SQL Complete

SQL NOTES
CREATE A TABLE
Syntax
Create table <table name> (column definition 1,column definition 2, . . . . . .
, );
Example
SQL> create table bab(name varchar2(10), eng number(3), tam number(3));
Table created.
TO VIEW THE TABLE STRUCTURE

Syntax
Desc <table name>
Example
SQL> desc bab;
Name Null? Type
----------------------------------------- -------- --------------
NAME VARCHAR2(10)
ENG NUMBER(3)
TAM NUMBER(3)
ALTER A TABLE
Syntax
Alter table <table name> modify (column definition...);
Alter table <table name> add (column definition...);
Example
SQL> alter table bab modify (name varchar2(15));
Table altered.
SQL> alter table bab add(mat number(3));
Table altered.
SQL> desc bab;

Name Null? Type
----------------------------------------- -------- -------------
NAME VARCHAR2(15)
ENG NUMBER(3)
TAM NUMBER(3)
MAT NUMBER(3)
TRUNCATE A TABLE
Description
The truncate command deletes all the records from the table.
Syntax
Truncate table <table name>;
Example
SQL> truncate table bab;
Table truncated.
SQL> truncate table bab reuse storage;

{Oracle internally reclaims the space of the deleted rows for future use.}
Table truncated.
Kannan.v Anna University

1
TO DROP A TABLE
Description
To delete a table.
Syntax
Drop table <table name>;
Example
SQL> drop table bab;
Table dropped.
INSERT COMMAND
Syntax
Insert into <table name> values ( a list of data values);
Example
SQL> insert into bab values('babu',67,89,90);
1 row created.
SQL> insert into bab values('&name',&english,&tamil,&maths);

Enter value for name: ddl
Enter value for english: 67
Enter value for tamil: 45
Enter value for maths: 67
old 1: insert into bab values('&name',&english,&tamil,&maths)
new 1: insert into bab values('ddl',67,45,67)
1 row created.
SQL> insert into bab(name,eng) values('jack',100);
1 row created.
SQL> insert into bab values('raj',null,90,null);
1 row created.
SQL> select * from bab;
NAME ENG TAM MAT

--------------- ---------- ---------- ----------
babu 67 89 90
ddl 67 45 67
sandhya 45 67 89
mani 67 89 56
kavi 56 78 90
jack 100
raj 90
7 rows selected.
SQL> alter table bab add(odate date);
Table altered.
SQL> desc bab;

2
Name Null? Type
----------------------------------------- -------- -------------
NAME VARCHAR2(15)
ENG NUMBER(3)
TAM NUMBER(3)
MAT NUMBER(3)
ODATE DATE
INSERT DATE VALUES

SQL> insert into bab values ('ram',45,56,78,'10-jan-98');
1 row created.
SELECT COMMAND
Syntax
Select column_name ......... from <tale name>;
Example
SQL> select name,eng from bab;
NAME ENG
--------------- ----------
babu 67
ddl 67
sandhya 45
mani 67
kavi 56
jack 100
raj
ram 45
8 rows selected.
SELECTING DISTINCT ROWS

Example
SQL> select distinct eng from bab;
ENG
--------------
45
56
67
100
SELECT WITH WHERE CLAUSE

Syntax
Select columns.....from table where condition [order by];
Example
SQL> select * from bab where eng = 67 order by name;
NAME ENG TAM MAT ODATE

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
babu 67 89 90
ddl 67 45 67
mani 67 89 56
DISPLAY VALUES ONLY MORE THAN 1

3
Example

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
babu 200 100 90 12-MAR-98
ddl 67 45 67 12-MAR-99
sandhya 45 67 89 12-MAY-99
mani 67 89 56 12-AUG-96
kavi 56 78 90 12-MAR-98
ram 45 56 89 10-JAN-98
6 rows selected.
SQL>select name ,mat from bab where mat in(select mat from bab
group by mat having count(mat) > 1 );
NAME MAT
--------------- ----------
sandhya 89
ram 89
babu 90
kavi 90
4 rows selected.
DISPLAY SAME MATHS MARK MORE THAN 1

Example
SQL> select mat from bab group by mat having count(*) > 1;
MAT
----------
89
90
2 rows selected.
DISPLAYING HIGHEST MARK(ENG) IN TABLE BAB.

Example1
SQL>select * from bab where eng=(select max(eng) from bab);

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
babu 200 100 90 12-MAR-98
Example2
SQL>select * from bab where mat>(select avg(tam) from bab);

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
babu 200 100 90 12-MAR-98
sandhya 45 67 89 12-MAY-99
kavi 56 78 90 12-MAR-98
DISPLAYING HIGHEST MARK(ENG) TO NO. OF PERSONS.

Example

4
SQL> select name,eng from bab a where &no >(select count(distinct eng) from
bab where eng>=a.eng);
SQL> /
Enter value for no: 3
NAME ENG
--------------- ----------
babu 200
ddl 67
mani 67
3 rows selected.
DISPLAY VALUES OF SUM(MAT) GREATER THAN MAX(TAM)

Example
SQL> select sum(mat) from bab having sum(mat)>(select max(tam)
from bab) group by mat;
SUM(MAT)
----------
178
180
2 rows selected.
UPDATE COMMAND
Syntax
Update <table name> set field = value,......where condition;
Example
SQL> update bab set eng = 200 where name = 'babu';
1 row updated.
DELETE COMMAND
Syntax
Delete from <table name> where conditions;
Example1
SQL> delete from bab where eng = 100;
1 row deleted.
DELETE DUPLICATE ROWS

Example2
SQL> delete from bab a where rowed > (select min(rowid) from bab b where a.mat
= b.mat);
2 rows deleted.

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
babu 200 100 90 12-MAR-98
ddl 67 45 67 12-MAR-99
sandhya 45 67 89 12-MAY-99
mani 67 89 56 12-AUG-96

5
4 rows selected.
COMMIT
Description
Changes can made permanent to the database.
Syntax
Commit;
Example
SQL>commit;
Commit complete.
SAVEPOINT
Description
Savepoints are like markers to divided a very lengthy transaction to smaller
ones.
Syntax
savepoint savepoint_id;
Example

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
babu 200 89 90 12-MAR-98
ddl 67 45 67 12-MAR-99
sandhya 45 67 89 12-MAY-99
mani 67 89 56 12-AUG-96
kavi 56 78 90 12-MAR-98
ram 45 56 78 10-JAN-98
6 rows selected.
SQL> update bab set tam = 100 where eng = 200;

1 row updated.

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
babu 200 100 90 12-MAR-98
ddl 67 45 67 12-MAR-99
sandhya 45 67 89 12-MAY-99
mani 67 89 56 12-AUG-96
kavi 56 78 90 12-MAR-98
ram 45 56 78 10-JAN-98
6 rows selected.
SQL> savepoint u;
Savepoint created.
SQL> delete from bab where tam = 78;
1 row deleted.

6
SQL> update bab set eng = 300 where name = 'ram';
1 row updated.

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
babu 200 100 90 12-MAR-98
ddl 67 45 67 12-MAR-99
sandhya 45 67 89 12-MAY-99
mani 67 89 56 12-AUG-96
ram 300 56 78 10-JAN-98
SQL> rollback to savepoint u;
Rollback complete.

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
babu 200 100 90 12-MAR-98
ddl 67 45 67 12-MAR-99
sandhya 45 67 89 12-MAY-99
mani 67 89 56 12-AUG-96
kavi 56 78 90 12-MAR-98
ram 45 56 78 10-JAN-98
6 rows selected.
SQL> rollback;
Rollback complete.

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
babu 200 89 90 12-MAR-98
ddl 67 45 67 12-MAR-99
sandhya 45 67 89 12-MAY-99
mani 67 89 56 12-AUG-96
kavi 56 78 90 12-MAR-98
ram 45 56 78 10-JAN-98
6 rows selected.
GRANT PRIVILEGE COMMAND

Description
User wants to share an object with other, the appropriate privileges can be
granted on that particular object to others.
Syntax
Grant privileges on <object-name> to <username>;
Example

7
SQL> grant select,update on bab to system;
Grant succeeded.
SQL> grant update(eng,tam) on stud to system;
Grant succeeded.
SQL>grant all on bab to system;
Grant succeeded.
REVOKE PRIVILEGE COMMAND

Description
To withdraw the privilege that has been granted to a user.
Syntax
Revoke privileges on <object-name> from <username>.
Example
SQL> revoke select,update on bab from system;
Revoke succeeded.
SQL>revoke all on bab from system;
Revoke succeeded.
SELECT STATEMENT TO CREATE A TABLE

Description
Create a table and copy the records into it with a single statement.
Syntax
Create table <new_table_name> as select column_name from <existing_table_name>.
Example1
SQL> create table frook as select * from bab;
Table created.
SQL> select * from frook;

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
babu 200 89 90 12-MAR-98
ddl 67 45 67 12-MAR-99
sandhya 45 67 89 12-MAY-99
mani 67 89 56 12-AUG-96
kavi 56 78 90 12-MAR-98
ram 45 56 78 10-JAN-98
6 rows selected.
Example2
SQL> create table rajesh(stuname,english) as select name,eng from bab;
Table created.
SQL> select * from rajesh;

8
STUNAME ENGLISH
--------------- ----------
babu 200
ddl 67
sandhya 45
mani 67
kavi 56
ram 45
6 rows selected.
SQL> desc rajesh;

Name Null? Type
----------------------------------------- -------- --------------------
STUNAME VARCHAR2(15)
ENGLISH NUMBER(3)
Example3
SQL> create table siva as select * from bab where eng = 67;
Table created.
SQL> select * from siva;

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
ddl 67 45 67 12-MAR-99
mani 67 89 56 12-AUG-96
Example4
Note
(Copy table structure only.)
SQL> create table ram as select * from bab where 1=2;
Table created.
SQL> select * from ram;
no rows selected
SQL> desc ram;

Name Null? Type
----------------------------------------- -------- -------------
NAME VARCHAR2(15)
ENG NUMBER(3)
TAM NUMBER(3)
MAT NUMBER(3)
ODATE DATE
SELECT COMMAND TO INSERT RECORDS

Description
Inserting records from one table into another table. The structure of the two
tables must be same.
Syntax

9
Insert into <table_table> (select column_names from <existing_table_name>);
Example
SQL> create table jack(name varchar2(10),eng number(3),tam number(3),mat
number(3),odate date);
Table created.
SQL> insert into jack (select * from bab);
6 rows created.
SQL> select * from jack;

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
babu 200 89 90 12-MAR-98
ddl 67 45 67 12-MAR-99
sandhya 45 67 89 12-MAY-99
mani 67 89 56 12-AUG-96
kavi 56 78 90 12-MAR-98
ram 45 56 78 10-JAN-98
6 rows selected.
SELECT COMMAND FOR COLUMN ALIASES

Description
Used to temporarily change a column name.
Syntax
Select column_name <alias_name> from table_name;
Example
SQL> select name student_name,eng english_mark from bab;
STUDENT_NAME ENGLISH_MARK
--------------- ------------
babu 200
ddl 67
sandhya 45
mani 67
kavi 56
ram 45
6 rows selected.
ARITHMETIC OPERATORS
Description
The arithmetic operators are addition(+),subtraction(-),multiplication(*),and
division(/).
Example1
SQL> select name,eng+tam total_et from bab where mat = 90;
NAME TOTAL_ET
--------------- ----------
babu 289
kavi 134
Example2

10
Note: {value+null=null)
SQL> select * from second;
ROLLNO TAM ENG

---------- ---------- ----------
100 65 78
101 63
SQL> select rollno,tam+eng totalet from second;
ROLLNO TOTALET
---------- ----------
100 143
101
Example3
SQL> select name,eng*(tam-mat) total from bab where name = 'ram';
NAME TOTAL
--------------- ----------
ram -990
Example4
SQL> select * from bab where eng>mat*2;

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
babu 200 89 90 12-MAR-98
COMPARISON OPERATORS
Description
The comparison operators are =,!=,<,>,<=,>=,
BETWEEN(to check between any two values),
IN(to match with any of the values in the list),
LIKE(to match a character pattern),
IS NULL(to check whether it is null).
NOT BETWEEN and NOT LIKE.
Example1
SQL> select * from bab where eng>mat/2;

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
babu 200 89 90 12-MAR-98
ddl 67 45 67 12-MAR-99
sandhya 45 67 89 12-MAY-99
mani 67 89 56 12-AUG-96
kavi 56 78 90 12-MAR-98
ram 45 56 78 10-JAN-98
6 rows selected.
Example2
SQL> select name from bab where eng in(67,89,200,48);
NAME
---------------

11
babu
ddl
mani
Example3
SQL> select * from bab where not (eng = 67 or eng = 45);

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
babu 200 89 90 12-MAR-98
kavi 56 78 90 12-MAR-98
Example4
SQL> select * from bab where eng > 100;

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
babu 200 89 90 12-MAR-98
Example5
SQL> select name from bab where eng between 44 and 60;
NAME
---------------
sandhya
kavi
ram
Example6
SQL> select eng from bab where name like 'b%';
ENG
----------
200
Example7
SQL> select * from bab where name like 'k_v%';

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
kavi 56 78 90 12-MAR-98
LOGICAL OPERATORS
Description
The logical operator are AND,NOT and OR.
Example
SQL> select * from bab where eng = 67 and mat = 67;

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
ddl 67 45 67 12-MAR-99
DATE FUNCTIONS
ADD_MONTHS
Syntax
add_months(d,n),where d is the date and n is the number of months.
Example1

12
SQL> select odate,add_months(odate,2) from bab;
ODATE ADD_MONTH
--------- ---------
12-MAR-98 12-MAY-98
12-MAR-99 12-MAY-99
12-MAY-99 12-JUL-99
12-AUG-96 12-OCT-96
12-MAR-98 12-MAY-98
10-JAN-98 10-MAR-98
6 rows selected.
Example2
SQL> select sysdate, add_months(sysdate,-5) from dual;
SYSDATE ADD_MONTH
--------- ---------
05-FEB-06 05-SEP-05
SQL> select sysdate,sysdate+5 from dual;
SYSDATE SYSDATE+5
--------- ---------
05-FEB-06 10-FEB-06
SQL> select sysdate,sysdate-4 from dual;
SYSDATE SYSDATE-4
--------- ---------
05-FEB-06 01-FEB-06
LAST_DAY
Description
Returns the last day of the month.
Syntax
last_day(d)
Example
SQL> select sysdate,last_day(odate) from bab where eng > 65;
SYSDATE LAST_DAY(
--------- ---------
26-JAN-06 31-MAR-98
26-JAN-06 31-MAR-99
26-JAN-06 31-AUG-96
MONTH_BETWEEN
Description
To find out the number of months between two dates.
Syntax
months_between(d1,d2) where d1,d2 are dates.
Example1
SQL> select months_between(sysdate,odate) from bab;
MONTHS_BETWEEN(SYSDATE,ODATE)
-----------------------------
94.4794015
82.4794015

13
80.4794015
113.479402
94.4794015
96.5439176
6 rows selected.
Example2
SQL> select sysdate, add_months(sysdate,-5) from dual;
SYSDATE ADD_MONTH
--------- ---------
05-FEB-06 05-SEP-05
SQL> select months_between('12-aug-02','12-jan-02') from dual;
MONTHS_BETWEEN('12-AUG-02','12-JAN-02')
---------------------------------------
7
SQL> select months_between('12-aug-02','18-july-02') from dual;
MONTHS_BETWEEN('12-AUG-02','18-JULY-02')
----------------------------------------
.806451613
SQL> select months_between('12-aug-02','10-july-02') from dual;
MONTHS_BETWEEN('12-AUG-02','10-JULY-02')
----------------------------------------
1.06451613
FOLLOWING QUERY IS CALCULATED DAYS,MONTHS,YEARS

SQL>select (to_date('31-jan-06')-to_date('30-nov-05')) Days,
floor(MONTHS_BETWEEN('31-jan-06','30-nov-05')) months,
floor(months_between('31-jan-06','30-nov-05')/12) years from dual;
DAYS MONTHS YEARS

---------- ---------- ----------
62 2 0
FOLLOWING QUERY IS CALCULATED THE MONTH FOR 30 & 31 DAYS.

Example
SQL> select (to_date('31-jan-06')-to_date('30-nov-05')) days,
floor((to_date('31-jan-06')-to_date('30-nov-05'))/30) months,
floor((to_date('31-jan-06')-to_date('30-nov-05'))/365) years
from dual;
DAYS MONTHS YEARS

---------- ---------- ----------
62 2 0
SQL> select (to_date('26-jan-06')-to_date('15-oct-03')) days,

floor((to_date('26-jan-06')-to_date('15-oct-03'))/31) months,
floor((to_date('26-jan-06')-to_date('15-oct-03'))/365) years
from dual;
DAYS MONTHS YEARS

14
---------- ---------- ----------
834 26 2
ROUND
Description
Returns the date which is rounded(nearest year) to the unit specified by the
format model.
Syntax
round(d,[fmt]) where d is date and fmt is format model.
Example1
SQL> select odate,round(odate,'year') from bab where eng > 64;
ODATE ROUND(ODA
--------- ---------
12-MAR-98 01-JAN-98
12-MAR-99 01-JAN-99
12-AUG-96 01-JAN-97
Example2
SQL> select odate, round(odate,'month') from bab where eng > 64;
ODATE ROUND(ODA
--------- ---------
12-MAR-98 01-MAR-98
12-MAR-99 01-MAR-99
12-AUG-96 01-AUG-96
Example3 (day to be rounded to the nearest Sunday)

SQL> select odate,round(odate,'day') from bab where eng > 64;
ODATE ROUND(ODA
--------- ---------
12-MAR-98 15-MAR-98
12-MAR-99 14-MAR-99
12-AUG-96 11-AUG-96
Example4 (it is rounded to the day)

SQL> select odate,round(odate) from bab where eng > 64;
ODATE ROUND(ODA
--------- ---------
12-MAR-98 12-MAR-98
12-MAR-99 12-MAR-99
12-AUG-96 12-AUG-96
NEXT_DAY (display next Tuesday date)

Syntax
next_day(d,day) where d is date and day implies any weekday.
Example
SQL> select sysdate,next_day (sysdate,'tuesday') from dual;
SYSDATE NEXT_DAY(
--------- ---------
26-JAN-06 31-JAN-06

15
TRUNCATE
Syntax
trunc(d,[fmt]) fmt is neglected, then date is converted to the nearest day.
Example
SQL> select sysdate,trunc(sysdate,'year') from dual;
SYSDATE TRUNC(SYS
--------- ---------
26-JAN-06 01-JAN-06
SQL> select sysdate,trunc(sysdate,'month') from dual;
SYSDATE TRUNC(SYS
--------- ---------
26-JAN-06 01-JAN-06
SQL> select sysdate,trunc(sysdate,'day') from dual;
SYSDATE TRUNC(SYS
--------- ---------
26-JAN-06 22-JAN-06 (display to the nearest Sunday)
SQL> select sysdate,trunc(sysdate) from dual;
SYSDATE TRUNC(SYS
--------- ---------
26-JAN-06 26-JAN-06 (it is rounded to the nearest day i.e. the sysdate)
GREATEST & LEAST

Description
Returns the latest date present in the argument.
Syntax
greatest(d1,d2....).where d1 and d2 are dates.
Example
SQL> select odate,sysdate,greatest(odate,sysdate) from bab where eng = 200;
ODATE SYSDATE GREATEST(

--------- --------- ---------
12-MAR-98 26-JAN-06 26-JAN-06
Example2
SQL> select greatest(10,70,32,12) from dual;
GREATEST(10,70,32,12)
---------------------
70
SQL> select least(10,70,32,12) from dual;
LEAST(10,70,32,12)
------------------
10
SQL> select greatest('a','j','z') from dual;

16
-
z
SQL> select least('babu','ddl','sandhya') from dual;
LEAS
----
babu
NEW_TIME
Description
Returns the time and date of a date column or literal date in other time zones.
Syntax
new_time(date,’this’,’other’);
Example
SQL> select new_time('13-feb-99','est','yst') from dual;
NEW_TIME(
---------
12-FEB-99 (which is the date in the time sone ‘yst’)
CHARACTER FUNCTIONS
Description
Character functions accept character input and return either character or
number values.
FUNCTION INPUT OUTPUT

Initcap(char) select initcap(‘hello’) from dual; Hello
Lower(char) select lower(‘FUN’) from dual; fun

Upper(char) select upper(‘sun’) from dual; SUN
Ltrim(char,set) select ltrim(‘xyzadams’,’xyz’) from dual; adams
Rtrim(char,set) select ltrim(‘xyzadams’,’ams’) from dual; xyzad
Translate(char,
from, to) select translate(‘jack’,’j’,’b’) from dual; back
Replace(char,
searchstring, select replace(‘jack and jue’,’j’,’bl’) from black
[rep string]) dual; and blue
(char,m,n) select substr(‘abcdefg’,3,2) from dual; cd
NOTE
Soundex,which is also a character function compares words that are spelled
differently,but sound alike.
Example
SQL> select * from bab where soundex(name)=soundex('baabu');

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
babu 200 89 90 12-MAR-98
CHARACTER FUNCTION
Example
SQL> select chr(112) from dual;

17
C
-
p
LPAD and RPAD and LENGTH

Example
SQL> select lpad('babu',10,'=') from dual;
LPAD('BABU
----------
======babu
SQL> select rpad('babu',10,'=') from dual;
RPAD('BABU
----------
babu======
SQL> select length('babu') from dual;
LENGTH('BABU')
--------------
4
DECODE
Description
DECODE function does a value by value replacement.
Syntax
select decode(<value,if1,then1,if2,then2,...>) from <table_name>;
Example1
SQL> select eng,decode(name,'babu','baabu') changename,tam from bab where eng =
200;
ENG CHANG TAM

---------- ----- ----------
200 baabu 89
Example2
SQL>
1 select distinct
2 DECODE(name,'babu','mr.k.babu','ddl','dhanlakshmi',name)
3* from bab
4 /
DECODE(NAME,'BA
---------------
dhanlakshmi
kavi
mani
mmm
mr.k.babu
sandhya
6 rows selected.
Example3

18
SQL>
1 select distinct
2 DECODE(name,'babu','mr.k.babu','ddl','dhanlakshmi')
3* from bab
4 /
DECODE(NAME
-----------
dhanlakshmi
mr.k.babu
CONCATENATION (||) OPERATOR

Description
Used to merge two or more strings.
Example
SQL> select ('The name is '||name||' english mark is '||eng||' maths mark
is '||mat) Record from bab where tam = 89;
RECORD
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
The name is babu english mark is 200 maths mark is 90
The name is mani english mark is 67 maths mark is 56
NUMERIC FUNCTIONS
FUNCTION INPUT OUTPUT

Abs select abs(-15) from dual 15
Celi(n) select ceil(44.778) from dual 45
Cos(n) select cos(180) from dual -.5984601
Cosh(n) select cosh(0) from dual 1
Exp(n) select exp(4) from dual 54.59815
Floor(n) select floor(100.2) from dual 100
Power(m,n) select power(4,2) from dual 16
Mod(m,n) select mod(10,3) from dual 1

Round(m,n) select round(100.256,2) from dual 100.26
Trunc(m,n) select trunc(100.256,2) from dual 100.25

Sqrt(n) select sqrt(25) from dual 5
Example
SQL> select ln(2) from dual;
LN(2)
----------
.693147181
SQL> select mod(45,6) from dual;
MOD(45,6)
----------

19
3
SQL> select sign(-32) from dual;
SIGN(-32)
----------
-1
SQL> select sign(-65) from dual;
CONVERSION FUNCTIONS
Description
Conversion functions convert a value from one data type to another.
Default date format is dd-mon-yy.
dd------16
dy------sat
day-----Saturday
mm------03
mon-----mar
month---march
fmmonth-march(fullmonth)
yy------02
yyy-----002
yyyy----2002
ddth----16th or 3rd or 2nd or 1st
Syntax
1. To_char()
2. To_date()
3. To_number()
Example
SQL> select to_char (sysdate,'ddth "of" fmmonth yyyy') from dual;
TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DDTH"
----------------------
27th of january 2006
SQL> select to_date('january 27 1999','month-dd-yyyy') from dual;
TO_DATE('
---------
27-JAN-99
SQL> select round(to_date('27-jan-99'),'year') from dual;
ROUND(TO_
---------
01-JAN-99
SQL> select to_number('100') from dual;
TO_NUMBER('100')
----------------
100

20
MISCELLANEOUS FUNCTIONS
UID
Description
The function returns the integer value corresponding to the user currently
logged in.
Example
SQL> select uid from dual;
UID
----------
66
USER
Description
Returns the login’s user name, which is in varchar2 datatype.
Example
SQL> select user from dual;
USER
------------------------------
SCOTT
NULL VALUE(NVL)
Description
The null value function is used in case where we want to consider null values
as zero.
Syntax (null values and zeroes are not equivalent)
nvl(exp1,exp2) if exp1 is null, nvl will return exp2.
Example1
SQL> select * from first;
ROLLNO ENG NAM

---------- ---------- ----------
100 500 babu
101 ddl
SQL> select nam,nvl(eng,100) from first;
NAM NVL(ENG,100)
---------- ------------
babu 500
ddl 100
ROLLNO ENG NAM

---------- ---------- ----------
100 500 babu
101 ddl

21
Example2
ROLLNO ENG NAM

---------- ---------- ----------
100 500 babu
101 ddl
105 san
SQL> select nam,nvl(eng,100) from first;
NAM NVL(ENG,100)
---------- ------------
babu 500
ddl 100
san 100
ROLLNO ENG NAM

---------- ---------- ----------
100 500 babu
101 ddl
105 san
VSIZE
Description
It returns the number of bytes in the exression.
Syntax
vsize(expr).
Example
SQL> select vsize('babu') from dual;
VSIZE('BABU')
-------------
4
GROUP FUNCTIONS
AVG FUNCTION
Example
SQL> select avg(eng) from bab where tam = 89;
AVG(ENG)
----------
133.5
MIN FUNCTION
Example
SQL> select min(eng) from bab where tam = 89;
MIN(ENG)

22
----------
67
MAX FUNCTION
Example
SQL> select max(eng) from bab where tam = 89;
MAX(ENG)
----------
200
SUM FUNCTION
Example
SQL> select sum(eng+tam) totalet from bab;
TOTALET
----------
904
COUNT FUNCTION
Example1
SQL> select count(*) from bab;
COUNT(*)
----------
6
Example2
SQL> update bab set mat = null where tam = 78;
1 row updated.

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
babu 200 89 90 12-MAR-98
ddl 67 45 67 12-MAR-99
sandhya 45 67 89 12-MAY-99
mani 67 89 56 12-AUG-96
kavi 56 78 12-MAR-98
ram 45 56 78 10-JAN-98
6 rows selected.
SQL> select count(mat) from bab;
COUNT(MAT)
----------
5
SQL> select count(distinct tam) from bab;
COUNT(DISTINCTTAM)
------------------
5

23
GROUP BY CLAUSE
Example
SQL> select eng,tam from bab;
ENG TAM
---------- ----------
200 89
67 56
45 67
67 56
56 78
45 56
6 rows selected.
SQL> select tam,max(eng) from bab group by tam;
TAM MAX(ENG)
---------- ----------
56 67
67 45
78 56
89 200
SQL> select tam,sum(eng) from bab group by tam;
TAM SUM(ENG)
---------- ----------
56 179
67 45
78 56
89 200
HAVING CLAUSE
Example
SQL> select tam,max(eng) from bab group by tam having tam not in (77,45,56);
TAM MAX(ENG)
--------- ----------
67 45
78 56
89 200
STDDEV
Description
Gives the standard deviation of a norm of values.
Example
SQL> select tam,stddev(eng) from bab group by tam;
TAM STDDEV(ENG)
---------- -----------
56 12.7017059
67 0
78 0
89 0

24
VARIANCE
Description
Gives the variance of a norm of values.
Example
SQL> select tam,variance(eng) from bab group by tam;
TAM VARIANCE(ENG)
--------- -------------
56 161.333333
67 0
78 0
89 0
SET OPERATORS

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
babu 200 89 90 12-MAR-98
ddl 67 45 67 12-MAR-99
sandhya 45 67 89 12-MAY-99
mani 67 89 56 12-AUG-96
kavi 56 78 90 12-MAR-98
ram 45 56 78 10-JAN-98
6 rows selected.
SQL> select * from stud;
ROLLNO NAME ENG TAM MAT

---------- -------- ---------- ---------- ----------
500 babu 250 278 300
501 dhana 200 89 90
503 ddl 200 89 90
504 sandhya 67 89 45
569 aaaa 67 34 100
100 bbbbb 89 45 65
6 rows selected.
UNION
Description
Returns all distinct rows selected by both queries.
Example
SQL> select name from bab union select name from stud;
NAME
---------------
aaaa
babu
bbbbb
ddl
dhana
kavi
mani

25
ram
sandhya
9 rows selected.
UNION ALL
Description
Returns all rows selected by either query including duplicates.
Example
SQL> select name from bab union all select name from stud;
NAME
---------
babu
ddl
sandhya
mani
kavi
ram
babu
dhana
ddl
sandhya
aaaa
bbbbb
12 rows selected.
INTERSECT
Description
Returns only rows that are common to both the queries.
Example
SQL> select name from bab intersect select name from stud;
NAME
---------------
babu
ddl
sandhya
MINUS
Description
Returns all distinct rows selected only by the first query and not by the
second.
Example
SQL> select name from bab minus select name from stud;
NAME
---------------
kavi
mani
ram
SIMPLE JOIN

26
EQUI JOIN
Description
A join, which is based on equalities, is called an equi-join.
Example
SQL> select rollno,bab.name,odate from bab,stud where bab.name=stud.name;
ROLLNO NAME ODATE

---------- --------------- ---------
500 babu 12-MAR-98
503 ddl 12-MAR-99
504 sandhya 12-MAY-99
NON EQUI JOIN

Description
Specifies the relationship between columns belonging to different tables by
making use of the relational operators(<,<=,>,>=,=).
Example
SQL> select rollno,odate,bab.mat from bab,stud where ((stud.tam>bab.mat) and
(bab.name=stud.name));
ROLLNO ODATE MAT

------- --------- ----------
500 12-MAR-98 90
503 12-MAR-99 67
SELF JOIN
Description
Joining of a table itself is known as self join.
Example

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
babu 200 89 90 12-MAR-98
ddl 67 45 67 12-MAR-99
sandhya 45 67 89 12-MAY-99
mani 67 89 56 12-AUG-96
kavi 56 78 90 12-MAR-98
ram 45 56 78 10-JAN-98
6 rows selected.
SQL> select a.eng,b.tam,a.mat from bab a,bab b where a.eng = b.tam;
ENG TAM MAT

---------- ---------- ----------
45 45 89
45 45 78
56 56 90
67 67 67
67 67 56
OUTER JOIN
Description

27
Returns those rows from one table that do not match any row from the other
table.
Example
SQL> select a.eng,rollno,a.name from bab a,stud where a.name = stud.name(+);
ENG ROLLNO NAME

-------- ------- --------
200 500 babu
67 503 ddl
56 kavi
67 mani
45 ram
45 504 sandhya
6 rows selected.
SUBQUERIES
Description
Nesting of queries, one within the other, is terned as a subquery.
Example
SQL> select * from bab where name=(select name from stud where eng =250);

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
babu 200 89 90 12-MAR-98
SUBQUERIES RETURN SEVERAL VALUES

Description
Subqueries can also return more than one value. we use ANY,ALL,IN or NOT IN.
Example1
SQL> select * from stud where eng < any(select tam from bab where mat between
10 and 70);

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
504 sandhya 67 89 45
569 aaaa 67 34 100
Example2
SQL>select * from stud where eng > all(select tam from bab where mat < 100);

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
500 babu 250 278 300
501 dhana 200 89 90
503 ddl 200 89 90
MULTIPLE SUBQUERIES
Example1
SQL> select name,eng,odate from bab where name=(select name from stud where
rollno=(select rollno from student where mat = 300));
NAME ENG ODATE

--------------- ---------- ---------
babu 200 12-MAR-98

28
CORRELATED SUBQUERIES
Example
SQL> select distinct(a.eng) from bab a where 3 >= (select count(name) from bab
where a.mat = mat);
ENG
----------
45
56
67
200
INTEGRITY CONSTRAINTS
1. Domain integrity constraints

(i) Not null constraint
(ii) Check constraint
2. Entity integrity constraints

(i) Unique constraints
(ii) Primary Key constraints
3. Referential integrity constraints

(i) Foreign Key constraints
NOT NULL CONSTRAINTS

Description
Zero and Null are not equivalent. One null is not equivalent to another null.
Example
SQL> create table first (a number(3),b number(3) constraint b1 not null,
c number(3) not null);
Table created.
SQL> alter table first modify a not null;
Table altered.
Example2
SQL> create table second(a number(3),b number(3));
Table created.
SQL> insert into second values(101,null);
1 row created.
SQL> alter table second modify b not null;
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-02296: cannot enable (SCOTT.) - null values found
CHECK CONSTRAINTS
Example1
SQL>create table third (a number(3),b number(3) constraint bc check(b<50));

29
Table created.
SQL> insert into third values(78,56);

insert into third values(78,56)
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-02290: check constraint (SCOTT.BC) violated
Example2
SQL> alter table third add constraint ac check(a in(45,65));
Table altered.
SQL> insert into third values(48,33);
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-02290: check constraint (SCOTT.AC) violated
UNIQUE CONSTRAINTS
Example1
SQL> create table four(a number(3),b number(3) constraint bc1
check(b<90),constraint bu unique(b));
Table created.
Example2
SQL> alter table four add constraint bc2 unique(a);
Table altered.
PIMARY KEY CONSTRAINT

Description
Primary key does not allow null values. A table can have only one primary key.
Primary key cannot be defined in an alter table command when the table contains
rows having null values.
Example1
SQL> create table five(a number(3) constraint ap primary key,b number(3),c
number(3) not null);
Table created.
Example2
SQL> create table six(a number(3),b number(3), constraint ap1 primary key(a));
Table created.
Example3
SQL> alter table first add constraint ap2 primary key(b);
Table altered.
REFERENTIAL INTEGRITY CONSTRAINTS

Description
The column in the parent table as a primary key and the same column in the
child table as a foreign key referring to the corresponding parent entry.
Example1

30
SQL> create table seven(a number(3) constraint af references five(a), b
(or)
SQL> create table seven(a number(3), foreign key(a) references five(a), b
Table created.
Example2
SQL> alter table four add constraint af1 foreign key(a) references six(a);
Table altered.
Example3
SQL> delete from five where a=100;
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-02292: integrity constraint (SCOTT.AF) violated - child record found
NOTE
First delete child record and then delete parent record.
ON DELETE CASCADE CLAUSE

Description
Use on delete cascade clause to delete parent record automatically remove child
record.
Example
SQL> create table nine(a number(3),b number(3), constraint babu primary
key(a));
Table created.
SQL> create table ten(a number(3),c number(3));
Table created.
SQL> alter table ten add constraint babu1 foreign key(a) references nine(a) on
delete cascade;
Table altered.
SQL> insert into nine values(1,78);
1 row created.
SQL> insert into ten values(1,67);
1 row created.
SQL> delete from ten where a=1;
1 row deleted.
DEFERRABLE CONSTRAINT
Description
Three conditions

31
1. Deferrable initially immediate=constraint violation at the time of insert.
2. Deferrable initially deferred=constraint violation at the time of commit.
3. Non Deferrable initially immediate= default condtion.
Syntax1
Alter table <table name> add constraint <constraint_name> foreign key
<column_name> references <table name> deferrable initially deferred;
Syntax2(Enables all constraint)

Set constraint all immediate;
Syntax3(Diable all constraint)

Set constraint all deferred;
Syntax4
Alter table <table_name> drop constraint constraint_name;
Example
SQL> alter table four drop constraint bu;
Table altered.
TYPES OF LOCKS
1. Row Level Locks
2. Table Level Locks
ROW LEVEL LOCKS

Description
This command used to lock the rows that would be updated later. Other users
cannot update that particular row till the lock is released.
Syntax
Select ..for update clause
Example
SQL> select * from bab where name = 'ram' for update of eng,tam;

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
ram 45 56 78 10-JAN-98
SQL> update bab set eng = 75 where name = 'ram';
1 row updated.
TABLE LEVEL LOCKS

1. Share lock
2. Share update lock
3. Exclusive lock
Syntax
Lock table <table_name> in <share or share update or exclusive mode>;
SHARE LOCK
Description
The table allowing other users to only query but not insert,update or delete
rows in a table.
Example
SQL> lock table bab in share mode;

32
Table(s) Locked.
SHARE UPDATE LOCK

Description
It locks rows that are to be updated in a table. It permits other users to
concurrently query, insert, update or even lock other rows in the same table.
Example
SQL> lock table bab in share update mode;
Table(s) Locked.
EXCLUSIVE LOCK
Description
It allows the other user to only query but not insert, delete or update rows in
a table. It is similar to a share lock but one user can place an exclusive lock
on a table at a time.
Example
SQL> lock table bab in exclusive mode;
Table(s) Locked.
RELEASE TABLE LOCK

Description
Locks can be released by issuing either rollback or commit.
Example
SQL> rollback;
Rollback complete.
NOWAIT
Description
If another user tries to violate the above restrictions by trying to lock the
table, then he will be made to wait indefinitely. This delay could be avoided
by appending a ‘nowait’ clause in the lock table command.
Example
SQL> lock table bab in exclusive mode nowait;
Table(s) Locked.
DEADLOCK
Description
A deadlock occurs when two user have a lock, each on a separate object, the
first person is wait for second person to release lock, but second person is
not release, at that we use deadlock.
User performing the Locks mode permitted by

following task another user
share share update exclusive

33
yes no no
Establishing a Share Lock
no yes no
Establishing a Share Update Lock
no no no
Establishing an Exclusive Lock
yes yes yes
Querying a table
TABLE PARTITIONS
Description
A single logical table can be split into a number of physically separate pieces
based on ranges of key values. Each of the parts of the table is called a
partition.
Syntax
Create table <table_name> (column name data type, column name date type,..)
partition by range(column name) (partition <partition name> values less than
<value>, partition <partition name> values less than <value>);
Example
SQL> create table mani(eng number(3),tam number(3),mat number(3)) partition by
range(eng) (partition m1 values less than (40),partition m2 values less than
(90));
Table created.
SQL> select * from mani;
ENG TAM MAT

---------- ---------- ----------
34 56 78
12 76 54
78 56 89
40 65 43
SQL> select * from mani partition(m1);
ENG TAM MAT

---------- ---------- ----------
34 56 78
12 76 54
ENG TAM MAT

---------- ---------- ----------
78 56 89
40 65 43
SQL> insert into mani values(99,56,45);

insert into mani values(99,56,45)
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-14400: inserted partition key does not map to any partition

34
RENAMING PARTITIONS
Syntax
Alter table <tablename> Rename partition <old partition name> to <new partition
name>;
Example
Alter table mani rename partition m2 to m100;
MOVING PARTITIONS
Description
Move a partition from a most active tablespace to a different tablespace in
order to balace I/O operations. Oracle creates the table in the default
‘system’ tablespace.
Example
SQL> alter table mani move partition m1 tablespace system;
Table altered.
ADDING PARTITIONS
Description
To add a new partition after the existing last partition .
Example
SQL> alter table mani add partition m3 values less than(99);
Table altered.
SQL> insert into mani values(98,67,89);
1 row created.
ENG TAM MAT

---------- ---------- ----------
98 67 89
SPLITTING PARTITIONS
Description
To split a partition into two.
Example
SQL>alter table mani split partition m1 at(20) into(partition m10,partition
m11);
Table altered.
ENG TAM MAT

---------- ---------- ----------
12 76 54
ENG TAM MAT

---------- ---------- ----------
34 56 78

35
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-02149: Specified partition does not exist
TRUNCATING PARTITION
Description
It is used to truncate the values in the partition without disturbing other
partition values. Structure can’t effect when the partition truncated.
Syntax
Alter table <table name> TRUNCATE partition <partition name>;
Example
Alter table mani truncate partition m10;
DROPPING PARTITIONS
Description
To drop a specified partition.
Example
ENG TAM MAT

---------- ---------- ----------
34 56 78
12 76 54
78 56 89
40 65 43
98 67 89
SQL> alter table mani drop partition m10;
Table altered.
SQL> alter table mani drop partition m11;
Table altered.
ENG TAM MAT

---------- ---------- ----------
78 56 89
40 65 43
98 67 89
EXCHANGING TABLE PARTITIONS(The two table structure must be same)
ENG TAM MAT

---------- ---------- ----------
78 56 89
40 65 43
ENG TAM MAT

---------- ---------- ----------

36
34 67 78
67 34 89
SQL> alter table mani exchange partition m2 with table ram;
Table altered.
ENG TAM MAT

---------- ---------- ----------
78 56 89
40 65 43
ENG TAM MAT

---------- ---------- ----------
34 67 78
67 34 89
SYNONYM
Description
A synonym is a database object, which is used as an alias(alternative name) for
a table, view or sequence.
Syntax
create [public] synonym <synonym_name> for <table_name>;
Example
SQL> create synonym mani for bab;
Synonym created.

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
babu 200 89 90 12-MAR-98
ddl 67 45 67 12-MAR-99
sandhya 45 67 89 12-MAY-99
mani 67 89 56 12-AUG-96
kavi 56 78 90 12-MAR-98
ram 45 56 78 10-JAN-98
6 rows selected.
SQL> grant all on mani to system;
Grant succeeded.
SQL> drop synonym mani;
Synonym dropped.
SEQUENCES
Description

37
A sequence is a database object, which can generate unique, sequential integer
values. Generate primary key or unique key values automatically. nextval is
initial value, currval is value of sequence. sequence name must be in caps.
Syntax
create sequence <seq_name> [increment by n] [start with n] [maxvalue n]
[minvalue n] [cycle/nocycle] [cache/nocache];
Example
SQL> create sequence frook
2 increment by 1
3 start with 1
4 maxvalue 10
5 minvalue 1
6 cycle
7 cache 4;
Sequence created.
SQL>insert into bab(name,eng,tam,mat) values('babu'||frook.nextval,50,34,100);
1 row created.
SQL> select frook.currval from dual;
CURRVAL
----------
2

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
babu 200 89 90 12-MAR-98
ddl 67 45 67 12-MAR-99
sandhya 45 67 89 12-MAY-99
mani 67 89 56 12-AUG-96
kavi 56 78 90 12-MAR-98
babu2 50 34 100
ram 45 56 78 10-JAN-98
7 rows selected.
SQL> alter sequence frook maxvalue 15;
Sequence altered.
DROPING A SEQUENCE
Syntax
Drop sequence <sequencename>;
Example
drop sequence frook;
TO DISPLAY SEQUENCES
Example1
SQL>select * from user_sequences; (OR) select * from user_sequences where
sequence_name = ‘<sequence name’>;
SEQUENCE_NAME MIN_VALUE MAX_VALUE INCREMENT_BY C O

CACHE_SIZE

38
------------------------------ ---------- ---------- ------------ - -
----------
LAST_NUMBER
-----------
FROOK 1 15 1 Y N
4
3
Example2
SQL>select * from all_sequences;
SEQUENCE_OWNER SEQUENCE_NAME MIN_VALUE

------------------------------ ------------------------------ ----------
MAX_VALUE INCREMENT_BY C O CACHE_SIZE LAST_NUMBER
---------- ------------ - - ---------- -----------
MDSYS SAMPLE_SEQ 1
1.0000E+27 1 N N 20 1
MDSYS SDO_IDX_TAB_SEQUENCE 1
1.0000E+27 1 Y N 20 1
SCOTT FROOK 1
15 1 Y N 4 3
VIEW
Description
A view is a tailored presentation of the data contained in one or more tables.
Syntax
Create [or replace] [[no] [force]] view <view_name> [column alias name...] as
<query> [with [check option] [read only] [constraint]];
Example1
SQL> create view ddl as select * from bab where eng > 60;
View created.
SQL> select * from ddl;

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
babu 200 89 90 12-MAR-98
ddl 67 45 67 12-MAR-99
mani 67 89 56 12-AUG-96
SQL> grant all on ddl to system;
Grant succeeded.
Example2
SQL> update ddl set tam = 100 where name = 'babu';
1 row updated.
SQL> select * from ddl;

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
babu 200 100 90 12-MAR-98

39
ddl 67 45 67 12-MAR-99
mani 67 89 56 12-AUG-96
Example3
SQL> create or replace view raju as select * from bab where tam < 50
with check option constraint vt;
View created.
SQL> select * from raju;

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
ddl 67 45 67 12-MAR-99
babu2 50 34 100
SQL> update raju set tam = 55 where eng = 67;
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-01402: view WITH CHECK OPTION where-clause violation
Example4
SQL> create or replace view ramesh as select * from bab with read only;
View created.
SQL> select * from ramesh;

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
babu 200 100 90 12-MAR-98
ddl 67 45 67 12-MAR-99
sandhya 45 67 89 12-MAY-99
mani 67 89 56 12-AUG-96
kavi 56 78 90 12-MAR-98
babu2 50 34 100
ram 45 56 78 10-JAN-98
7 rows selected.
SQL> update ramesh set eng = 100 where tam = 78;

*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-01733: virtual column not allowed here
CREATING VIEWS WITH ERRORS

Description
To create a view with errors, include the FORCE option in the CREATE VIEW
command.
Example
SQL> create force view jack as select * from sasi;
Warning: View created with compilation errors.

NOTE:
The table sasi is created and insert values, the values is
automatically updated in the view table jack.

40
SQL> create table sasi(a number(3),b number(3));
Table created.
SQL> select * from sasi;
A B
---------- ----------
12 34
67 57
56 87
A B
---------- ----------
12 34
67 57
56 87
SQL> alter view jack compile;
View altered.
DML STATEMENTS AND JOIN VIEWS

Description
Joining of tables is also possible in a view.Any UPDATE,INSERT, or DELETE
statement on a join view can modify only one underlying base table.
Example
SQL> create view jegan as select a.name,rollno,a.eng from bab a,stud
where a.name=stud.name;
View created.
SQL> select * from jegan;
NAME ROLLNO ENG

--------------- ---------- ----------
babu 500 200
ddl 503 67
sandhya 504 45
SQL> update jegan set eng = 300 where name = 'ddl';

*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-01779: cannot modify a column which maps to a non key-preserved table
NOTE
The above shows error because the value contains in view jegan from two tables.
Only one base table values can possible to update, delete or insert.
FUNCTIONS IN VIEW
Example

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------

41
babu 200 100 90 12-MAR-98
ddl 67 45 67 12-MAR-99
sandhya 45 67 89 12-MAY-99
mani 67 89 56 12-AUG-96
kavi 56 78 90 12-MAR-98
ram 45 56 89 10-JAN-98
6 rows selected.
SQL> create view arun as select mat,sum(eng+tam) totengtam from bab

group by mat;
View created.
SQL> select * from arun;
MAT TOTENGTAM
------- ----------
56 156
67 112
89 213
90 434
PARTITION VIEW
Description
Work only no: of columns and column data types are same in all used tables.
Syntax
Create view <viewname> as
select * from <tablename1>
union all
union all
Example
SQL> create view anu1 as
2 select * from a
3 union all
4 select * from b
5 union all
6 select * from usha1;
View created.
SQL> select * from anu1;
A
----------
54
54
89
90
99
900
7 rows selected.

42
DROPPING VIEWS
Example
SQL> drop view anu1;
View dropped.
INDEX
Description
We can create indexes explicitly to speed up SQL statement execution on a
table.
Example
SQL> create index raj on bab(eng);
Index created.
SQL> drop index raj;
Index dropped.
UNIQUE INDEXES
Description
Indexes can be unique or non-unique. Unique indexes guarantee that no two rows
of a table have duplicate values in the columns that define the index.
Example
SQL> create unique index venkat on bab(eng);
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-01452: cannot CREATE UNIQUE INDEX; duplicate keys found
SQL> create unique index venkat on bab(name);
Index created.
COMPOSITE INDEXES
Description
A composite index(also called a concatenated index) is an index created on
multiple columns of a table.
Example
SQL> create index mono on bab(name,mat);
Index created.
REVERSE KEY INDEXES

Description
Reverse each byte of the column being indexed while keeping the column order.
We cannot rebuild a normal index as a reverse key index.
Normal_index Reverse_index
A100001 10001A
Example
SQL> create index jack on bab(eng) reverse;
Index created.
SQL> alter index jack rebuild noreverse;
Index altered.

43
BITMAP INDEXES
Description
The number of distinct values is small, compared to the number of rows in the
table. At that time we use bitmap index.
Example
SQL> create bitmap index frook on bab(eng);
Index created.
INDEX ORGANIZED TABLES

Description
An index organized table differs from a regular table. Values are always
arranged in ascending order based on primary key variable.
Example
SQL> create table ganga(eng number(3) primary key, tam
number(3)) organization index;
SQL> select * from ganga;
ENG TAM
---------- ----------
36 18
45 32
78 54
PARTITIONING IN INDEX
Description
Like table partitions, index partitions could be in different tablespaces.
Syntax
Create index <index name>
on <tablename>(<col1>,<col2>) [global/local]
partition values less than (<value1>) tablespace <tablespacename1>,
partition values less than (<value2>) tablespace <tablespacename2>;
NOTE
Tablespacename 1,Tablespacename 2 refer to the names of the tablespaces which
are associated with the partitions. The clause tablespace <tablespacename> can
be ignored, as partitions are stored in default user tablespace.
LOCAL INDEXES
Description
The partition key in the partition index should refer to the same rows as that
of the underlying table partition.
Example
SQL> create table mani(eng number(3),tam number(3),mat number(3)) partition
by range(eng) (partition m1 values less than (40),partition m2
values less than (90));
Table created.
SQL> create index king on mani(eng) local;
Index created.
SQL>select segment_name, partition_name, segment_type, tablespace_name from

user_segments where segment_name='king';

44
no rows selected
GLOBAL INDEXES
The keys of a global index may refer to rows stored in more than one underlying
partition.
Example
SQL> create table mani(eng number(3),tam number(3),mat number(3)) partition
by range(eng) (partition m1 values less than (40),partition m2
values less than (90),partition m3 values less than (maxvalue));
Table created.
SQL> create index ravi on mani(eng) global

2 partition by range (eng) (partition r1 values less than (36),
3 partition r2 values less than (maxvalue));
Index created.
ALTER INDEX
Syntax
Alter index <index name> rebuild partition <partition name>;
OBJECT IN ORACLE8
1. Abstract data types
2. Object views
3. Varying arrays
4. Nested Tables
5. Object Tables
6. Object Views with REFs
ABSTRACT DATA TYPES

Description
Abstract data types are data types that consist of one or more subtypes.
Example
SQL> create or replace type mark1 as object (eng number(3), tam number(3), mat
number(3));
Type created.
IMPLEMENTING AN OBJECT TYPE AS A COLUMN OBJECT

Description
Use abstract type that is created above. Create a table named jack.
Example
SQL> create table jack (rollno number,name varchar2(10),studmark mark1);
Table created.
SQL> desc jack;

Name Null? Type
----------------------------------------- -------- -------------
ROLLNO NUMBER(3)
NAME VARCHAR2(10)
STUDMARK MARK1

45
The same can be viewed through a data dictionary table called USER_TAB_COLUMNS
through which the same output as shown below.
SQL> select column_name,data_type from user_tab_columns

where table_name = 'jack';
column_Name Data_Type
----------------------------------------- -------- -------------
ROLLNO NUMBER(3)
NAME VARCHAR2(10)
STUDMARK MARK1
when the user wants to view the actual values of the MARK1 data type then a
query using the USER_TYPE_ATTRS data dictionary table can be used.
SQL> select attr_name, length, attr_type_name from user_type_attrs where

type_name = 'mark1';
Attr_name length Attr_Type_Name

------------ --------------- --------------------------
ENG 3 NUMBER(3)
TAM 3 NUMBER(3)
MAT 3 NUMBER(3)
INSERTING RECORDS INTO ABSTRACT DATA TYPES

Example
SQL> insert into jack values (501,'babu',mark1(56,78,43));
1 row created.
ROLLNO NAME
---------- ----------
STUDMARK(ENG, TAM, MAT)
------------------------------------------------------------
501 babu
MARK1(56, 78, 43)
SELECTING FROM ABSTRACT DATA TYPES

Example
SQL> select name from jack;
NAME
----------
babu
SQL> select eng from jack;
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00904: invalid column name
SQL> select a.studmark.eng from jack a;
STUDMARK.ENG
------------
56

46
UPDATING RECORDS IN ABSTRACT DATA TYPES
Example
SQL> update jack a set a.studmark.eng = 100 where name = 'babu';
1 row updated.

ROLLNO NAME
---------- ----------
STUDMARK(ENG, TAM, MAT)
------------------------------
501 babu
MARK1(56, 78, 43)
503 ddl
MARK1(45, 78, 32)
DELETING RECORD FROM ABSTRACT DATA TYPES

Example
SQL> delete from jack a where a.studmark.eng = 45;
1 row deleted.
DROPPING OBJECT TYPES

Example
SQL> drop type mark1;
drop type mark1
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-02303: cannot drop or replace a type with type or table dependents
SQL> drop type mark1 force;
Type dropped.
ROLLNO NAME
---------- ----------
501 babu
INDEXING ABSTRACT DATA TYPE ATTRIBUTES

Example
SQL> create index sam on jack(studmark.eng);
Index created.
SQL> select owner,index_name,index_type,table_owner,table_name,table_type from

2 all_indexes where owner = 'scott';
OWNER INDEX_NAME INDEX_TYPE TABLE_OWNER TABLE_NAME TABLE_TYPE

------- ---------- ---------- ----------- ---------- ----------
SCOTT SAM NORMAL SCOTT JACK TABLE
OBJECT VIEWS
Description

47
To implement the Object Oriented concepts in the applications without
rebuilding or recreating the entire application. The ability to overlay the
Object Oriented structure such as abstract data types on existing tables is
requied.
Example

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
500 babu 250 278 300
501 dhana 200 89 90
503 ddl 200 89 90
504 sandhya 67 89 45
569 aaaa 67 34 100
100 bbbbb 89 45 65
6 rows selected.
OBJECT VIEWS is created based on above table.
SQL> create or replace type first as object(rollno number(3),name

varchar2(10));
Type created.
SQL> create or replace type second as object(eng number(3),tam number(3),var1

first);
Type created.
SQL> create or replace type third as object(mat number(3),var2 second);
Type created.
SQL> create or replace view stud_view (mat,var2)

2 as (select mat,second(eng,tam,
3 first(rollno,name))
4 from stud);
View created.
SQL> insert into stud_view values(200,second(100,150,first(508,'frook')));
1 row created.

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
500 babu 250 278 300
501 dhana 200 89 90
503 ddl 200 89 90
504 sandhya 67 89 45
569 aaaa 67 34 100
100 bbbbb 89 45 65
508 frook 100 150 200

48
7 rows selected.
VARYING ARRAYS
Description
These help in storing repeating attributes of a record in a single row.
CREATING A VARYING ARRAY

Description
The record could carry a maximum of 5 items. so we have given varray(5).
Example
SQL> create type name as varray(5) of varchar2(10);
SQL> create type eng as varray(5) of number(3);
SQL> create type tam as varray(5) of number(3);
SQL> create table mark1 (rollno number(3),student_name name,english

eng,tamil tam);
Table created.
SQL> desc mark1;

Name Null? Type
----------------------------------------- -------- ----------
ROLLNO NUMBER(3)
STUDENT_NAME NAME
ENGLISH ENG
TAMIL TAM
SQL> select column_name, data_type from user_tab_columns where

table_name = 'mark1';
Column_name Data_type
----------------- --------------------
ROLLNO NUMBER
STUDENT_NAME NAME
ENGLISH ENG
TAMIL TAM
SQL> select typecode, attributes from user_types where type_name = 'eng';
Typecode Attributes
---------- --------------------
COLLECTION 0
SQL> select coll_type, elem_type_owner,elem_type_name,upper_bound,length

from user_coll_types where type_name = 'eng';
Coll_type Elem_type_owner Elem_type_name Upper_bound Length

--------- --------------- -------------- ----------- --------
VARRING ARRAY NUMBER 5 3
INSERTING RECORDS INTO VARYING ARRAYS

Example
SQL> insert into mark1 values (510,name('babu','ddl','san','jegan','frook'),
2 eng(45,56,78,34,56),tam(23,45,67,89,90));

49
1 row created.
SQL> select * from mark1;
ROLLNO
----------
STUDENT_NAME
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
ENGLISH
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
TAMIL
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
510
NAME('babu', 'ddl', 'san', 'jegan', 'frook')
ENG(45, 56, 78, 34, 56)
TAM(23, 45, 67, 89, 90)
SQL> select english from mark1;
ENGLISH
----------------------------------
ENG(45, 56, 78, 34, 56)
NESTED TABLES
Description
Varying arrays have a limited number of entries, whereas nested tables have no
limit on the number of entries per row. A nested table is a table within a
table. A nested table is a table within a table.
Example
SQL> create type first as object (name varchar2(10),eng number(3));
Type created.
SQL> create type second as table of first;
Type created.
SQL> create table mark2 (rollno number(5), var1 second)

nested table var1 store as frook1;
Table created.
SQL> desc mark2;

Name Null? Type
----------------------------------------- -------- -----------
ROLLNO NUMBER(5)
VAR1 SECOND
INSERTING RECORDS INTO NESTED TABLES

Example
SQL> insert into mark2 values(504,second(first('babu',68)));

50
1 row created.
ROLLNO
----------
VAR1(NAME, ENG)
-------------------------------------------------------------
504
SECOND(FIRST('babu', 68))
505
SECOND(FIRST('ddl', 76))
USES OF THE FUNCTION

Example
SQL> insert into the (select var1 from mark2 where rollno = 504)
2 values (first('frook',90));
1 row created.
SQL> update the (select var1 from mark2 where rollno = 504) set eng = 100 where
name = 'babu';
1 row updated.
OBJECT TABLES
Example
SQL> create type first as object (eng number(3),
tam number(3));
Type created.
SQL> create table second of first;
Table created.
SQL> insert into second values(first(76,89));
1 row created.
ENG TAM
---------- ----------
76 89
72 65
SQL> select eng from second;
ENG
----------
76
72

51
REF OPERATOR
Description
It allows referencing of existing row objects. Each of the row objects has an
OID value assigned to it. The OID value can be seen below.
Example
SQL> select ref(b) from second b;
REF(B)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
0000280209193F8CC5E244445899490D1FF4800A32D052F9467C8646E0AFC17F7F294F3CED0040F
0
960000
0000280209C5292359106F482BAF0F920BC818EBC7D052F9467C8646E0AFC17F7F294F3CED0040F
0
960001
DEREF OPERATOR
Description
It takes a reference value and return the value of the row objects. The deref
operator takes as its argument the OID generated for a references.
Example
SQL> create table mark1 (ss number(3), var1 ref first);
Table created.
SQL> desc mark1;

Name Null? Type
----------------------------------------- -------- ---------------
SS NUMBER(3)
VAR1 REF OF FIRST
SQL> insert into mark1 select 99,ref(a) from second a where eng = 76;
1 row created.
SS
----------
VAR1
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
99
0000220208193F8CC5E244445899490D1FF4800A32D052F9467C8646E0AFC17F7F294F3CED
SQL> select deref(a.var1) from mark1 a;
DEREF(A.VAR1)(ENG, TAM)
------------------------------------------
FIRST(76, 89)
VALUE OPERATOR
Example
SQL> select value(a) from second a;

52
VALUE(A)(ENG, TAM)
-------------------------------------
FIRST(76, 89)
FIRST(72, 65)
INVALID REFERENCES
Description
The object to which a reference points can be deleted.
Example
-----------------------------------------
FIRST(76, 89)
FIRST(70, 41)
SQL> delete from second where eng = 70;
1 row deleted.
------------------------------------------
FIRST(76, 89)
OBJECT VIEWS WITH REFS

Example
SQL> create table first(rollno number(3) primary key, eng number(3));
Table created.
SQL> create table second(rollno number(3),tam number(3),foreign

key(rollno) references first(rollno));
Table created.
ROLLNO ENG
---------- ----------
100 50
101 60
ROLLNO TAM
---------- ----------
100 65
101 63
GENERATING OIDS
Example
SQL> create or replace type first_ty as object (rollno
number(3),eng number(3));

53
Type created.
SQL> create view first_vi of first_ty with OBJECT OID(rollno)

as select * from first;
View created.
SQL> select MAKE_REF (first_vi,100) from first;
MAKE_REF(FIRST_VI,100)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
00004A038A004686D0CBD1BC0B41BF8C9FEAC2364FF3F2000000142601000100010029000000000
0
090603002A00078401FE0000000A02C2020000000000000000000000000000000000000000
00004A038A004686D0CBD1BC0B41BF8C9FEAC2364FF3F2000000142601000100010029000000000
0
090603002A00078401FE0000000A02C2020000000000000000000000000000000000000000
GENERATION OF REFERENCES
Example
SQL>create view second_vi as select MAKE_REF (first_vi,rollno) var1,
tam from second;
View created.
QUERYING OBJECT VIEWS

Example
SQL> select deref(a.var1) from second_vi a;
DEREF(A.VAR1)(ROLLNO, ENG)
---------------------------------------------
FIRST_TY(100, 50)
FIRST_TY(101, 60)
TIP FOR ORACLE & DEVELOPER

1. set autocommit on/off-on means commits automatically after execute.
2. set head on/off-suppresses the column headings in a query result.
3. To display property sheet of 2 items at the same time
(i)Select the first object,properties are displayed in the Property
Palette. click the Freeze/Un freeze button in property menu.
(ii)Shift+double-click the second object.If the second window is on
top of the first.
5. select * from all_views; - to view all views.
SQL*PLUS
COLUMN HEADINGS
Description

54
Column allows us to change the heading and format of any column in a select
statement.
a<value> ----alphabets(a20 means 20 spaces allocated)
99999 -----numeric(numbers are formatted using ‘$’,’9’)
Syntax
Column <column name> HEADING <column heading> FORMAT <format model>
Example
ROLLNO ENG NAM

---------- ---------- ----------
100 150 babu
101 60 ddl
SQL> column nam heading 'student name' format a20;

SQL> column eng heading 'english mark' format 9,99;
ROLLNO english mark student name

---------- ------------ --------------------
100 1,50 babu
101 60 ddl
TRUNCATED
Description
To remove the text values based on format model.
Example
SQL> column nam heading 'student_names ' format a5 truncated;
ROLLNO english mark stude

---------- ------------ -----
100 1,50 babu
101 60 ddl
CLEAR COLUMN HEADING

Syntax
1. Clear column {clear all column headings}
2. column <column name> clear {clear particular column headings}
Example
SQL> column eng clear;
ROLLNO ENG stude

---------- ---------- -----
100 150 babu
101 60 ddl
SQL> clear column

columns cleared
ROLLNO ENG NAM

---------- ---------- ----------
100 150 babu
101 60 ddl

55
ALIASES
Description
Aliases can be specified for the computed columns and the heading and
formatting features for the aliases.
Example
ROLLNO ENG NAM

---------- ---------- ----------
100 150 babu
101 60 ddl
SQL> column english format $99,999.00;

SQL> select eng*.20 as english from first;
ENGLISH
-----------
$30.00
$12.00
BREAK
Syntax
Break on <column name>
Example1

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
babu 200 100 90 12-MAR-98
ddl 67 45 67 12-MAR-99
sandhya 45 67 89 12-MAY-99
mani 67 89 56 12-AUG-96
kavi 56 78 90 12-MAR-98
ram 45 56 89 10-JAN-98
6 rows selected.
SQL> break on eng;

SQL> select * from bab order by eng;

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
sandhya 45 67 89 12-MAY-99
ram 56 89 10-JAN-98
kavi 56 78 90 12-MAR-98
ddl 67 45 67 12-MAR-99
mani 89 56 12-AUG-96
babu 200 100 90 12-MAR-98
6 rows selected.
Example2
SQL> break on eng skip 1
SQL> select eng,tam,mat from bab;

56
ENG TAM MAT
---------- ---------- ----------
200 100 90
67 45 67
45 67 89
67 89 56
56 78 90
45 56 89
6 rows selected.
CLEAR BREAK
Example
SQL> clear break;
breaks cleared
COMPUTE
Syntax
Break on <column name>;
compute <function> of <column name> on <break columnname>;
Example

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
babu 200 100 90 12-MAR-98
ddl 67 45 67 12-MAR-99
sandhya 45 67 89 12-MAY-99
mani 67 89 56 12-AUG-96
kavi 56 78 90 12-MAR-98
SQL> break on name;

SQL> compute sum of eng on name;

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
babu 200 100 90 12-MAR-98
*************** ----------
sum 200
ddl 67 45 67 12-MAR-99
*************** ----------
sum 67
sandhya 45 67 89 12-MAY-99
*************** ----------
sum 45
mani 67 89 56 12-AUG-96
*************** ----------
sum 67
kavi 56 78 90 12-MAR-98
*************** ----------

57
sum 56
TO CALCULATE GRANT TOTAL

Syntax
On Report
Example
SQL> break on report;
SQL> compute sum of eng on report;

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
babu 200 100 90 12-MAR-98
ddl 67 45 67 12-MAR-99
sandhya 45 67 89 12-MAY-99
mani 67 89 56 12-AUG-96
kavi 56 78 90 12-MAR-98
----------
sum 435
TO CLEAR BREAK AND COMPUTE

Example
Clear break;
Clear compute;
TO DISPLAY SETTINGS
Syntax
Show all (or) show <option>
Example
show pagesize;
show newpage;
show linesize;
SETTING WITH SET COMMAND

Example
Set pause on/off;
set pagesize 20;
set linesize 100;
set sqlprompt ‘babu>’;
set sqlterminator ‘=’;
LIST
Description
To view latest command that we type in sql prompt;
Example
SQL>select name,eng from bab;
NAME ENG
--------------- ----------
babu 200
ddl 67
sandhya 45
mani 67
kavi 56

58
SQL>list;
1* select name,eng from bab
CHANGE MISPELLED WORDS WITHOUT USING EDITOR

Syntax
Change/old expression/new expression;
Example1
SQL>select enb from first;
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00904: invalid column name
SQL>change/enb/eng;
1* select eng from first
Example2
SQL>select * from first;
ROLLNO ENG NAM

---------- ---------- ----------
100 50 babu
101 60 ddl
SQL>input where nam = 'babu';

SQL>list;
1 select * from first
2* where nam = 'babu'
SQL>select * from first
2 where nam = 'babu';
ROLLNO ENG NAM

---------- ---------- ----------
100 50 babu
COMMENT LINE
Description
–- {rem or remark Single line comment}
/* */ {Multiple line comment}
rem can work outside the program.

/* */ can work inside the program when declaring in pl/sql.
SPOOL
Description
To store and print the query results. The extension is .lst.
Syntax
spool on;
spool <filename>.<extension>;
type sql query;
spoll off;
Example
SQL>spool on;
SQL>spool babu.lst;
SQL>select * from bab where eng = 65;
no rows selected

59
SQL>select * from bab where eng = 67;

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
ddl 67 45 67 12-MAR-99
mani 67 89 56 12-AUG-96
SQL>spool off;
Using file menu to open the file babu.lst the following result will display
SQL>
1 SQL>select * from bab where eng = 65;
2 no rows selected
3 SQL>select * from bab where eng = 67;
4 NAME ENG TAM MAT ODATE
5 --------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
6 ddl 67 45 67 12-MAR-99
7 mani 67 89 56 12-AUG-96
8* SQL>spool off;
PSEUDO COLUMNS
Description
Rowid  displays the identification of each and every.
Rownum  displays the rownumbers.
Example
SQL>select * from first;
ROLLNO ENG NAM

---------- ---------- ----------
100 50 babu
101 60 ddl
SQL>select rowid from first;
ROWID
------------------
AAAH6YAABAAAPCWAAA
AAAH6YAABAAAPCWAAB
SQL>select rownum from first;
ROWNUM
----------
1
2
QUERY TO DISPLAY DUPLICATE ROWS

Example

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
babu 200 100 90 12-MAR-98
ddl 67 45 67 12-MAR-99
sandhya 45 67 89 12-MAY-99

60
mani 67 89 56 12-AUG-96
kavi 56 78 90 12-MAR-98
SQL> select * from bab x where rowid not in(select min(rowid) from bab where
eng = x.eng);

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
mani 67 89 56 12-AUG-96
QUERY TO DISPLAY ALTERNATE ROWS

Example
SQL> select name,eng from bab where(eng,rownum) in(select eng,mod(rownum,4)
from bab);
NAME ENG
--------------- ----------
kavi 56
ddl 67
QUERY TO DISPLAY OTHER ALTERNATE ROWS

Example
SQL> select * from bab where rowid not in(select rowid from bab where
(eng,rownum) in (select eng,mod(rownum,4) from bab));

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
babu 200 100 90 12-MAR-98
sandhya 45 67 89 12-MAY-99
mani 67 89 56 12-AUG-96
QUERY TO DELETE ALTERNATE ROWS

Example
SQL> delete from bab where (eng,rownum) in(select eng,mod(rownum,4) from bab);
2 rows deleted.

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
babu 200 100 90 12-MAR-98
sandhya 45 67 89 12-MAY-99
mani 67 89 56 12-AUG-96
QUERY TO PRINT SOME TEXT

Example
SQL> select name,eng,decode(mod(rownum,4),0,'********') print from bab;
NAME ENG PRINT

--------------- ---------- --------
babu 200
ddl 67
sandhya 45
mani 67 ********
kavi 56

61
QUERY TO GET COLUMN WITHOUT SPECIFYING THE COLUMN NAME
Example

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
babu 200 100 90 12-MAR-98
ddl 67 45 67 12-MAR-99
sandhya 45 67 89 12-MAY-99
mani 67 89 56 12-AUG-96
kavi 56 78 90 12-MAR-98
SQL> select &a,&b,&z from bab where eng = 67;

Enter value for a: tam
Enter value for b: name
Enter value for z: odate
old 1: select &a,&b,&z from bab where eng = 67
new 1: select tam,name,odate from bab where eng = 67
TAM NAME ODATE

---------- --------------- ---------
45 ddl 12-MAR-99
89 mani 12-AUG-96
DELETE DUP ROWS BUT LEAVING ONE ROW UNDELETED

Example1
SQL> delete from bab where eng = 67 and rowid not in(select min(rowid) from bab
where eng = 67);
1 row deleted.

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
babu 200 100 90 12-MAR-98
ddl 67 45 67 12-MAR-99
sandhya 45 67 89 12-MAY-99
kavi 56 78 90 12-MAR-98
Example2
SQL> delete from bab x where rowid not in(select min(rowid) from bab where mat
= x.mat);
1 row deleted.

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
babu 200 100 90 12-MAR-98
ddl 67 45 67 12-MAR-99
sandhya 45 67 89 12-MAY-99
mani 67 89 56 12-AUG-96
DISPLAY ALL COLUMNS AND ROWID WITHOUT SPECIFYING THE COLUMN NAME
Example1

62
SQL> select rowid,bab.* from bab;
ROWID NAME ENG TAM MAT ODATE

------------------ --------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
AAAH4AAABAAAPCZAAA babu 200 100 90 12-MAR-98
AAAH4AAABAAAPCZAAB ddl 67 45 67 12-MAR-99
AAAH4AAABAAAPCZAAC sandhya 45 67 89 12-MAY-99
AAAH4AAABAAAPCZAAD mani 67 89 56 12-AUG-96
AAAH4AAABAAAPCZAAE kavi 56 78 90 12-MAR-98
Example2
SQL> select rowid,&n from bab;
Enter value for n: mat
old 1: select rowid,&n from bab
new 1: select rowid,mat from bab
ROWID MAT
------------------ ----------
AAAH4AAABAAAPCZAAA 90
AAAH4AAABAAAPCZAAB 67
AAAH4AAABAAAPCZAAC 89
AAAH4AAABAAAPCZAAD 56
AAAH4AAABAAAPCZAAE 90
DISPLAY MAX,MIN AND OTHER VALUES

Example1
SQL> select name,mat,'maximum' from bab where mat=(select max(mat) from bab)
union select name,mat,' ' from bab where mat!=(select max(mat) from bab);
NAME MAT 'MAXIMU

--------------- ---------- -------
babu 90 maximum
ddl 67
kavi 90 maximum
mani 56
sandhya 89
Example2
SQL> select name,mat,'maximum' from bab where mat = (select max(mat) from bab)
union select name,mat,' ' from bab where mat != (select max(mat) from bab)
and mat != (select min(mat) from bab) union select name,eng,'minimum'
from bab where mat = (select min(mat) from bab);
NAME MAT 'MAXIMU

--------------- ---------- -------
babu 90 maximum
ddl 67
kavi 90 maximum
mani 67 minimum
sandhya 89
DISPLAY COLUMN AND COLUMN+1 VALUES

Example1
SQL> select eng from bab union select eng+1 from bab;
ENG
----------

63
45
46
56
57
67
68
200
201
8 rows selected.
Example2
SQL> select eng from bab union select eng+1 from bab minus(select eng
from bab);
ENG
----------
46
57
68
201
DISPLAY ROWS BETWEEN NTH TO MTH ROW

Example1

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
babu 200 100 90 12-MAR-98
ddl 67 45 67 12-MAR-99
sandhya 45 67 89 12-MAY-99
mani 67 89 56 12-AUG-96
kavi 56 78 90 12-MAR-98
SQL>select * from bab where rownum < &a minus select * from bab where
rownum < &b;
Enter value for a: 4
Enter value for b: 2

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
ddl 67 45 67 12-MAR-99
sandhya 45 67 89 12-MAY-99
Example2
SQL> select * from bab where rownum < &&a minus select * from bab where
rownum < &&a-1;
Enter value for a: 4

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
sandhya 45 67 89 12-MAY-99
DISPLAY LINE NUMBER WITH A GAP OF 2(ANY NUMBER)

Example

64
SQL> select name,eng,decode(mod(rownum,2),0,rownum,null) line from bab;
NAME ENG LINE

--------------- ---------- ----------
babu 200
ddl 67 2
sandhya 45
mani 67 4
kavi 56
DISPLAY SECOND MAX VALUE OF A GIVEN COLUMN

Example

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
babu 200 100 90 12-MAR-98
ddl 67 45 67 12-MAR-99
sandhya 45 67 89 12-MAY-99
mani 67 89 56 12-AUG-96
kavi 56 78 90 12-MAR-98
mmm 300 400 76 12-MAY-98
6 rows selected.
SQL> select max(mat) from bab where mat not in (select max(mat) from bab);
MAX(MAT)
----------
89
DISPLAY THIRD MAX VALUE OF A GIVEN COLUMN

Example
SQL> select max(mat) from bab where mat not in (select max(mat) from bab union
2 select max(mat) from bab where mat not in (select max(mat) from bab));
MAX(MAT)
----------
76
DISPLAY Nth MAX VALUE OF A GIVEN COLUMN

Example
SQL> select mat from bab a where &enter_no=(select count(mat) from bab b where
a.mat <= b.mat);
Enter value for enter_no: 4
MAT
----------
76
DISPLAY A PARTICULAR ROW

Example
SQL> select * from bab a where &n = (select count(rowid) from bab b where
a.rowid >= b.rowid);

65
Enter value for n: 4

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
mani 67 89 56 12-AUG-96
DISPLAY ALL DUPLICATE ROWS IN A TABLE

Example

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
babu 200 100 90 12-MAR-98
ddl 67 45 67 12-MAR-99
sandhya 45 67 89 12-MAY-99
mani 67 89 56 12-AUG-96
kavi 56 78 90 12-MAR-98
mmm 300 400 76 12-MAY-98
mmm 23 45 100 12-JAN-99
7 rows selected.
SQL> select * from bab a where rowid not in (select max(rowid) from bab b where
a.mat = b.mat or a.tam = b.tam or a.eng = b.eng or a.name = b.name or
a.odate = b.odate);

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
babu 200 100 90 12-MAR-98
ddl 67 45 67 12-MAR-99
mmm 300 400 76 12-MAY-98
NATURAL JOIN & CROSS JOIN

Example
ROLLNO ENG NAM

---------- ---------- ----------
100 50 babu
101 60 ddl
ROLLNO TAM
---------- ----------
100 65
101 63

66
SQL> select * from first natural join second;
ROLLNO ENG NAM TAM

---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
100 50 babu 65
101 60 ddl 63
SQL> select * from first cross join second;
ROLLNO ENG NAM ROLLNO TAM

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
100 50 babu 100 65
101 60 ddl 100 65
100 50 babu 101 63
101 60 ddl 101 63
MERGE COMMAND
Description
The merge command to perform inserts and updates into a single table in a
single command.
Example1
SQL> select * from sandhya;
ENG TAM
---------- ----------
45 67
2 45
78 90
SQL> select * from anusha;
ENG TAM
---------- ----------
2 67
78 87
42 90
80 100
SQL> edit merge
SQL>
1 merge into sandhya s
2 using (select eng,tam from anusha) a
3 on (s.tam=a.tam)
4 when matched then
5 update set s.eng = a.eng
6 when not matched then
7* insert (s.eng,s.tam) values (a.eng,a.tam)
SQL> /
4 rows merged.
ENG TAM

67
---------- ----------
2 67
2 45
42 90
80 100
78 87
Example2
SQL> edit merge;
SQL>
1 merge into sandhya s
2 using (select eng,tam from anusha) a
3 on (s.tam=a.tam and s.tam=500)
4 when matched then
5 update set s.eng = a.eng
6 when not matched then
7* insert (s.eng,s.tam) values (a.eng,a.tam)
SQL> /
4 rows merged.
ENG TAM
---------- ----------
2 67
2 45
42 90
80 100
78 87
80 100
78 87
42 90
2 67
9 rows selected.
REFERENCE BOOK
Example
SQL> select * from bab where name like '%a%a%';

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
sandhya 45 67 89 12-MAY-99
Example
SQL> select * from bab where name = (select name from bab where eng = 67);
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-01427: single-row subquery returns more than one row
Example
SQL> select name from bab order by length(name);
NAME

68
---------------
ddl
babu
mani
kavi
jjjjjj
sandhya
6 rows selected.
SQL> select floor(-55.78) from dual;
FLOOR(-55.78)
-------------
-56
SQL> select systimestamp from dual;
SYSTIMESTAMP
--------------------------------------------------------
08-APR-06 03.41.28.000000 PM +05:30
SQL> select to_date('02/22/06','mm/dd/yy') as now from dual;
NOW
---------
22-FEB-06
SQL> select to_char(odate,'ddth-month-yyyy') from bab;
TO_CHAR(ODATE,'DDTH
-------------------
12th-march -1998
12th-march -1999
12th-may -1999
12th-august -1996
12th-march -1998
SQL> select substr(12345678,1,5)||'-'||substr(12345678,8) from dual;
SUBSTR(
-------
12345-8
SQL> select translate(76342,1234567,'asdfghj') from dual;
TRANS
-----
jhdfs
SQL> select name from bab where name < 'g%';
NAME
---------------
babu
ddl

69
SQL> select name from bab where name in (select name from stud) union
2 (select name from student);
NAME
---------------
aaaa
babu
bbbbb
ddl
dhana
sandhya
6 rows selected.
Example
SQL> insert all
2 when eng > 200 then
3 into bab(eng,tam) values (100,100)
4 when tam > 75 then
5 into bab(eng,tam) values (200,200)
6 select name,eng,tam from bab where eng > 10;
3 rows created.

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
babu 200 100 90 12-MAR-98
ddl 67 45 67 12-MAR-99
sandhya 45 67 89 12-MAY-99
mani 67 89 56 12-AUG-96
kavi 56 78 90 12-MAR-98
200 200
200 200
200 200
8 rows selected.
Example
SQL>
1 CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER T3 BEFORE INSERT OR UPDATE ON bab
2 FOR EACH ROW
3 BEGIN
4 IF :NEW.eng>100 AND :NEW.name<>'dhana' THEN
5 RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR(-20004,'NOT POSSIBLE');
6 END IF;
7* END;
SQL> /
Trigger created.
SQL> update bab set eng = 102 where name = 'ddl';
update bab set eng = 102 where name = 'ddl'
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-20004: NOT POSSIBLE
ORA-06512: at "SCOTT.T3", line 3
ORA-04088: error during execution of trigger 'SCOTT.T3'

70
SQL> insert into bab(name,eng) values('dhana',122);
1 row created.
SQL> insert into bab(name,eng) values('ggg',122);

insert into bab(name,eng) values('ggg',122)
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-20004: NOT POSSIBLE
Example
SQL>
1 CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER T6 BEFORE INSERT OR UPDATE ON bab
2 FOR EACH ROW
3 DECLARE
4 A NUMBER;
5 BEGIN
6 SELECT eng INTO A FROM stud WHERE eng=:NEW.eng;
7 EXCEPTION
8 WHEN NO_DATA_FOUND THEN
9 RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR(-20004,'PARENT KEY NOT FOUND');
10* END;
SQL> /
Trigger created.

*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-01422: exact fetch returns more than requested number of rows
1 row updated.

*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-20004: PARENT KEY NOT FOUND
Example
SQL>
1 CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER T9 BEFORE DELETE ON bab FOR EACH ROW
2 DECLARE CURSOR C1 IS SELECT eng FROM stud WHERE
3 eng=:OLD.eng;
4 A NUMBER;
5 BEGIN

71
6 OPEN C1;
7 FETCH C1 INTO A;
8 IF C1%FOUND THEN
9 RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR(-20111,'CHILD RECORDS FOUND');
10 END IF;
11 CLOSE C1;
12 EXCEPTION WHEN NO_DATA_FOUND THEN
13 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('DELETING RECORDS...');
14* END;
SQL> /
Trigger created.

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------
babu 200 100 90 12-MAR-98
ddl 250 45 67 12-MAR-99
sandhya 45 67 89 12-MAY-99
mani 67 89 56 12-AUG-96
kavi 56 78 90 12-MAR-98
90 90
6 rows selected.

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
500 babu 250 278 300
501 dhana 200 89 90
503 ddl 200 89 90
504 sandhya 67 89 45
569 aaaa 67 34 100
100 bbbbb 89 45 65
6 rows selected.

delete from bab where eng = 67
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-20111: CHILD RECORDS FOUND
1 row deleted.
Example1
SQL> select to_char(odate,'day') day from bab;
DAY
---------

72
thursday
friday
wednesday
monday
thursday
6 rows selected.
SQL> select to_char(odate,'d') da from bab order by da;
D
-
2
4
5
5
6
6 rows selected.
SQL> select to_char(odate,'day') day from bab order by to_char(odate,'d');
DAY
---------
monday
wednesday
thursday
thursday
friday
6 rows selected.

73

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SQL NOTES

TO VIEW THE TABLE STRUCTURE

SQL> alter table bab add(mat number(3));

SQL> desc bab;

SQL> truncate table bab reuse storage;

Kannan.v Anna University

SQL> insert into bab values('&name',&english,&tamil,&maths);

SQL> insert into bab(name,eng) values('jack',100);

SQL> insert into bab values('raj',null,90,null);

SQL> select * from bab;

NAME ENG TAM MAT

SQL> alter table bab add(odate date);

SQL> desc bab;

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INSERT DATE VALUES

SELECTING DISTINCT ROWS

SELECT WITH WHERE CLAUSE

NAME ENG TAM MAT ODATE

DISPLAY VALUES ONLY MORE THAN 1

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NAME ENG TAM MAT ODATE

DISPLAY SAME MATHS MARK MORE THAN 1

DISPLAYING HIGHEST MARK(ENG) IN TABLE BAB.

NAME ENG TAM MAT ODATE

NAME ENG TAM MAT ODATE

DISPLAYING HIGHEST MARK(ENG) TO NO. OF PERSONS.

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DISPLAY VALUES OF SUM(MAT) GREATER THAN MAX(TAM)

DELETE DUPLICATE ROWS

SQL> select * from bab;

NAME ENG TAM MAT ODATE

Kannan.v Anna University

NAME ENG TAM MAT ODATE

SQL> update bab set tam = 100 where eng = 200;

SQL> select * from bab;

NAME ENG TAM MAT ODATE

SQL> delete from bab where tam = 78;

Kannan.v Anna University

SQL> select * from bab;

NAME ENG TAM MAT ODATE

SQL> rollback to savepoint u;

SQL> select * from bab;

NAME ENG TAM MAT ODATE

SQL> select * from bab;

NAME ENG TAM MAT ODATE

GRANT PRIVILEGE COMMAND

Kannan.v Anna University

SQL> grant update(eng,tam) on stud to system;

SQL>grant all on bab to system;

REVOKE PRIVILEGE COMMAND

SQL>revoke all on bab from system;

SELECT STATEMENT TO CREATE A TABLE

SQL> select * from frook;

NAME ENG TAM MAT ODATE

SQL> select * from rajesh;

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SQL> desc rajesh;

SQL> select * from siva;

NAME ENG TAM MAT ODATE