ELECTRONICS MASTERY

COURSE COMPANION AND TEXTBOOK

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1. Basic Principles

1.1 atomic structure and electric current

Atoms consist of a nucleus and electrons orbiting the nucleus. The nucleus is positively charged
as it contains positively charged protons and neutral neutrons. In a metal, there are free (or
delocalised) electrons that can flow. Electrons carry a negative charge. When charged particles
move, we have an electric current.

The amount of current can be calculated using:

𝐼 = 𝑛𝐴𝑣𝑒

Where I is current in Amps (A), n is charge carrier density in m-3, A is cross-sectional area in m3,
v is drift velocity in ms-1 and e is the charge on each electron or particle. The charge carrier
density is the number of free charge carriers (typically electrons per metre cubed of the
substance). Drift velocity is the velocity with which electrons move along a wire.

1.2 the term Coulomb and use of the formula for charge

Electric charge is a fundamental property of some particles and is measured in Coulombs (C).
Each electron carries a charge of 1.6 x 10-19C. Charge can be calculated using the equation:

𝑄 = 𝐼𝑡

Where Q is charge, I is current and t is time in seconds. Current, therefore is the rate of flow of
charge. A current of 1 A means that 1C of charge passes a point in a circuit every second. Even
though charge is a fundamental property of particles it is not a base quantity and Coulombs are
not a base unit. The electrical base quantity is current.

1.3 electron flow and current flow in conductors, semi-conductors and insulators

Conductors contain delocalised (free) electrons and current flows when the electrons are
allowed to flow. Conductors have a high value of n, the charge carrier density. This is the number
of free electrons per metre cubed. Insulators have a value of n of zero (or close to). Semi-
conductors have a value of n that changes depending on conditions (such as temperature or
light intensity).

1.4 potential difference (V) relating to:

• energy and charge

Potential difference measured in volts is the energy per unit charge. 1 volt is 1 joule per
coulomb.

• power and current

Power can be calculated using:

P=VI or P=I2R or P=V2/R

The higher the current, the higher the power dissipated.

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1.5 current-potential difference characteristics for:
• a metallic conductor at constant temperature

Current is directly proportional to pd for a metallic conductor at constant temperature so we

say it obeys Ohm’s Law. We would obtain a graph like this from a fixed resistor.

• a filament lamp

A filament lamp is more complicated since the resistance increases as we pass more current
through the filament. This happens because as current increases there are more frequent and
more forceful collisions between the electrons and ions in the filament. These collisions are
responsible for the increase in temperature. This means that as we increase the pd, the current
will increase but at a decreasing rate as the resistance gets bigger. The IV graph looks like this:

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• a semiconductor diode

A diode is made from a semiconducting material and allows current to flow through itself in one
direction only. The IV graph looks like:

1.6 resistance and Ohm’s law for resistive circuits

Ohm’s Law states that the current through a conductor is directly proportional to the pd across
it so long as temperature remains constant.

The equation V=IR is based upon this law.

1.7 how to calculate the total resistance and total current for a circuit that is a
combination of resistors connected in series and parallel

To calculate the total resistance of a combination of resistors in series, you simply add the
individual resistances together:

RT=R1+R2+…

In parallel we use the equation:

= + +…

1.8 use of the formulae for electrical power (P) and energy (W)

Power can be calculated using:

P=VI or P=I2R or P=V2/R

Electrical Energy = Power x time = VIt

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1.9 that the kilowatt-hour is a unit of energy

1kWh is the amount of energy used by a 1kW appliance in 1 hour. (1kWh = 1000 * 60 * 60 J)

1.10 that the efficiency of a system is the ratio of work output to work input

We calculate efficiency by dividing the useful energy output by the total energy input. Often
efficiency is given as a percentage.

1.11 the term resistivity and use of the formula for resistivity (ρ)

Resistivity is a way of comparing the resistance of different materials irrespective of the

material dimensions. Resistivity is given by the equation:

𝑅𝐴
𝜌=
𝐿

Where R is resistance, A is cross sectional area and L is length.

1.12 the term temperature coefficient of resistance

The temperature coefficient of resistance is the constant of proportionality that determines how
temperature is related to resistance.

1.13 use of graphs to show the variation with temperature of a pure resistor and of a
negative temperature coefficient thermistor

The graph above shows how the resistance of a thermistor varies with temperature.

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The graph below is for a regular resistor.

1.14 use of the formula for the magnitude of the uniform electric field strength (E)
between charged parallel plates

Uniform electric fields are found between charged plates. The field lines are straight and
parallel. The electric field strength (measured in NC-1 or Vm-1) is calculated by dividing the
voltage between the plates by the distance between the plates (E=V/d).

1.15 the terms capacitance (C) and farad (F)

Capacitors are components that store charge and therefore energy. They consist of two metal
plates separated by an insulating material called the dielectric:

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The capacitance of a capacitor is defined as the amount of charge stored (in Coulombs) per unit
potential difference (in Volts). The unit of capacitance is the Farad and is defined as the number
of Coulombs per volt.

1.16 use of the formula capacitance (C) and the formula for the energy (J) of a charged
capacitor W

Capacitance is calculated using the equation:

𝑄
𝐶=
𝑉

The energy stored in a capacitor is given by the equation:

𝑊 = 𝑄𝑉 or 𝑊 = 𝐶𝑉

1.17 how to draw a graph for a capacitor discharging through a resistor of (a) potential
difference against time and (b) current against time

These graphs are exponential decays:

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1.18 the significance of a time constant for the discharge of a capacitor and use of the
formula for time constant τ

The time constant is the time taken for the charge/pd/current from a capacitor to drop to 37%
(1/e) of the initial value.

It can be calculated by multiplying capacitance by resistance. This means the capacitor will
discharge more quickly if it is discharging through a smaller resistance or has a smaller
capacitance. The resistance in the time constant equation is the total resistance the capacitor
discharges through.

1.19 use of the formula for the discharge of a capacitor

Capacitors discharge through a resistance exponentially. To calculate the voltage, current or

charge of/from/on a capacitor after a time t seconds use:

/
𝑉=𝑉𝑒

/
𝐼=𝐼 𝑒

𝑄=𝑄 𝑒 /
V, I and Q are the pd, current and charge after t seconds, V0, I0 and Q0 are the initial pd, current
and charge (at t=0 seconds), t is the time in seconds, C is the capacitance in Farads and R is
resistance in Ohms. CR in the equation is the time constant.

To rearrange the equation to calculate t, C or R you need to use natural logs.

1.20 the terms inductance (L) and Henry (H)

Inductance (L) is the opposition to a change in electric current. Inductors are coils of wire and
work by inducing an emf (voltage) which works against the current passing through it. It is
measured in Henry (H) and is calculated using:

Φ𝑁
𝐿=
𝐼

Φ is the magnetic flux, N is the number of turns of wire in the coil and I is the current.

1.21 use of the formula for the self-inductance (L) of a coil and the formula for energy ()
stored in the magnetic field of a coil.

The equation to calculate self-inductance is:

Φ𝑁
𝐿=
𝐼

To calculate the energy stored in the magnetic field of an inductor/coil:

1
𝑊 = 𝐿𝐼
2

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 2. Kirchoff’s Laws

2.1 Application of the defining equations for:

Resistance Resistance is defined by the equation:

R = V/I

Where R is resistance in Ohms (Ω), V is potential difference (V) and I

is current in Amps (A).

Power Power is the rate of energy transfer, measured in Watts. It can be

calculated by dividing energy transferred by the time taken.

For electrical uses it is normally more convenient to use one of the

following equations:

Power = VI = I2R = V2/R

Energy Energy is calculated by multiplying power by time.

Energy = Power x time = VIt

Energy is always measured in Joules (J)

Resistors connected To calculate total resistance of a combination of resistors in series,

in series you need to simply add the resistances together:

𝑅 =𝑅 +𝑅 +⋯

Resistors connected To calculate total resistance of a combination of resistors in parallel,

in parallel you need to add the reciprocals of the individual resistances and
calculate the reciprocal of that total:

1 1 1
= + +⋯
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅

2.2 Measurement of voltage, current and resistance in a circuit using a voltmeter,

ammeter, ohmmeter and multimeter.

 A voltmeter is used to measure the potential difference across a component. It

always goes in parallel in circuits and we assume it has an infinite resistance.
 An ammeter is used to measure current. Ammeters go in series in a circuit and we
assume it has zero resistance.
 An ohmmeter measures resistance of a component directly. We connect it in parallel
across the component.
 A multimeter is a device that we can use to measure pd, current and resistance in DC
and AC circuits. Some multimeters can measure other quantities such as capacitance.
You need to make sure that you have selected the correct range and are using the
terminals that match the quantity you are measuring. Remember that you always

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 use the “COM” terminal on the multimeter; the other terminal you use depends on
what you’re measuring.
The range of the multimeter means the largest value of current, voltage or resistance
it can measure in that setting. The range values are numbers similar to 200, 2k, 20k,
200k etc. You need to pick the smallest range setting that will still be able to display
what we’re trying to measure.

2.3 Circuit theory:

Kirchoff’s First Law – The sum of currents entering a junction is the same as the sum of
currents leaving a junction. This is a consequence of the conservation of charge. It
explains why current splits at junctions in parallel circuits and recombines at the end.

Kirchoff’s Second Law – The sum of the emfs in a closed loop is equal to the sum of the
pds. This is a consequence of the conservation of energy. It explains why the voltage is
the same in each branch of a parallel circuit.

Internal resistance – The resistance of the power supply, cell or battery. This causes a
part of the emf produced to become “lost volts” within the source of emf. We calculate
the emf and internal resistance of a cell by connecting it in series with a variable resistor
and measuring the pd across the variable resistor (the terminal pd) and the current
drawn from the cell. By Kirchoff’s 2nd law:

𝜀 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑟
Or
𝜀 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑟

If we rearrange the top equation to a form more consistent with y=mx+c and plotting a
graph of V (y axis) and I (x axis), the internal resistance is the gradient (without the
negative sign) and the emf is the y-intercept.

𝑉 = −𝑟𝐼 + 𝜀

The greater the current drawn from the cell, the greater the lost volts so the terminal pd
becomes correspondingly less.

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem – This tells us that the maximum amount of power
transfer will occur when the load resistance (resistance of everything outside of the cell
or power supply) is equal to the internal resistance.

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 3. Understanding alternating voltage and current

3.1 What is meant by a simple generator:

A generator produces alternating current and voltage by rotating a coil of wire in a

magnetic field (or by rotating a magnetic field inside a coil of wire). It looks like:

3.2 What is meant by an alternating current (AC) and generated electromotive force
(emf):

An alternating current is an electric current where, rather than flow around the circuit
in a constant direction (DC) it constantly alternates backwards and forwards.

Generated emf is the alternating voltage produced by the relative motion between a coil
of wire and a magnetic field. The voltage will alternate between a positive and negative
value.

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3.3 Describe and draw sine waves showing alternating current and voltage

3.4 Obtain values for frequency and amplitude of a sine wave for alternating current and
voltage

The amplitude of the sine curve (the term in front of the sin) is the amplitude of the wave. For
alternating voltages and currents this is the peak voltage and current. ω is the angular
frequency. This quantity multiplied by the time in seconds calculates the angle the phasor
makes with 0°. Φ is the phase difference – adding a value for phase difference moves the curve
further along through the wave cycle.

The phasor diagram shows a rotating arrow (a phasor) that is an alternative way of
representing the sine curve.

3.5 Use the equations V=V0sinθ, V=V0sinωt, f=1/T and ω=2πf. Use similar equations for
current

These equations are used to calculate voltage and current after a time t seconds. f is the
frequency of the alternating current/voltage. For the UK mains, f=50Hz. Θ is the angle the
phasor makes with the horizontal.

3.6 Determine phase difference and phase angle in alternating current and voltage

Phase difference is how much further along the wave cycle one wave is compared to another.
Phase difference is measured in radians. Phase angle is another way of measuring phase
difference and is the angle between two phasors.

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3.7 Draw circuit and phasor diagrams for a resistor, capacitor and inductor each on their
own in an alternating current circuit

Resistor Capacitor Inductor

3.8 Use the equations for Reactance (X) and Impedance (Z) for a resistor, an inductor and
a capacitor

Reactance is the opposition to a change in current. The impedance is the effective total
resistance of a component in an AC circuit.

Component Resistance (Ω) Reactance (Ω)

Resistor R (V/I) 0
Inductor 0 or 𝑋 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿
Capacitor 0 or 𝑋 =

This means that the impedance for a resistor is the same as its resistance and the impedance of
a capacitor and an inductor is the same as the reactances.

Resistance, reactance and impedance are all measured in Ohms.

3.9 Calculate impedance for a resistor and inductor in series. Calculate impedance for a
resistor and capacitor in series.

For a resistor and inductor in series, the impedance is:

𝑍= 𝑅 +𝑋

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For a resistor and capacitor in series, the impedance is:

𝑍= 𝑅 +𝑋

This equation works since the phasors for the resistor and the capacitor or the inductor are at
right angles so we can use Pythagoras to work out the resultant phasor (the impedance).
The phase angle (the angle between the resultant impedance and the resistor phasor) is given
by:

𝑅
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 =
𝑍

3.10 Draw Phasor and circuit diagrams for an RLC circuit when the reactance of the
inductor is greater than the reactance of the capacitor.

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3.10 Draw phasor and circuit diagrams for an RLC circuit when the reactance of the
inductor is less than the reactance of the capacitor.

3.10 Draw phasor and circuit diagrams for an RLC circuit when the reactance of the
inductor is equal to the reactance of the capacitor.

3.11 Calculate the impedance of an RLC circuit when the reactance of the inductor is
greater than the reactance of the capacitor.

The impedance of an RLC circuit is the square of the resistance added to the square of the
difference between the reactances of the inductor and capacitor and square rooted.

𝑍= 𝑅 + (𝑋 − 𝑋 )

3.11 Calculate the impedance of an RLC circuit when the reactance of the inductor is less
than the reactance of the capacitor.

𝑍= 𝑅 + (𝑋 − 𝑋 )

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3.11 Calculate the impedance of an RLC circuit when the reactance of the inductor is
equal to the reactance of the capacitor.

𝑍= 𝑅

For all RLC circuits, phase angle is calculated using:

𝑅
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 =
𝑍

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4. Understand Electric Motors and Generators

4.1 The difference between motors and generators

Motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. Generators convert mechanical energy
into electrical energy.

4.2 Apply the defining equation for a motor and generator

For a motor:

𝑉 =𝐸+𝐼 𝑅

In this equation, V is the power supply voltage, E is the back emf, Ia is the current in the
armature and Ra is the resistance of the armature. The back emf is the emf induced by the
turning of the motor (as we’re moving a coil of wire in a magnetic field a voltage is induced). We
would prefer to get as much current in the armature (the actual coil) as possible as this means a
faster motor.

For a generator:

𝑉 =𝐸−𝐼 𝑅

We want here to maximise the back emf as this is the voltage we’re actually creating. Some of
the emf induced by the generator is lost to the resistance of the coil so we want this (armature
resistance) to be as small as possible.

4.3 Know the type of field winding and action of each of these motors/generators. Be able
to apply the defining equations for each one and suggest why each is suitable for different
applications:

Separately excited DC generator

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This is a generator where the magnetic field is produced by a separate power supply. The back
emf is all important here – this is the voltage produced in the rotating armature. The voltage
delivered to the load is the emf Eb after any voltage lost to the resistance of the armature.

Shunt-wound self excited DC generator

Here some of the current and voltage produced by the generator is used to produce the
magnetic field such that IA=ISH+IL.

Series-wound self excited DC generator

In the series wound self-excited generator, the field coil is wired in series with the armature:

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Series-wound DC motor

This type of motor has the field coil wired in series with the armature. The supplied voltage
must be equal to the voltage in the armature added to the back emf generated as the motor
rotates. The DC series wound motor has relatively poor speed regulation – the speed of the
motor will decrease as the load on it increases. This means a DC Series motor is best suited to
applications such as an industrial starter motor (it can produce a very high starting torque).

For a series wound motor back emf E is proportional to the flux density and the speed of the
motor.

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Shunt-wound DC motor

Shunt wound motors produce a reasonably constant speed regardless of load but cannot
produce a high starting torque. This makes them particularly suitable for lots of industrial
processes such as lathes.

4.4 DC motor starters including a no-volt trip coil and an overload current trip coil

Starters are elements of a DC motor circuit that limit high currents flowing as the motor starts.

The size of the back emf produced depends on the speed of the motor so when it first starts the
back emf is zero meaning the effective emf across the armature is very high. This means the
armature receives the full voltage of the supply, and as the resistance of the armature is so low
(remember the armature is the coil of wire that rotates) the current drawn will be so high as to
damage or even burn out the armature. To prevent this from happening, an external resistance
is applied to the motor when it first starts and is then removed once the motor is running. A
diagram of a DC motor starter is shown below:

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Thankfully, this is not a diagram we need to remember or reproduce! The No volt coil is a
solenoid which makes sure that the handle springs back to the off position when the motor has
started so that the motor cannot be turned off and restarted without the external resistance of
the starter being applied.

If the current becomes too large , the over load release will cause current to the armature to be
cut off.

4.5 How can the speed of a DC shunt motor and a series DC motor be changed?

For a series wound motor,

𝐸 ∝ 𝜑𝑛

Where E is the emf, Φ is the magnetic flux (strength of magnetic field) and n is the speed of the
motor. This means to control the speed of the motor, you can either adjust the supply voltage,
the armature resistance (thus controlling current through the armature and the back emf) and
magnetic flux.

For a shunt wound motor the speed control is a little more complicated. In the formula booklet
you are given the following equations for shunt wound motors:

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The full load conditions equations show that the ratio of the speeds (given the symbol n in the
equations) at no load and at full load conditions is the same as the ration of the back emfs. The
ratio of the torque provided by the motor with no load on it and with full load on it is the same
as the ratio of the magnetic flux provided (the strength of the magnetic field) multiplied by the
current through the coil (armature).

The speed then is given by the equation:

(𝑉 − 𝐼 𝑅 )
𝑛=
(𝑘𝜑)

The top line of this equation is the back emf in the motor (V is the supply voltage, Ia and Ra are
the current and resistance of the armature) and Φ is the magnetic flux. K is a constant and n is
the speed of the motor in rpm.

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5. Understand Power Supplies and power system properties

5.1 Explain the meaning of an alternating current supply and a direct current supply

Alternating current is where the current is constantly changing direction. DC is where the
current flows around a circuit in one direction only.

5.2 The distribution of electrical energy using:

In these diagrams the resistors represent the power supplies.

Single phase 2 wire system

Single phase 3 wire system

This system is splitting a 240V supply into 120V supplies which are both in phase.

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By using power systems consisting of current at different phases we can get more energy down
the same power lines. This makes everything cheaper since less wiring is needed.

The “phase” of a voltage or current waveform tells us the stage of the wave cycle the waveform
is at. For 3 phase power systems we use 3 power sources that are each 120° out of phase:

Three phase 3 wire Delta connected system

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Three phase 4 wire Star connected system

Line Voltage is the voltage between two phases (for example VYB) and phase voltage is the
voltage between a phase and the neutral.

Line voltage (Vline) and phase voltage (Vphase) are related by:

𝑉 = √3𝑉

As the phase voltages are 230V or 240V, the line voltage is 400 or 415V. Currents in the line and
phase connections are equal.

For delta-connected systems there are only line voltages as there is no neutral connection
available.

The three phases are coloured brown, black and grey.

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5.3 How can alternating current be rectified to a half wave direct current using a single
diode

No current will flow into the electronic circuit if power supply polarity is reversed. Current will
only flow through the diode and into the electronic circuit when the diode is forward biassed.

5.4 How full wave rectification can be obtained by using two diodes

When the anode of D1 (A) is sufficiently more positive (0.6V) than the centre tap of the
transformer (B) a current flows through the load resistor R. When the anode of D2 (C) is
sufficiently more positive (0.6V) than the centre tap of the transformer (B) a current flows
through the load resistor R. The current flowing through the load is the same direction for both
half cycles. The half wave signal looks like this:

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5.4 How full wave rectification can be obtained by using four diodes in a bridge
configuration.

The four diode bridge circuit produces a full wave rectified signal – there are no “gaps” in the
output signal. The full wave signal looks like this:

5.5 The capability of load regulation to maintain a constant voltage or current level on
the output of a power supply regardless of changes in the supply load.

A very basic power supply will have an output voltage that varies with the load it is powering.
This means that the voltage provided is not stable and can make using the power supply difficult
in situations where a constant voltage is required. To combat this, power supplies contain a
voltage regulator – an integrated circuit (chip) that smooths out any fluctuating voltages and
provides a constant output even if the load is changing.

5.6 Draw a labelled block diagram of a stabilised power supply showing AC input,
transformer, rectifier, smoothing circuit, stabilising circuit and DC output.

AC Input Transformer Rectifier Smoothing Stabilising DC Ouptut

Circuit Circuit

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The smoothing circuit contains a capacitor to “smooth out” the bumps in the rectified signal. The
stabilising circuit includes a voltage regulator to further even out the bumps and provide a
constant voltage output.

5.7 Power system protection

Current limiting resistors

This means simply placing a resistor in series with the components to reduce current flow,
protecting sensitive components from high, potentially damaging currents. This is typically used
with LEDS in circuits.

Diodes

Fuses

Circuit Breakers

Circuit breakers work by monitoring the current in the live and neutral wires. If there is a
difference in current between the live and neutral the supply is cut. Circuit breakers respond
much more quickly to fuses and do not require a sudden surge in current.

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6. Analogue Electronics

6.1 The definition of an analogue circuit

An analogue circuit is one that has voltages and currents that vary continuously with time.
Digital circuits use signals that either on (1) or off (0). Op-amps are analogue components and
can be used to perform analogue computing functions (adding, subtracting etc).

6.2 Explain the characteristics of an operational amplifier (op-amp)

DC-coupled voltage amplifier

DC coupling means both AC and DC signals can pass through the amplifer. (If it was AC-coupled)
only AC could pass through. The “voltage amplifier” part means the op-amp is attempting to
amplify voltage.

Very high open loop gain

If there is nothing “feeding back” to the inputs, the output voltage will be many times bigger
than the input as the gain of op-amps is extremely high.

Differential inputs

Op-Amps amplify the difference between the two inputs. This means the output voltage is:

𝑉 = 𝐴(𝑉 − 𝑉 )

Where A is the voltage gain

Single-ended output

The output is just one wire coming out of the Op-amp

High input impedance

We assume the inputs have an infinitely big impedance (resistance including reactance) so there
is no current entering the Op-Amp.

Low output impedance

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We also assume there is zero resistance in the output of the op-amp.

6.3 Explain the function and apply the defining equation for a non-inverting amplifier, an
inverting amplifier and a summing amplifier

Non-Inverting:

The voltage gain of the amplifier is determined by the ratio of the two feedback resistors. This
type of feedback is called negative feedback as it reduces the very high gain of the op-amp. The
non-inverting signal outputs the signal from VIN without inverting it but simply amplifying using
the following relationship:

𝑅
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 1 +
𝑅

The gain equations for op-amps are given in the question if you are asked to use them, they are
not in the formula booklet but you are not expected to remember them. You can tell this is a
non-inverting amplifer since the input is connected to the non-inverting input of the op-amp
(marked with a “+”)

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Inverting:

The equation shown in the inverting amplifer diagram shows that the gain is equal to the ratio
of the feedback resistor to the input resistor. The input is connected to the inverting input of the
op-amp so the ouput is inverted (this is also why the gain is negative).

Summing:

The summing amplifer sums the inputs with a gain affected by the values of the resistances. You
need to learn the equation for this:

This equation must be remembered – it will not be given in the question or in the formula
booklet. (The non-inverting and inverting amplifer gain equations are given).

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7. Understand digital electronics

7.1 A digital electronic circuit is one that accepts and processes binary data (on/off)
according to the rules of Boolean logic (AND, OR, NOT, etc.)

AND

The output is only “on” when both inputs are “on”.

A B Output
0 0 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 1

NAND

The NAND gate works like an AND gate immediately followed by a NOT gate. It gives an output
of “off” only when both inputs are “on”.

A B Output
0 0 1
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 0

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OR

The output is “on” when both or either of the inputs are “on”

A B Output
0 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 1

NOR

The NOR gate acts like an OR gate followed by a NOT gate. It gives an output “on” when both
inputs are “off”.

A B Output
0 0 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 0

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NOT

The NOT gate is an inverter. An input of “on” gives an output of “off”

A Output
1 0
0 1

XOR

This is an exclusive-or gate. It will give an output of “on” if either but not both input are “on”. If
both inputs are “on” or “off” the output will be “off”

A B Output
0 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 0

©2019 Ian Hardiman/Lab Awesome

7.3 Solve simple combinational logic problems and recognise simple Boolean expressions

Logic Gate Boolean Expression

AND Q=A.B

OR Q=A+B

NOT Q=Ᾱ

NAND 𝑄 = 𝐴. 𝐵

NOR 𝑄 =𝐴+𝐵

XOR Q=A + B = Ᾱ+B.A+B

7.4 Explain the function of a D-type bistable flip flop and a T type bistable flip flop

Set
Data Output (normal)
Output (complement)
Clock Reset

Flip flops are integrated circuits that contain a combination of logic gates (we don’t need to
worry about these are). The D type flip flop copies the value (1 or 0) that is input to the data
connection to the normal output when the clock signal is going from 0 to 1 (a rising edge). The
clock signal is a regular repeating on-off pulse. The other output (complement) takes the value
of the inverse of the normal output. The output value is only changed when the clock pulse is at
a rising edge.

The set overrides whatever the clock or data inputs are doing and turns the output to “on” (it
“sets” the output) and the reset overrides this, turning the output to “off”.

©2019 Ian Hardiman/Lab Awesome

For the D-type flip flop you may be asked to draw what is called a “timing diagram” this is
essentially a graph showing the values (1 or 0) of the inputs (Data, Clock, Set and Reset) and the
outputs (the Q’s). The timing diagram shows how these change with time. For example:

The T-type flip flop is much simpler:

The “T” stands for “toggle” – when the input at “T” is on (i.e. is “1”), the output at Q switches (or
“toggles”) for every incoming clock pulse. If the T input is off, the output won’t change and will
remain at the last value it had. The truth table for the T type flip flop is below:

©2019 Ian Hardiman/Lab Awesome

©2019 Ian Hardiman/Lab Awesome