis was photographed at Ma Chor Nui
Nui Temple in early March 2010 (Dooley 2010a; Ramsay 2010b; L. Preston in
litt.). One bird was seen and heard flying over Phosphate Hill by DJJ on 4 April
2012, but the subspecies was not determined.
This species breeds in the northern Palaearctic and Alaska south to southern
Europe, northern India and northern South-East Asia (Alström & Mild 2003).
Northern and high-altitude populations winter south to Africa, South and South-
East Asia and Borneo. There are no records of this species for Sumatra, Java or the
Wallacean region (Andrew 1992; Coates & Bishop 1997), though it is common in
northern Borneo (MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993).
Forest Wagtail Dendronanthus indicus

Vagrant. One record. A single bird was photographed by L. Preston on the
Blowholes Track on 17 May 2009, and photographs were widely circulated to
confirm the identification (Anon. 2009c; Ramsay 2009b; Palliser & Carter 2012;
L. Preston pers. comm.; BARC Case 662).
The Forest Wagtail breeds in south-eastern Siberia, Japan, Korea and south to
central China, and winters south to India, Sri Lanka, southern China, South-East
Asia and the Greater Sundas (MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993; Alström & Mild 2003;
Wells 2007). The only other record for Australian territory is of a long-staying
individual in a suburban yard in Alice Spriings, NT, in April–September 2013
(BARC Case 811).
Acknowledgements
Numerous people answered our queries or helped us in the field or in other ways. They
include: Joan Adams, Paul Andrew, Barry Baker, Peter Barrand, Lauren Barrow, Richard
Baxter, David Bishop, Chris Boland, Walter Boles, Mark Bramson, Stuart Butchart, Mike
Carter, Linda Cash, Yves Cherel, H’ng Kim Chey, Rae Clark, Rohan Clarke, Kevin Coate,
Steve Comport, Peter Coyne, Earl of Cranbrook, John Darnell, Claire Davies, Jeff Davies,
Stephen Debus, Tony Diamond, Edward Dickinson, Mike Double, David Drynan, Nick
Dunlop, Ian Falkenberg, Tim Faulkner, Chris Feare, Garry Foo, Robbie Gafney, Stephen
Garnett, Jennifer Goldberg, Alistair Graham, Jane Graham, Peter Green, Phil Gregory, Peter
Harlow, David Helliar, Janos Hennicke, Richard Hill, Dion Hobcroft, Mark Holdsworth,
Glenn Holmes, Paul Holt, John Hueston, Victor Hurley, Nana Ishii, Eddly Johari, Ron
Johnstone, Leo Joseph, Sheryl & Arthur Keates, Ben King, Matthieu Le Corre, Kelvin Lim,
Wayne Longmore, Vladimir Loskot, Tim Low, Janene Luff, Paul Maberly, Daniel Mantle,
John McDonald, Gerloff Mees, Jeff Middleton, Nick Mooney, Nial Moores, Alan Morris,
Peter Morris, Junko Murakami, Ted Nixon, Rory O’Brien, Frank O’Connor, Lena Olsen,
Penny Olsen, Guan Oon, Max Orchard, Tony Palliser, Neville Pamment, David Philips,
Trish Pontynen, Lisa Preston, Jon Pridham, Rebecca Reeves, Julian Reid, Kent Retallick,
Allan Richards, Mick Roderick, Danny Rogers, Martin Schulz, Cath Shurcliffe, Betty-Anne
Schreiber, Robyn Stephenson, David Stewart, Dejan Stojanovic, Tony Stokes, Chris Surman,
Ai Suzuki, Margaret Sykes, Tan Heok Hui, Tan Sohn Joo, Vikash Tatayah, Judy Tent, Jeff
Tranter, Ghes Valenzuela, Erica Wagner, Mike Weston, Phil Whittington, Jo Wieneke, John
Woinarski, Chang Man Yang, Azmi Yon and Hugh Yorkston.
Staff of the following libraries gave us access and helped us with numerous requests:
Australian Museum, Sydney; Australian National Library, Canberra; J.S. Battye Library,
State Library of Western Australia, Perth; Biological Sciences Library, University of Western
Australia, Perth; BirdLife Indonesia, Bogor, Indonesia (now known as Burung Indonesia);
Christmas Island Public Library, George Fam Centre, Christmas Island; Fisher and Madsen
Libraries, University of Sydney, Sydney; Macquarie University Library, Sydney; Mitchell
Library, State Library of New South Wales, Sydney; Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense,
Bogor, Indonesia; National Library of Singapore, Singapore; Science and Medical Library,
National University of Singapore, Singapore; and Wetlands International, Bogor, Indonesia.
In addition, staff at the following institutions provided information on specimens in
their care: Australian Museum, Sydney; Australian National Wildlife Collection, Canberra;
Museum Bogoriense, Bogor, Indonesia; Museum Victoria, Melbourne; Western Australian
Museum, Perth; and Zoological Reference Collection, National University of Singapore,
Singapore. The Australian Bird and Bat Banding Schemes (ABBBS) provided data on all
birds banded on Christmas Island.
The manuscript was kindly reviewed by Janos Hennicke, Andrew Ley and Alan Lill, and
carefully edited by Andrew Ley, Stephen Debus, Julia Hurley and James Fitzsimons. We are
grateful to Mark Holdsworth, Ian Montgomery, Max Orchard, Tony Palliser and Jenny Spry
for generously allowing us to reproduce their photographs.
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Appendix 1. Supplementary list of birds on Christmas Island

Species liberated, but now locally extinct, recorded in error, or reported, but not confirmed,
are listed and discussed. The treatment is similar to the main species accounts.
Rock Dove Columba livia

A racing pigeon was found in the Settlement in October 1986 and taken into care (Stokes
1986a,b). It had bands that indicated that it had been released in Taiwan about one month
earlier. It was released on Christmas Island after 3 weeks. Shortly afterwards, another racing
pigeon, also from Taiwan, was discovered at Drumsite. One immature male found near the
wharf at Flying Fish Cove in c. 2002 was killed by quarantine officers (NMV B.24123). One
racing pigeon found in the Settlement on 1 September 2004 was captured and euthanased
(WAM 36146). This bird had a band number (PRT 03 949401697 2135) that we have not yet
traced. A ‘confused’ bird with green and purple leg bands was seen in forest near the IDC on
3 July 2011 (J. Woinarski in litt.).
Although the identity of these birds is not in doubt, they were not released on the Island
by humans so are not introduced, nor were they wild birds. It is worth recording further
records of this species for Christmas Island as self-introduced Rock Doves have become a
management issue on Lord Howe Island, where they displace Grey Ternlets Procelsterna
cerulea from nest-sites on cliffs (McAllan et al. 2004).
Collared Dove Streptopelia sp.

A dove said to be a ‘Collared Dove Streptopelia decaocto’, was noted by a Coate’s Wildlife
Tours group at Flying Fish Cove in early December 1993 (Johnstone & Darnell 2004a,
p. 476; K. Coate in litt.). The locals who fed it said that it arrived on the Island on a phosphate
ship. It is possible that this bird was one of several collared dove species Streptopelia spp.
Nicobar Pigeon Caloenas nicobarica

Chasen (1933a) reported that a resident of the Island visited the Raffles Museum to identify
a bird that he had seen. The description led Chasen to suspect that it was a Nicobar Pigeon.
Johnstone & Storr (1998) listed this species for WA from a report by R. Nojek of an immature
bird that landed on a ship in the Timor Sea in February 1989. Otherwise, this species has not
been recorded from Australian territory.
Swiftlets: Himalayan Aerodramus brevirostris, Edible-nest A. fuciphagus, Black-

nest A. maximus and Mossy-nest Swiftlets A. salanganus
There have been many records of unidentified and/or unconfirmed Aerodramus swiftlets
from Christmas Island recently:
A. A large unidentified swiftlet with a white rump seen by T. Stokes on 8 April 1984
near the Central Area Workshop (Stokes et al. 1987) might have been a very-pale-
rumped Aerodramus swiftlet or a House Swift.
B. A dark swiftlet photographed by D. Hobcroft near the Phosphate Dryers on
2 December 1996 (Hobcroft 1996; see photograph in Eades 2001a) was first thought
probably to be a Black-nest Swiftlet A. maximus, but is now thought more likely to
be a Himalayan Swiftlet A. brevirostris (D. Hobcroft in litt.; B. van Balen in litt.).
C. A bird seen near the IDC by DJJ on 7 and 8 November 2005 (Anon. 2006a,c; Dooley
2006a) was thought probably to be an Edible-nest Swiftlet A. fuciphagus, but has
now been claimed as a Himalayan Swiftlet, based upon its large size, deeply forked
tail and pale rump with faint dark streaks (DJJ; BARC Case 697—not accepted).
D. Up to 20 swiftlets were seen after Cyclone Rosie at various sites (the Rubbish
Tip, North East Point, near Ma Chor Nui Nui Temple and North West Point) on
23–28 April 2008 by many observers (Anon. 2008c; Dooley 2008c; Ramsay 2008c;
M. Carter, F. O’Connor & T. Palliser pers. comm.; IOSG delegates pers. comm.;
IAWM). They appeared to be of two species: the more common and paler types have
been claimed as Edible-nest Swiftlet (BARC Case 577—not accepted) and some all-
dark types with slightly forked tails have been claimed as the Mossy-nest Swiftlet
A. salanganus (BARC Case 578—not accepted).
E. A bird considered as either a Black-nest or an Edible-nest Swiftlet was seen briefly
on 10–11 December 2009 by a tour group near the entrance to the IDC (Baxter 2009;
Ramsay 2010a).
F. A bird considered to be a Mossy-nest Swiftlet was seen at the Airport on 30 November
2010 (Baxter 2010b; Dooley 2011a; Ramsay 2011a). This was also reported as a
possible Black-nest Swiftlet in early December 2010 (Dooley 2011a).
G. A dark swiftlet with a slightly notched tail seen near the Resort on 29 January 2011
was considered to be a Mossy-nest Swiftlet (Marsh 2011).
H. A tour group reported a single unidentified ‘nest swiftlet’ at South Point, and
four Edible-nest Swiftlets and a Himalayan Swiftlet at North West Point, all on
29 November 2011 (Baxter 2011b; Dooley 2012a). These were followed by reports of
four Edible-nest Swiftlets on 30 November and a Mossy-nest Swiftlet on 2 December
2011 at North West Point (Baxter 2011b; Dooley 2012a).
I. A single bird, believed to be an Edible-nest Swiftlet, was observed along the North
South Baseline on 9 December 2011 (Barrand c. 2011).
The Himalayan Swiftlet breeds in southern Asia (north-western and north-eastern India,
southern China, Nepal, Bhutan south to Bangladesh, Laos, Myanmar and Thailand), and is a
passage migrant through Peninsular Malaysia, apparently Sumatra and probably Singapore.
The Black-nest Swiftlet is widespread in South-East Asia from Myanmar to Peninsular
Malaysia and the Greater Sunda Islands, and is thought to be sedentary. The Mossy-nest
Swiftlet is endemic to the Greater Sundas and is largely sedentary. Traditionally, the
Edible-nest Swiftlet has been considered a widespread resident of southern Asia, from the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands through mainland South-East Asia, the Greater Sundas, and
east to Timor in the Lesser Sundas and Palawan in the Philippines, with several subspecies
that are not all adequately described (Chantler & Driessens 2000). This broad species
definition includes only swiftlets with ‘white’ or ‘edible’ nests, but it includes dark forms and
forms that are paler with pale rumps. Separation of dark-rumped forms (A. fuciphagus with
vestitus, micans and dammermani) from paler forms (A. inexpectatus with germani and
perplexus) creates two allopatric species with consistent and different appearances instead
of one that is extremely variable (Robson 2000; Cranbrook et al. 2013; Earl of Cranbrook in
litt.). Of these two, only the dark A. fuciphagus (sensu stricto) occurs naturally in the Greater
Sundas and Lesser Sundas (Chantler & Driessens 2000; Lim & Cranbrook 2002), whereas
the paler A. inexpectatus occurs in coastal mainland South-East Asia and the Andaman
Islands. The ‘farming’ of swiftlets in South-East Asia for their nests has complicated this
situation greatly. Genetic and morphological evidence indicates that various hybrids from
A. fuciphagus × A. i. germani dominate semi-domesticated populations in swift farm
houses throughout South-East Asia (Cranbrook et al. 2013). These hybrids are frequently
sympatric with their pure parental forms still nesting in natural situations (i.e. caves).
Many of the claims of Edible-nest Swiftlets from Christmas Island seem to be pale swiftlets
that could be farm swiftlets or a natural population of A. inexpectatus or A. brevirostris.
The darker birds could be A. fuciphagus (sensu stricto), A. salanganus or A. maximus,
which are extremely difficult species to identify in the field. Other reports of Aerodramus
swiftlets from Australian territory include at least five from Broome, WA, two from the
Cocos (Keeling) Islands, and three from Ashmore Reef (Hopton 2006; A. Boyle, M. Carter,
J. Darnell, J. Reid & G. Swann pers. comm.). An individual photographed near Broome,
WA, on 15 February 2001 was accepted by BARC as either an Edible-nest or a Black-nest
Swiftlet (Palliser 2004; BARC Case 342), and the other reports are unconfirmed.
Silver-backed Needletail Hirundapus cochinchinensis/Brown-backed Needletail

H. giganteus
Three birds provisionally identified as Brown-backed Needletails were seen at the Rubbish
Tip by M. Carter et al. on 14 November 2001 and on the road leading to the Airport the
following day (Carter 2001; Anon. 2002a,b; Stafford 2002a). However, the identity of
the species was not considered confirmed by BARC (Palliser 2004; BARC Case 344—not
accepted). An individual of one of these two species was seen by DJJ at the corner of
Murray Road and Jedda Cave Track on 11 February 2002. DJJ considered it more likely
to be a Silver-backed Needletail, but the case submitted to BARC argued that it was either
Silver-backed or Brown-backed Needletail, and it was accepted as such (Palliser 2004;
BARC Case 385). A bird seen at the Rubbish Tip on 23 April 2008, initially thought to be a
Silver-backed Needletail, was probably a first-year White-throated Needletail (see White-
throated Needletail in species accounts). A bird claimed as a Silver-backed Needletail was
seen at the Rubbish Tip on 26 November 2008, but has not been vetted (Baxter 2008b;
R. Baxter in litt.). Otherwise, these species have not been reported from Australian territory.
Dark-rumped Swift Apus acuticauda

One bird, possibly of this species, was seen by M. Carter, P. Crabtree, K. Harris and
G. Walker at the Ma Chor Nui Nui Temple on 18 November 1999 (Carter 2000a,b), but the
record was considered unconfirmed (BARC Case 288—not accepted). BARC noted that it
could possibly have been a Common Swift A. apus or an aberrantly plumaged Fork-tailed
Swift. Otherwise, this species has not been recorded from Australian territory.
Jouanin’s Petrel Bulweria fallax

This species was possibly seen at sea off Christmas Island by D. Mantle (in litt.) in 2008.
Elsewhere in Australian territory, it has been recorded only from near Ashmore Reef,
although there is an unconfirmed claim from the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (Baxter 2010b).
Tahiti Petrel Pseudobulweria rostrata

One was said to be recorded by F.T.H. Smith in 1994 (Barkla 1996). This species breeds on
islands in the Pacific Ocean and is regularly found west to the Moluccas, and Lesser Sundas
near Timor (Coates & Bishop 1997) and near Scott and Ashmore Reefs in the Timor Sea
(M. Carter pers. comm.; DJJ). It is unknown from the Indomalayan Region proper (Andrew
1992; Inskipp et al. 1996).
Masked Booby Sula dactylatra

D.M. Simpson reported ‘100 Blue-faced Boobies’ 45–60 nm east of the Island on 20 June
1967 (Simpson 1970; also Bourne & Dixon 1973). It is unclear what species was being
referred to here. Blue-faced Booby is an alternative common name for Masked Booby,
which is not definitely known from Christmas Island and nearby waters. It may have been
a reference to Red-footed Boobies, which have blue faces, or perhaps Abbott’s Boobies,
though the number reported is large for this last species. R. Baxter (in litt.) listed two during
a trip from 28 February to 3 March 2008. Occasionally, Masked Boobies are reported by
visiting tourists, but none have been confirmed with detailed descriptions or photographs.
The nearest breeding stations for Masked Boobies are the Cocos (Keeling) Group and
islands off the WA coast (Johnstone & Storr 1998; Johnstone & Darnell 2004a). Dickinson
(2003) erroneously listed the Masked Booby as breeding on Christmas Island, but not the
Cocos (Keeling) Group.
Chinese Egret Egretta eulophotes

Stokes (1988) and Marchant & Higgins (1990) discredited an old record of the Chinese
Egret from the Island, as a misidentified Eastern Reef Egret, but introduced additional
confusion in the process. They referred to a specimen said to be collected by Captain
J.P. Maclear in January 1887 that was identified by Sharpe (1887) as E. eulophotes. Maclear
did collect a white egret, but Sharpe (1887) identified it as Ardea jugularis (= Eastern Reef
Egret Egretta sacra), not eulophotes. In fact, Sharpe never identified Maclear’s specimen as
eulophotes in any publication. In his Catalogue of the Birds of the British Museum, Sharpe
(1898) treated eulophotes as a synonym of sacra, but commented that he did so with ‘great
hesitation’ (p. 141) and he was evidently unsure of any differences between the two taxa.
In two minds, he then went on to state that some of the specimens including ‘Mr Lister’s
bird from Christmas Island are undoubtedly eulophotes’ (p. 142). J.J. Lister (1889) had
collected two egrets in October 1887 and identified them himself as Ardea jugularis. They
were a white-morph male and a grey-morph female (Lister 1889). Subsequently, Sharpe
(1900) listed all the specimens of small egrets collected by Maclear, Lister and Andrews
(in 1897–1898) as Demiegretta sacra (= Eastern Reef Egret E. sacra). This reflected his
continuing synonymy of eulophotes under sacra rather than a reidentification of Lister’s
specimen. Chasen (1933a, 1935), Gibson-Hill (1947) and van Tets (1974a, 1983) listed both
sacra and eulophotes for Christmas Island. Chasen and Gibson-Hill cited Sharpe (1898) to
justify the inclusion of eulophotes, but treated it as a full species. According to Stokes (1988)
and Marchant & Higgins (1990), P. Colston of the British Museum (in litt. to P. Higgins)
confirmed that ‘Maclear’s’ specimen was in fact sacra, although this was never the specimen
in doubt. We cannot confirm whether or not Colston examined Lister’s specimens as well,
but in any case these are most unlikely to be eulophotes.
Spoonbill Platalea sp.

A spoonbill of an unknown species was seen independently by A. Yon (pers. comm.) and
G. Foo (pers. comm.) as it walked around the streets of Poon Saan over several days in
January 2005.
Harrier Circus sp.

A Swamp Harrier C. approximans was reported by G. Robertson in the mid 1980s (ANPWS
file). The file was compiled by T. Stokes, but neither Stokes et al. (1987) nor Stokes (1988)
listed harriers of any species. Barkla (1996) expressed the opinion that a Western Marsh
Harrier C. aeruginosus ‘listed by Stokes’ was more likely to be an Eastern Marsh Harrier
C. spilonotus. Stokes listed no harriers at all for Christmas Island, and it is likely that Barkla
was erroneously referring to a harrier specimen collected from the Cocos (Keeling) Islands
in 1941 (Gibson-Hill 1949c; Stokes et al. 1984; Morioka & Yang 1996). This last specimen
is still in the ZRC, and is apparently a Swamp Harrier (IAWM). A harrier of unknown
species was photographed (distantly) at the Airport on 18 January 2008 (M. Roderick
pers. comm.). Another possible harrier seen at Silver City on 31 January 2011 (Marsh 2011)
was subsequently claimed as an Oriental Honey-buzzard (BARC Case 696), but was not
accepted.
Eurasian Hobby Falco subbuteo

There was a possible sighting of this species by J. Reid in November 1997 (Johnstone
& Darnell 2004a). One was reported by two tour groups in March 2007 (Anon. 2007b;
Baxter 2007; Dooley 2007b; Ramsay 2007a; M. Carter in litt.). It was initially identified
as an Oriental Hobby F. severus, but photographs, though poor, showed the bird to be
most probably a Eurasian Hobby (Baxter 2007; M. Carter in litt.; W. Clarke in litt. to
D. Hobcroft; BARC Case 533—not accepted). The species has since been reported from the
Cocos (Keeling) Islands on 5 December 2010 (James 2010; BARC Case 682).
Buff-banded Rail Gallirallus philippensis

One was reported by D. Merton in Silver City on 18 January 1978 (ANPWS file). However,
the record was not presented in Stokes et al. (1987), and therefore is questionable.
‘Eastern Golden Plover’ Pluvialis apricaria

Pearson (1966, p. 70) carelessly listed Pacific Golden Plover as ‘Charadrius apricarius
Gmelin. Eastern Golden Plover’.
Caspian Plover Charadrius asiaticus

Records of the Caspian Plover from Christmas and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands are derived
from earlier treatment of the Oriental Plover C. veredus as a subspecies of Caspian Plover
C. asiaticus (e.g. Gibson-Hill 1949c; Pearson 1966).
Grey Phalarope Phalaropus fulicarius

An adult in non-breeding plumage was seen by DJJ at sea off Hospital Point on 31 October
2004, but the record was not accepted (BARC Case 638).
Roseate Tern Sterna dougallii

A possible Roseate Tern was noted by J. Barkla and C. Lester in Flying Fish Cove on
27–29 October 1996 (Barkla 1996; Lester 1997). The bird was in very heavy moult. ‘From the
field notes, we have now concluded it was a probable Roseate Tern, although the condition
of the bird’s plumage makes it impossible to be certain’ (Lester 1997, p. 12).
Elegant Tern Thalasseus elegans

A Lesser Crested Tern seen at Flying Fish Cove on 23–27 April 2008 was at one point
suggested to be an Elegant Tern (e.g. Ramsay 2008d), and has erroneously entered the
field-guide literature (Slater et al. 2009).
Rose-ringed Parakeet Psittacula krameri

A pair was present from the mid 1970s until about early 1987 (Stokes et al. 1987; Stokes
1988). A single male was noted by several observers from early August 1990 until July
2004 (Farnes 1997; Barrand & Barrand 2003; K. Coate in litt.; DJJ). It was recorded at
the Settlement, near the Chinese Cemetery and at Silver City. From December 2003 to
July 2004, DJJ saw it in his yard in Silver City on a weekly basis, and sometimes in the
eastern end of the Settlement, but it was not recorded subsequently. At this time, several
residents were aware of the parrot, and common rumours on the Island were that a pair was
released from a visiting ship or by a former harbour-master many years earlier. Evidently
one of the original birds survived for almost 30 years. However, no breeding population
ever established.
Parrot Psittacidae sp.

A 30-cm-long parrot with dark plumage and an erect crest was seen in flight by D. Merton
near Lily Beach on 7 May 1977 (Stokes et al. 1987). It was not listed by Stokes (1988).
Asian Drongo-Cuckoo Surniculus lugubris

An immature was reported without details by E. Ervasti and G. Lindstrom at the Settlement
on 6 March 2001 (Robson 2001). Otherwise, this species has not been recorded from
Australian territory.
Indian Cuckoo Cuculus micropterus

A possible Indian Cuckoo seen in early November 1995 was not positively identified (Andrew
1995).
Bee-eater Merops sp.

P. Green (pers. comm. to DJJ) reported a secondhand observation of an unidentified bee-
eater at the Settlement in May 2002 (Anon. 2002d).
Wheatear Oenanthe sp.

An unidentified wheatear was photographed opposite the Golf Course on 14 January 1996
(Andrew 1996a; Anon. 1996a,b; Beruldsen 1996; Mitchell 1996a). Although the Northern
Wheatear O. oenanthe appeared the most likely contender (Beruldsen 1996; Johnstone
& Darnell 2004a), the bird could not be definitively identified (Palliser 1999; BARC
Case 214—not accepted). Another bird seen on 30 November 1998 may have been an
Isabelline Wheatear O. isabellina (Johnstone & Darnell 2004a; K. Coate in litt.).
Javan Myna Acridotheres javanicus

A specimen was collected by Dr R. Hanitsch in 1904 for the ZRC, though it is missing now
(Chasen & Kloss 1924; IAWM). Gibson-Hill (1947) reported that an escaped bird was seen
for about a week in June 1939. This species was not recorded in 1923 (Chasen & Kloss 1924)
or 1932 (Chasen 1933a). There is no evidence of deliberate introduction or of breeding in the
wild, and the two were evidently cage birds that escaped on separate occasions.
Hill Myna Gracula religiosa

A specimen was collected by the Dayak collectors for the ZRC in October–November 1923
(Chasen & Kloss 1924). Presumably this is the same unregistered female specimen presently
in the ZRC that was collected on 7 November 1923 (IAWM). This species was absent in 1932
(Chasen 1933a). There is no evidence of deliberate introduction, or of breeding. This record
has usually been regarded as an escaped captive bird.
Flowerpecker Dicaeum sp.

One female was reported in May 1996 (Andrew 1996b), but the record has since been
withdrawn (T. Palliser pers. comm.).
Red-throated Pipit Anthus cervinus

A single pipit seen by F.A.R. Hill in February 1994 was described as a ‘pipit with a rufous
throat – presumably a Red-throated Pipit’, although the views were ‘less than ideal’ (Andrew
& Eades 1994).
Pipit Anthus sp.

There has been much speculation on the identity of a pipit collected by two Dayak collectors
for the ZRC in October or November 1923 (Chasen & Kloss 1924). The situation is made
complicated by changing species boundaries, complex nomenclature, and the disappearance
of the specimen. This specimen was originally identified as Richard’s Pipit A. richardi
malayensis (Chasen & Kloss 1924). Chasen (1933a) subsequently expressed doubt that the
bird was malayensis because it was too large, but he still listed it as A. novaeseelandiae
malayensis. This reflected only a taxonomic change at a higher level. In his Handlist of
Malaysian Birds, Chasen (1935) listed the specimen as Tawny Pipit Anthus campestris
striolatus Blyth 1847 (described from Darjiling [= Darjeeling], India), and the only record
for the Malaysian region as he defined it. In a footnote, he admitted that there was ‘One
specimen only, a puzzling bird and identification not absolutely certain’ (Chasen 1935,
p. 287). Gibson-Hill (1947) listed the specimen as Anthus campestris striolatus without
comment, but subsequently considered the identification ‘doubtful’ (Gibson-Hill 1949d,
p. 225). However, striolatus is a subspecific name that was used in association with more
than one species. A. striolatus was treated as a full species by Sharpe (1895), but was
synonymised without mention within the monotypic Blyth’s Pipit A. godlewskii in
Peters’ Checklist (Mayr & Greenway 1960). Without re-examining the specimen, Stokes
(1988) considered that the measurements more likely fitted A. novaeseelandiae (in the
broadest sense). Johnstone & Darnell (2004a) believed it might have been either a form
of Richard’s Pipit A. richardi sinensis or A. r. urensis, or a Blyth’s Pipit, because both
the Paddyfield Pipit A. rufulus (in which malayensis is now placed) and Tawny Pipit do
not fit the wing measurement quoted by Chasen (1933a). These arguments are less than
compelling, however. Chasen (1935) had specimens of sinensis from Sumatra, but saw no
association between them and this troublesome specimen, whereas Blyth’s Pipit breeds in
Siberia, Mongolia and China, and winters no closer to Christmas Island than the Indian
Subcontinent and occasionally northern Myanmar (Robson 2000). The Christmas Island
specimen could not be located at the ZRC by DJJ in 2003 and 2004 and IAWM in 2008
and 2009.
A report of ‘Richard’s Pipit A. novaeseelandiae’ by D. Merton in Silver City on 22 October
1977 (Stokes et al. 1987) lacks sufficient detail to determine its specific status (Johnstone &
Darnell 2004a).
Appendix 2. Species list and status of birds on Christmas Island

This listing is of all the bird species known from Christmas Island and surrounding
waters, excluding those escapee species known to be extinct (see Appendix 1).
Status codes: A = abundant, C = common, U = uncommon, R = rare, V = vagrant;
B = breeding species, vis = regular visitor, pas = passage migrant, irr = irregular visitor,
I = introduced breeding species; ? = status indeterminate.
Species Status Species Status
Feral Chicken UI Intermediate Egret V

Garganey V Purple Heron V
Sunda Teal V Cattle Egret V
Hardhead V Striated Heron R irr
Red-tailed Tropicbird CB Chinese Pond Heron V
White-tailed Tropicbird AB Javan Pond Heron V
Red Collared Dove ? Pied Heron V
Emerald Dove CB White-faced Heron RB
Christmas Island Imperial-Pigeon AB Little Egret V
Pied Imperial-Pigeon V Eastern Reef Egret RB
Savannah Nightjar V Nankeen Night-Heron R irr
Grey Nightjar V Malayan Night-Heron V
Christmas Island Swiftlet AB Japanese Night-Heron V
White-throated Needletail V Glossy Ibis V
Fork-tailed Swift R irr Oriental Honey-buzzard V
House Swift V White-bellied Sea-Eagle V
Matsudaira’s Storm-Petrel V Christmas Island Goshawk UB
White-faced Storm-Petrel V Chinese Sparrowhawk V
Antarctic Prion V Japanese Sparrowhawk V
Bulwer’s Petrel V Nankeen Kestrel UB
Wedge-tailed Shearwater R vis Peregrine Falcon V
Barau’s Petrel V Baillon’s Crake V
Herald Petrel V Ruddy-breasted Crake V
Lesser Frigatebird RB White-breasted Waterhen RB
Great Frigatebird CB Watercock V
Christmas Island Frigatebird CB Black-tailed Native-hen V
Abbott’s Booby CB Eurasian Coot V
Red-footed Booby AB Sooty Oystercatcher V
Brown Booby AB Black-winged Stilt V
Great Cormorant V Pacific Golden Plover R vis
Little Black Cormorant V Grey Plover V
Australian Pelican V Little Ringed Plover V
Yellow Bittern V Kentish Plover V
Schrenck’s Bittern V Lesser Sand Plover V
Cinnamon Bittern V Greater Sand Plover V
Black Bittern V Oriental Plover V
Eastern Great Egret R irr Masked Lapwing V
Appendix 2 continued
Species Status Species Status
Pin-tailed Snipe R vis? Lesser Crested Tern V

Swinhoe’s Snipe V Crested Tern V
Bar-tailed Godwit V Mew Gull V
Little Curlew V Asian Koel R vis?/B?
Whimbrel V Horsfield’s Bronze-Cuckoo V
Eastern Curlew V Pallid Cuckoo V
Terek Sandpiper V Himalayan Cuckoo R pas
Common Sandpiper R vis Large Hawk-Cuckoo V
Grey-tailed Tattler V Christmas Island Hawk-Owl CB
Common Greenshank V Common Kingfisher V
Marsh Sandpiper V Sacred Kingfisher V
Common Redshank V Collared Kingfisher V
Wood Sandpiper V Dollarbird V
Ruddy Turnstone R irr Fairy Pitta V
Great Knot V Blue-winged Pitta V
Red Knot V White-bellied Cuckoo-shrike V
Sanderling V Brown Shrike V
Red-necked Stint V Tiger Shrike V
Long-toed Stint V Oriental Reed-Warbler V
Pectoral Sandpiper V Pallas’s Grasshopper Warbler V
Sharp-tailed Sandpiper V Dusky Warbler V
Curlew Sandpiper V Christmas Island White-eye AB
Red-necked Phalarope V Barn Swallow R vis/pas
Oriental Pratincole R irr pas Tree Martin V
Australian Pratincole V Red-rumped Swallow V
Brown Skua V Asian House Martin R vis
Pomarine Jaeger V Blue-and-white Flycatcher V
Arctic Jaeger V Island Thrush AB
Common Noddy AB Purple-backed Starling V
Lesser Noddy V Java Sparrow RI
White Tern V Eurasian Tree Sparrow CI
Bridled Tern V Eastern Yellow Wagtail R pas
Sooty Tern R vis Green-headed Yellow Wagtail V
Little Tern V Citrine Wagtail V
Gull-billed Tern V Grey Wagtail R vis/pas
Whiskered Tern R irr White Wagtail V
White-winged Black Tern V Forest Wagtail V
Common Tern V

Appendix 3. Gazetteer of locations on Christmas Island used in the text

Locations are listed alphabetically. Not all locations are proper names. ‘The’
has been omitted in all cases, even when it is part of a proper name. Roads and
tracks are mostly listed beginning with ‘corner of’. Geographical co-ordinates are
degrees, minutes and seconds South and East, and are mostly accurate to within
100 m. This gazetteer does not include locations away from Christmas Island.
Location Latitude and Location Latitude and

longitude longitude
Airport 10°27′04″, 105°41′19″ Dales 10°28′45″, 105°33′28″
Andersons Dale 10°28′57″, 105°33′18″ Daniel Roux Cave 10°26′20″, 105°39′46″
Blowholes 10°30′53″, 105°37′21″ Dolly Beach 10°31′12″, 105°40′37″
Central Area Workshop 10°28′39″, 105°37′48″ Douglas Point 10°30′16″, 105°34′10″

Chalk Pits at northern 10°26′33″, 105°41′20″ Drumsite 10°25′55″, 105°40′24″
end of Airport
Egeria Point 10°30′51″, 105°32′13″
Chinese Cemetery 10°25′00″, 105°41′15″
Ethel Beach 10°27′50″, 105°42′28″
Christian Cemetery 10°25′01″, 105°40′59″
near Settlement Field 19 10°30′05″, 105°37′58″
Cocos Padang 10°25′04″, 105°40′29″ Field 22 10°29′10″, 105°36′44″
Corner of Blowholes 10°30′03″, 105°39′12″ Field 23 10°28′38″, 105°36′48″

Track & East West
Flying Fish Cove 10°25′46″, 105°40′13″
Baseline
Corner of Dales Track 10°28′36″, 105°34′27″ Fuel buoys off 10°25′55″, 105°39′40″
& Winifred Beach Smith Point
Track General Manager’s 10°25′02″, 105°40′56″
Corner of Murray Road 10°29′23″, 105°37′16″ Residence at
& East West Baseline Rocky Point
Corner of Murray Road 10°28′02″, 105°38′19″ George Fam 10°25′17″, 105°40′27″

& Jedda Cave Track Centre
Corner of North South 10°29′10″, 105°40′09″ Golf Course 10°25′34″, 105°42′05″

Baseline & Dolly Beach
Grants Well 10º28′53″, 105º39′07″
Track
Greta Beach 10°30′08″, 105°40′29″
Corner of North South 10°30′13″, 105°39′24″
& East West Baselines Grimes Cave 10°26′25″, 105°39′44″
Corner of Research 10°29′47″, 105°38′57″ Grotto 10°25′20″, 105°42′06″
Station Road
(‘Pink House Track’) High School in 10°26′08″, 105°40′07″
& East West Baseline Drumsite
Corner of Research 10°28′15″, 105°38′06″ Hosnies Springs 10°28′34″, 105°41′31″

Station Road
Hospital 10°25′31″, 105°41′00″
(‘Pink House Track’)
& Murray Road Hospital Point 10°24′58″, 105°40′26″

longitude longitude
Hughs Dale 10°28′45″, 105°39′11″ Parks Office at 10°25′58″, 105°40′12″

Drumsite
IDC 10°28′19″, 105°34′36″
Parks Nursery at 10°25′57″, 105°40′09″
Irvine Hill 10°26′29″, 105°40′29″ Drumsite
Isabel Beach 10°25′26″, 105°40′20″ Phosphate Dryers 10°26′32″, 105°40′02″
Jedda Cave 10°29′14″, 105°38′42″ Phosphate Hill 10º25′57″, 105º41′24″

Kampong 10°25′42″, 105°40′18″ Pink House 10°29′31″, 105°38′50″
Research Station
LB3 10°29′56″, 105°39′11″
Plantation 10°26′59″, 105°39′39″
LB4 Lookout 10°28′41″, 105°36′07″
Poon Saan 10°25′21″, 105°40′56″
Lily Beach 10°28′01″, 105°42′40″
Poon Saan Shops 10°25′22″, 105°40′52″
Lily Beach Road 10°27′52″, 105°42′18″
Post Office Padang 10°25′36″, 105°40′22″
Linkwater Road 10°27′29″, 105°42′09″
Power Station 10°26′28″, 105°40′05″
Low Point 10°28′01″, 105°42′46″
Quarry Road 10°25′26″, 105°41′28″
Ma Chor Nui Nui 10°26′47″, 105°42′30″
Industrial Area
Temple
Recreation Centre 10°26′05″, 105°40′58″
Margaret Beaches 10°26′56″, 105°39′06″
Resort 10°27′20″, 105°42′17″
Margaret Knoll 10°28′38″, 105°41′03″
Rhoda Beaches 10°27′41″, 105°37′37″
Martin Point 10°27′46″, 105°33′07″
Rocky Point 10°24′53″, 105°40′32″
McMicken Point 10°31′22″, 105°40′37″
Ross Hill Springs 10°29′19″, 105°40′34″
Medwin Point 10°33′54″, 105°40′03″
Rubbish Tip 10°26′10″, 105°41′11″
Middle Point 10°30′41″, 105°35′42″
Rumah Tinggi 10°24′56″, 105°40′52″
Migrant Hill* 10°28′30″, 105°34′47″
Settlement 10°25′06″, 105°40′27″
Mooring buoys off 10°25′55″, 105°39′40″
(at the Barracks)
Smith Point
Sewage Treatment 10°25′53″, 105°39′45″
Noodle House in 10°25′17″, 105°40′23″
Plant at Smith
Settlement
Point
Norris Point 10°26′35″, 105°42′32″
Silver City 10°25′20″, 105°40′35″
North East Point 10°24′50″, 105°42′06″
Smith Point 10°25′41″, 105°39′47″
North West Point (tip) 10°26′30″, 105°33′08″
Smithsons Bight 10°31′25″, 105°37′34″
Old Chinese Cemetery 10°25′31″, 105°41′48″
South Point 10°33′20″, 105°39′58″
on Phosphate Hill
(eastern shore
terrace)

longitude longitude
South Point (tip) 10°33′56″, 105°39′15″ Territory Day 10°25′56″, 105°40′06″

Park
South Point (western 10°33′07″, 105°38′19″
shore terrace) Toms Ridge 10°28′27″, 105°34′40″
South Point 10°33′28″, 105°38′45″ VQ3 Lodge in 10°25′01″, 105°40′30″
Temple Settlement
Sports Ground 10°26′02″, 105°40′56″ Waterfall Cove 10°27′34″, 105°42′19″
Steep Point 10°28′13″, 105°42′37″ West White Beach 10°27′44″, 105°34′53″

Stronach Hill 10°29′36″, 105°40′03″ Wharf 10°25′33″, 105°40′17″
Tai Jin House 10°25′43″, 105°39′54″ Winifred Beach 10°29′49″, 105°32′47″
Taman Sweetland 10°25′24″, 105°40′57″ Winifred Gate 10°28′45″, 105°34′24″
Temple Court in 10°25′15″, 105°40′25″

Settlement
* We use the coined name ‘Migrant Hill’ for the crest of the cliff overlooking North West Point and
the IDC. This feature has no official name. Confusingly, it has been called Murray Hill, Powells
Hill and Jacks Hill in birding reports in recent years. It was nicknamed ‘Helicopter Hill’ by Parks
Australia staff in 2002 and ‘Media Hill’ more recently by journalists filming the IDC. It appears
as an inland cliff on the north-western edge of a massif formed by Murray, Powells, Jacks and
other hills.
Received 12 June 2012

Volume 31 Supplement 2014 ISSN: 1448-0107
Publisher: BirdLife Australia

Editors, bush birds,
parrots, general ecology: James Fitzsimons, PhD, jfitzsimons@tnc.org
Grant Palmer, PhD, g.palmer@federation.edu.au
Please email manuscripts to both editors
Editor, predatory birds: Stephen Debus, PhD, sdebus@une.edu.au

Editor, aquatic birds,
new/vagrant birds for Australia Richard Loyn, MA, richard.loyn@bigpond.com
Editor, Wallacean, New
Guinean & Melanesian birds: Guy Dutson, Vet MB, guydutson@gmail.com
Editor, book reviews: Dan Weller BSc (Hons), dan.weller@birdlife.org.au
Assistant Editor: Julia Hurley, PhD, julia.hurley@birdlife.org.au
Production: Leeann Reaney, PhD, leeann.reaney@birdlife.org.au
Editorial Board: James Fitzsimons, PhD (Chair) Peter Menkhorst, BSc

Allan Burbidge, PhD James O’Connor, BSc (Hons)
Rohan Clarke, PhD Frank Rheindt, PhD
Associate Professor Alan Lill, PhD
Australian Field Ornithology is a quarterly, peer-reviewed journal publishing original papers on a

broad spectrum of topics relating to Australasian ornithology, including ecology, behaviour and
history of individual species and groups. It also publishes significant natural history observations
and has a particular emphasis on data or observations gained in the field. It regularly includes
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took on its present title in 2003. To subscribe to Australian Field Ornithology go to
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VQ3 Lodge
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WIFI, tea & coffee making facilities, microwave, TV, toaster & bar fridge.
VQ3 Lodge has a communal kitchen & laundry facilities for the use of all
guests from both properties. Guests of VQ3 Lodge are welcome to use the
swimming pool and BBQ facilities at The Sunset.
The Sunset &

VQ3 Lodge
P: +61(0) 8 9164 7500
F: +61(0) 8 9164 7400
M: +61(0) 439 21 5500
www.sunset.cx
www.vq3lodge.cx
Volume 31 Supplement 2014
Introduction S1
Methods S4
Results: A history of ornithology on Christmas Island S8
Bird specimens held in museums S15
Taxonomy and nomenclature S16
Number of species S22
Population estimates of breeding species S23
Bird banding S26
Significance of the avifauna S28
Avian biogeography S28
Species accounts S30
Maps S49
Photographs of habitat and endemic birds S50
Acknowledgements S141
References S141
Appendices:
1. Supplementary list of birds on Christmas Island S164
2. Species list and status of birds on Christmas Island S171
3. Gazetteer of locations on Christmas Island used in the text S173
Front cover: Golden White-tailed Tropicbird. Photo: Ian A.W. McAllan
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AUSTR ALIAN FIELD OR NITHOLOGY

The birds of Christmas Island, Indian Ocean: A review

Volume 31 Supplement 2014

The birds of Christmas Island, Indian Ocean: A review

73 Pozieres Avenue, Milperra NSW 2214, Australia

105°38′E [Figures 1–2 (p. S49)]. It is located ~2600 km north-north-west

Species status and biogeography

Taxonomy and nomenclature

PANCI = Parks Australia North, Christmas Island

The ‘discovery era’ – 1615 to 1885

The ‘exploration era’ – 1886 to 1903

The ‘Singapore era’ – 1904 to 1945

The ‘post-war era’ – 1945 to 1976

The ‘ANPWS era’ – 1977 to 1989

The ‘birders era’ – 1990 onwards

Category 1900 1933 1947 1988 2004 2013

Landbirds, breeding and 8 8 8 10 11 11

Total number of 31 36 44 89 118 149

Number of visits by observers

Bird specimens held in museums

held at the AMNH, ZRC, Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense in Bogor, Indonesia

Taxonomy and nomenclature

plumage is determined genetically. Therefore, fulvus deserves recognition as a

Christmas Island Swiftlet

Table 2. The distribution of selected taxonomic characters amongst the major

Character natalis esculenta marginata affinis linchi cyanoptila

Green gloss on All Some All Some All None

According to Chantler & Driessens (2000) and Salomonsen (1983), numerous

Christmas Island Goshawk

Debus 1994; Ferguson-Lees et al. 2001, under the griseogularis account).

Christmas Island Hawk-Owl

In addition, 34 species or species groups are placed on the supplementary list

Population estimates of breeding species

Species G-H N vT S G&C C J&R BE

Feral Chicken >100 (a), i

Red-tailed Tropicbird 400–600 >1000 10–100 1380 >2000 (b), p

Emerald Dove 100–1000 >1000 2500 900–3500 38 900–3500 (d), i

CI Imperial-Pigeon 10–100 500 35 000– 90 35 000–66 000 (d), i

CI Swiftlet 100 000– 2500 57 5000–10 000 (b), p

Lesser Frigatebird >10 (b), p

Great Frigatebird 2000– 500–1000 100–1000 3250 3500 (b), p

CI Frigatebird 1000– <2000 100–1000 1620 2250 1200 (e), p

Abbott’s Booby 500–750 2300–3000 100–1000 3000 2500 (f), p

Red-footed Booby 4500– 5000 10 000– 12 050 12 000 (g), p

Brown Booby 5000– 2250 10 000– 4910 5000 (g), p

White-faced Heron 100 (i) <15 (a), i

Eastern Reef Egret 15–20 1–10 40 ± 20 (b), p

CI Goshawk 10–100 50–150 75 1 250 (h), i

Nankeen Kestrel 10–100 22 >300 (a), i

White-breasted Waterhen <20 (a), i

Common Noddy 4000– 4000–5500 10 000– 5390 5500 (g), p

CI Hawk-Owl 10–100 100 600 562 ± 105 (j), t

CI White-eye 100 000– 10 000 80 000– 99 80 000–170 000 (d), i

Island Thrush 100 000– 2000 20 000– 70 20 000–50 000 (d), i

Java Sparrow 10–100 <50 (a), i

Eurasian Tree Sparrow >1000 (a), i

Species No. First Last No. First Last Longest

Red-tailed Tropicbird 365 25-Jun-83 10-Sep-10 5 19-Oct-88 27-Jul-07 69

CI Frigatebird 40 2-Mar-83 25-May-10 0