Basic Groundwater Hydrology

Basic Ground-Water Hydrology
By RALPH C . HEATH
Prepared in cooperation with the

North Carolina Department of
Natural Resources and Community
Development
U .S. Department of the Interior
Gale A. Norton, Secretary
U .S. Geological Survey

Charles G . Groat, Director
U .S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 1983

First printing 1983
Second printing 1984
Third printing 1984
Fourth printing 1987
Fifth printing 1989
Sixth printing 1991
Seventh printing 1993
Eighth printing 1995
Ninth printing 1998
Tenth printing 2004, revised
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Suggested citation :
Heath, Ralph C., 1983, Basic ground-water hydrology: U .S . Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2220, 86 p.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publications Data

Heath, Ralph C .
Basic ground-water hydrology
(Geological Survey water-supply paper ; 2220
Bibliography : p. 81
1 . Hydrology. I. North Carolina Dept . of Natural Resources and
Community Development. II .Title . III. Series .
G131003 .2 .H4 1982 551 .49 82-6000384
ISBN 0-607-68973-0
CONTENTS
Page
Ground-water hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Rocks and water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Underground water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Hydrologic cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Aquifers and confining beds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Specific yield and specific retention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Heads and gradients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Hydraulic conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Functions of ground-water systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Capillarity and unsaturated flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Stratification and unsaturated flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . 18
Saturated flow and dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 19
Ground-water movement and topography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 20
Ground-water flow nets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .... ... . . ...... . . . . 21
Ground-water movement and stratification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ... . .. . . . . 24
Ground-water velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ... . .. . . . . 25
Transmissivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. .. .. .. . . . .. .... . . . . 26
Storage coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ... ... . .. . .. .... ... . . . 28
Cone of depression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Source of water derived from wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . .... . . .. . .. .. . . . . . . . . 32
Aquifertests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... .... . ... . .. .. . . . . . . . . 34
Analysis of aquifer-test data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Time-drawdown analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Distance-drawdown analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . .. .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Single-well tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Well interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Aquifer boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Tests affected by lateral boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Tests affected by leaky confining beds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Well-construction methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Well logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Water-well design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Well-acceptance tests and well efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Specific capacity and transmissivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Well-field design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Quality of ground water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Pollution of ground water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Saltwater encroachment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Temperature of ground water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Measurements of water levels and pumping rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Protection of supply wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Supply-well problems-Decline in yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Supply-well problems-Changes in water quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ... . . . . . 78
Well records and files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ... . . . . . 80
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . ..... . .. . ... . .. . . . 81
Numbers, equations, and conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... .. . . . ....... . . . . . 83
Definitions of terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . .. . . . ....... . . . . . 85
Relation of units of hydraulic conductivity, transmissivity, recharge rates, and flow rates . . . ...... . .. . . . 86
Contents iii
PREFACE
Ground water is one of the Nation's most valuable natural resources . It is the source of
about 40 percent of the water used for all purposes exclusive of hydropower generation and
electric powerplant cooling.
Surprisingly, for a resource that is so widely used and so important to the health and to the
economy of the country, the occurrence of ground water is not only poorly understood but is
also, in fact, the subject of many widespread misconceptions . Common misconceptions in-
clude the belief that ground water occurs in underground rivers resembling surface streams
whose presence can be detected by certain individuals . These misconceptions and others
have hampered the development and conservation of ground water and have adversely af-
fected the protection of its quality .
In order for the Nation to receive maximum benefit from its ground-water resource, it is
essential that everyone, from the rural homeowner to managers of industrial and municipal
water supplies to heads of Federal and State water-regulatory agencies, become more
knowledgeable about the occurrence, development, and protection of ground water . This
report has been prepared to help meet the needs of these groups, as well as the needs of
hydrologists, well drillers, and others engaged in the study and development of ground-water
supplies . It consists of 45 sections on the basic elements of ground-water hydrology, arranged
in order from the most basic aspects of the subject through a discussion of the methods used
to determine the yield of aquifers to a discussion of common problems encountered in the
operation of ground-water supplies .
Each section consists of a brief text and one or more drawings or maps that illustrate the
main points covered in the text. Because the text is, in effect, an expanded discussion of the il-
lustrations, most of the illustrations are not captioned. However, where more than one draw-
ing is included in a section, each drawing is assigned a number, given in parentheses, and
these numbers are inserted at places in the text where the reader should refer to the drawing .
In accordance with U.S. Geological Survey policy to encourage the use of metric units,
these units are used in most sections. In the sections dealing with the analysis of aquifer
(pumping) test data, equations are given in both consistent units and in the inconsistent inch-
pound units still in relatively common use among ground-water hydrologists and well drillers.
As an aid to those who are not familiar with metric units and with the conversion of ground-
water hydraulic units from inch-pound units to metric units, conversion tables are given on
the inside back cover .
Definitions of ground-water terms are given where the terms are first introduced . Because
some of these terms will be new to many readers, abbreviated definitions are also given on
the inside front cover for convenient reference by those who wish to review the definitions
from time to time as they read the text . Finally, for those who need to review some of the sim-
pje mathematical operations that are used in ground-water hydrology, a section on numbers,
equations, and conversions is included at the end of the text.
Ralph C. Heath
`MIt\VV1 \v - rrn III L1% 1 1 1 LA I%%--
The science of hydrology would be relatively simple if water were

unable to penetrate below the earth's surface.
Harold E . Thomas
Ground-water hydrology is the subdivision of the science of the deeper subsurface openings, contains relatively large con-
hydrology that deals with the occurrence, movement, and centrations of dissolved minerals and is not readily usable for
quality of water beneath the Earth's surface . It is interdiscipli- essential human needs . We will, therefore, concentrate in this
nary in scope in that it involves the application of the discussion only on freshwater . The accompanying table con-
physical, biological, and mathematical sciences . It is also a tains L'vovich's estimates of the freshwater in the hydro-
science whose successful application is of critical importance sphere . Not surprisingly, the largest volume of freshwater
to the welfare of mankind . Because ground-water hydrology occurs as ice in glaciers . On the other hand, many people im-
deals with the occurrence and movement of water in an pressed by the "solid" Earth are surprised to learn that about
almost infinitely complex subsurface environment, it is, in its 14 percent of all freshwater is ground water and that, if only
most advanced state, one of the most complex of the water is considered, 94 percent is ground water.
sciences . On the other hand, many of its basic principles and Ground-water hydrology, as noted earlier, deals not only
methods can be understood readily by nonhydrologists and with the occurrence of underground water but also with its
used by them in the solution of ground-water problems . The movement . Contrary to our impressions of rapid movement as
purpose of this report is to present these basic aspects of we observe the flow of streams in caves, the movement of
ground-water hydrology in a form that will encourage more most ground water is exceedingly slow . The truth of this obser-
widespread understanding and use . vation becomes readily apparent from the table, which shows,
The ground-water environment is hidden from view except in the last column, the rate of water exchange or the time re-
in caves and mines, and the impression that we gain even from quired to replace the water now contained in the listed parts
these are, to a large extent, misleading . From our observations of the hydrosphere . It is especially important to note that the
on the land surface, we form an impression of a "solid" Earth . rate of exchange of 280 years for fresh ground water is about
This impression is not altered very much when we enter a 119,000 the rate of exchange of water in rivers .
limestone cave and see water flowing in a channel that nature Subsurface openings large enough to yield water in a usable
has cut into what appears to be solid rock . In fact, from our quantity to wells and springs underlie nearly every place on
observations, both on the land surface and in caves, we are the land surface and thus make ground water one of the most
likely to conclude that ground water occurs only in under- widely available natural resources . When this fact and the
ground rivers and "veins ." We do not see the myriad openings fact that ground water also represents the largest reservoir of
that exist between the grains of sand and silt, between par- freshwater readily available to man are considered together, it
ticles of clay, or even along the fractures in granite . Conse- is obvious that the value of ground water, in terms of both
quently, we do not sense the presence of the openings that, in economics and human welfare, is incalculable . Consequently,
total volume, far exceed the volume of all caves . its sound development, diligent conservation, and consistent
R . L . Nace of the U .S. Geological Survey has estimated that protection from pollution are important concerns of every-
the total volume of subsurface openings (which are occupied one . These concerns can be translated into effective action
mainly by water, gas, and petroleum) is on the order of only by increasing our knowledge of the basic aspects of
521,000 km 3 (125,000 mi 3 ) beneath the United States alone . If ground-water hydrology .
we visualize these openings as forming a continuous cave
beneath the entire surface of the United States, its height
would be about 57 m (186 ft) . The openings, of course, are not
equally distributed, the result being that our imaginary cave
would range in height from about 3 m (10 ft) beneath the Pied-
mont Plateau along the eastern seaboard to about 2,500 m FRESHWATER OF THE HYDROSPHERE AND ITS RATE OF
(8,200 ft) beneath the Mississippi Delta . The important point to EXCHANGE
[Modified from L'vovich (1979), tables 2 and 10]
be gained from this discussion is that the total volume of
openings beneath the surface of the United States, and other Share in total
land areas of the world, is very large . volume of Rate of water
Parts of the Volume of freshwater freshwater
Most subsurface openings contain water, and the impor- exchange
hydrosphere km' mil (percent) (yr)
tance of this water to mankind can be readily demonstrated
by comparing its volume with the volumes of water in other Ice sheets and
parts of the hydrosphere .) Estimates of the volumes of water glaciers ------ 24,000,000 5,800,000 84 .945 8,000
Ground water -- 4,000,000 960,000 14 .158 280
in the hydrosphere have been made by the Russian hydrolo-
Lakes and
gist M . I . L'vovich and are given in a book recently translated reservoirs ---- 155,000 37,000 .549 7
into English . Most water, including that in the oceans and in Soil moisture --- 83,000 20,000 .294 1
Vapors in the
atmosphere -- 14,000 3,400 .049 .027
'The hydrosphere is the term used to refer to the waters of the Earth and, in its River water ---- 1,200 300 .004 .031
broadest usage, includes all water, water vapor, and ice regardless of whether Total ------ 28,253,200 6,820,700 100.000
they occur beneath, on, or above the Earth's surface .
Ground-Water Hydrology 1
ROCKS AND W A ILK
PRIMARY OPENINGS
n
WELL-SORTED SAND POORLY- SORTED SAND
POROUS MATERIAL
SECONDARY OPENINGS
FRACTURED ROCK FRACTURES IN CAVERNS IN

GRANITE LIMESTONE
Most of the rocks near the Earth's surface are composed of in order of increasing grain size, clay, silt, sand, and gravel. An
both solids and voids, as sketch 1 shows . The solid part is, of important group of unconsolidated deposits also includes
course, much more obvious than the voids, but, without the fragments of shells of marine organisms .
voids, there would be no water to supply wells and springs . Consolidated rocks consist of mineral particles of different
sizes and shapes that have been welded by heat and pressure
Water-bearing rocks consist either of unconsolidated (soil- or by chemical reactions into a solid mass. Such rocks are
like) deposits or consolidated rocks. The Earth's surface in commonly referred to in ground-water reports as bedrock .
most places is formed by soil and by unconsolidated deposits They include sedimentary rocks that were originally unconsol-
that range in thickness from a few centimeters near outcrops idated and igneous rocks formed from a molten state . Consoli-
of consolidated rocks to more than 12,000 m beneath the dated sedimentary rocks important in ground-water hydrology
delta of the Mississippi River. The unconsolidated deposits are include limestone, dolomite, shale, siltstone, sandstone, and
underlain everywhere by consolidated rocks. conglomerate . Igneous rocks include granite and basalt .
Most unconsolidated deposits consist of material derived There are different kinds of voids in rocks, and it is some-
from the disintegration of consolidated rocks. The material times useful to be aware of them . If the voids were formed at
consists, in different types of unconsolidated deposits, of par- the same time as the rock, they are referred to as primary
ticles of rocks or minerals ranging in size from fractions of a openings (2) . The pores in sand and gravel and in other uncon-
millimeter (clay size) to several meters (boulders) . Unconsol- solidated deposits are primary openings . The lava tubes and
idated deposits important in ground-water hydrology include, other openings in basalt are also primary openings.
2 Basic Ground-Water Hydrology

If the voids were formed after the rock was formed, they consolidated rocks on the other. It is important to note, how-
are referred to as secondary openings (2) . The fractures in ever, that many sedimentary rocks that serve as sources of
granite and in consolidated sedimentary rocks are secondary ground water fall between these extremes in a group of semi-
openings . Voids in limestone, which are formed as ground consolidated rocks . These are rocks in which openings include
water slowly dissolves the rock, are an especially important both pores and fractures-in other words, both primary and
type of secondary opening . secondary openings . Many limestones and sandstones that are
It is useful to introduce the topic of rocks and water by important sources of ground water are semiconsolidated.
dealing with unconsolidated deposits on one hand and with
Rocks and Water 3

UNUtKUKUUNU WAI tK
All water beneath the land surface is referred to as under- decayed roots of earlier vegetation, and by animal and worm
ground water (or subsurface water) . The equivalent term for burrows . The porosity and permeability of this zone tend to be
water on the land surface is surface water . Underground water higher than those of the underlying material . The soil zone is
occurs in two different zones . One zone, which occurs im- underlain by the intermediate zone, which differs in thickness
mediately below the land surface in most areas, contains both from place to place depending on the thickness of the soil
water and air and is referred to as the unsaturated zone. The zone and the depth to the capillary fringe.
unsaturated zone is almost invariably underlain by a zone in The lowest part of the unsaturated zone is occupied by the
which all interconnected openings are full of water . This zone capillary fringe, the subzone between the unsaturated and
is referred to as the saturated zone. saturated zones . The capillary fringe results from the attrac-
Water in the saturated zone is the only underground water tion between water and rocks. As a result of this attraction,
that is available to supply wells and springs and is the only water clings as a film on the surface of rock particles and rises
water to which the name ground water is correctly applied . in small-diameter pores against the pull of gravity. Water in
Recharge of the saturated zone occurs by percolation of the capillary fringe and in the overlying part of the unsatu-
water from the land surface through the unsaturated zone. rated zone is under a negative hydraulic pressure-that is, it is
The unsaturated zone is, therefore, of great importance to under a pressure less than the atmospheric (barometric)
ground-water hydrology. This zone may be divided usefully pressure. The water table is the level in the saturated zone at
into three parts: the soil zone, the intermediate zone, and the which the hydraulic pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure
upper part of the capillary fringe . and is represented by the water level in unused wells . Below
The soil zone extends from the land surface to a maximum the water table, the hydraulic pressure increases with increas-
depth of a meter or two and is the zone that supports plant ing depth .
growth . It is crisscrossed by living roots, by voids left by
Surface Well
water
Of
w
Q
0
z
0 < ( CAPILLARY FRINGE ~M(((

w Water table
0
z
GROUND WATER

rlTurcvLvv1k . IL,YtAt
Clouds forming
t
Precipitation Evaporation
Ocean
The term hydrologic cycle refers to the constant movement downward and laterally to sites of ground-water discharge
of water above, on, and below the Earth's surface . The con- such as springs on hillsides or seeps in the bottoms of streams
cept of the hydrologic cycle is central to an understanding of and lakes or beneath the ocean .
the occurrence of water and the development and manage- Water reaching streams, both by overland flow and from
ment of water supplies . ground-water discharge, moves to the sea, where it is again
Although the hydrologic cycle has neither a beginning nor evaporated to perpetuate the cycle.
an end, it is convenient to discuss its principal features by Movement is, of course, the key element in the concept of
starting with evaporation from vegetation, from exposed the hydrologic cycle. Some "typical" rates of movement are
moist surfaces including the land surface, and from the ocean . shown in the following table, along with the distribution of the
This moisture forms clouds, which return the water to the land Earth's water supply .
surface or oceans in the form of precipitation . RATE OF MOVEMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF WATER
Precipitation occurs in several forms, including rain, snow, (Adapted from L'vovich (1979), table 11
and hail, but only rain is considered in this discussion . The first
Distribution of
rain wets vegetation and other surfaces and then begins to in- Rate of Earth's water
filtrate into the ground . Infiltration rates vary widely, depend- Location movement supply (percent)
ing on land use, the character and moisture content of the
soil, and the intensity and duration of precipitation, from Atmosphere --- 100's of kilometers per day 0.001
possibly as much as 25 mm/hr in mature forests on sandy soils Water on land
to a few millimeters per hour in clayey and silty soils to zero in surface ------ 10's of kilometers per day .019
paved areas . When and if the rate of precipitation exceeds the Water below the
land surface -- Meters per year 4.12
rate of infiltration, overland flow occurs. Ice caps and
The first infiltration replaces soil moisture, and, thereafter, glaciers ------ Meters per day 1 .65
the excess percolates slowly across the intermediate zone to Oceans ------- -- 93 .96
the zone of saturation . Water in the zone of saturation moves
Hydrologic Cycle 5
RquirtKno HNu k.UNrININU 15tu :5
Water-table Artesian
well well
Land surface
w v
Z
O
N
W
F--
Q
From the standpoint of ground-water occurrence, all rocks Where water completely fills an aquifer that is overlain by a
that underlie the Earth's surface can be classified either as confining bed, the water in the aquifer is said to be confined.
aquifers or as confining beds. An aquifer is a rock unit that will Such aquifers are referred to as confined aquifers or as artesian
yield water in a usable quantity to a well or spring . (In aquifers.
geologic usage, "rock" includes unconsolidated sediments .) A Wells open to unconfined aquifers are referred to as water-
confining bed is a rock unit having very low hydraulic conduc- table wells . The water level in these wells indicates the posi-
tivity that restricts the movement of ground water either into tion of the water table in the surrounding aquifer .
or out of adjacent aquifers. Wells drilled into confined aquifers are referred to as arte-
Ground water occurs in aquifers under two different condi- sian wells . The water level in artesian wells stands at some
tions. Where water only partly fills an aquifer, the upper sur- height above the top of the aquifer but not necessarily above
face of the saturated zone is free to rise and decline . The the land surface . If the water level in an artesian well stands
water in such aquifers is said to be unconfined, and the aqui- above the land surface, the well is a flowing artesian well. The
fers are referred to as unconfined aquifers. Unconfined water level in tightly cased wells open to a confined aquifer
aquifers are also widely referred to as water-table aquifers. stands at the level of the potentiometric surface of the aquifer.

rvKV3i I I
The ratio of openings (voids) to the total volume of a soil or SELECTED VALUES OF POROSITY
rock is referred to as its porosity . Porosity is expressed either [Values in percent by volume]
as a decimal fraction or as a percentage . Thus,
Material Primary openings Secondary openings
Vt-Vs Vv Equal-size spheres (marbles) :

n=
Loosest packing --------------
Vt V t 48
Tightest packing ------------- 26
Soil -------------------------
where n is porosity as a decimal fraction, Vt is the total 55
Clay ------------------------
volume of a soil or rock sample, VS is the volume of solids in 50
Sand ------------------------ 25
the sample, and V,, is the volume of openings (voids) . Gravel----------------------- 20
If we multiply the porosity determined with the equation by Limestone -------------------- 10 10
100, the result is porosity expressed as a percentage . Sandstone (semiconsolidated) ---- 10 1
Soils are among the most porous of natural materials Granite ----------------------- .l
because soil particles tend to form loose clumps and because Basalt (young) ----------------- 10 1
of the presence of root holes and animal burrows. Porosity of
unconsolidated deposits depends on the range in grain size
(sorting) and on the shape of the rock particles but not on their
size . Fine-grained materials tend to be better sorted and, thus,
tend to have the largest porosities .
Vv = 0. 3
0000-0000d 0 -0"'.
o T
0 0 b-O~SO 00
Irn
s
0
o Saturated a .o,'w'1
o oy
100
0
00
0000000 0 00
000000000
00
000 0 0
sand
00 o
° o. D
0 o
o/a . o a, I
° '0
000 °° 0000 0 0 0-5-0 a3 -0
Vt
0 O ry o 0
0 -0_
0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 b 0
0111.1
Im
= 1 .0 m3 0 0o 0 ooo 0 0 D 0 O 0 v o
0 0 sand 00
0000000000
000000000
0000000000
O o o ov o o o
Volume of voids ( Vim ) 0 .3 m3

Porosity (n) = _ = 0 30
Total volume Wt ) 1 .0 m3
Porosity 7
~ortt.irit-, T ItLU HNv Kt i LIN 11VIr
Porosity is important in ground-water hydrology because it part that will drain under the influence of gravity (called spe-
tells us the maximum amount of water that a rock can contain cific yield) (1) and the part that is retained as a film on rock
when it is saturated . However, it is equally important to know surfaces and in very small openings (called specific retention)
that only a part of this water is available to supply a well or a (2) . The physical forces that control specific retention are the
spri ng. same forces involved in the thickness and moisture content of
Hydrologists divide water in storage in the ground into the the capillary, fringe .
0000000000
000000000
0 0 00 0 0 0 0
3
0 o moist 0 0
S' =0 .1 m 0 00 sand e o °o
00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 a
0 o0 00 0 0 o o
0 00 0 0 0 o c .
Sy = 0 .2 m
0 0 .2 m 3 .1 m 3
n = Syt S,- = +__ 0 .30
I m3 I m3
Water retained as
a film on rock
surfaces and in
Water
capillary-size
openings after
gravity drainage .
GRANULAR MATERIAL
FRACTURED ROCK
(2)

Specific yield tells how much water is available for man's SELECTED VALUES OF POROSITY, SPECIFIC YIELD,
use, and specific retention tells how much water remains in AND SPECIFIC RETENTION
the rock after it is drained by gravity. Thus, [Values in percent by volume]
Material Porosity Specific yield Specific retention

n =Sy +Sr
Soil ----------------------- 55 40 15
Clay ----------------------- 50 2 48
Vt Vt Sand ---------------------- 25 22 3
Gravel --------------------- 20 19 1
Limestone ------------------ 20 18 2
where n is porosity, Sy is specific yield, Sr is specific retention,
Sandstone (semiconsolidated) 11 6 5
Vd is the volume of water than drains from a total volume of Granite -------------------- .1 .09
Vt, Vr is the volume of water retained in a total volume of Vt, Basalt (young) --------------- 11 8 3
and Vt is total volume of a soil or rock sample .
Specific Yield and Specific Retention 9

f7 C /A V J /1 I N V V Rf1 V 1 C I ~I 1 .3
Measuring point ( top of casing)
Well I (Alt IOOm) (Alt 98 m ) well 2

Distance, L 780 m . Land surface
rDepth
to E
water
Water table,
- - Head loss ( h, )
0 0
a a>
L
Ground-
L UNCONFINED AQUIFER
7
fn
v
L N water
v Well
0 screen movement
o F~-
a)
0 Bottom of aquifer
111117 7TT7 t
(National Geodetic
w
ZI ~ ~
Datum plane Vertical Datum of 1929)
The depth to the water table has an important effect on use The equation for total head (h t) is
of the land surface and on the development of water supplies
from unconfined aquifers (1) . Where the water table is at a h t =z+h p
shallow depth, the land may become "waterlogged" during
wet weather and unsuitable for residential and many other where z is elevation head and is the distance from the datum
uses. Where the water table is at great depth, the cost of con- plane to the point where the pressure head h p is determined .
structing wells and pumping water for domestic needs may be All other factors being constant, the rate of ground-water
prohibitively expensive . movement depends on the hydraulic gradient . The hydraulic
The direction of the slope of the water table is also im- gradient is the change in head per unit of distance in a given
portant because it indicates the direction of ground-water direction . If the direction is not specified, it is understood to
movement (1) . The position and the slope of the water table be in the direction in which the maximum rate of decrease in
(or of the potentiometric surface of a confined aquifer) is head occurs.
determined by measuring the position of the water level in If the movement of ground water is assumed to be in the
wells from a fixed point (a measuring point) (1) . (See "Measure- plane of sketch 1-in other words, if it moves from well 1 to
ments of Water levels and Pumping Rates .") To utilize these well 2-the hydraulic gradient can be calculated from the in-
measurements to determine the slope of the water table, the formation given on the drawing . The hydraulic gradient is h L IL,
position of the water table at each well must be determined where h L is the head loss between wells 1 and 2 and L is the
relative to a datum plane that is common to all the wells . horizontal distance between them, or
The datum plane most widely used is the National Geodetic
Vertical Datum of 1929 (also commonly referred to as "sea
(100m-15m)-(98m-18m) hL 85 m-80 m 5 m
level") (1) .
If the depth to water in a nonflowing well is subtracted L 780 m 780 m 780 m
from the altitude of the measuring point, the result is the total
head at the well . Total head, as defined in fluid mechanics, is
composed of elevation head, pressure head, and velocity head . When the hydraulic gradient is expressed in consistent units,
Because ground water moves relatively slowly, velocity head as it is in the above example in which both the numerator and
can be ignored . Therefore, the total head at an observation the denominator are in meters, any other consistent units of
well involves only two components : elevation head and pres- length can be substituted without changing the value of the
sure head (1) . Ground water moves in the direction of decreas- gradient . Thus, a gradient of 5 ft/780 ft is the same as a gra-
ing total head, which may or may not be in the direction of dient of 5 m/780 m . It is also relatively common to express
decreasing pressure head . hydraulic gradients in inconsistent units such as meters per

(b) (26 .26 -26 .20 ) ( 26 .26-26.07 )
x 215 26 .26 m
x=68m 0
me at k
`a ~ Se9 ca ~to ~c
(a) Well 2
w.L .=26 .20 m
(e) 26 .2-26 .07

133
_h, = 0 .13 m
L 133 m
kilometer or feet per mile. A gradient of 5 m/780 m can be a. Identify the well that has the intermediate water level (that
converted to meters per kilometer as follows : is, neither the highest head nor the lowest head) .
b. Calculate the position between the well having the highest
1,000 m head and the well having the lowest head at which the
X 1-6.4 m km- '
780 m1 head is the same as that in the intermediate well .
c. Draw a straight line between the intermediate well and the
point identified in step b as being between the well
Both the direction of ground-water movement and the having the highest head and that having the lowest
hydraulic gradient can be determined if the following data are head . This line represents a segment of the water-level
available for three wells located in any triangular arrange- contour along which the total head is the same as that
ment such as that shown on sketch 2: in the intermediate well.
d. Draw a line perpendicular to the water-level contour and
1 . The relative geographic position of the wells. through either the well with the highest head or the
2. The distance between the wells. well with the lowest head. This line parallels the direc-
3. The total head at each well . tion ofground-water movement.
e. Divide the difference between the head of the well and
Steps in the solution are outlined below and illustrated in that of the contour by the distance between the well
sketch 3: and the contour. The answer is the hydraulic gradient.
Heads and Gradients 11

VaO/1V a-It. \.. V1 19vv % . M 0 V M n a
Streamlines
representing
laminar flow
Unit prism of aquifer
Aquifers transmit water from recharge areas to discharge If we rearrange equation 1 to solve for K, we obtain
areas and thus function as porous conduits (or pipelines filled
with sand or other water-bearing material) . The factors con- (m3 d - ')(m) -
m Qdl (2)
trolling ground-water movement were first expressed in the K= -
form of an equation by Henry Darcy, a French engineer, in Adh (m') (M) d

1856 . Darcy's law is
Thus, the units of hydraulic conductivity are those of veloc-

~dh~
Q-
ity (or distance divided by time) . It is important to note from
dl
where Q is the quantity of water per unit of time ; K is the equation 2, however, that the factors involved in the defini-
hydraulic conductivity and depends on the size and arrange- tion of hydraulic conductivity include the volume of water (Q
ment of the water-transmitting openings (pores and fractures) that will move in a unit of time (commonly, a day) under a unit
hydraulic gradient (such as a meter per meter) through a unit
and on the dynamic characteristics of the fluid (water) such as
kinematic viscosity, density, and the strength of the gravita- area (such as a square meter) . These factors are illustrated in
tional field ; A is the cross-sectional area, at a right angle to the sketch 1 . Expressing hydraulic conductivity in terms of a unit
flow direction, through which the flow occurs; and dhldl is the gradient, rather than of an actual gradient at some place in an
hydraulic gradient .' aquifer, permits ready comparison of values of hydraulic con-
Because the quantity of water (Q is directly proportional to ductivity for different rocks .
the hydraulic gradient (dhldl), we say that ground-water flow is Hydraulic conductivity replaces the term "field coefficient
of permeability" and should be used in referring to the water-
laminar-that is, water particles tend to follow discrete
transmitting characteristic of material in quantitative terms . It
streamlines and not to mix with particles in adjacent stream-
is still common practice to refer in qualitative terms to
lines (1) . (See "Ground-Water Flow Nets .")
"permeable" and "impermeable" material .
'Where hydraulic gradient is discussed as an independent entity, as it is in The hydraulic conductivity of rocks ranges through 12
"Heads and Gradients," it is shown symbolically as h L IL and is referred to as orders of magnitude (2) . There are few physical parameters
head loss per unit of distance. Where hydraulic gradient appears as one of the whose values range so widely . Hydraulic conductivity is not
factors in an equation, as it does in equation l, it is shown symbolically as dhldl only different in different types of rocks but may also be dif-
to be consistent with other ground-water literature . The gradient dhldl indicates
ferent from place to place in the same rock. If the hydraulic
that the unit distance is reduced to as small a value as one can imagine, in
accordance with the concepts of differential calculus . conductivity is essentially the same in any area, the aquifer in

Hydraulic Conductivity of Selected Rocks
IGNEOUS AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Unfractured Fractured
BASALT
Unfractured Fro ctured Lava f low
SANDSTONE
Fractured Semiconsolid ated
SHALE
Unfractured Fractured
CARBONATE ROCKS
Fractured Cavernous
CLAY SILT, LOESS
SILTY SAND
CLEAN SAND
Fine Coarse
GLACIAL TILL GRAVEL
I I I I I i
10 -e 10
10-7 10 -6 10 -5 10 - '4 10 -3 10 -2 10 - ~ 1 10 10 2 10 3 4
m d -1
10 -7 1
10 -6 10-5 10-4 10 -3 10 -2 10 -1 10 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5
ft d- '
-L i I I I I I
2 3
10 -7 10-6 10 -5 10 -4 10 -3 10-2 10 - ~ 1 10 10 10 10 4 10 5
gal d - ' ft-2
that area is said to be homogeneous . If, on the other hand, the Although it is convenient in many mathematical analyses of
hydraulic conductivity differs from one part of the area to ground-water flow to assume that aquifers are both homoge-
another, the aquifer is said to be heterogeneous . neous and isotropic, such aquifers are rare, if they exist at all .
Hydraulic conductivity may also be different in different The condition most commonly encountered is for hydraulic
directions at any place in an aquifer. If the hydraulic con- conductivity in most rocks and especially in unconsolidated
ductivity is essentially the same in all directions, the aquifer is deposits and in flat-lying consolidated sedimentary rocks to
said to be isotropic . If it is different in different directions, the be larger in the horizontal direction than it is in the vertical
aquifer is said to be anisotropic . direction .
Hydraulic Conductivity 13
" V1 \v " " V1 \mar V " ~r " ~vv~ mar f I . . -- V . V m -~
Centuries
Flow lines
The aquifers and confining beds that underlie any area try, from essentially zero in desert areas to about 600 mm yr - '
comprise the ground-water system of the area (1) . Hydraulic- (1,600 m 3 km -2 d - ' or 1 .1 x 106 gal mi -2 d - ') in the rural areas
ally, this system serves two functions : it stores water to the ex- on Long island and in other rural areas in the East that are
tent of its porosity, and it transmits water from recharge areas underlain by very permeable soils .
to discharge areas . Thus, a ground-water system serves as both The rate of movement of ground water from recharge areas
a reservoir and a conduit . With the exception of cavernous to discharge areas depends on the hydraulic conductivities of
limestones, lava flows, and coarse gravels, ground-water the aquifers and confining beds, if water moves downward
systems are more effective as reservoirs than as conduits . into other aquifers, and on the hydraulic gradients . (See
Water enters ground-water systems in recharge areas and "Ground-Water Velocity .") A convenient way of showing the
moves through them, as dictated by hydraulic gradients and rate is in terms of the time required for ground water to move
hydraulic conductivities, to discharge areas (1) . from different parts of a recharge area to the nearest dis-
The identification of recharge areas is becoming increas- charge area . The time ranges from a few days in the zone ad-
ingly important because of the expanding use of the land sur- jacent to the discharge area to thousands of years (millennia)
face for waste disposal . In the humid part of the country, for water that moves from the central part of some recharge
recharge occurs in all interstream areas-that is, in all areas areas through the deeper parts of the ground-water system (1) .
except along streams and their adjoining flood plains (1) . The Natural discharge from ground-water systems includes not
streams and flood plains are, under most conditions, dis- only the flow of springs and the seepage of water into stream
charge areas . channels or wetlands but also evaporation from the upper
In the drier part (western half) of the conterminous United part of the capillary fringe, where it occurs within a meter or
States, recharge conditions are more complex . Most recharge so of the land surface . Large amounts of water are also with-
occurs in the mountain ranges, on alluvial fans that border the drawn from the capillary fringe and the zone of saturation by
mountain ranges, and along the channels of major streams plants during the growing season . Thus, discharge areas in-
where they are underlain by thick and permeable alluvial clude not only the channels of perennial streams but also the
deposits . adjoining flood plains and other low-lying areas .
Recharge rates are generally expressed in terms of volume One of the most significant differences between recharge
(such as cubic meters or gallons) per unit of time (such as a areas and discharge areas is that the areal extent of discharge
day or a year) per unit of area (such as a square kilometer, a areas is invariably much smaller than that of recharge areas .
square mile, or an acre) . When these units are reduced to their This size difference shows, as we would expect, that discharge
simplest forms, the result is recharge expressed as a depth of areas are more "efficient" than recharge areas . Recharge in-
water on the land surface per unit of time . Recharge varies volves unsaturated movement of water in the vertical direc-
from year to year, depending on the amount of precipitation, tion ; in other words, movement is in the direction in which the
its seasonal distribution, air temperature, land use, and other hydraulic conductivity is generally the lowest . Discharge, on
factors . Relative to land use, recharge rates in forests are the other hand, involves saturated movement, much of it in
much higher than those in cities . the horizontal direction-that is, in the direction of the largest
Annual recharge rates range, in different parts of the coun- hydraulic conductivity .

Fluctuation of the Water Table in the Coastal Plain of North Carolina
0
W
U Recharge
a events Well Pi-533
W
(1978)
0
h
z
J
w a
J
W
J 3
O
J
C11 LiJ
W m
a
3
w
F-
w
n
z
2 I
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC
70
60 Washington, N C.
Precipitation at
w
J 50
J W
a 40
W
Z J
30
a
J
20 I ~
z
10
0
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE I JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC
1978
(2)
Another important aspect of recharge and discharge in- winter, and early spring, when plants are dormant and
volves timing. Recharge occurs during and immediately fol- evaporation rates are small. These aspects of recharge and
lowing periods of precipitation and thus is intermittent (2). discharge are apparent from graphs showing the fluctuation
Discharge, on the other hand, is a continuous process as long of the water level in observation wells, such as the one shown
as ground-water heads are above the level at which discharge in sketch 2. The occasional lack of correlation, especially in
occurs. However, between periods of recharge, ground-water the summer, between the precipitation and the rise in water
heads decline, and the rate of discharge also declines . Most level is due partly to the distance of 20 km between the
recharge of ground-water systems occurs during late fall, weather station and the well .
Functions of Ground-Water Systems 1s

p00
O000
0
Sand 000o
°
column , h,-z
0000
000
Oo00
0 000 Rate of rise of
00 h,
0- water up the sand
Wetting
'0o07, column
front 770-0 -09
o_-00 -0 -
00G)_0_
0 0- -0
OO~po
Water--_-=
Most recharge of ground-water systems occurs during the Steady-state unsaturated flow (Q is proportional to the ef-
percolation of water across the unsaturated zone . The move- fective hydraulic conductivity (K,), the cross-sectional area (A)
ment of water in the unsaturated zone is controlled by both through which the flow occurs, and gradients due to both
gravitational and capillary forces . capillary forces and gravitational forces. Thus,
Capillarity results from two forces: the mutual attraction
(cohesion) between water molecules and the molecular attrac- h ,z dh
tion (adhesion) between water and different solid materials . As Q KeA
( z I ±( dl
a consequence of these forces, water will rise in small-
diameter glass tubes to a height h, above the water level in a where Q is the quantity of water, Ke is the hydraulic conduc-
large container (1) . tivity under the degree of saturation existing in the unsatu-
Most pores in granular materials are of capillary size, and, rated zone, (h,-z)lz is the gradient due to capillary (surface
as a result, water is pulled upward into a capillary fringe tension) forces, and dhldl is the gradient due to gravity.
above the water table in the same manner that water would The plus or minus sign is related to the direction of
be pulled up into a column of sand whose lower end is im- movement-plus for downward and minus for upward . For
mersed in water (2) . movement in a vertical direction, either up or down, the gra-
dient due to gravity is 1/1, or 1 . For lateral (horizontal) move-
APPROXIMATE HEIGHT OF CAPILLARY RISE (h,) IN ment in the unsaturated zone, the term for the gravitational
GRANULAR MATERIALS gradient can be eliminated .
The capillary gradient at any time depends on the length of
Material Rise (mm) the water column (z) supported by capillarity in relation to the
maximum possible height of capillary rise (h,) (2) . For example,
Sand :
Coarse ------------------------------------------ if the lower end of a sand column is suddenly submerged in
125
Medium ----------------------------------------- 250 water, the capillary gradient is at a maximum, and the rate of
Fine -------------------------------------------- 400 rise of water is fastest . As the wetting front advances up the
Silt ----------------------------------------------- 1,000 column, the capillary gradient declines, and the rate of rise
decreases (2) .
The capillary gradient can be determined from tensiometer
Steady-state flow of water in the unsaturated zone can be measurements of hydraulic pressures. To determine the gra-
determined from a modified form of Darcy's law . Steady state dient, it is necessary to measure the negative pressures (h p) at
in this context refers to a condition in which the moisture con- two levels in the unsaturated zone, as sketch 3 shows . The
tent remains constant, as it would, for example, beneath a equation for total head (h t) is
waste-disposal pond whose bottom is separated from the
water table by an unsaturated zone .

Tensiometers gradient equals the head loss divided by the distance between
Land tensiometers, the gradient is
No . l No . 2
surface
34 7,77"W"77-77 \77 y. .., wnwvnr«~ hL ht(j) -h t(2) 31-26 5 m
1 .25
hp =1 m L z z 32-28 4m
32
This gradient includes both the gravitational gradient (dhldl)
and the capillary gradient ([h,-z]lz)) . Because the head in ten-
30 siometer no . 1 exceeds that in tensiometer no. 2, we know that
flow is vertically downward and that the gravitational gradient
w 28 is 111, or 1 . Therefore, the capillary gradient is 0.25 m m - '
H
w (1 .25-1 .00) .
hp = 2 m
26
z z=32 m
z 24 U
0 h t =31 m i i 0
h t =26 m z
a 0
22
Capillary U
W
J
W ~~ ~ fringe U
20 1f
J
Water table
a
r\-
4 f~ I' I-, ll 0
2
0
0 L-_ I --- 0
DATUM PLANE (NATIONAL GEODETIC VERTICAL DATUM 1929)

0 20 40 60 80 100
(3) SATURATION, IN PERCENT
(4)
where z is the elevation of a tensiometer . Substituting values The effective hydraulic conductivity (Ke ) is the hydraulic
in this equation for tensiometer no . 1, we obtain conductivity of material that is not completely saturated . It is
thus less than the (saturated) hydraulic conductivity (K) for
ht =32+(-1)=32-1=31 m the material . Sketch 4 shows the relation between degree of
saturation and the ratio of saturated and unsaturated hydrau-
The total head at tensiometer no . 2 is 26 m . The vertical lic conductivity for coarse sand . The hydraulic conductivity
distance between the tensiometers is 32 m minus 28 m, or 4 m . (KS) of coarse sand is about 60 m d - ' .
Because the combined gravitational and capillary hydraulic
Capillarity and Unsaturated Flow 17

5 I KA I I F- ICATION AND UNSATURATED FLOW
Nonstratified Inflow 0.072 m 3 d ' Most sediments are deposited in layers (beds) that have a
model 1)
(19 gal d
distinct grain size, sorting, or mineral composition . Where ad-
jacent layers differ in one of these characteristics or more, the
deposit is said to be stratified, and its layered structure is re-
ferred to as stratification .
The layers comprising a stratified deposit commonly differ
from one another in both grain size and sorting and, conse-
quently, differ from one another in hydraulic conductivity .
These differences in hydraulic conductivity significantly af-
fect both the percolation of water across the unsaturated
zone and the movement of ground water .
In most areas, the unsaturated zone is composed of hori-
zontal or nearly horizontal layers . The movement of water, on
the other hand, is predominantly in a vertical direction . In
many ground-water problems, and especially in those related
to the release of pollutants at the land surface, the effect of
stratification on movement of fluids across the unsaturated
zone is of great importance .
The manner in which water moves across the unsaturated
zone has been studied by using models containing glass
beads . One model (1) contained beads of a single size repre-
F 1 .2 m senting a nonstratified deposit, and another (2) consisted of
five layers, three of which were finer grained and more imper-
meable than the other two . The dimensions of the models
were about 1 .5 m x 1 .2 m x 76 mm .
In the nonstratified model, water introduced at the top
moved vertically downward through a zone of constant width
to the bottom of the model (1) . In the stratified model, beds A,
C, and E consisted of silt-sized beads (diameters of 0 .036 mm)
having a capillary height (h,) of about 1,000 mm and a
hydraulic conductivity (K) of 0 .8 m d - ' . Beds B and D con-
sisted of medium-sand-sized beads (diameters of 0 .47 mm)
having a capillary height of about 250 mm and a hydraulic
conductivity of 82 m d - ' .
Because of the strong capillary force and the low hydraulic
conductivity in bed A, the water spread laterally at almost the
same rate as it did vertically, and it did not begin to enter bed
B until 9 hours after the start of the experiment . At that time,
the capillary saturation in bed A had reached a level where
the unsatisfied (remaining) capillary pull in bed A was the
same as that in bed B. In other words, z in bed A at that time
equaled 1,000 mm-250 mm, or 750 mm . (For a definition of
z, see "Capillarity and Unsaturated Flow .")
1 .2 m- Because the hydraulic conductivity of bed B was 100 times
(2) that of bed A, water moved across bed B through narrow ver-
EXPLANATION
tical zones . We can guess that the glass beads in these zones
were packed somewhat more tightly than those in other parts
~Areas
remaining dry after
38 hours of inflow of the beds .

5A1 UKATED FLOW AND DISPERSION
Dispersion in a granular deposit In the saturated zone, all interconnected openings are full
of water, and the water moves through these openings in the
direction controlled by the hydraulic gradient. Movement in
the saturated zone may be either laminar or turbulent . In
laminar flow, water particles move in an orderly manner along
streamlines . In turbulent flow, water particles move in a dis-
ordered, highly irregular manner, which results in a complex
mixing of the particles . Under natural hydraulic gradients, tur-
bulent flow occurs only in large openings such as those in
gravel, lava flows, and limestone caverns. Flows are laminar in
most granular deposits and fractured rocks.
In laminar flow in a granular medium, the different stream-
lines converge in the narrow necks between particles and
diverge in the larger interstices (1) . Thus, there is some in-
termingling of streamlines, which results in transverse disper-
sion-that is, dispersion at right angles to the direction of
ground-water flow. Also, differences in velocity result from
friction between the water and the rock particles. The slowest
rate of movement occurs adjacent to the particles, and the
fastest rate occurs in the center of pores. The resulting disper-
sion is longitudinal-that is, in the direction of flow .
Cone of dispersion Danel (1953) found that dye injected at a point in a homoge-
neous and isotropic granular medium dispersed laterally in the
shape of a cone about 6° wide (2) . He also found that the con-
Direction of flow centration of dye over a plane at any given distance from the
inlet point is a bell-shaped curve similar to the normal prob-
ability curve. Because of transverse and longitudinal disper-
sion, the peak concentration decreased in the direction of
Changes in concentration in the dispersion cone flow.
The effect of longitudinal dispersion can also be observed
from the change in concentration of a substance (C) down-
stream from a point at which the substance is being injected
constantly at a concentration of Co. The concentration rises
slowly at first as the "fastest" streamlines arrive and then rises
rapidly until the concentration reaches about 0.7 Co, at which
point the rate of increase in concentration begins to decrease
o 1 .0 (3) .
First appearance Dispersion is important in the study of ground-water pollu-
of substance
tion . However, it is difficult to measure in the field because
0 0 .5 the rate and direction of movement of wastes are also af-
fected by stratification, ion exchange, filtration, and other
0 conditions and processes . Stratification and areal differences
to Time since start in lithology and other characteristics of aquifers and confining
of injection beds actually result in much greater lateral and longitudinal
dispersion than that measured by Danel for a homogeneous
and isotropic medium.
Saturated Flow and Dispersion 19

It is desirable, wherever possible, to determine the position
of the water table and the direction of ground-water move-
ment. To do so, it is necessary to determine the altitude, or the
height above a datum plane, of the water level in wells. How-
ever, in most areas, general but very valuable conclusions
about the direction of ground-water movement can be derived
from observations of land-surface topography .
Gravity is the dominant driving force in ground-water move-
ment. Under natural conditions, ground water moves "down-
hill" until, in the course of its movement, it reaches the land
surface at a spring or through a seep along the side or bottom
of a stream channel or an estuary .
Thus, ground water in the shallowest part of the saturated
zone moves from interstream areas toward streams or the
coast. If we ignore minor surface irregularities, we find that
the slope of the land surface is also toward streams or the
coast. The depth to the water table is greater along the divide
between streams than it is beneath the flood plain . In effect,
the water table usually is a subdued replica of the land
surface .
In areas where ground water is used for domestic and other
needs requiring good-quality water, septic tanks, sanitary
landfills, waste ponds, and other waste-disposal sites should
not be located uphill from supply wells.
The potentiometric surface of confined aquifers, like the
water table, also slopes from recharge areas to discharge
areas . Shallow confined aquifers, which are relatively com-
mon along the Atlantic Coastal Plain, share both recharge and
discharge areas with the surficial unconfined aquifers . This
sharing may not be the case with the deeper confined
aquifers . The principal recharge areas for these are probably
in their outcrop areas near the western border of the Coastal
Plain, and their discharge areas are probably near the heads of
the estuaries along the major streams . Thus, movement of
water through these aquifers is in a general west to east direc-
tion, where it has not been modified by withdrawals .
In the western part of the conterminous United States, and
especially in the alluvial basins region, conditions are more
variable than those described above. In this area, streams
flowing from mountain ranges onto alluvial plains lose water
to the alluvial deposits; thus, ground water in the upper part of
the saturated zone flows down the valleys and at an angle Arrows show direction of
away from the streams. ground-water movement
Ground water is normally hidden from view; as a conse-
quence, many people have difficulty visualizing its occur-
rence and movement. This difficulty adversely affects their through the use of flow nets, which are one of the most ef-
ability to understand and to deal effectively with ground- fective means yet devised for illustrating conditions in ground-
water-related problems. This problem can be partly solved water systems.

VI%VVINV - VVf11 LR UL%JVV I'IL IJ
Flow nets consist of two sets of lines. One set, referred to as tween flow lines, dh is the difference in head between equi-
equipotential lines, connects points of equal head and thus potential lines, dl is the distance between equipotential lines,
represents the height of the water table, or the potentiometric and n is the number of squares through which the flow occurs .
surface of a confined aquifer, above a datum plane. The sec- Drawings 1 and 2 show a flow net in both plan view and
ond set, referred to as flow lines, depicts the idealized paths cross section for an area underlain by an unconfined aquifer
followed by particles of water as they move through the composed of sand . The sand overlies a horizontal confining
aquifer. Because ground water moves in the direction of the bed, the top of which occurs at an elevation 3 m above the
steepest hydraulic gradient, flow lines in isotropic aquifers are datum plane. The fact that some flow lines originate in the
perpendicular to equipotential lines-that is, flow lines cross area in which heads exceed 13 m indicates the presence of
equipotential lines at right angles . recharge to the aquifer in this area . The relative positions of
There are an infinite number of equipotential lines and flow the land surface and the water table in sketch 2 suggest that
lines in an aquifer. However, for purposes of flow-net analysis, recharge occurs throughout the area, except along the stream
only a few of each set need be drawn . Equipotential lines are valleys. This suggestion is confirmed by the fact that flow
drawn so that the drop in head is the same between adjacent lines also originate in areas where heads are less than 13 m .
pairs of lines. Flow lines are drawn so that the flow is equally As sketches 1 and 2 show, flow lines originate in recharge
divided between adjacent pairs of lines and so that, together areas and terminate in discharge areas. Closed contours (equi-
with the equipotential lines, they form a series of "squares ." potential lines) indicate the central parts of recharge areas but
Flow nets not only show the direction of ground-water do not normally indicate the limits of the areas.
movement but can also, if they are drawn with care, be used In the cross-sectional view in sketch 2, heads decrease
to estimate the quantity of water in transit through an aquifer. downward in the recharge area and decrease upward in the
According to Darcy's law, the flow through any "square" is discharge area . Consequently, the deeper a well is drilled in a
recharge area, the lower the water level in the well stands
below land surface. The reverse is true in discharge areas.
Thus, in a discharge area, if a well is drilled deeply enough in
an unconfined aquifer, the well may flow above land surface.
and the total flow through any set or group of "squares" is Consequently, a flowing well does not necessarily indicate
artesian conditions .
Q =nq (2) Drawings 3 and 4 show equipotential lines and flow lines in
the vicinity of a stream that gains water in its headwaters and
loses water as it flows downstream . In the gaining reaches, the
where K is hydraulic conductivity, b is aquifer thickness at the equipotential lines form a V pointing upstream ; in the losing
midpoint between equipotential lines, w is the distance be- reach, they form a V pointing downstream .
Ground-Water Flow Nets 21

Plan view
Cross sect10n
Land surface A
14
H
w
6
Horizontal scale
0 2000 4000 METERS

Gaining Gaining
stream Plan view /stream
Cross section B~
Land surface
104
102
100
98 a
0
96
w
94
0
92 m
a
90
88
86 w
w
Horizontal scale
0 1000 2000 3000 METERS
II I I I I I I I
Ground-Water Flow Nets 23

VRIJVI~IV-VV/`11 CR IVIVVCIVICIN 1 /AINV 31 KHI Int
./HI IVIV
The angles of refraction (and the spacing of flow lines in

adjacent aquifers and confining beds) are proportional to the
differences in hydraulic conductivities (K) (3) such that
tan B, _
K,
,Confined aquifer tan 0, KZ

i
Bedrock
In cross section, the water table is a flow line . It represents a
bounding surface for the ground-water system ; thus, in the
development of many ground-water flow equations, it is as-
sumed to be coincident with a flow line . However, during peri-
ods when recharge is arriving at the top of the capillary fringe,
the water table is also the point of origin of flow lines (1) .
The movement of water through ground-water systems is
controlled by the vertical and horizontal hydraulic conductiv-
ities and thicknesses of the aquifers and confining beds and
the hydraulic gradients . The maximum difference in head ex-
ists between the central parts of recharge areas and discharge
areas . Because of the relatively large head loss that occurs as
water moves across confining beds, the most vigorous circu-
lation of ground water normally occurs through the shallowest
aquifers . Movement becomes more and more lethargic as
depth increases .
The most important exceptions to the general situation de-
scribed in the preceding paragraph are those systems in which
one or more of the deeper aquifers have transmissivities
Nearly all ground-water systems include both aquifers and
significantly larger than those of 'the surficial and other
confining beds . Thus, ground-water movement through these
shallower aquifers . Thus, in eastern North Carolina, the Castle
systems involves flow not only through the aquifers but also
Hayne Limestone, which occurs at depths ranging from about
across the confining beds (1) .
10 to about 75 m below land surface, is the dominant aquifer
The hydraulic conductivities of aquifers are tens to thou-
because of its very large transmissivity, although it is overlain
sands of times those of confining beds. Thus, aquifers offer
in most of the area by one or more less permeable aquifers .
the least resistance to flow, the result being that, for a given
rate of flow, the head loss per unit of distance along a flow
line is tens to thousands of times less in aquifers than it is in
confining beds . Consequently, lateral flow in confining beds Aquifer
usually is negligible, and flow lines tend to "concentrate" in
aquifers and be parallel to aquifer boundaries (2) .
Differences in the hydraulic conductivities of aquifers and Confining
confining beds cause a refraction or bending of flow lines at bed
their boundaries . As flow lines move from aquifers into con- Ki =1
fining beds, they are refracted toward the direction perpen-
dicular to the boundary . In other words, they are refracted in K2 - 5
Aquifer
the direction that produces the shortest flow path in the con-
fining bed . - As the flow lines emerge from the confining bed, 02
;Ie
they are refracted back toward the direction parallel to the

(3)
boundary (1) .

UK(JUND-WAI LK VLLOCITY
Water-table ground-water velocity. The missing term is porosity (n)

well because, as we know, water moves only through the openings
in a rock. Adding the porosity term, we obtain
v=
Capillary
fringe
i
In order to demonstrate the relatively slow rate of ground-
water movement, equation 1 is used to determine the rate of
movement through an aquifer and a confining bed .
1 . Aquifer composed ofcoarse sand
K=60 mld
0 Velocity
dhldl =1 m11,000 m
n = 0.20
The rate of movement of ground water is important in many K

_ dh _ 60m
_ 1 1m
v X-
problems, particularly those related to pollution . For example, n X dl d X 0.20 m
if a harmful substance is introduced into an aquifer upgra-
'dient from a supply well, it becomes a matter of great urgency 60 mz
=0'3md - '
to estimate when the substance will reach the well. 200 m d
The rate of movement of ground water is greatly overesti-
mated by many people, including those who think in terms of 2. Confining bed composed ofclay
ground water moving through "veins" and underground rivers
at the rates commonly observed in surface streams . It would K=0 .0001 mld
be more appropriate to compare the rate of movement of
ground water to the movement of water in the middle of a dhldl =1 m110 m
very large lake being drained by a very small stream .
The ground-water velocity equation can be derived from a n = 0.50
combination of Darcy's law and the velocity equation of
hydraulics. _ 0.0001 m 1 1 m
v d X 0.5010m
X
(Darcy's law)
(dl) _ 0.0001 mz 0.00002 m
d-'
5 m d =
Q=Av (velocity equation)
Velocities calculated with equation 1 are, at best, average
where Q is the rate of flow or volume per unit of time, K is the values. Where ground-water pollution is involved, the fastest
hydraulic conductivity, A is the cross-sectional area, at a right rates of movement may be several times the average rate.
angle to the flow direction, through which the flow Q occurs, Also, the rates of movement in limestone caverns, lava tubes,
dhldl is the hydraulic gradient, and v is the Darcian velocity, and large rock fractures may approach those observed in sur-
which is the average velocity of the entire cross-sectional face streams .
area. Combining these equations, we obtain Further, movement in unconfined aquifers is not limited to
the zone below the water table or to the saturated zone.
Av = KA ( dl Water in the capillary fringe is subjected to the same
hydraulic gradient that exists at the water table ; water in the
capillary fringe moves, therefore, in the same direction as the
Canceling the area terms, we find that ground water.
As the accompanying sketch shows, the rate of lateral
movement in the capillary fringe decreases in an upward
direction and becomes zero at the top of the fringe . This
consideration is important where unconfined aquifers are
Because this equation contains terms for hydraulic conductiv- polluted with gasoline and other substances less dense than
ity and gradient only, it is not yet a complete expression of water.
Ground-Water Velocity 25
I KAN5M1551V11 Y
The capacity of an aquifer to transmit water of the prevail- Q=TwW

ing kinematic viscosity is referred to as its transmissivity. The (dl)
transmissivity (T) of an aquifer is equal to the hydraulic con-
ductivity of the aquifer multiplied by the saturated thickness or, if it is recognized that T applies to a unit width (w) of an
of the aquifer . Thus, aquifer, this equation can be stated more simply as
Q=TW
(dl~
where T is transmissivity, K is hydraulic conductivity, and b is
aquifer thickness . If equation 3 is applied to sketch 1, the quantity of water
As is the case with hydraulic conductivity, transmissivity is flowing out of the right-hand side of the sketch can be cal-
also defined in terms of a unit hydraulic gradient. culated by using the values shown on the sketch, as follows :
If equation 1 is combined with Darcy's law (see "Hydraulic
Conductivity"), the result is an equation that can be used to m X 100 m
T=Kb= 5 =5000 ml d -1
calculate the quantity of water (q) moving through a unit d
width (w) of an aquifer . Darcy's law is
1,000 h 5,000 m2 m 1 m
x m3 d- '
Q=TW (ddl) d 1 X 1,000 m =5000
Equation 3 is also used to calculate transmissivity, where

Expressing area (A) as bw, we obtain the quantity of water (Q discharging from a known width of
aquifer can be determined as, for example, with streamflow
measurements . Rearranging terms, we obtain
q =Kbw
(dl )
dl
T __ Q
Next, expressing transmissivity (T) as Kb, we obtain ( dh )
(2) The units of transmissivity, as the preceding equation

q=Tw demonstrates, are
(dl )
Equation 2 modified to determine the quantity of water (Q T- (m3 d-')(m) _ m 2

moving through a large width (W) of an aquifer is (m) (m) d
dl =1000 m

Sketch 2 illustrates the hydrologic situation that permits By equation 4,
calculation of transmissivity through the use of stream dis-
charge. The2,000
calculation can be made only during dry-weather dl 5,616 m3 m
T- ~ x x m2 d -'
(baseflow) periods, when all water in the stream is derived d - d x 5,000 m l m -2,246
from ground-water discharge . For the purpose of this example,
the following values are assumed : The hydraulic conductivity is determined from equation 1
Average daily flow at stream-gaging as follows :
station A: 2 .485 m3 s -1
Average daily flow at stream-gaging T 2,246 m2 45 m d -'
K
station B: 2 .355 m3 s -
I b d x 50 m
Increase in flow due to ground-water
discharge : 0.130 m3 s- ' Because transmissivity depends on both K and b, its value
Total daily ground-water discharge to differs in different aquifers and from place to place in the
stream : 11,232 m3 d- ' same aquifer . Estimated values of transmissivity for the prin-
Discharge from half of aquifer (one sid cipal aquifers in different parts of the country range from less
ofthe stream) : 5,616 m3 d - ' than 1 m2 d - ' for some fractured sedimentary and igneous
Distance (x) between stations A and B: 5,000 m rocks to 100,000 m2 d - ' for cavernous limestones and lava
Average thickness of aquifer (b) : 50 m flows.
Average slope of the water table (dhldl) Finally, transmissivity replaces the term "coefficient of
determined from measurements in the transmissibility" because, by convention, an aquifer is trans-
observation wells : 1 m12,000 m missive, and the water in it is transmissible .
Transmissivity 27
STORAGE COEFFICIEN I
The abilities (capacities) of water-bearing materials to store of the water, it is necessary to multiply the aquifer thickness
and to transmit water are their most important hydraulic prop- by 9 x 10 -7 . Thus, if only the expansion of water is consid-
erties . Depending on the intended use of the information, ered, the storage coefficient of an aquifer 100 m thick would
these properties are given either in terms of a unit cube of the be 9 x 10-5 . The storage coefficient of most confined aqui-
material or in terms of a unit prism of an aquifer. fers ranges from about 10-5 to 10-3 (0 .00001 to 0 .001) . The
difference between these values and the value due to expan-
Property Unit cube of material Unit prism of aquifer sion of the water is attributed to compression of the aquifer.
Transmissive capacity Hydraulic conductivity (K) Transmissivity (T)
Available storage Specific yield (Sy ) Storage coefficient (S)
The storage coefficient (S) is defined as the volume of water

- Conf inin g bed --
that an aquifer releases from or takes into storage per unit sur-
face area of the aquifer per unit change in head . The storage
coefficient is a dimensionless unit, as the following equation Total load on aquifer
shows, in which the units in the numerator and the denomina-
tor cancel :
volume of water __ (m 3 ) __ _m3

S (unit area)(unit head change) (m Z) (m) m3
The size of the storage coefficient depends on whether the

aquifer is confined or unconfined (1) . If the aquifer is con-
fined, the water released from storage when the head declines
comes from expansion of the water and from compression of
the aquifer. Relative to a confined aquifer, the expansion of a
given volume of water in response to a decline in pressure is
very small . In a confined aquifer having a porosity of 0 .2 and
containing water at a temperature of about 15°C, expansion
of the water alone releases about 9 x 10-7 m3 of water per
cubic meter of aquifer per meter of decline in head . To deter-
mine the storage coefficient of an aquifer due to expansion

Sketch 2 will aid in understanding this phenomenon. It an aquifer changes from a confined condition to an uncon-
shows a microscopic view of the contact between an aquifer fined condition, the storage coefficient of the aquifer immedi-
and the overlying confining bed . The total load on the top of ately increases from that of a confined aquifer to that of an
the aquifer is supported partly by the solid skeleton of the unconfined aquifer .
aquifer and partly by the hydraulic pressure exerted by the Long-term withdrawals of water from many confined
water in the aquifer . When the water pressure declines, more aquifers result in drainage of water both from clay layers
of the load must be supported by the solid skeleton. As a within the aquifer and from adjacent confining beds. This
result, the rock particles are distorted, and the pore space is drainage increases the load on the solid skeleton and results in
reduced . The water forced from the pores when their volume compression of the aquifer and subsidence of the land sur-
is reduced represents the part of the storage coefficient due to face. Subsidence of the land surface caused by drainage of
compression of the aquifer. clay layers has occurred in Arizona, California, Texas, and
If the aquifer is unconfined, the predominant source of other areas.
water is from gravity drainage of the sediments through which The potential sources of water in a two-unit ground-water
the decline in the water table occurs . In an unconfined system consisting of a confining bed and a confined aquifer
aquifer, the volume of water derived from expansion of the are shown in sketch 3. The sketch is based on the assumption
water and compression of the aquifer is negligible. Thus, in that water is removed in two separate stages-the first while
such an aquifer, the storage coefficient is virtually equal to the potentiometric surface is lowered to the top of the aquifer
the specific yield and ranges from about 0.1 to about 0 .3. and the second by dewatering the aquifer.
Because of the difference in the sources of storage, the The differences in the storage coefficients of confined and
storage coefficient of unconfined aquifers is 100 to 10,000 unconfined aquifers are of great importance in determining
times the storage coefficient of confined aquifers (1) . How- the response of the aquifers to stresses such as withdrawals
ever, if water levels in an area are reduced to the point where through wells. (See "Well-Field Design .")
Land surface
Potentiometric Total Available Sources o ¬
storage storage available storage
a)
tr a)
a)
ro w 44
-r-I O r~ -1
-r-i
44 a)
(d 44
~4 q-4 rd .r
o a) a) 0rcM0
0 _P O -A rd U)
U U) U a) a)
a) w -P
-r-I
U)
04 -P
v
rd
~4
Z
- I
4-4
3 Uo O
1 o ro
a) 0 a a)
U
. ri -r-I 4-a -rl
44 O rd
O
4-a -r-I
O O ro a) O I
a b tT -r-I a)
v _P r .
a)
. ~i
U s~ U " r-{
-r) U) 44
-r-I a) b
44 a) 4-I
. 11 U rd O O
-r-I 04
4J4 Q b rl
.r-I a) rd 44
U A -r-I O
a)
04
ab
Bedrock
Storage Coefficient 29
LVN t ur ut mt~OIUN
Both wells and springs serve as sources of ground-water unconfined aquifer equals the specific yield of the aquifer
supply . However, most springs having yields large enough to material, the cone of depression expands very slowly. On the
meet municipal, industrial, and large commercial and agricul- other hand, dewatering of the aquifer results in a decrease in
tural needs occur only in areas underlain by cavernous lime- transmissivity, which causes, in turn, an increase in drawdown
stones and lava flows. Therefore, most ground-water needs both in the well and in the aquifer .
are met by withdrawals from wells. Withdrawals from a confined aquifer cause a drawdown in
The response of aquifers to withdrawals from wells is an im- artesian pressure but do not (normally) cause a dewatering of
portant topic in ground-water hydrology. When withdrawals the aquifer (2) . The water withdrawn from a confined aquifer
start, the water level in the well begins to decline as water is is derived from expansion of the water and compression of the
removed from storage in the well . The head in the well falls rock skeleton of the aquifer . (See "Storage Coefficient .") The
below the level in the surrounding aquifer. As a result, water very small storage coefficient of confined aquifers results in a
begins to move from the aquifer into the well . As pumping very rapid expansion of the cone of depression. Consequently,
continues, the water level in the well continues to decline, and the mutual interference of expanding cones around adjacent
the rate of flow into the well from the aquifer continues to in- wells occurs more rapidly in confined aquifers than it does in
crease until the rate of inflow equals the rate of withdrawal. unconfined aquifers .
The movement of water from an aquifer into a well results Cones of depression caused by large withdrawals from ex-
in the formation of a cone of depression (1) (2) . Because water tensive confined aquifers can affect very large areas. Sketch 3
must converge on the well from all directions and because the shows the overlapping cones of depression that existed in
area through which the flow occurs decreases toward the well, 1981 in an extensive confined aquifer composed of uncon-
the hydraulic gradient must get steeper toward the well. solidated sands and interbedded silt and clay of Cretaceous
Several important differences exist between the cones of age in the central part of the Atlantic Coastal Plain . The cones
depression in confined and unconfined aquifers. Withdrawals of depression are caused by withdrawals of about 277,000 m3
from an unconfined aquifer result in drainage of water from d - ' (73,000,000 gal d- ') from well fields in Virginia and North
the rocks through which the water table declines as the cone Carolina. (See "Source of Water Derived From Wells .")
of depression forms (1) . Because the storage coefficient of an

POTENTIOMETRIC SURFACE OF THE LOWER MOST CRETACEOUS
AQUIFER IN SOUTHEASTERN VIRGINIA AND NORTHEASTERN NORTH CAROLINA
77° 76°
38°
wl
Richmond
w
2
H
37°
36°
0 10 20 30 40 50 MILES
l I I I I I
I I 1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 KILOMETERS
EXPLANATION
Water levels are in feet
NATIONAL GEODETIC VERTICAL DATUM 1929
(3)
Cone of Depression 31
3"l) 1(l .C kJf VV/A 1 CR VCR1 V [lJ FIRVM VV LLLJ
Both the economical development and the effective man- the aquifer . The hydraulic gradient will be reduced toward the
agement of any ground-water system require an understand- discharge area, and the rate of natural discharge will decrease
ing of the response of the system to withdrawals from wells. (3) . To the extent that the decrease in natural discharge com-
The first concise description of the hydrologic principles in- pensates for the pumpage, the rate at which water is being
volved in this response was presented by C. V. Theis in a paper removed from storage will also decrease, and the rate of ex-
published in 1940. pansion of the cone of depression will decline . If and when
Theis pointed out that the response of an aquifer to with- the reduction in natural discharge (AD) equals the rate of with-
drawals from wells depends on: drawal (Q, a new balance will be established in the aquifer .
1 . The rate of expansion of the cone of depression caused by This balance in symbolic form is
the withdrawals, which depends on the transmissivity
and the storage coefficient ofthe aquifer . (D-OD)+Q=R
2. The distance to areas in which the rate of water discharg-
ing from the aquifer can be reduced . Conversely, if the cone of depression expands into a re-
3. The distance to recharge areas in which the rate of recharge area rather than into a natural discharge area, the
charge can be increased . hydraulic gradient between the recharge area and the pump-
Over a sufficiently long period of time under natural ing well will be increased . If, under natural conditions, more
conditions-that is, before the start of withdrawals-the dis- water was available in the recharge area than the aquifer
charge from every ground-water system equals the recharge to could accept (the condition that Theis referred to as one of re-
it (1) . In other words, jected recharge), the increase in the gradient away from the re-
charge area will permit more recharge to occur, and the rate
natural discharge (D) =natural recharge (R) of growth of the cone of depression will decrease. If and when
the increase in recharge (AR) equals the rate of withdrawal
In the eastern part of the United States and in the more (Q, a new balance will be established in the aquifer, and ex-
humid areas in the West, the amount and distribution of pre- pansion of the cone of depression will cease. The new balance
cipitation are such that the period of time over which dis- in symbolic form is
charge and recharge balance may be less than a year or, at
most, a few years . In the drier parts of the country-that is, in D+Q=R+OR
the areas that generally receive less than about 500 mm of
precipitation annually-the period over which discharge and In the eastern part of the United States, gaining streams are
recharge balance may be several years or even centuries. relatively closely spaced, and areas in which rejected re-
Over shorter periods of time, differences between discharge charge occurs are relatively unimportant . In this region, the
and recharge involve changes in ground-water storage . In growth of cones of depression first commonly causes a reduc-
other words, when discharge exceeds recharge, ground-water tion in natural discharge . If the pumping wells are near a
storage (S) is reduced by an amount AS equal to the difference stream or if the withdrawals are continued long enough,
between discharge and recharge . Thus, ground-water discharge to a stream may be stopped entirely in
the vicinity of the wells, and water may be induced to move
D=R+dS from the stream into the aquifer (4) . In other words, the
tendency in this region is for withdrawals to change discharge
Conversely, when recharge exceeds discharge, ground-water areas into recharge areas. This consideration is important
storage is increased . Thus, where the streams contain brackish or polluted water or where
the streamflow is committed or required for other purposes .
D=R-AS To summarize, the withdrawal of ground water through a
well reduces the water in storage in the source aquifer during
When withdrawal through a well begins, water is removed the growth of the cone of depression . When and if the cone
from storage in its vicinity as the cone of depression develops of depression ceases to expand, the rate of withdrawal is being
(2) . Thus, the withdrawal (Q is balanced by a reduction in balanced by a reduction in the rate of natural discharge and
ground-water storage . In other words, (or) by an increase in the rate of recharge . Under this
condition,
Q = dS
Q=OD+OR
As the cone of depression expands outward from the pump-
ing well, it may reach an area where water is discharging from

Discharge (D) = Recharge (R)
Withdrawal (Q) = Reduction in storage (LS)

(2)
Withdrawal (Q) = Reduction in storage (Z~S) + Reduction in discharge (pD)

(3)
Withdrawal (Q) = Reduction in discharge (,n~D) + Increase in recharge (Z~R)

(4)
Source of Water Derived from Wells 33

MAP OF AQUIFER TEST SITE CHANGE OF WATER LEVEL IN WELL B
N
3 T
ac Pump on
w Regional trend
w _Z
O
0-
Z
6
w ac 3
7 0
Q v
3 a 3 T
w O
O O
H OU
3 9 Pump
O
d
off \
a w
4-
w m 10
0
Pre pumping Pumping
II Recovery period -
-period - period - tj
12 ~ i i i i I i I i
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
DAYS
Determining the yield of ground-water systems and Drawdown is the difference between the water level at any
evaluating the movement and fate of ground-water pollutants time during the test and the position at which the water level
require, among other information, knowledge of: would have been if withdrawals had not started . Drawdown is
very rapid at first . As pumping continues and the cone of de-
1. The position and thickness of aquifers and confining beds. pression expands, the rate of drawdown decreases (2) .
2. The transmissivity and storage coefficient of the aquifers . The recovery of the water level under ideal conditions is a
3. The hydraulic characteristics of the confining beds . mirror image of the drawdown . The change in water level dur-
4. The position and nature of the aquifer boundaries . ing the recovery period is the same as if withdrawals had con-
5. The location and amounts of ground-water withdrawals . tinued at the same rate from the pumped well but, at the mo-
6. The locations, kinds, and amounts of pollutants and pol- ment of pump cutoff, a recharge well had begun recharging
lutant practices . water at the same point and at the same rate . Therefore, the
recovery of the water level is the difference between the ac-
Acquiring knowledge on these factors requires both geo- tual measured level and the projected pumping level (2) .
logic and hydrologic investigations . One of the most impor- In addition to the constant-rate aquifer test mentioned
tant hydrologic studies involves analyzing the change, with above, analytical methods have also been developed for sev-
time, in water levels (or total heads) in an aquifer caused by
eral other types of aquifer tests . These methods include tests
withdrawals through wells . This type of study is referred to as
in which the rate of withdrawal is variable and tests that in-
an aquifer test and, in most cases, includes pumping a well at volve leakage of water across confining beds into confined
a constant rate for a period ranging from several hours to sev- aquifers . The analytical methods available also permit analy-
eral days and measuring the change in water level in obser- sis of tests conducted on both vertical wells and horizontal
vation wells located at different distances from the pumped wells or drains .
well (1) .
The most commonly used method of analysis of aquifer-
Successful aquifer tests require, among other things:
test data-that for a vertical well pumped at a constant rate
1 . Determination of the prepumping water-level trend (that is, from an aquifer not affected by vertical leakage and lateral
the regional trend) . boundaries-will be covered in the discussion of "Analysis of
2 . A carefully controlled constant pumping rate. Aquifer-Test Data ." The method of analysis requires the use of
3 . Accurate water-level measurements made at precisely a type curve based on the values of W(u) and ilu listed in the
known times during both the drawdown and the re- following table . Preparation and use of the type curve are cov-
covery periods . ered in the following discussion .

SELECTED VALUES OF W(u) FOR VALUES OF llu
1 lu 10 7 .69 5 .88 5 .00 4.00 3 .33 2 .86 2 .5 2 .22 2 .00 1 .67 1 .43 1 .25 1 .11
10 - ' 0 .219 0 .135 0 .075 0 .049 0 .025 0 .013 0.007 0 .004 0 .002 0 .001 0 .000 0 .000 0 .000 0 .000
1 1 .82 1 .59 1 .36 1 .22 1 .04 .91 .79 .70 .63 .56 .45 .37 .31 .26
10 4 .04 3 .78 3 .51 3 .35 3.14 2 .96 2 .81 2 .68 2 .57 2.47 2 .30 2 .15 2 .03 1 .92
102 6 .33 6 .07 5 .80 5 .64 5 .42 5 .23 5 .08 4 .95 4 .83 4 .73 4 .54 4.39 4.26 4.14
10, 8 .63 8 .37 8 .10 7 .94 7 .72 7 .53 7.38 7.25 7 .13 7 .02 6 .84 6 .69 6 .55 6 .44
104 10.94 10 .67 10 .41 10 .24 10 .02 9 .84 9 .68 ;9 .55 9 .43 9 .33 9 .14 8 .99 8 .86 8 .74
105 13 .24 12 .98 12 .71 12 .55 12 .32 12 .14 11 .99 11 .85 11 .73 11 .63 11 .45 11 .29 11 .16 11 .04
106 15 .54 15 .28 15 .01 14 .85 14 .62 14 .44 14.29 14.15 14 .04 13 .93 13 .75 13 .60 13.46 13 .34
107 17.84 17 .58 17 .31 17 .15 16 .93 16 .74 16 .59 16.46 16 .34 16 .23 16 .05 15 .90 15 .76 15 .65
108 20.15 19 .88 19 .62 19 .45 19 .23 19 .05 18 .89 18.76 18.64 18 .54 18 .35 18 .20 18 .07 17 .95
109 22 .45 22 .19 21 .92 21 .76 21 .53 21 .35 21 .20 21 .06 20 .94 20 .84 20 .66 20 .50 20.37 20 .25
10 10 24.75 24 .49 24 .22 24 .06 23 .83 23 .65 23 .50 23 .36 23 .25 23 .14 22 .96 22 .81 22 .67 22 .55
10 1 ' 27.05 26 .79 26 .52 26 .36 26 .14 25 .96 25 .80 25.67 25 .55 25 .44 25 .26 25 .11 24 .97 24 .86
1012 27 .85 27 .75 27 .56 27 .41 27 .28 27 .16
29 .36 20.09 28.83 28 .66 28 .44 28 .26 28 .10 27 .97
1013 30 .97 30 .74 30 .56 30 .41 30.27 30 .15 30 .05 29 .87 29 .71 29 .58 29 .46
31 .66 31 .40 31 .13
10 14 33 .96 33 .70 33 .43 33 .27 33 .05 32 .86 32 .71 32 .58 32 .46 32 .35 32 .17 32 .02 31 .88 31 .76
Examples : When l1u=10x10 - ', W(u)=0.219; when llu=3 .33x10 2 , W(u)=5 .23 .
Aquifer Tests 35
AivAL 13 13 y r /+%
.,j v i rr rc- i r- ;3 i vH i r%
THEIS TYPE CURVE
10 3 10 4 10 5
100
DATA PLOT
Q= 1 .9 m 3 min - '
r= 187 m
10
Match
Point MATCH - POINT COORDINATES
/ W( u) = I, s= 2 .20 m
l lu = I, t = 1.8 min
Type Curve
0 .011 1 I
0 .1 I 10
In 1935, C . V. Theis of the New Mexico Water Resources Theis assumed in the development of the equation that:
District of the U .S . Geological Survey developed the first 1 . The transmissivity of the aquifer tapped by the pumping
equation to include time of pumping as a factor that could be well is constant during the test to the limits of the
used to analyze the effect of withdrawals from a well . Thus, cone of depression .
the Theis equation permitted, for the first time, determination 2 . The water withdrawn from the aquifer is derived entirely
of the hydraulic characteristics of an aquifer before the from storage and is discharged instantaneously with
development of new steady-state conditions resulting from the decline in head .
pumping. The importance of this capability may be realized 3 . The discharging well penetrates the entire thickness of the
from the fact that, under most conditions, a new steady state aquifer, and its diameter is small in comparison with
cannot be developed or that, if it can, many months or years the pumping rate, so that storage in the well is neg-
may be required . ligible.

These assumptions are most nearly met by confined The storage coefficient is dimensionless. Therefore, if T is in
aquifers at sites remote from their boundaries . However, if square feet per day, t is in minutes, and r is in feet, then, by
certain precautions are observed, the equation can also be equation 2,
used to analyzemin tests of unconfined aquifers.
4Ttu __4 _ ft, d
The forms of the Theis equation used to determine the x
1
transmissivity and storage coefficient are S r2 X d ft2 X 1,440 min
or
Q W(u) (1)
T= Ttu
4irs
S 360 r2
4Ttu (2) (when T is in square feet per day, t is in minutes, and r is in
S = r2
feet) .
Analysis of aquifer-test data using the Theis equation in-
where T is transmissivity, S is the storage coefficient, Q is the volves plotting both the type curve and the test data on loga-
pumping rate, s is drawdown, t is time, r is the distance from rithmic graph paper . If the aquifer and the conditions of the
the pumping well to the observation well, W(u) is the well test satisfy Theis's assumptions, the type curve has the same
function of u, which equals shape as the cone of depression along any line radiating away
Uz Ua Ua from the pumping well and the drawdown graph at any point
-0.577216-logeu+u- in the cone of depression .
2x2 + 3x3! 4x4! +
Use of the Theis equation for unconfined aquifers involves
and u=(r'S)I(4Tt) . two considerations. First, if the aquifer is relatively fine
grained, water is released slowly over a period of hours or
The form of the Theis equation is such that it cannot be days, not instantaneously with the decline in head. Therefore,
solved directly. To overcome this problem, Theis devised a the value of S determined from a short-period test may be too
convenient graphic method of solution that involves the use small.
of a type curve (1) . To apply this method, a data plot of draw- Second, if the pumping rate is large and the observation
down versus time (or drawdown versus tlr2 ) is matched to the well is near the pumping well, dewatering of the aquifer may
type curve of W(u) versus llu (2) . At some convenient point on be significant, and the assumption that the transmissivity
the overlapping part of the sheets containing the data plot and of the aquifer is constant is not satisfied . The effect of de-
type curve, values of s, t (or t/r2), W(u), and llu are noted (2) . watering of the aquifer can be eliminated with the following
These values are then substituted in equations 1 and 2, which equation :
are solved for T and S, respectively . s2
A Theis type curve of W(u) versus llu can be prepared from S' -S - (2b
the values given in the table contained in the preceding sec-

tion, "Aquifer Tests ." The data points are plotted on logarith- where s is the observed drawdown in the unconfined aquifer,
mic graph paper-that is, graph paper having logarithmic divi- b is the aquifer thickness, and s' is the drawdown that would
sions in both the x and y directions . have occurred if the aquifer had been confined (that is, if no
The dimensional units of transmissivity (T) are Lzt -', where dewatering had occurred) .
L is length and t is time in days. Thus, if Q in equation 1 is in To determine the transmissivity and storage coefficient of
cubic meters per day and s is in meters, T will be in square mean unconfined aquifer, a data plot consisting of s' versus t (or
ters per day. Similarly, if, in equation 2, T is in square meters t/r2) is matched with the Theis type curve of W(u) versus l/u .
per day, t is in days, and r is in meters, S will be dimensionless. Both s and b in equation 3 must be in the same units, either
Traditionally, in the United States, T has been expressed in feet or meters.
units of gallons per day per foot. The common practice now is As noted above, Theis assumed in the development of his
to report transmissivity in units of square meters per day or equation that the discharging well penetrates the entire thick-
square feet per day . If Q is measured in gallons per minute, as ness of the aquifer . However, because it is not always pos-
is still normally the case, and drawdown is measured in feet, sible, or necessarily desirable, to design a well that fully pene-
as is also normally the case, equation 1 is modified to obtain T trates the aquifer under development, most discharging wells
in square feet per day as follows: are open to only a part of the aquifer that they draw from .
Such partial penetration creates vertical flow in the vicinity of
T- Q W(U) - gal x 1,440 min X ft3 X 1 X W(U) the discharging well that may affect drawdowns in observa-
4rs min d 7.48 gal ft 47r tion wells located relatively close to the discharging well.
Drawdowns in observation wells that are open to the same
or zone as the discharging well will be larger than the draw-
downs in wells at the same distance from the discharging well
15 .3Q W(u) but open to other zones . The possible effect of partial pene-
T(in ftz d-')= tration on drawdowns must be considered in the analysis of
S
aquifer-test data. If aquifer-boundary and other conditions
permit, the problem can be avoided by locating observation
(when Q is in gallons per minute and s is in feet) . To convert
wells beyond the zone in which vertical flow exists .
square feet per day to square meters per day, divide by 10.76 .
Analysis of Aquifer-Test Data 37
Eusemilogarithmic
the
less
meters),
Theis
met),
an
reductions
(or
ison
time,
Jacob
the
Thus,
develop,
of
gradually
and
understand
steady-state
and
developed
the
state
Theis
in
Jacob
reliable
t,than
somewhat
Jacob
at aquifer
(and,
square
agraph
steady-shape
depression
the
continue
line
the
the
isshape
applies
Jacob's
an
relatively
this
Tof
method
data
solving
for
the
the
These
has
from
cease,
(3)
about
are
Sequation
horizontal
Ground-Water
isobservation
changes
itconditions
method
Aquifer-Test
cone)
method
conditions
therefore,
paper
condition
When
answers
isrsome
meters
the
test
in
time,
drawdowns
isplotted
of
an
to
plot
isAt
the
the
method
the
atfor
discharge
more
conditions
for
the
long
the
essential
and
0conditions
and
greater
estimated
the
unsteady
steady
migrates
changes
The
graph
all
along
estimated
Theis
instead
time,
in
that
t,isconditions
isacone
limitations
per
the
derives
distance
(logarithmic)
the
start
enough
from
on
only
convenient
times
applicable
we
minutes,
Substituting
develop
ischanges
well
time-drawdown
the
_prevail
applies
occur
day)
shape,
Data
Hydrology
and
cone
analysis
met
paper,
aequation
the
the
and
to
to
of
can
plot
outward
of
We
one
the
must
shape
straight
transmissivity,
begin
partly
hydraulic
have
and
withdrawals,
balance
from
vertical
note
storage
the
cone
when
greater
for
indetermine
the
ofof
first
or
at
fact
only
can
below
ofthat
have
also
the
as
Another
depression
only
r2S
places
Jacob's
the
which
axis
of
to
(1)
increases
to
several
logarithmic
rate
to
developed
this
the
from
The
that,
from
at
line
refer
of
sketch
that,
ucone
under
are
fall
use,
the
aquifer-test
coefficient
developed,
(arithmetic)
be
distances
=the
outermost
After
to
value
pumping
the
of(r2S)I(4Tt)
gradient
depression
greater
graph
its
rather
steady-shape
along
asatisfied
whereas
(if
of
to
rate
the
under
drawdown
methods
was
the
method,
method,
the
pumping
in
of
entire
pumping
certain
extension
4use
the
this
in
isaconcern
depression
in
square
zone
time
of
shows
paper
entire
test
said
developed
arecharge
than
For
isthe
convenience
of
condition
well,
ideal
assumptions
(2)
atobservation
withdrawal,
(dimension-
straight
inaxis
data
iscone
the
the
additional
begins
to
prepared,
that
semiloga-
has
we
in
at
and
well
equation
different
practical
equal
order
feet
well,
cone
used
Ifalong
involve
be
As
condi-
in
Before
of
condi-
which
versus
draw-
Theis
with-
must
been
have
only
(See
dur-
one
and
and
feet
inthe
line
the
perby
its
as
of
to
ina cycle,
pumping
and
slope
Qfrom
to
isfor
thetothe
ofthe
the
well
isdetermination
zero-drawdown
the
the
pumping
time-drawdown
transmissivity
tostraight
time
the observation
=at
rate,
linethe
ofline,
As
istransmissivity
Jacob
point
proportional
graphs
QTto
is and
the
well
where
derived
rdrawdown
is the
and
to
thethe
distance
the
straight
storage
across
following
pumping
from
one
co-
line
The
been .
"Analysis .")
that
C. . .
of
rithmic
the
tions,
curve .
However,
equation
are
conditions.
obtain .
To
consider
ing .
both .
cone
shape
points .
unsteady .
depression .
underway
assume
then .
drawals
(or)
drawdowns
steady .
The
steady-shape
after .
purpose,,
or .05 .
for
steady-shape
well.
The
7,200 (1) rate .
t`
T equations
efficient :
where
tions 2.3
T= (2)
(or 47rAs
less),
day . 2 .25
After S (3)
rz
downs
on .
that where
straight . log
drawdowns intersects
time . the .
38 Basic
TIME- DRAWDOWN GRAPH
0
x x tc
w to ~
~- 2
Iftft
w
_ 0 s=1.2 m Drawdown
measurements
Log
cycle
z 6
3
0
°
3 8 _ r=
a 75 m
Q = 9 .3 m 3 min - ' ( 2455 gal min - I )
010
to = 2 . 5 x 10-5 d
12
10 - 5 10 - 4 10 - 3 10 - 2 0.1
TIME, IN DAYS
Equations 2 and 3 are in consistent units . Thus, if Q is in T _ 35 Q

cubic meters per day and s is in meters, T is in square meters As
per day. S is dimensionless, so that, in equation 3, if T is in
square meters per day, then r must be in meters and to must be (where T is in square feet per day, Q is in gallons per minute,
i n days . and As is in feet) and
It is still common practice in the United States to express Q
in gallons per minute, s in feet, t in minutes, r in feet, and T in 2 .25 Tt o - 2 .25 ftz min d
S= x x
square feet per day. We can modify equations 2 and 3 for rz 1 d ftz 1,440 min
direct substitution of these units as follows:
Tto
S= (5)
640 rz
_ 2 .3 Q _ 2 .3 gal 1,440 min ft 3 1 (where T is in square feet per day, to is in minutes, and r is in
x _X_
T 4rAs 4v min X d X 7 .48 gal ft feet).
Time-Drawdown Analysis 39
vM .
.AMi 11L I Is I%- a.. v 01ki IL V V arv V V I IV i 11L 1 111 11L ~ M v .u
It is desirable in aquifer tests to have at least three observa-

tion wells located at different distances from the pumping AS
well (1) . Drawdowns measured at the same time in these wells
can be analyzed with the Theis equation and type curve to
determine the aquifer transmissivity and storage coefficient.
After the test has been underway long enough, drawdowns (where T is in square feet per day, Q is in gallons per minute,
in the wells can also be analyzed by the Jacob method, either and As is in feet) and
through the use of a time-drawdown graph using data from in-
dividual wells or through the use of a distance-drawdown _ Tt
graph using "simultaneous" measurements in all of the wells. S 640 r02
To determine when sufficient time has elapsed, see "Time-
Drawdown Analysis ." (where T is in square feet per day, t is in minutes, and ro is in
In the Jacob distance-drawdown method, drawdowns are feet) .
plotted on the vertical (arithmetic) axis versus distance on the The distance r o does not indicate the outer limit of the cone
horizontal (logarithmic) axis (2) . If the aquifer and test condi- of depression . Because nonsteady-shape conditions exist in
tions satisfy the Theis assumptions and the limitation of the the outer part of the cone, before the development of steady-
Jacob method, the drawdowns measured at the same time in state conditions, the Jacob method does not apply to that
different wells should plot along a straight line (2) . part . If the Theis equation were used to calculate drawdowns
The slope of the straight line is proportional to the pumping in the outer part of the cone, it would be found that they
rate and to the transmissivity . Jacob derived the following would plot below the straight line . In other words, the measur-
equations for determination of the transmissivity and storage able limit of the cone of depression is beyond the distance r0 .
coefficient from distance-drawdown graphs : If the straight line of the distance-drawdown graph is ex-
tended inward to the radius of the pumping well, the draw-
down indicated at that point is the drawdown in the aquifer
2 .3Q (1) outside of the well . If the drawdown inside the well is found to
T 27rAs be greater than the drawdown outside, the difference is at-
tributable to well loss. (See "Single-Well Tests.")
2 .25Tt (2) As noted in the section on "Hydraulic Conductivity," the
S=
r 02 hydraulic conductivities and, therefore, the transmissivities of
aquifers may be different in different directions. These differ-
where Q is the pumping rate, As is the drawdown across one ences may cause drawdowns measured at the same time in
log cycle, t is the time at which the drawdowns were meas- observation wells located at the same distances but in differ-
ured, and r 0 is the distance from the pumping well to the point ent directions from the discharging well to be different. Where
where the straight line intersects the zero-drawdown line . this condition exists, the distance-drawdown method may
Equations 1 and 2 are in consistent units. For the inconsist- yield satisfactory results only where three or more observation
ent units still in relatively common use in the United States, wells are located in the same direction but at different dis-
equations 1 and 2 should be used in the following forms: tances from the discharging well .

Observation wells
\ /Pumping well
C 6 A °
De pth to Water--- I Static water level
is
Pumping wate r
level
Confining bed
ho = Confined
- aquifer
Confining bed
Datum Plane
(1)
DISTANCE- DRAWDOWN GRAPH

0 ~
~ 1 . . -
W T , ,TT1T
T ~ i
Trrri~ r /
w t = 4 days rol
w 2 Q= 9 .3 m 3 min- '( 2,455 gal min's
~s =2 .4 m
ro = 30, 000 m
z
4
Log
cycle
z
3
0 S
0
12
1 10 100 1000 10,000
DISTANCE, IN METERS
Distance- Drawdown Analysis

Pumping well ytQ Land surface
Static potentiometric surface
t ess'o10
Cone of
deP
Confining bed \
F
Confined aquifer
f
F- Effective well radius
7 77-7TIT///////
`Confining bed
The most useful aquifer tests are those that include water- where sa is the drawdown in the aquifer at the effective radius
level measurements in observation wells . Such tests are com- of the pumping well, s, is well loss, Q is the pumping rate, B is
monly referred to as multiple-well tests . It is also possible to a factor related to the hydraulic characteristics of the aquifer
obtain useful data from production wells, even where obser- and the length of the pumping period, and C is a factor related
vation wells are not available . Such tests are referred to as to the characteristics of the well .
single-well tests and may consist of pumping a well at a single The factor C in equation 1 is normally considered to be con-
constant rate, or at two or more different but constant rates stant, so that, in a constant rate test, CQz is also constant . As a
(see "Well-Acceptance Tests and Well Efficiency") or, if the result, the well loss (s,) increases the total drawdown in the
well is not equipped with a pump, by "instantaneously" in- pumping well but does not affect the rate of change in the
troducing a known volume of water into the well . This discus- drawdown with time . It is, therefore, possible to analyze draw-
sion will be limited to tests involving a single constant rate . downs in the pumping well with the Jacob time-drawdown
In order to analyze the data, it is necessary to understand method using semilogarithmic graph paper . (See "Time-
the nature of the drawdown in a pumping well . The total Drawdown Analysis .") Drawdows are plotted on the arith-
drawdown (st) in most, if not all, pumping wells consists of two metic scale versus time on the logarithmic scale (2), and trans-
components (1) . One is the drawdown (sa ) in the aquifer, and missivity is determined from the slope of the straight line
the other is the drawdown (s w) that occurs as water moves through the use of the following equation :
from the aquifer into the well and up the well bore to the
pump intake . Thus, the drawdown in most pumping wells is _ 2 .3Q
greater than the drawdown in the aquifer at the radius of the 47rAs
pumping well .
The total drawdown (st) in a pumping well can be expressed Where well loss is present in the pumping well, the storage
in the form of the following equations : coefficient cannot be determined by extending the straight
line to the line of zero drawdown . Even where well loss is not
st =s a +s w present, the determination of the storage coefficient from
drawdowns in a pumping well likely will be subject to large
s t =BQ+CQz (1) error because the effective radius of the well may differ signif-
icantly from the "nominal" radius .

to
0 r I 1
_v \
\
\ A
ac
w 2 \\
w
x \SW \
\ with
3
A \ no
z ~ x n9
0 4 \x~x . well
\ \/° ss
~~
Sa
xx`x~xWl.fh \
Q
5 Tom- I log cycle ~~x,~yell
`xw
0 /
x`x °ss
6 xx
xx.x
7 I~ l 1 1IIII I I I I I I I I 1 I I I I ICI
0.1 I 10 100
TIME, IN MINUTES
RELATION OF PUMPING RATE

AND DRAWDOWN
0
w
F
w
z
5
z
3
0
0
0 I 2 3 4
PUMPING RATE, IN
CUBIC METERS PER MINUTE
In equation 1, drawdown in the pumping well is propor- rapidly as the pumping rate is increased . The relation between
tional to the pumping rate . The factor B in the aquifer-loss pumping rates and drawdown in a pumping well, if the well
term (BQ increases with time of pumping as long as water is was pumped for the same length of time at each rate, is shown
being derived from storage in the aquifer. The factor C in the in sketch 3 . The effect of well loss on drawdown in the pump-
well-loss term (CQ) is a constant if the characteristics of the ing well is important both in the analysis of data from pump-
well remain unchanged, but, because the pumping rate in the ing wells and in the design of supply wells .
well-loss term is squared, drawdown due to well loss increases
Single-Well Tests 43
Well Well
A B
Static Potentiomeiric surface
Cone of Cone of
depression with depression if well B were
well A pumping pumping and well A were idle
'1L1////////!// 1_
Confined aquifer
Well Well
A B
PotentiometrIc Divide
Cone of
S urf o ce depression with both
well A and B pumping
E-- E-
- Confined aquifer
E ~-- E-- 0
Pumping a well causes a drawdown in the ground-water Where pumping wells are spaced relatively close together,
level in the surrounding area. The drawdown in water level pumping of one will cause a drawdown in the others . Draw-
forms a conical-shaped depression in the water table or poten- downs are additive, so that the total drawdown in a pumping
tiometric surface, which is referred to as a cone of depression . well is equal to its own drawdown plus the drawdowns caused
(See "Cone of Depression .") Similarly, a well through which at its location by other pumping wells (1) (2) . The drawdowns
water is injected into an aquifer (that is, a recharge or inin pumping wells caused by withdrawals from other pumping
jection well) causes a buildup in ground-water level in the wells are referred to as well interference . As sketch 2 shows, a
form of a conical-shaped mound . divide forms in the potentiometric surface (or the water table,
The drawdown (s) in an aquifer caused by pumping at any in the case of an unconfined aquifer) between pumping wells .
point in the aquifer is directly proportional to the pumping At any point in an aquifer affected by both a discharging
rate (Q and the length of time (t) that pumping has been in well and a recharging well, the change in water level is equal
progress and is inversely proportional to the transmissivity (T), to the difference between the drawdown and the buildup. If
the storage coefficient (S), and the square of the distance (rz) the rates of discharge and recharge are the same and if the
between the pumping well and the point. In other words, wells are operated on the same schedule, the drawdown and
the buildup will cancel midway between the wells, and the
Qt water level at that point will remain unchanged from the
s ,_
T,S,rz static level (3). (See "Aquifer Boundaries.")

Pump
We see from the above functional equation that, in the of the additional waterlines and powerlines that must be in-
absence of well interference, drawdown in an aquifer at the stalled if the spacing of wells is increased to reduce well inter-
effective radius of a pumping well is directly proportional to ference. (See "Well-Field Design .")
the pumping rate . Conversely, the maximum pumping rate is Because well interference reduces the available drawdown,
directly proportional to the available drawdown . For confined it also reduces the maximum yield of a well. Well interference
aquifers, available drawdown is normally considered to be the is, therefore, an important matter in the design of well fields
distance between the prepumping water level and the top of where it is desirable for each well to be pumped at the largest
the aquifer . For unconfined aquifers, available drawdown is possible rate. We can see from equation 1 that, for a group of
normally considered to be about 60 percent of the saturated wells pumped at the same rate and on the same schedule, the
aquifer thickness . well interference caused by any well on another well in the
Where the pumping rate of a well is such that only a part of group is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
the available drawdown is utilized, the only effect of well between the two wells (r Z) . Therefore, excessive well inter-
interference is to lower the pumping level and, thereby, ference is avoided by increasing the spacing between wells
increase pumping costs. In the design of a well field, the in- and by locating the wells along a line rather than in a circle or
crease in pumping cost must be evaluated along with the cost in a grid pattern .
Well Interference 45
f-%%.4 vII a_1% u%_'vi'Ivr-% 1%aIL 7
One of the assumptions inherent in the Theis equation (and conditions, serve as a source of recharge to the aquifer. Ex-
in most other fundamental ground-water flow equations) is amples of recharge boundaries include the zones of contact
that the aquifer to which it is being applied is infinite in extent . between an aquifer and a perennial stream that completely
Obviously, no such aquifer exists on Earth . However, many penetrates the aquifer or the ocean .
aquifers are areally extensive, and, because pumping will not An impermeable boundary is a boundary that flow lines do
affect recharge or discharge significantly for many years, not cross . Such boundaries exist where aquifers terminate
most water pumped is from ground-water storage ; as a conse- against "impermeable" material . Examples include the con-
quence, water levels must decline for many years . An excel- tact between an aquifer composed of sand and a laterally ad-
lent example of such an aquifer is that underlying the High jacent bed composed of clay .
Plains from Texas to South Dakota . The position and nature of aquifer boundaries are of critical
All aquifers are bounded in both the vertical direction and importance in many ground-water problems, including the
the horizontal direction . For example, vertical boundaries may movement and fate of pollutants and the response of aquifers
include the water table, the plane of contact between each to withdrawals . Depending on the direction of the hydraulic
aquifer and each confining bed, and the plane marking the gradient, a stream, for example, may be either the source or
lower limit of the zone of interconnected openings-in other the destination of a pollutant .
words, the base of the ground-water system . Lateral boundaries within the cone of depression have a
Hydraulically, aquifer boundaries are of two types : profound effect on the response of an aquifer to withdrawals .
recharge boundaries and impermeable boundaries . A recharge To analyze, or to predict, the effect of a lateral boundary, it is
boundary is a boundary along which flow lines originate . In necessary to "make" the aquifer appear to be of infinite
other words, such a boundary will, under certain hydraulic extent . This feat is accomplished through the use of imaginary
REAL SYSTEM
HYDRAULIC COUNTERPART OF REAL SYSTEM
HYDRAULIC COUNTERPART OF REAL SYSTEM
Discharging
real well
Drawdown
~by image well -I
I real wen
J
Drawdown by kDIScharglng
I I image well
y. J I -
,e e1
-Confining bed - -- -
PLAN VIEW OF THE HYDRAULIC COUNTERPART
PLAN VIEW OF THE HYDRAULIC COUNTERPART
I
r,
C
i
to
l
d iechargin~
as,W
,
reiacha rgin
real well image well
/ Er~\
0
9_~ E

wells and the theory of images . Sketches 1 and 2 show, in both CROSS SECTION THROUGH AQUIFER
plan view and profile, how image wells are used to compen- Land surface Pumping well,, ~~ Stream
sate, hydraulically, for the effects of both recharging and im-

water table
permeable boundaries . (See "Well Interference .") _- ___- Aquifer
The key feature of a recharge boundary is that withdrawals
from the aquifer do not produce drawdowns across the ---Confining material -----------
_ - _- _-
boundary. A perennial stream in intimate contact with an

aquifer represents a recharge boundary because pumping PLAN VIEW OF BOUNDARIES, PUMPING WELLS,
from the aquifer will induce recharge from the stream . The AND IMAGE WELLS
hydraulic effect of a recharge boundary can be duplicated by
Impermeable Recharge
assuming that a recharging image well is present on the side of boundary \I
/boundary
the boundary opposite the real discharging well. Water is in-

F--B -}-A4--B- A4---B-I-`A4---B--~A4 B-~-A~
jected into the image well at the same rate and on the same
schedule that water is withdrawn from the real well . In the 0 0 . .~ 0 . 0 0
PW Ii
plan view in sketch 1, flow lines originate at the boundary, and Ia z
Iio Is Is 13 Is 17 Is
equipotential lines parallel the boundary at the closest point Discharging image Recharging image
well
well
to the pumping (real) well . Pumping
Repeats to infinity Repeats to infinity---~-
The key feature of an impermeable boundary is that no
E
well
water can cross it. Such a boundary, sometimes termed a "no- BALANCING OF WELLS ACROSS BOUNDARIES
flow boundary," resembles a divide in the water table or the Impermeable Recharge
potentiometric surface of a confined aquifer . The effect of an boundary boundary
impermeable boundary can be duplicated by assuming that a Iz PW PW I,
discharging image well is present on the side of the boundary Ia Il Iz 13
opposite the real discharging well . The image well withdraws Is 13 Ia 11
Is 1, Is
water at the same rate and on the same schedule as the real Ia
I,
Is
Iio 17
well . Flow lines tend to be parallel to an impermeable bound-
ary, and equipotential lines intersect it at a right angle.
The image-well theory is an essential tool in the design of
well fields near aquifer boundaries . Thus, on the basis of
minimizing the lowering of water levels, the following condi-
tions apply: and gravel bordered on one side by a perennial stream (a re-
1 . Pumping wells should be located parallel to and as close as charge boundary) and on the other by impermeable bedrock
possible to recharging boundaries . (an impermeable boundary) .
2. Pumping wells should be located perpendicular to and as Contrary to first impression, these boundary conditions can-
far as possible from impermeable boundaries. not be satisfied with only a recharging image well and a dis-
Sketches 1 and 2 illustrate the effect of single boundaries charging image well . Additional image wells are required, as
and show how their hydraulic effect is compensated for sketch 3 shows, to compensate for the effect of the image
through the use of single image wells. It is assumed in these wells on the opposite boundaries. Because each new image
sketches that other boundaries are so remote that they have a well added to the array affects the opposite boundary, it is
negligible effect on the areas depicted. At many places, necessary to continue adding image wells until their distances
however, pumping wells are affected by two or more bound- from the boundaries are so great that their effect becomes
aries. One example is an alluvial aquifer composed of sand negligible.
Aquifer Boundaries 47
" ~. v " v i ~ " " r v " r v vV V 1 ~ v/ 1 " ~ " L. `J
TIME, IN MINUTES
the early data, and a "match point" is selected for use in
10 102 10 3 104 105 calculating values of T and S. The position of the type curve,
in the region where the drawdowns depart from the type
x x curve, is traced onto the data plot (1) (3) . The trace of the type
w
H s; x x x
curve shows where the drawdowns would have plotted if there
w x had been no boundary effect . The differences in drawdown
x
Z x `Trace of Theis between the data plot and the trace of the type curve show
x type curve the effect of an aquifer boundary. The direction in which the
z drawdowns depart from the type curve-that in the direc-
tion of either greater drawdowns or lesser drawdowns-shows
x
0 sr
the type of boundary .
x
Q Drawdowns greater than those defined by the trace of the
0 x type curve indicate the presence of an impermeable boundary
0.01 because, as noted above, the effect of such boundaries can be
duplicated with an imaginary discharging well (1) . Conversely,
a recharge boundary causes drawdowns to be less than those
defined by the trace of the type curve (3) .
TIME, IN MINUTES
TIME, IN MINUTES
1 10
10 102 10 , 4
0 10 102 10, 10 4 10 ,
101
W 0.2 curve
H
w w
H type X
x x
x x
0.4 W .\5
x x ~" \Si
Z 1 .0 ok
Z x~x
Z 0.6
Z x/
O 0.8
O 0.1 ~~~x
x
1.0 Q Sr
0
1 .2 X
0 .01
When an aquifer test is conducted near one of the lateral

boundaries of an aquifer, the drawdown data depart from the
Theis type curve and from the initial straight line produced by TIME, IN MINUTES
the Jacob method . The hydraulic effect of lateral boundaries 1 10 102 10 3 104
0
is assumed, for analytical convenience, to be due to the pres-
ence of other wells . (See "Aquifer Boundaries .") Thus, a 10
w 0 .2
recharge boundary has the same effect on drawdowns as a re- w
charging image well located across the boundary and at the 0.4
same distance from the boundary as the real well. The image Z
well is assumed to operate on the same schedule and at the z 0.6
same rate as the real well. Similarly, an impermeable bound-
O
ary has the same effect on drawdowns as a discharging image 0 0.8
well.
To analyze aquifer-test data affected by either a recharge Q
boundary or an impermeable boundary, the early drawdown
data in the observation wells nearest the pumping well must
not be affected by the boundary. These data, then, show only (4)
the effect of the real well and can be used to determine the In the Jacob method, drawdowns begin to plot along a
transmissivity (T) and the storage coefficient (S) of the aquifer. straight line after the test has been underway for some time (2)
(See "Analysis of Aquifer-Test Data" and "Time-Drawdown (4) . The time at which the straight-line plot begins depends on
Analysis .") In the Theis method, the type curve is matched to the values of T and S of the aquifer and on the square of the

distance between the observation well and the pumping well .
(See "Time-Drawdown Analysis.") Values of T and S are deter- tr t;
mined from the first straight-line segment defined by the draw-
downs after the start of the aquifer test. The slope of this where rr is the distance from the observation well to the real
straight line depends on the transmissivity (T) and on the well, r; is the distance from the observation well to the image
pumping rate (Q . If a boundary is present, the drawdowns will well, tr is the time at which a drawdown of sr is caused by the
depart from the first straight-line segment and begin to fall real well at the observation well, and t; is the time at which a
along another straight line (2) (4) . drawdown of s; is caused by the image well at the observation
According to image-well theory, the effect of a recharge well.
boundary can be duplicated by assuming that water is in-
jected into the aquifer through a recharging image well at the
same rate that water is being withdrawn from the real well . It
follows, therefore, that, when the full effect of a recharge
boundary is felt at an observation well, there will be no further
increase in drawdown, and the water level in the well will sta-
bilize . At this point in both the Theis and the Jacob methods,
drawdowns plot along a straight line having a constant
drawdown (3) (4) . Conversely, an impermeable boundary
causes the rate of drawdown to increase. In the Jacob
method, as a result, the drawdowns plot along a new straight
line having twice the slope as the line drawn through the draw-
downs that occurred before the effect of the boundary was
felt (2) .
A word of caution should be injected here regarding use of
the Jacob method when it is suspected that an aquifer test
may be affected by boundary conditions. In many cases, the
boundary begins to affect drawdowns before the method is
applicable, the result being that T and S values determined
from the data are erroneous, and the effect of the boundary is
not identified . When it is suspected that an aquifer test may
be affected by boundary conditions, the data should, at least
initially, be analyzed with the Theis method .
The position and the nature of many boundaries are ob- Solving equation 1 for the distance to the image well from
vious . For example, the most common recharge boundaries the observation well, we obtain
are streams and lakes; possibly, the most common im-
permeable boundaries are the bedrock walls of alluvial
valleys . The hydraulic distance to these boundaries, however,
may not be obvious. A stream or lake may penetrate only a
short distance into an aquifer, and their bottoms may be
underlain by fine-grained material that hampers movement of The image well is located at some point on a circle having a
water into the aquifer . Hydraulically, the boundaries formed radius of r; centered on the observation well (5) . Because the
by these surface-water bodies will appear to be farther from image well is the same distance from the boundary as the real
the pumping well than the near shore . Similarly, if a small well, we know the boundary is halfway between the image
amount of water moves across the bedrock wall of a valley, well and the pumping well (5) .
the hydraulic distance to the impermeable boundary will be If the boundary is a stream or valley wall or some other
greater than the distance to the valley wall. feature whose physical position is obvious, its "hydraulic posi-
Fortunately, the hydraulic distance to boundaries can be tion" may be determined by using data from a single observa-
determined from the analysis of aquifer-test data. According tion well. If, on the other hand, the boundary is the wall of a
to the Theis equation, if we deal with equal drawdowns buried valley or some other feature not obvious from the land
caused by the real well and the image well (in other words, if surface, distances to the image well from three observation
sr =s;), then wells may be needed to identify the position of the boundary .
Tests Affected by Lateral Boundaries 49

..._ . v - . . . a.. v . I.- V " .L \E,%
E
./ 1%_%_V1 N11 111 4111111 \ V V111- V1-i
Unconfined
aquifer
Leaky_- confining -bed---
Senniconfined
aquifer
In the development of the Theis equation for the analysis of aquifers (also referred to in ground-water literature as "leaky
aquifer-test data, it was assumed that all water discharged aquifers").
from the pumping well was derived instantaneously from Sketches 1 through 3 illustrate three different conditions
storage in the aquifer . (See "Analysis of Aquifer-Test Data.") commonly encountered in the field . Sketch 1 shows a con-
Therefore, in the case of a confined aquifer, at least during the fined aquifer bounded by thick, impermeable confining beds.
period of the test, the movement of water into the aquifer Water initially pumped from such an aquifer is from storage,
across its overlying and underlying confining beds is negligi- and aquifer-test data can be analyzed by using the Theis equa-
ble . This assumption is satisfied by many confined aquifers. tion . Sketch 2 shows an aquifer overlain by a thick, leaky con-
Many other aquifers, however, are bounded by leaky confin- fining bed that, during an aquifer test, yields significant water
ing beds that transmit water into the aquifer in response to the from storage . The aquifer in this case may properly be referred
withdrawals and cause drawdowns to differ from those that to as a semiconfined aquifer, and the release of water from
would be predicted by the Theis equation . The analysis of storage in the confining bed affects the analysis of aquifer-test
aquifer tests conducted on these aquifers requires the use of data. Sketch 3 shows an aquifer overlain by a thin confining
the methods that have been developed for semiconfined bed that does not yield significant water from storage but that

HANTUSH TYPE CURVES FOR SEMICONFINED AQUIFERS
THAT RECEIVE WATER FROM STORAGE IN CONFINING BEDS beds are matched to the family of type curves shown in sketch
102 5. These type curves are based on equations developed by
Hantush and Jacob and, for convenience, will be referred to
as the Hantush-Jacob curves . The four coordinates of the
10 match point are substituted into the following equations to
determine T and S:
QW(u,rI B)
T= (3)
47rs
4Ttu
S=
WE r2
10-~
HANTUSH-JACOB TYPE CURVES FOR AQUIFERS
RECEIVING LEAKAGE ACROSS CONFINING BEDS
10
10-3 CAN' 0 .0
0 .1
0
SVp e 0 .2
e~s 0 .6
0 .4
10-° 0 .8
AL
10-' 1 10 102 10, 10 4 105 10 , 1 .0
1/u 1 .5
(4)
vim,
2 .0
r/(3 = 2 .5
is sufficiently permeable to transmit water from the overlying
unconfined aquifer into the semiconfined aquifer . Methods
have been devised, largely by Madhi Hantush and C. E. Jacob,
for use in analyzing the leaky conditions illustrated in 0 .01
sketches
10 2 and 3 . 10- ' 1 .0 10 10, 3 4
1/u
The use of these methods involves matching data plots with (5)
type curves, as the Theis method does. The major difference is
that, whereas the Theis method involves use of a single type
curve, the methods applicable to semiconfined aquifers in- In planning and conducting aquifer tests, hydrologists must
volve "families" of type curves, each curve of which reflects give careful consideration to the hydraulic characteristics of
different combinations of the hydraulic characteristics of the the aquifer and to the type of boundary conditions (either
aquifer and the confining beds. Data plots of s versus t on recharge or impermeable) that are likely to exist in the vicinity
logarithmic graph paper for aquifer tests affected by release of the test site. Following completion of the test, the next
of water from storage in the confining beds are matched to problem is to select the method of analysis that most closely
the family of type curves illustrated in sketch 4. For con- represents the geologic and hydrologic conditions in the area
venience, these curves are referred to as Hantush type. Four affected by the test. When these conditions are not well
match-point coordinates are selected and substituted into the known, the common practice is to prepare a data plot of s ver-
following equations to determine values of T and S: sus t on logarithmic paper and match it with the Theis type
curve. If the data closely match the type curve, the values of T
T - QH(u,o) and S determined by using the Theis equation should be
4rs reliable . Significant departures of the data from the type
curve generally reflect the presence of lateral boundaries or
4Ttu leaky confining beds. Both the geology of the area and the
S=
r2 shape of the data plot may provide clues as to which of these
conditions most likely exist . It is important to note, however,
Data plots of s versus t on logarithmic graph paper for that some data plots for tests affected by impermeable
aquifer tests affected by leakage of water across confining boundaries are similar in shape to the Hantush curves .
Tests Affected by Leaky Confining Beds 51

WILL-C-UNJ 1 KUL 1 IUN Mt 1 HUUJ
SUPPLY WELL SUPPLY WELL Dug wells constructed with a pickax and shovel were rela-
( Screened ) (Open hole ) tively common in rural areas of the eastern and central parts
of the country before the 1940's. Such wells are reasonably ef-
fective in fine-grained materials, such as glacial till, and thinly
bedded sand and clay. The large irrigation ponds that extend
below the water table, now being dug by bulldozer or dragline
in the Atlantic Coastal Plain, are the modern version of the
dug well .
Bored wells are constructed with earth augers turned either
by hand or by power equipment and are the modern equiv-
alent of the "hand-dug" well. Bored wells are relatively effec-
tive in material of low hydraulic conductivity and in areas
underlain by thin surficial layers of silty and clayey sand .
Driven wells are constructed by driving a casing equipped

with a screened drive point. Because of their relatively small
diameter, these wells are suitable only for relatively
permeable surficial aquifers . They are widely used as sources
of domestic- and farm-water supplies in those parts of the
Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains underlain by permeable sand .
Jetted wells are constructed by excavating a hole with a
high-pressure jet of water . In dense clays, shell beds, and par-
tially cemented layers, it may be necessary to attach a chisel
bit to the jet pipe and alternately raise and drop the pipe to
The seven different methods of well construction in fairly cut a hole.
common use are listed in the table. The first four methods are The percussion drilling method (commonly referred to as
limited to relatively shallow depths and are most commonly the cable-tool method) consists of alternately raising and
employed in the construction of domestic wells. One of the dropping a heavy weight equipped with a chisel bit. The rock
last three methods is usually employed in the construction of at the bottom of the hole is thus shattered and, together with
municipal and industrial wells and domestic wells in con- water, forms a slurry that is removed with a bailer. In uncon-
solidated rock. solidated material, the casing is driven a few feet at a time
The objectives of well construction are to excavate a hole, ahead of the drilling. After drilling to the maximum depth to
usually of small diameter in comparison with the depth, to an be reached by the well, a screen is "telescoped" inside the
aquifer and to provide a means for water to enter the hole casing and held in place while the casing is pulled back to ex-
while rock material is excluded. The means of excavating the pose the screen (1) . The top of the screen is sealed against the
hole is different for different methods. casing by expanding a lead packer . In wells in consolidated
SUITABILITY OF DIFFERENT WELL-CONSTRUCTION METHODS TO GEOLOGIC CONDITIONS
[Modified from U .S . Environmental Protection Agency (1974), table 3]
Drilled
Percussion Rotary
Characteristics Dug Bored Driven jetted (cable tool) Hydraulic Air
Maximum practical depth, in m (ft) ------------ 15 (50) 30000) 15 (50) 30000) 300 (1,000) 300 (1,000) 250 (800)
Range in diameter, in cm (in.) ----------------- 1-6 m (3-20 ft) 5-75 (2-30) 3-6 (1-2) 5-30 (2-12) 10-46 (4-18) 10-61 (4-24) 10-25 (4-10)
Unconsolidated material :
Silt ------------------------------------ X X X X X X
Sand ----------------------------------- X X X X X X
Gravel --------------------------------- X X X X
Glacial till ------------------------------ X X X X
Shell and limestone ----------------------- X X X X X
Consolidated material :
Cemented gravel ------------------------- X X X X
Sandstone --------------------------------------------------------------------------- X X X
Limestone --------------------------------------------------------------------------- X X X
Shale ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- X X X
Igneousand metamorphic rocks---------------------------------------------------------- X X X

rock, the normal practice is to "seat" the casing firmly in the SUPPLY WELL
top of the rock and drill an open hole to the depth required to ( Multiple screen, gravel pack )
obtain the needed yield (2) .
The hydraulic rotary method excavates a hole by rotating a
drill pipe to which one of several types of drag or roller bits is
attached . Water containing clay is circulated down the drill
pipe in the "normal rotary" method and up the annular space,
both to cool the bit and to remove the rock cuttings . In the
"reverse rotary" method, the drilling fluid is circulated down
the annular space and up the drill pipe . Clay in the drilling
fluid adheres to the side of the hole and, together with the
pressure exerted in the hole by the drilling fluid, prevents cav-
ing of the formation material . Thus, in the hydraulic rotary
method, it is not necessary to install permanent-well casing
during the drilling process . When the hole reaches the desired
depth, a line of casing containing sections of screen at the
desired intervals is lowered into the well . Hydraulic rotary is
the method most commonly employed in drilling large-yield
wells in areas underlain by thick sequences of unconsolidated
deposits, such as the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains . Where
aquifers consist of alternating thin beds of sand and clay, the
common practice is to install a gravel envelope around the
screens . Such wells are referred to as gravel packed (3) .
The air rotary method is similar to the hydraulic rotary
method, except that the drilling fluid is air rather than mud .
The air rotary method is suitable only for drilling in consoli-
dated rocks . Most air rotary rigs are also equipped with mud
pumps, which permit them to be used in the hydraulic rotary
mode for drilling through saturated unconsolidated rock . This
method is widely used in the construction of wells in fractured
bedrock .
When the construction phase has been completed, it is nec-
essary to begin the phase referred to as well development . The
objective of this phase is to remove clay, silt, and fine-grained
sand from the area adjacent to the screen or open hole so that
the well will produce sediment-free water . The simplest
method of development is to pump water from the well at a
gradually increasing rate, the final rate being larger than the
planned production rate . However, this method is not nor- sure through orifices directed at the inside of the screen . The
mally successful in screened and gravel-packed wells drilled coarser grained particles pulled into the well during develop-
by the hydraulic rotary method . For these wells, it is necessary ment tend to settle to the bottom of the well and must be re-
to use a surge block or some other means to alternately force moved with a bailer or pump. Chemicals that disperse clays
water into the formation and pull it back into the well . One of and other fine-grained particles are also used as an aid in well
the most effective methods is to pump water under high pres- development .
Well-Construction Methods 53
VV IL LL LV%JJ
Geophysical logs
Depth below Electric log Gamma-

land surface SP Apparent ray
Driller's log
meters - resistivity log
Sand, coarse with pebbles ---
(Cased to 4 m)
(Water table at 9 m)
(Freshwater)
15 .2
Clay , red and green
19 .0
Sand, coarse
(Fr eshwat er)
26 .6
Clay, brown
297
Clayey sand
(Freshwater)
38 .8
Clay, reddish brown
43 .3
Sand
(Brackish water)
50 .3
Clay, red
53 .9
Sand, coarse
(Saltwater)
61 .3
Clay, brown
0
irec ion o 4F
increasing va 1 u
An important part of well construction is determining the Geophysical logs provide indirect information on the char-
character and the thickness of the different layers of material acter of rock layers . The most common type of geophysical
penetrated by the well and the quality of the water in the log, the type normally referred to as an electric log, consists of
permeable zones . This information is essential for the installa- a record of the spontaneous electrical potentials generated in
tion of casing and for the proper placement of screens . Infor- the borehole and the apparent electrical resistivity of the rock
mation on materials penetrated is recorded in the form of units . Several types of electric loggers are available, but
"logs ." The logs most commonly prepared for supply wells are nearly all provide continuous graphs of spontaneous potential
drillers' logs and geophysical (electric) logs . Copies of logs and resistivity as a sensing device is lowered into and removed
should be carefully preserved by the well owner as a part of from the borehole . Electric logs can be made only in the un-
the file on each well . cased portion of drill holes . The part of the hole to be logged
Drillers' logs consist of written descriptions of the material must also contain drilling mud or water.
penetrated by wells. These descriptions are based both on The spontaneous potential log (which is usually referred to
samples of rock cuttings brought to the surface during drilling as the SP log) is a record of the differences in the voltages of
operations and on changes in the rate of penetration of the an electrode at the land surface and an electrode in the bore-
drill and in the vibration of the rig . The well driller may also hole . Variations in voltage occur as a result of electro-
collect samples of the rock cuttings for study by geologists on chemical and other spontaneous electrical effects . The SP
his staff or those on the staff of State geological surveys or graph is relatively featureless in shallow water wells that
Federal and State water-resources agencies . Descriptions of penetrate only the freshwater zone . The right-hand boundary
these samples made by utilizing a microscope and other aids of an SP log generally indicates impermeable beds such as
are commonly referred to as a geologic log to differentiate clay, shale, and bedrock . The left-hand boundary generally in-
them from the driller's log . If the well is to be finished with a dicates sand, cavernous limestone, and other permeable
screen, the well driller will retain samples of material from the layers .
principal water-bearing zones for use in selecting the slot size
of screens .

The resistivity log is a record of the resistance to the flow of Several other types of geophysical logs are available, in-
an alternating electric current offered by the rock layers and cluding gamma-ray logs that record the rate of emission of
their contained fluids and the fluid in the borehole. Several gamma rays by different rock layers . In fact, geophysical log-
different electrode arrangements are used to measure the ging is a complex topic that has been developed, largely by
resistivity of different volumes of material, but the arrange- the oil industry, into an advanced technical field . It is being
ment most commonly used by the water-well industry is re- utilized to an increasing extent by the water-well industry,
ferred to as the single-point electrode . The resistivity of water- especially in conjunction with the construction of large-yield
bearing material depends primarily on the salt content of the wells by the hydraulic rotary method .
water and the porosity of the material . Clay layers normally It is also important, either during well construction or fol-
have a low resistivity because of their large porosity, and the lowing geophysical logging, to collect, for chemical analyses,
water that they contain tends to be relatively highly miner- water samples from the permeable zones that may supply
alized . In contrast, sand layers saturated with freshwater tend water to the completed well . The chemical analyses made on
to have a high resistivity. Sand layers containing salty water, these samples should include the concentration of any con-
on the other hand, tend to have a low resistivity resembling stituents that are known to be a problem in other supply wells
that of clay layers . Such layers tend to have a strongly nega- drawing from the aquifer. These constituents might include
tive spontaneous potential that, viewed together with the iron, manganese, chloride, sulfate, nitrate, total dissolved
resistivity, aids in identification of the layers . solids, and others . (See "Quality of Ground Water.")
Well Logs 55
WATER-WELL DESIC;N
WATER-WELL DESIGNS INCLUDE Water-well design is the first step in the construction
SPECIFICATIONS ON of large-yield wells, such as those required by municipalities
and industries . Before the initial design is started, it is neces-
sary to know the yield expected from the well, the depth to
aquifers underlying the area, the composition and hydraulic
.. o characteristics of those aquifers, and the quality of water in
o
Thickness and . . o o the aquifers . If information on an aquifer is not already avail-
depth of grout : o II o able from other wells in the area, it will be necessary to con
sea[ . . o o struct a test well before completing the design . The com-
. o II IIo p leted design should specify the diameter, the total depth of
the well and the position of the screen or open-hole sections,
the method of construction, the materials to be used in the
Diameter, depth, construction, and, if a gravel pack is required, its thickness
and composition
Ir of casing and composition (1) .
The well diameter is determined primarily by two factors-
the desired yield and the depth to the source aquifer . The
diameter has a relatively insignificant effect on the yield (2) .
_= For example, doubling the diameter from 15 to 30 centimeters
results in only about a 10 percent increase in yield .
WELL DIAMETER VERSUS YIELD
AT A CONSTANT DRAWDOWN
140
.
.o 0 Diameter, length,
0 ,z 13 0
0-6
o .a slot size, and
Thickness and- . - 6',,
composition of U
composition of . o.'o
gravel pack,D- o screen, if required w
o. o a
if required -moo . 120
Z
/0011
110 /,
100
6 12 18 24 30 36
WELL DIAMETER, IN INCHES
15 30 45 60 75 90
WELL DIAMETER, IN CENTIMETERS
The primary effect of well diameter on yield is related to

the size of the pump that can be installed, which, in turn,
determines the pumping rate . Data on pumping rate, pump
size, and well diameter are given in table 1 . In some designs,
the upper part of the well is made larger than the remainder of
the well in order to accommodate the pump .

Table 1 . Data on yield, pump size, and well diameter The depth to the source aquifer also affects the well
[ID, inside diameter; OD, outside diameter] diameter to the extent that wells expected to reach aquifers
Nominal size Optimum well more than a few hundred feet below land surface must be
Anticipated well yield of pump bowls diameter large enough to accept the larger diameter cable tool or drill
In gal min - ' In ft 3 min - ' In m 3 min - ' (in .) (in .) rods required to reach these depths.
The total depth of a well depends on the depth below land
Less than 100 Less than 13 Less than 0.38 4 6 ID
75-175 10-23 .28- .66 5 8 ID surface to the lowest water-bearing zone to be tapped .
150-400 20-53 .57-1 .52 6 10 ID
350-650 47-87 1 .33-2 .46 Table 2. Open areas of Johnson well screens
8 12 ID
600-900 80-120 2 .27-3 .41 10 [n denotes width of screen opening in thousandths (1/1,000) of an inch. For
14 OD
850-1,300 113-173 3 .22-4 .93 12 example, slot no. 10 indicates an opening 10/1,000 or 0 .01 inch]
16 OD
1,200-1,800 160-240 4 .55-6 .82 14 20 OD Nominal
1,600-3,000 213-400 6 .06-11 .37 16 24 OD
screen Open areas per linear foot
diameter of screen for slot no . n (ft z)
(in .) 10 20 40 60 80 100 150
The screen diameter and length, the slot size, and the 4 ---------- 0.17 0.30 0.47 0.60 0.68 0.64 0.76
pumping rate determine the velocity at which water passes 6 ---------- .17 .32 .53 .69 .81 .92 .97
through the screen (that is, the so-called "entrance velocity"). 8 ---------- .22 .41 .69 .90 1 .05 1 .19 1 .28
The entrance velocity should not normally exceed about 6 ft 10 ---------- .28 .51 .87 .96 1 .15 1 .30 1 .60
min - ' (1 .8 m min - '). If the anticipated yield in cubic feet per 12 ---------- .26 .50 .87 1 .13 1 .37 1 .55 1 .89
minute shown in table 1 is divided by 6 ft min - ', the result is 14 ---------- .30 .56 .96 1 .26 1 .53 1 .74 2.11
the minimum open area of screen needed in square feet. , 16 ---------- .34 .64 1 .11 1 .45 1 .75 1 .98 2.42
Because screen openings are partially blocked by aquifer or

gravel-packed material, some well drillers increase the open
The position of the screen depends on the thickness and
area needed by 50 to 100 percent to assure that entrance composition of the source aquifer and whether the well is be-
velocities will not be excessive . ing designed to obtain the maximum possible yield . Because
The amount of open area per unit length of well screen de- withdrawals from unconfined aquifers result in dewatering of
pends on the diameter, the slot size, and the type of screen . the aquifers, wells in these aquifers are normally screened
Table 2 shows, for example, the open area of screens manu-
only in the lower part in order to obtain the maximum avail-
factured by the Edward E. Johnson Co.' If the open area
able drawdown . In confined aquifers, screens are set either in
needed in square feet is divided by the open area per linear
the most permeable part of the aquifer or, where vertical dif-
foot, the result is the length of screen, in feet, required to pro-
ferences in hydraulic conductivity are not significant, in the
vide the yield without exceeding the recommended entrance middle part of the aquifer.
velocity . The length of the screen specified in the well design
depends on the thickness of the aquifer, the desired yield,
whether the aquifer is unconfined or confined, and economic
'Because dimensions of screens manufactured in the United States are still considerations . When an attempt is being made to obtain the
expressed in inches or feet, these units will be used in this discussion . SI units
will be added only where it is useful to do so . maximum available yield, screens are normally installed in the
2 The use of a company name is for identification purposes only and does not lower 30 to 40 percent of unconfined aquifers and in the
imply endorsement by the U .S . Geological Survey. middle 70 to 80 percent of confined aquifers .
Water-Well Design 57
Of these requirements, the constant, carefully regulated
0 Constant-rate test
pumping rate or rates and the accurate water-level
measurements are the most important . When a constant-rate
2 well-acceptance test has been completed, the drawdown data
= 0 .257 m 3
can be analyzed to determine the aquifer transmissivity. (See
4 "Single-Well Tests.")
Many well-acceptance tests are made with temporary
to 6
pump installations, usually powered with a gasoline or diesel
w engine . Instead of maintaining a constant rate for the duration
Q=2 .15
Water-level .\'~ . of the test, the engine is frequently stopped to add fuel or to
8 measurements check the oil level or for numerous other reasons . The rate
may also be increased and decreased on an irregular, un-
planned schedule or, more commonly, gradually reduced dur-
Multiple-step test
ing the test in an effort to maintain a pumping level above the
O 0
_ Step No . I Each step =8 hr) pump intake. In such tests, the "yield" of the well is normally
reported to be the final pumping rate.
2
No . I Determining the long-term yield of a well from data col-
0.4m3min 1 m-1 \
Step No . 2
lected during a short-period well-acceptance test is one of the
4 most important, practical problems in ground-water
No . 2 -- hydrology . Two of the most important factors that must be
6 -=15 = 0 .3 m3 min- I m -1 ~-~Step No . 3 considered are the extent to which the yield will decrease if
5
- No .3 - I the well is pumped continuously for periods longer than the
- 1 .s test period and the effect on the yield of changes in the static
8 =0 .24 m 3 min lm - l
7 .5 1 1 1 1 1 (regional) water level from that existing at the time of the test.
5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 When data are available only from the production well and
HOURS when the pumping rate was not held constant during the
(2) acceptance test, the estimate of the long-term yield must
usually be based on an analysis of specific-capacity data.
Specific capacity is the yield per unit of drawdown and is
determined by dividing the pumping rate at any time during
the test by the drawdown at the same time. Thus,
Many supply-well contracts require a "guaranteed" yield,
and some stipulate that the well reach a certain level of "effi-
ciency." Most contracts also specify the length of the "draw-
down test" that must be conducted to demonstrate that the pumping rate - Q (1 )
yield requirement is met . For example, many States require specific capacity =
drawdown s,
that tests of public-supply wells be at least 24 hours. Tests of
most industrial and irrigation wells probably do not exceed
about 8 hours.
Well-acceptance tests, if properly conducted, not only can Before the development of steady-state conditions, a part
confirm the yield of a well and the size of the production of the water pumped from an aquifer is derived from storage .
pump that is needed but can also provide information of great The time required for steady-state conditions to develop
value in well operation and maintenance . Such tests should, depends largely on the distance to and characteristics of the
therefore, be conducted with the same care as aquifer tests recharge and discharge areas and the hydraulic characteristics
made to determine the hydraulic characteristics of aquifers. A of the aquifer . The time required to reach a steady state is in-
properly conducted test will include : dependent of the pumping rate. At some places in some
1 . Determination of well interference from nearby pumping aquifers, a steady-state condition will be reached in several
wells, based on accurate water-level measurements days, whereas, in others, six months to a year may be required;
made before the drawdown test. in some arid areas, a steady-state condition may never be
2 . A pumping rate that is either held constant during the achieved . Depending on the length of the well-acceptance
entire test (1) or increased in steps of equal length (2) . test and the period required to reach a steady-state condition,
The pumping rate during each step should be held it may be appropriate, in estimating the long-term yield of a
constant, and the length of each step should be at well, to use a specific capacity smaller than that determined
least 2 hours. during the test .

DECLINE IN SPECIFIC CAPACITY WITH TIME level of either the highest or the lowest water-bearing opening
AT A CONTINUOUS PUMPING RATE penetrated by the well . The choice of the highest or the lowest
opening depends on the chemical composition of the water
and whether water cascading from openings above the pump-
ing level results in precipitation of minerals on the side of the
10 well and on the pump intake . If such precipitation is expected,
the maximum pumping level should not be below the highest
Z 20 opening . The yield of a well is not increased by a pumping
W
V level below the lowest opening, and the maximum yield may,
W 30 in fact, be attained at a much higher level .
To predict the maximum continuous long-term yield, it is
z z necessary to estimate how much the static water level, and
40
thus the available drawdown, may decline from the position
that it occupied during the acceptance test . Records of water-
50
J U level fluctuations in long-term observation wells in the area
v a
w a will be useful in this effort .
o a 60
U Well efficiency is an important consideration both in well
design and in well construction and development . The objec-
70 tive, of course, is to avoid excessive energy costs by designing
U
W and constructing wells that will yield the required water with
80 the least drawdown .
Well efficiency can be defined as the ratio of the drawdown
90 DAYS (sa ) in the aquifer at the radius of the pumping well to the
I 2 5 10 30 drawdown (st ) inside the well . (See "Single-Well Tests .") Thus,
365
100 the equation
I 10 100 1000 10,000
HOURS
(3)
Sketch 3 shows the decline in specific capacity with time E = ax

S 100
when a well is pumped continuously at a constant rate and all St
the water is derived from storage in an isotropic and homoge-
neous aquifer. For convenience in preparing the sketch, a
value of 100 percent was assigned to the specific capacity 1
hour after the pump was started . The rate at which the expresses well efficiency as a percentage .
specific capacity decreases depends on the decline of the Drawdows in pumping wells are measured during well-
water level due to depletion of storage and on the hydraulic acceptance tests . Determining the drawdown in the aquifer is
characteristics of the aquifer. Differences in the rate for dif- a much more difficult problem . It can be calculated if the
ferent aquifers are indi~ated by the width of the band on the hydraulic characteristics of the aquifer, including the effect of
sketch . When withdrawals are derived entirely from storage, boundary conditions, are known .
the specific capacity will decrease about 40 percent during The difference between s t and s a is attributed to head losses
the first year . as water moves from an aquifer into a well and up the well
In predicting the long-term yield of a well, it is also neces- bore . These well losses can be reduced by reducing the en-
sary to consider changes in the static water level resulting trance velocity of the water, which can be done by installing
from seasonal and long-term variations in recharge and the maximum amount of screen and pumping at the lowest
declines due to other withdrawals from the aquifer. The long- acceptable rate . Tests have been devised to determine well
term yield is equal to the specific capacity, determined from losses, and the results can be used to determine well effi-
the well-acceptance test, and reduced as necessary to com- ciency . However, these tests are difficult to conduct and are
pensate for the long-term decline discussed in the above para- not widely used . Because of difficulties in determining s a , well
graph, multiplied by the available drawdown . efficiency is generally specified in terms of an "optimum"
The available drawdown at the time of a well-acceptance specific capacity based on other producing wells in the
test is equal to the difference between the static water level at vicinity .
that time and the lowest pumping level that can be imposed Under the best conditions, an efficiency of about 80 per-
on the well . The lowest pumping level in a screened well is cent is the maximum that is normally achievable in most
normally considered to be a meter or two above the top of the screened wells . Under less than ideal conditions, an efficiency
screen . In an unscreened (open-hole) well, it may be at the of 60 percent is probably more realistic .
Well-Acceptance Tests and Well Efficiency 59

SPL Ll fIC., CANAU 1 Y AND 1 KAN,MIJJI V 1 1 I
FACTORS AFFECTING ESTIMATES OF TRANSMISSIVITY

BASED ON SPECIFIC CAPACITY
Land surface
Potentiometric surface
Cone _
of
depre ss
b . Magnitude of the
well loss compared
to the drawdown in
the aquifer
Well
loss
a . Thickness of the producing zone c . The difference between the

compared to the length of the "nominal" radius and the
screen or open hole effective radius
0 0
0 0 Confined
0 0
0 0 aquifer
Producing Length of 0 0
0 0
zone screen
o Effective
o, radius
Confining bed
FACTORS AFFECTING ESTIMATES OF TRANSMISSIVITY
BASED ON SPECIFIC CAPACITY
The specific capacity of a well depends both on the 2 . The storage coefficient of the aquifer .
hydraulic characteristics of the aquifer and on the construc- 3 . The length of the pumping period .
tion and other features of the well . Values of specific capac- 4 . The effective radius of the well, which may be significantly
ity, available for many supply wells for which aquifer-test data greater than the "nominal" radius .
are not available, are widely used by hydrologists to estimate 5 . The pumping rate .
transmissivity . Such estimates are used to evaluate regional The Theis equation can be used to evaluate the effect of
differences in transmissivity and to prepare transmissivity the first four factors on specific capacity . The last factor,
maps for use in models of ground-water systems . pumping rate, affects the well loss and can be determined
The factors that affect specific capacity include : only from a stepped-rate test or an aquifer test in which draw-
1 . The transmissivity of the zone supplying water to the well, downs are measured in both the pumping well and observa-
which, depending on the length of the screen or open tion wells .
hole, may be considerably less than the transmissivity The Theis equation, modified for the determination of
of the aquifer . transmissivity from specific capacity, is

T= W(u) x Q Equation 1 is in consistent units . However, transmissivity is
47r s commonly expressed in the United States in units of square
feet per day, pumping rates are reported in units of gallons per
where T is transmissivity, Qls is specific capacity, Q is the minute, and drawdowns are measured in feet. To obtain an
pumping rate, s is the drawdown, and W(u) is the well function equation that is convenient to use, it is desirable to convert
of u, where equation 1 to these inconsistent units . Thus
u=
4Tt 1,4404 min
T=1 .60x x
7.483 gal x Q
where r is the effective radius of the well, S is the storage coef-
ficient, and t is the length of the pumping period preceding
the determination of specific capacity . T=308 Q or 300 Q (rounded) (3)
For convenience in using equation 1, it is desirable to ex-
press W(u)147r as a constant . To do so, it is first necessary to
determine values for u and, using a table of values of u (or 11u) Many readers will find it useful at this point to substitute
and W(u), determine the corresponding values for W(u) . different values of T, S, r, and t in equation 2 to determine how
Values of u are determined by substituting in equation 2 different values affect the constant in equation 3. In using
values of T, S, r, and t that are representative of conditions in equation 3, modified as necessary to fit the conditions in an
the area. To illustrate, assume, in an area under investigation area, it is important to recognize its limitations . Among the
and for which a large number of values of specific capacity most important factors that affect its use are the accuracy
are available, that: with which the thickness of the zone supplying water to the
1 . The principal aquifer is confined, and aquifer tests indicate well can be estimated, the magnitude of the well loss in com-
that it has a storage coefficient of about 2 x 10-4 and parison with drawdown in the aquifer, and the difference be-
a transmissivity of about 11,000 ft2 d - ' . tween the "nominal" radius of the well and its effective
2. Most supply wells are 8 in. (20 cm) in diameter (radius, radius.
0.33 ft). Relative to these factors, the common practice is to assume
3. Most values of specific capacity are based on 12-hour well- that the value of transmissivity estimated from specific
acceptance tests (t=0 .5 d) . capacity applies only to the screened zone or to the open
Substituting these values in equation 2, we obtain hole. To apply this value to the entire aquifer, the transmissiv-
ity is divided by the length of the screen or open hole (to deter-
r2S (0 .33 ft) 2 x (2 x 10-4) mine the hydraulic conductivity per unit of length), and the
u= =
4Tt 4x (11,000 ft2 d - ')x0.5 d result is multiplied by the entire thickness of the aquifer . The
value of transmissivity determined by this method is too large
2.22 x 10-s ft2 if the zone supplying water to the well is thicker than the
u= =1 .01 x 10 -9
2.2 x 104 ft2 length of the screen or the open hole. Similarly, if the effec-
tive radius of the well is larger than the "nominal" radius
A table of values of W(u) for values of llu is contained in (assuming that the "nominal" radius is used in equation 2), the
the section of this report entitled "Aquifer Tests ." Therefore, transmissivity based on specific capacity again will be too
large.
the value of a determined above must be converted to 11u,
which is 9.91 x 10 8 , and this value is used to determine the On the other hand, if a significant part of the drawdown in
value of W(u). Values of W(u) are given for values of llu of the pumping well is due to well loss, the transmissivity based
7.69 x 108 and 10 x 108 but not for 9.91 x 108 . However, the on specific capacity will be too small . Whether the effect of
value of 10 is close enough to 9.91 for the purpose of all three of these factors cancels depends on the characteris-
estimating transmissivity from specific capacity. From the tics of both the aquifer and the well. Where a sufficient
table, we determine that, for a value of 11u of 10x108, the number of aquifer tests have been conducted, it may be feas-
value of W(u) is 20.15 . Substituting this value in equation 1, we ible to utilize the results to modify the constant in equation 3
find the constant W(u)147r to be 1 .60. to account for the effect of these factors.
Specific Capacity and Transmissivity 61

' ro
rein
cn 350 9 all
H
10 Qe :
w
w c >
u_ 3o Q
20
z 2
D s = 5 ft T= 5000 ft /d
z 30 S= 5 x 10-°
1 log cycle
t=365 d
O
ro = 90,600 ft
40 r, = 0 .33 ft
Q
0 Q rw
50
102
DISTANCE, IN FEET
(1)
The development of moderate to large supplies of water where r° is the distance from the pumping well, in meters (or
from most aquifers requires more than one well ; in other feet), to the point of zero drawdown on a semilogarithmic
words, it requires what is commonly referred to as a well field. graph in which drawdown is on the arithmetic scale and dis-
Consequently, the design of well fields is an important prob- tance is on the logarithmic scale, T is aquifer transmissivity, in
lem in ground-water development . The objective of well-field square meters per day (or square feet per day), t is 365 days
design is to obtain the required amount of water for the least (1 year), S is the aquifer storage coefficient (dimensionless), As
cost, including the initial construction cost of wells and is the drawdown, in meters (or feet), across one log cycle along
pipelines, the cost of operation and maintenance, and the cost a line connecting point r° and a point at the proposed radius of
of well replacement . the pumping well at which the drawdown equals about half
The final product of a design is a plan showing the arrange- the available drawdown,' and Qe is the first estimate of the
ment and spacing of wells and specifications containing pumping rate in cubic meters per day (or cubic feet per day).
details on well construction and completion, including infor- To convert to gallons per minute, when Qe is in cubic meters
mation on well diameter, depth, and position of screens or per day, divide by 5.45 (when Qe is in cubic feet per day,
open hole, the type of casing and screens, and the type, size, divide by 192) .
and setting of pumps . The estimated pumping rate Qe is divided into the total
The key elements in well-field design are the total quantity quantity of water needed from the well field in order to deter-
of water to be obtained from the field, the rate at which each mine the number of wells that will be needed. The next step is
well can be pumped (which determines the number of wells to determine the optimum well spacing. This determination in-
that will be required), and the spacing of the wells. volves both hydrologic and economic considerations. The
The pumping rate for each well can be estimated with hydrologic considerations include the following :
Jacob's modification of the Theis equation. (See "Distarce- 1 . The minimum distance between pumping wells should be
Drawdown Analysis.") It depends on the transmissivity and at least twice the aquifer thickness if the wells are
storge coefficient of the aquifer, the distance to and nature of open to less than about half the aquifer thickness .
lateral boundaries, the hydraulic characteristics of confining 2. Wells near recharging boundaries should be located along
beds, the available drawdown, and the pumping period . For a line parallel to the boundary and as close to the
the purpose of this discussion, we will not consider the effect boundary as possible .
of boundaries or confining beds. (For a discussion of available 3. Wells near impermeable boundaries should be located
drawdown, see "Well Interference" and "Well-Acceptance along a line perpendicular to the boundary and as far
Tests and Well Efficiency.") The pumping period is normally from the boundary as possible .
taken as 1 year. To determine the pumping rate, Jacob's equa-
tions are solved as follows : 'At this point, we use half the available drawdown in order to get a first
estimate of well loss and well interference . If we determine that, at a pumping
rz_- 2.25Tt (1) rate of Qe, the drawdown in the aquifer is less than the available drawdown and
° S the drawdown in the well is above the top of the screen, we can assume a larger
value of s and recompute Qe. It is important also to note that, in the initial deter-
mination of available drawdown, the seasonal fluctuation of static water level
Q e = 2. 7TAs (2) must be considered .

The primary economic considerations involved in well spac- therefore, the largest drawdown . How close can it be to wells
ing include the cost of wells and pumps, power costs, and the 1 and 3 without its drawdown exceeding the available draw-
cost of interconnecting pipelines and powerlines. The closer down of 60 ft?
wells are spaced, the smaller the yield of each well because of When well 2 is pumped at a rate of 350 gal min - ', the
well interference . The smaller yield of closely spaced wells drawdown in the aquifer at the radius of the well will be one-
means that more wells and well pumps are required, and half the available drawdown, or 30 ft . The remaining 30 ft of
power costs are higher. The cost of the additional wells and the available drawdown must be apportioned between well
the larger pumping costs must be evaluated in relation to the loss in well 2 and interference from wells 1 and 3. According
cost of shorter interconnecting pipelines and powerlines . to sketch 1, if well 2 were 100 percent efficient, its specific
Sketch 1 shows a distance-drawdown graph for a pumping capacity would be
well at the end of a continuous pumping period of one year
for an aquifer having a transmissivity (T) of 5,000 ft' d - ' 350 gal min
=11 .7 gal min - ft -
(465 m3 d - '), a storage coefficient (S) of 5x 10 -4 , and an 30 ft
available drawdown of 60 ft (18 m) . The assumed radius of the
pumping well (r,) is 0.33 ft (diameter, 8 in. or 20 cm) . When We will assume, however, that well 2 will be only 80 percent
one-half the available drawdown is used, along with the other efficient . If so, its specific capacity will be
values as stated, equation 2 yields an estimated pumping rate
(Qe) of 350 gal min - ' or 504,000 gal d-' .z 11 .7 gal min - ' ft- ' _ X
To illustrate the use of sketch 1 in analyzing the well- =9 .4 gal min - ft-
100 percent 80 percent
spacing problem, we will assume that a yield of 1,500,000 gal
d- ' (1,040 gal min -') is desired from the aquifer . This yield and a yield of 350 gal min - ' will produce a drawdown in well
can be obtained from three wells producing 500,000 gal d - ' 2 of about 37 ft (350/9 .4) . Subtracting 37 ft from 60 ft leaves a
(350 gal min - ') each. Assume that the wells are located on a difference of 23 ft, which can be assigned to well interference
straight line and are numbered 1, 2, and 3 . Well 2, being in the from wells 1 and 3. If fractional feet are ignored, the amount
middle, will obviously have the most well interference and, of interference by each well is about 11 ft.
10 v, 11 ft 9 ft
w I Z500 ft
w 250 ft
U" 20 350 gall In
Z 0 Qe
Z
3: 30
O
am
~: 40
Q
50 Q
102
DISTANCE, IN FEET
Sketch 2 shows that a well pumping 350 gal min - ' from the and between wells 2 and 3 would have to be 1,250 ft in order
aquifer will produce a drawdown of 11 ft at a distance of not to exceed the available drawdown at well 2. With this
about 1,250 ft . Therefore, the spacing between wells 1 and 2 spacing, wells 1 and 3 would be 2,500 ft apart. Sketch 2 shows
the drawdown at 2,500 ft to be about 9 ft . Consequently, the
'Inch-pound units are used in this example for the convenience of those drawdowns in both wells 1 and 3 would be 58 ft, or about 2 ft
-eaders who are not yet accustomed to using metric units. less than the drawdown in well 2 .
Well-Field Design 63
QUALI I Y (Jf (jKUU N L) WA 1 t K
Atmosphere Land surface and soil zone Shallow aquifers
Sand
Clay - -
= Limestone
- .-= Clay - - -
Deep aquifers
Freshwater and saltwater

interfaces
THE CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUND WATER ARE DETERMINED BY THE CHEMICAL

AND BIOLOGICAL REACTIONS IN THE ZONES THROUGH WHICH THE WATER MOVES
Water consists of two atoms of hydrogen and one of oxy- units of weight per weight . Because the concentration of most
gen, which give it a chemical formula of HZO. Water fre- substances dissolved in water is relatively small, the weight
quently is referred to as the universal solvent because it has per weight unit commonly used was parts per million (ppm). In
the ability to dissolve at least small amounts of almost all inch-pound units, 1 ppm is equal to 1 Ib of a substance dis-
substances that it contacts. Of the domestic water used by solved in 999,999 Ib of water, the weight of the solution thus
man, ground water usually contains the largest amounts of being 1 million pounds.
dissolved solids . The composition and concentration of sub- The quality of ground water depends both on the
stances dissolved in unpolluted ground water depend on the substances dissolved in the water and on certain properties
chemical composition of precipitation, on the biologic and and characteristics that these substances impart to the water.
chemical reactions occurring on the land surface and in the Table 1 contains information on dissolved inorganic sub-
soil zone, and on the mineral composition of the aquifers and stances that normally occur in the largest concentrations and
confining beds through which the water moves. are most likely to affect water use. Table 2 lists other charac-
The concentrations of substances dissolved in water are teristics of water that are commonly reported in water
commonly reported in units of weight per volume . In the Inter- analyses and that may affect water use. Dissolved constitu-
national System (SI), the most commonly used units are ents for which concentration limits have been established for
milligrams per liter . A milligram equals 1/1,000 (0.001) of a drinking water are discussed in "Pollution of Ground Water."
gram, and a liter equals 1/1,000 of a cubic meter, so that
1 mg/L equals 1 gram m -3.1 Concentrations of substances in 'To put these units in possibly more understandable terms, 1 mg/L equals 1 oz
water were reported for many years in the United States in of a substance dissolved in 7,500 gal of water.

Table 1 . Natural inorganic constituents commonly dissolved in water that are most likely to affect use of the water
Concentrations of
Substance Major natural sources Effect on water use significance (mg/L)'
Bicarbonate (HCO,) and carbonate (CO,) --- Products of the solution of carbonate rocks, Control the capacity of water to neu- 150-200
mainly limestone (CaC0 3 ) and dolomite tralize strong acids. Bicarbonates of
(CaMgC0 3), by water containing calcium and magnesium decompose in
carbon dioxide . steam boilers and water heaters to
form scale and release corrosive carbon
dioxide gas . In combination with
calcium and magnesium, cause car-
bonate hardness .
Calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) -------- Soils and rocks containing limestone, Principal cause of hardness and ofr 25-50
dolomite, and gypsum (Cas04 ) . boiler scale and deposits in hot-
Small amounts from igneous water heaters .
and metamorphic rocks .
Chloride (CI) ------------------------- In inland areas, primarily from seawater In large amounts, increases corrosiveness 250
trapped in sediments at time of deposition ; of water and, in combination with
sition ; in coastal areas, from seawater in contact sodium, gives water a salty taste.
with freshwater in productive aquifers .
Fluoride (F) --------------------------- Both sedimentary and igneous rocks. In certain concentrations, reduces tooth 0 .7-1 .22
Not widespread in occurrence . decay ; at higher concentrations, causes
mottling of tooth enamel .
Iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) ------------ Iron present in most soils and rocks ; Stain laundry and are objectionable in Fe >0.3, Mn >0 .05
manganese less widely distributed . food processing, dyeing, bleaching, ice
manufacturing, brewing, and certain
other industrial processes .
Sodium (Na) -------------------------- Same as for chloride . In some sedimentary See chloride . In large concentrations, may 69 (irrigation),
rocks, a few hundred milligrams per affect persons with cardiac difficulties, 20-170 (health)'
liter may occur in freshwater as a hypertension, and certain other medical
result of exchange of dissolved calcium conditions. Depending on the concen-
and magnesium for sodium in the trations of calcium and magnesium also
aquifer materials. present in the water, sodium may be
detrimental to certain irrigated crops .
Sulfate (SO,) -------------------------- Gypsum, pyrite (FeS), and other rocks In certain concentrations, gives water a 300-400 (taste),
containing sulfur (S) compounds . bitter taste and, at higher concentra- 600-1,000 (laxative)
tions, has a laxative effect . In
combination with calcium, forms a hard
calcium carbonate scale in steam boilers.
lA range in concentration is intended to indicate the general level at which the effect on water use might become significant.
Z Optimum range determined by the U .S . Public Health Service, depending on water intake .
"Lower concentration applies to drinking water for persons on a strict diet ; higher concentration is for those on a moderate diet.
Table 2. Characteristics of water that affect water quality

Characteristic Principal cause Significance Remarks
Hardness -------------------- Calcium and magnesium Calcium and magnesium combine with soap to form an USGS classification of hardness
dissolved in the water. insoluble precipitate (curd) and thus hamper the (mg/L as CaC0") :
formation of a lather . Hardness also affects the suitability 0-60 : Soft
of water for use in the textile and paper industries and 61-120: Moderately hard
certain others and in steam boilers and water heaters . 121-180: Hard
More than 180: Very hard
pH (or hydrogen-ion activity) ----- Dissociation of water The pH of water is a measure of its reactive characteristics . pH values: less than 7, water is acidic ;
molecules and of acids Low values of pH, particularly below pH 4, indicate a value of 7, water is neutral ;
and bases dissolved in corrosive water that will tend to dissolve metals and more than 7, water is basic.
water . other substances that it contacts. High values of pH,
particularly above pH 8 .5, indicate an alkaline water
that, on heating, will tend to form scale. The pH
significantly affects the treatment and use of water.
Specific electrical conductance --- Substances that form ions Most substances dissolved in water dissociate into ions that Conductance values indicate the elec-
when dissolved in can conduct an electrical current . Consequently, specific trical conductivity, in micromhos,
water . electrical conductance is a valuable indicator of the of 1 cm" of water at a temper-
amount of material dissolved in water . The larger the ature of 25°C.
conductance, the more mineralized the water .
Total dissolved solids ----------- Mineral substances Total dissolved solids is a measure of the total amount USGS classification of water based
dissolved in water . of minerals dissolved in water and is, therefore, on dissolved solids (mg/L) :
a very useful parameter in the evaluation Less than 1,000: Fresh
of water quality . Water containing less than 1,000-3,000 : Slightly saline
500 mg/L is preferred for domestic use and 3,000-10,000 : Moderately saline
for many industrial processes. 10,000-35,000: Very saline
More than 35,000 : Briny
Quality of Ground Water 65

POLLUTION OF UKOUNL) WAtEK.
Pollution of ground water is receiving increased attention storage tanks, and pipelines; and animal feedlots . The magni-
from both Federal and State regulatory agencies and from tude of any pollution problem depends on the size of the area
water users . As a result, pollution has been found to be much affected and the amount of the pollutant involved, the
more widespread than we had believed only a few years ago. solubility, toxicity, and density of the pollutant, the mineral
This attention has also resulted in widespread recognition of composition and hydraulic characteristics of the soils and
the facts that polluted ground water may pose a serious threat rocks through which the pollutant moves, and the effect or
to health that is often not apparent to those affected and that potential effect on ground-water use.
purification of polluted ground-water systems may require Affected areas range in size from point sources, such as
centuries or the expenditure of huge sums of money. These septic tanks, to large urban areas having leaky sewer systems
facts alone make it imperative that the pollution of ground and numerous municipal and industrial waste-disposal sites.
water by harmful substances absolutely be avoided to the Nearly all substances are soluble to some extent in water, and
maximum possible extent . many chemical wastes are highly toxic even in minute concen-
Pollution of ground water, as it is used in this discussion, trations . For example, table 1 lists the maximum concentra-
refers to any deterioration in the quality of the water resulting tions of inorganic substances permitted in drinking-water
from the activities of man . This definition includes saltwater supplies . Limits have also been established by the Environ-
encroachment into freshwater-bearing aquifers resulting from mental Protection Agency for radioactive and certain organic
the artificial lowering of ground-water heads . That topic, substances .
however, is covered in a separate discussion . (See "Saltwater The density of a liquid substance-that is, the weight per
Encroachment .") unit volume of the substance relative to that of water-
Most pollution of ground water results from the disposal of affects its underground movement . Densities range from
wastes on the land surface, in shallow excavations including those of petroleum products that are less dense than water to
septic tanks, or through deep wells and mines; the use of fer- brines and other substances that are denser than water . Sub-
tilizers and other agricultural chemicals ; leaks in sewers, stances less dense than water tend to accumulate at the top of
URBAN AREAS RURAL AREAS DENSITY EFFECTS

Service
station -.'-
Ground water polluted by

substances less dense
Ground water polluted by Ground water polluted by septic tanks (gasoline) and more
industrial and municipal wastes, animal feedlots, and crop fertilizers, dense (brine) than
leaking sewers, and lawn pesticides, and herbicides water
fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides
Waste-disposal ponds_
_
Water table-_ __
Ground water polluted by

sites at different distances
from discharge area
GROUND-WATER POLLUTION OCCURS IN BOTH URBAN AND RURAL AREAS AND IS AFFECTED BY
DIFFERENCES IN CHEMICAL COMPOSITION, BIOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS, DENSITY, AND
DISTANCE FROM DISCHARGE AREAS

the saturated zone ; if, like petroleum, they are immiscible, and sites for other operations that may cause ground-water
they will tend to spread in all directions as a thin film . Sub- pollution . With these factors in mind, it is obvious that signifi-
stances denser than water tend to move downward through cant ground-water pollution can be avoided only if waste-
the saturated zone to the first extensive confining bed . disposal sites are selected in such a way that:
The mineral composition and physical characteristics of 1 . Significant thicknesses of unsaturated material containing
soils and rocks through which pollutants move may affect the clay and (or) organic material are present.
pollutants in several ways. If a pollutant enters the ground at a 2. Areas are as close as possible to places of natural ground-
"point," it will be dispersed longitudinally and laterally in water discharge .
granular materials so that its concentration will be reduced in 3. Overland runoff is excluded, and surface infiltration is
the direction of movement . (See "Saturated Flow and Dis- held to the minimum possible amount .
persion .") Organic substances and other biodegradable mate-
rials tend to be broken down both by oxidation and by
bacterial action in the unsaturated zone. Certain earth
materials, especially clays and organic matter, may also ab-
sorb trace metals and certain complex organic pollutants and
thereby reduce their concentration as they move through the Table 1 . Maximum concentrations of inorganic constituents
underground environment . allowed in drinking water
[Data from U .S . Environmental Protection Agency (1977)]
The hydraulic characteristics of the soils and rocks deter-
mine the path taken by and the rate of movement of pollut- Concentration
ants. Substances dissolved in water move with the water Constituents (mg/L)
except to the extent that they are tied up or delayed by ad-
0.05
sorption. Thus, the movement of pollutants tends to be Arsenic ----------------------------------------
Barium ---------------------------------------- 1.
through the most permeable zones; the farther their point of
Cadmium -------------------------------------- .010
origin from a ground-water discharge area, the deeper they Chromium ------------------------------------- .05
penetrate into the ground-water system and the larger the area Lead ------------------------------------------ .05
ultimately affected . Mercury --------------------------------------- .002
The factors related to the movement of pollutants dis- Nitrate (as N) ---__------------------------------ 10 .
cussed in the preceding paragraphs must be carefully consid- Selenium -------------------------------------- .01
ered in the selection of waste-disposal sites, animal feedlots, Silver ----------------------------------------- .05
Thick unsaturated zone (x)

containing clay and (or)
organic material
Overland runoff prevented by dikes

and infiltration retarded by
clay cover
SELECTION OF WASTE-DISPOSAL SITES INVOLVES CONSIDERATION OF THE UNSATURATED ZONE,

FLOOD DANGER, GROUND-WATER DISCHARGE, OVERLAND RUNOFF, AND INFILTRATION
Pollution of Ground Water 67

In coastal areas, fresh ground water derived from precipita- On the basis of equation 1 and the differences between the
tion on the land comes in contact with and discharges into the densities of freshwater and seawater, the freshwater zone
sea or into estuaries containing brackish water . The relation should extend to a depth below sea level (h) equal to 40 times
between the freshwater and the seawater, or brackish water, is the height of the water table above sea level (h f) . The Ghyben-
controlled primarily by the differences in their densities . Herzberg relation applies strictly, however, only to a homog-
The density of a substance is its mass per unit volume ; thus, enous and isotropic aquifer in which the freshwater is static
the density of water is affected by the amount of minerals, and is in contact with a tideless sea or body of brackish water.
such as common salt (NaCl), that the water contains in solu- Tides cause saltwater to alternately invade and retreat from
tion. In metric units, the density of freshwater is about 1 gm the freshwater zone, the result being a zone of diffusion
cm -3 , and the density of seawater is about 1 .025 gm cm-3. across which the salinity changes from that of freshwater to
Thus, freshwater, being less dense than seawater, tends to that of seawater (1). A part of the seawater that invades the
override or float on seawater. freshwater zone is entrained in the freshwater and is flushed
On islands, such as the Outer Banks of North Carolina, pre- back to the sea by the freshwater as it moves to the sea to
cipitation forms a freshwater lens that "floats" on the under- discharge .
lying saltwater (1). The higher the water table stands above sea Because both the seawater and the freshwater are in mo-
level, the thicker the freshwater lens. This relation--between tion (not static), the thickness of the freshwater zone in a
the height of the water table and the thickness of the fresh- homogenous and isotropic aquifer is greater than that pre-
water lens was discovered, independently, by a Dutchman, dicted by the Ghyben-Herzberg equation. On the other hand,
Badon Ghyben, and a German, B. Herzberg, and is referred to in a stratified aquifer (and nearly all aquifers are stratified),
as the Ghyben-Herzberg relationship . This relation, expressed the thickness of the freshwater lens is less than that predicted
as an equation, is because of the head loss incurred as the freshwater moves
across the least permeable beds.
Pf
hs= (h f) (1) When freshwater heads are lowered by withdrawals through
Ps - Pf wells, the freshwater-saltwater contact migrates toward the
where hs is the depth of freshwater below sea level, pf is the point of withdrawals until a new balance is established (2) . The
density of freshwater, ps is the density of seawater, and hf is movement of saltwater into zones previously occupied by
the height of the water table above sea level. freshwater is referred to as saltwater encroachment .
Freshwater lens floating on

Two aspects of salt water encroachment
saltwater

DEPTH TO GROUND WATER CONTAINING MORE THAN 1000 mg/L OF TOTAL
DISSOLVED SOLIDS IN THE CONTERMINOUS UNITED STATES
DAKOTA
RI
0
*" T43
0
m ® f
,pEL
N CAROLINA
S CAR,
Y
X
EXPLANATION TFXAS GEORGIA '
Depth to ground water

in meters FLORIDA
Less than 150

150 to 300
More than 300
Not present
Todd, Groundwater Hydrology, 2nd Ed ., 1980 APPROXIMATE
0 200 400 600 MILES
200 400 600 KILOMETERS
Saltwater encroachment is a serious problem in some tain freshwater and that serve as sources of water supply.
coastal areas. Upconing of salty water beneath pumping wells However, where supply wells are drilled too deeply or are
is a more imminent problem than lateral encroachment in pumped at too large a rate, upconing of the mineralized (salty)
most areas . One reason is that lateral encroachment must water may occur .
displace a volume of freshwater much larger than that dis- In the design of supply wells in areas underlain by or adja-
placed by upconing . Another reason is that approximately cent to salty water, consideration must be given to the possi-
two-thirds of the United States is underlain by aquifers that bility of saltwater encroachment . This consideration may
yield water containing more than 1,000 mg/L of total dissolved involve selection of shallow aquifers or small pumping rates
solids (3) . (See table 2 in "Quality of Ground Water .") In most to avoid upconing or involve moving wells to more inland
places, these aquifers are overlain by other aquifers that con- locations to avoid lateral encroachment .
Saltwater Encroachment 69
TEMPERATURE OF GROUND WATER
DEGREES CELSIUS The temperature of ground water is one of its most useful
characteristics. Ground water has been used for many years
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 on Long Island, N .Y ., and at other places as a heat-exchange
V
'
0 medium for air-conditioning systems . As a result of recent in-
creases in energy costs, ground water is also now becoming in-
0/'000,0 creasingly important as a source of heat for "heat pumps ."
W
w Mean annual Seasonal The temperature of ground water responds to seasonal vari-
w air temperature fluctuati ations in the heat received at the Earth's surface from the Sun
and by movement of heat from the Earth's interior . The
z seasonal movement of heat into and out of the upper layers of
25
the Earth's crust causes a seasonal fluctuation in ground-water
w temperatures to a depth of 10 to 25 m (1) . The fluctuation is
U greatest near the surface, amounting to 5° to 10°C at depths
a
w of a few to several meters . In the zone affected by seasonal
0
fluctuations, the mean annual ground-water temperature is 1 °
to 2°C higher than the mean annual air temperature (1) . Con-
0 50 sequently, a map showing the mean annual temperature of
z shallow ground water can be prepared on the basis of mean
a annual air temperature (sketch 2, based on a map showing
J
mean annual air temperature prepared by the National
3 Weather Service) .
0
J Movement of heat from the Earth's interior causes ground-
w
m water temperatures to increase with depth (1) . This increase is
75 referred to as the geothermal gradient and ranges from about
1 .8°C per 100 m in areas underlain by thick sections of sedi-
mentary rocks to about 3 .6°C per 100 m in areas of recent
volcanic activity . The effect of the geothermal gradient is not
readily apparent in the zone affected by seasonal temperature
fluctuations .
Movement of ground water causes a distortion in isotherms
100 (lines depicting equal temperatures) . This effect is most
CHANGES IN GROUND-WATER noticeable where ground-water withdrawal induces a move-
ment of water from a stream into an aquifer . The distortion in
TEMPERATURE WITH DEPTH ground-water temperature is most pronounced in the more
permeable zones of the aquifer .

APPROXIMATE TEMPERATURE OF GROUND WATER, IN DEGREES CELSIUS, IN THE CONTERMINOUS
UNITED STATES AT DEPTHS OF 10 TO 25 M
Temperature of Ground Water 71

1V1LlIJV I\LIVILI \ 11 J VII rrr1I LI\ LL V LLJ /1%1 N" I %JIVI1 11
RATES
METHODS FOR MEASURING THE DEPTH TO WATER LEVEL IN WELLS
Each supply well, regardless of whether it is used for graduations on the lower meter (3 to 4 ft) of the tape are
domestic, irrigation, industrial, or public-supply needs, should coated with blue carpenter's chalk, and the tape is lowered
be provided with a means for measuring the position of the into the well until the lower part of the tape is submerged and
water level in the well . Public-supply and industrial wells an even meter (or foot) mark is at the measuring point . The
should also be provided with a means for measuring the tape is then quickly withdrawn, and the value held at the
pumping rate . The use of water-level and pumping-rate meas- measuring point and the amount of tape that was submerged
urements is discussed in "Supply-Well Problems-Decline in are entered on a record form . The amount of tape that was
Yield ." submerged is obvious from the change in color of the chalk
The first step in measuring the position of the water level is coating . The depth to the water level below the measuring
to identify (and describe) a fixed point-that is, a measuring point is determined by subtracting the length of wet tape from
point-to which all measurements will be referred . This point the total length of tape that was lowered into the well .
is usually the top of the casing, well cap, or access port . The The electric-tape method involves an ammeter connected
three most common methods used in measuring the depth to across a pair of insulated wires whose exposed ends are
water in wells are wetted tape, electric tape, and air line . separated by an air gap in an electrode and containing, in the
The wetted-tape method is probably the most common and circuit, a source of power such as flashlight batteries (2) . When
most accurate of the three methods (1) . This method utilizes a the electrode contacts the water surface, a current flows
graduated steel tape with a weight attached to its end . The through the system circuit and is indicated by a deflection of

the ammeter needle . The insulated wires are marked at 1-m (or Components used to measure water pressure
5 ft) intervals . The nail of the index finger is placed on the in- of flowing wells
sulated wires at the measuring point when the ammeter indi- Altitude gage
cates that the circuit is closed. A steel tape or carpenter's rule
is used to measure the distance from the point indicated by
the fingernail to the next highest meter (or 5 ft) mark. This
distance is subtracted from the value of the mark to deter-
mine the depth to water. One difference between the wetted-
tape method and the electric-tape method is that, in the
wetted-tape method, the subtraction involves the length of
the submerged tape, whereas, in the electric-tape method, the
subtraction involves the distance between the measuring
point and the next highest mark .
The air-line method is generally used only in wells on which
pumps are installed . This method involves the installation of a
small-diameter pipe or tube (the air line) from the top of the
well to a point about 3 m (10 ft) below the lowest anticipated
position of the water level during extended pumping periods
(3) . The water level in this pipe is the same as that in the well . Components installed for a pressure measurement
To determine the depth to water, an air pump and a pressure
gage are attached to the top of the air line. Air is pumped into
the line to force the water out of the lower end . As the water
level in the air line is depressed, the pressure indicated by the
gage increases . When all the water has been forced out of the
line, the pressure-gage reading stabilizes and indicates the
length of the water column originally in the air line. If the
pressure-gage reading is subtracted from the length of the air
line below the measuring point, which was carefully deter-
mined when the air line was installed, the remainder is the
depth to water below the measuring point .
The preceding discussion has covered the measurement of
water levels in nonflowing wells-that is, in wells in which the
water level is below the measuring point . In many coastal
areas and valleys underlain by confined aquifers, water levels The measurement of the pumping rates of supply wells
in wells will stand at some height above the land surface . requires the installation of a flowmeter in the pump-discharge
These areas are referred to as areas of artesian flow, and the line. Either of two types of meters may be used, depending on
measurement of water levels in wells, where casings have not the pumping rate. Up to a rate of about 1 m3 min -'
been extended above the static level, may pose problems. If (250 gal min - '), an "active-element"-type meter may be used .
the well is equipped with a valve and a threaded fitting, the These meters utilize either a propeller or a disk that is turned
height of the water level can be determined by attaching the by the moving water. For larger pumping rates, meters that
appropriate pipe connection and a pressure gage or trans- utilize a constriction in the discharge pipe are commonly
parent plastic tube. used. These include venturi meters, flow nozzles, and orifices.
Measuring the water level of flowing wells not equipped Flowmeters have dials that show either the total amount of
with a valve or a threaded fitting requires the use of soil-test water that has passed the meter or the rate at which the water
plugs or some other device to control the flow. The position of is passing . With the first (the totalizing dial), the rate of dis-
the static water level above the measuring point is determined charge is determined by using a stopwatch to time the period
either with a pressure gage or with a plastic tube (4) . for a certain volume of water to be pumped.
Measurements of Water Level and Pumping Rates 73

1 - RV 1 Cl.. 1 1"IN VI- aL) rrLI VV C LLJ
TYPICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR SUPPLY WELLS
Concrete slab or wellhouse floor

3 ft from well and 4 in (+) in thickness
-44
Sewer
(+) A plus sign in parentheses
means distance or thickness
can be greater but not less
v+ ~o
N
N
O
U
U
Most, if not all, States have laws related to the location and 3 . Animal feedlots and other areas in which large numbers of
construction of public-supply wells . These laws and the rules animals are kept in close confinement .
and regulations developed for their administration and en- 4 . Liquid and solid waste disposal sites, including sanitary
forcement are concerned, among other things, with protecting landfills, "evaporation ponds," sewage lagoons, and
supply wells from pollution . Pollution of the environment sites used for the disposal of sewage-plant effluent
results from man's activities, and, consequently, except where and solid wastes .
deep wells or mines are used for waste disposal, it primarily 5 . Chemical stockpiles, including those for salt used to deice
affects the land surface, the soil zone, and the upper part of streets and highways and for other chemical sub-
the saturated (ground water) zone . Therefore, the protection stances soluble in water .
of supply wells includes avoiding areas that are presently In the selection of a well site, areas that should be avoided
polluted and sealing the wells in such a way as to prevent include not only those listed but also the zones surrounding
pollution in the future . them that may be polluted by movement of wastes in re-
Fortunately, most ground-water pollution at the present sponse to both the natural hydraulic gradient and the artificial
time affects only relatively small areas that can be readily gradient that will be developed by the supply well .
avoided in the selection of well sites . Among the areas in Rules and regulations intended to prevent future pollution
which at least shallow ground-water pollution should be include provision of "exclusion" zones around supply wells,
expected are : requirements for casing and for sealing of the annular space,
1 . Industrial districts that include chemical, metalworking, and sealing of the upper end of the wells.
petroleum-refining, and other industries that involve Many State regulations require that supply wells be located
fluids other than cooling water . at least 100 ft (30 m) from any sources or potential sources of
2 . Residential areas in which domestic wastes are disposed of pollution . In the case of public-supply wells, the well owner
through septic tanks and cesspools . must either own or control the land within 100 ft (30 m) of the

well. In some States, a public-supply well may be located as The regulations cited above provide, at best, only minimal
close as 50 ft (15 m) to a sewer if the joints in the sewerline protection for supply wells. There are numerous situations in
meet water-main standards. which both the size of the exclusion zone and the depth of
Some State regulations require that all supply wells be casing are inadequate. Relative to the radius of the exclusion
cased to a depth of at least 20 ft (6 m) and that the annular zone, there are no arbitrary limits, except the physical bound-
space between the land surface and a depth of 20 ft (6 m) be aries of an aquifer, past which ground water cannot move.
completely filled with cement grout. The casing of supply Relative to the minimum required casing, there are no vertical
wells drawing water from fractured bedrock must be seated limits, except for the impermeable base of the ground-water
and sealed into the top of the rock. system, past which polluted water cannot move.
Most regulations require that the casing of all supply wells On the other hand, there are geologic and hydrologic situa-
terminate above land surface and that the land surface at the tions in which these regulations may be unnecessarily restric-
site be graded or sloped so that surface water is diverted away tive. An example is pollution in an unconfined aquifer down
from the well . Many States also require that public-supply the hydraulic gradient from a supply well drawing from a deep
wells have a continuous-bond concrete slab or concrete confined aquifer overlain by a nonleaky confining bed .
wellhouse floor at least 4 in . (10 cm) thick and extending at Because of these factors, it is essential that officials in-
least 3 ft (1 m) horizontally around the outside of the well cas- volved in regulating the location and construction of supply
ing . The top of the well casing must project not less than 6 in. wells be adequately trained in the fields of ground-water geol-
(15 cm) above the concrete slab or wellhouse floor. The top of ogy and hydrology so that they can protect the public health
the well casing must also project at least 1 in . (2 .5 cm) above on the basis of scientific knowledge and technical judgment
the pump pedestal . The top of the well casing must be sealed rather than that of blind application of arbitrary regulations .
watertight except for a vent pipe or vent tube having a
downward-diverted screened opening .
Protection of Supply Wells 75

5U I'rLY-W t LL rKIJtSLtMJ Utl.LINt IN Y ILLU
6 80
Access pipe 0 z
0 0 ~o,
for water-level
Z$
0 - 0 0 0 3
o ~_
measurements \ a 0 0 0 0 0 w
w
Pump Flow- 5 70o
3 u.
motor a CC
meter
x x x x x x x x x x x O
a_ x
v o 4 60 w w
J F-
M w
Q
J
3 50 C Z
0 Value of specific capacity
E x value of available drawdown
2 40
1980 1981 1982
(2)
The yield of any water-supply well depends on three ele- The specific capacity and the "yield" of supply wells are
ments: the aquifer, the well, and the pump . A decline in yield determined at the time of well construction . If the pumping
is due to a change in one of these elements, and correction of level during the well-acceptance test is relatively close (within
the problem depends on identification of the element that is a few meters) to the lowest practical level, the specific capac-
involved . This identification in many cases can be made only ity determined during the test can be used to accurately esti-
if data are available on the depth to the water level in the well mate the maximum yield . However, it is important to note that
and the pumping rate . Inability to identify reasons for a apparent declines in yield after wells are placed in production
decline in yield frequently results in discontinuing the use of reflect, in many cases, overestimation of the yields at the time
ground water and developing more expensive supplies from of construction . Actual declines in yield after wells are placed
surface-water sources. in operation result from deterioration of pumps, declines in
The depth to the water level in a well equipped with a pump the static water level or the specific capacity, or combinations
may be determined by using a steel tape, an electric tape, or of all three .
an air line and pressure gage . The pumping rate of a supply The yield of a well field is the sum of the yields of the indi-
well can be determined by any one of several different types of vidual wells . Successful operation, therefore, requires periodic
metering devices (1) . (See "Measurements of Water Levels and measurements of both the specific capacity and the available
Pumping Rates .") drawdown for each well . Changes in these values are used to
The yield of a well depends on the drawdown and on the predict the yield of the field at different times in the future
specific capacity . The specific capacity is the yield per unit of and, when they are used in conjunction with predictions of
drawdown, and, in nearly all pumping wells, it varies with the needs, to plan the rehabilitation of existing wells or the con-
pumping rate . Therefore, a discussion of decline in yield is struction of new wells .
meaningful only in terms of the maximum yield . The max- Measurements of specific capacity and available draw-
imum yield of a well is controlled by the available drawdown down are neither difficult nor time consuming. The deter-
and the specific capacity when the drawdown in the well mination of both requires only the three measurements listed
equals the available drawdown . (See "Well-Acceptance Tests below :
and Well Efficiency .") 1 . Static (nonpumping) water level (w . I .), measured weekly
The available drawdown is determined at the time of con- near the end of the longest nonpumping period,
struction of a supply well and consists of the difference be- which, in most systems with large industrial uses, is
tween the static (nonpumping) water level and the lowest near the end of the weekend .
practical pumping level . The lowest practical pumping level 2 . Maximum pumping water level, measured weekly near the
depends on the type of well . In screened wells, it is at the top end of the longest period of continuous use, which, in
of the uppermost screen . In open-hole fractured-rock wells, it most water systems, is near the end of the workweek .
is at the position of the lowest water-bearing fracture or at the 3 . Pumping rate, measured at the same time as the maximum
lowest level at which the pump intake can be placed . pumping water level .

These three items of data are analyzed as follows to deter- Determinations of specific capacity and available draw-
mine the maximum yield of the well . down should be carefully preserved as a part of the perma-
nent file on each well . (See "Well Records and Files .") They
specific capacity should be analyzed at least quarterly to determine if changes
in either are occurring. This analysis can be done most con-
pumping rate (m3 min' or gal min') veniently if the values are plotted on graph paper versus the
static w . I . (m or ft)-pumping w . I . (m or ft) time of the determination (2) . Changes in available drawdown
and (or) specific capacity and suggested causes and corrective
m3 gal action are listed in the accompanying table .
= or
min m min ft
available drawdown (m or ft)

= (static water level, i n m or ft) -(lowest
practical water level, in m or ft)
maximum yield =(specific capacity) x(available drawdown)
ANALYSIS OF DECLINES IN WELL YIELD
Identifying criteria Cause Corrective action
Decline in available drawdown---------- The aquifer, due to a decline in Increase spacing of new supply wells .
no change in specific capacity . ground-water level resulting Institute measures for artificial recharge .
from depletion of storage caused
by decline in recharge or excessive
withdrawals.
No change in available drawdown------- The well, due to increase in well Redevelop the well through the use of a
decline in specific capacity . loss resulting from blockage of surge block or other means . Use acid to
screen by rock particles or by dissolve encrustations.
deposition of carbonate or iron
compounds ; or reduction in length
of the open hole by movement of
sediment into the well .
No change in available drawdown------- The pump, due to wear of impellers Recondition or replace motor, or pull pump
no change in specific capacity . and other moving parts or loss of and replace worn or damaged parts .
power from the motor .
Supply-Well Problems-Decline in Yield 77

JUYYLY-WtLL t'KVtSLCMJ 1.1-1HIllljtJ IN VVH1 tK
QUALITY
- Septic tank
Annular
Polluted surface runoff
space
OF
VAN
Unconfined aquifer
Freshwater
Upconing of
salty water
N
ii
Ll Confining bed
The problems most frequently encountered in the operation made monthly and that analyses of inorganic quality be made
of supply wells relate either to declines in yield or to deteri- at least every 3 years for all community systems supplied en-
oration in the quality of the water . Declines in yield are dis- tirely by ground water . It is good practice to periodically
cussed in "Supply-Well Problems-Decline in Yield ." determine the biological and chemical quality of water from
Deterioration in water quality may result either from all wells, especially those that supply domestic needs, in order
changes in the quality of water in the aquifer or changes in the to determine if changes in quality are occurring .
well . These changes may affect the biological quality, the Deterioration in biological quality refers to the appearance
chemical quality, or the physical quality. Deterioration in in the water of bacteria and (or) viruses associated with human
biological and chemical quality generally results from condi- or animal wastes . Such deterioration is referred to under the
tions in the aquifer, whereas changes in physical quality result general term pollution and indicates, in nearly all cases, a con-
from changes in the well . nection between the land surface or a near-surface zone and
Both the biological and the chemical quality of water from the open section of the well . The connection most frequently
new public-supply wells must be analyzed before the wells are exists in the annular space between the casing and the aquifer .
placed in use to determine if the water meets water-supply To avoid pollution of wells, many well-construction regula-
standards and, if it does not, what treatment is required . tions require that the annular space be completely filled with
Drinking-water regulations of the U .S . Environmental Protec- cement grout from the land surface to a depth of at least 20 ft
tion Agency also require that analyses of biological quality be (6 m) .

Deterioration in chemical quality refers to the arrival at a stance soluble in water . Thus, it is important to be aware of
supply well of water containing dissolved chemicals in an the accidental or intentional release of potential pollutants
undesirably large concentration . Withdrawals of water from a within the area of influence of all supply wells. Substances
well cause water to converge on the well from different direc- that are of particular concern in this regard include herbicides,
tions . If this convergence involves water containing a large pesticides and other complex organics, petroleum products,
concentration of any substance, the concentration of that and those substances that contain trace concentrations of
substance will, after some period of time, begin to increase. metals. In planning a sampling program, for these substances
The most commonly observed increases in concentration in- or any others, it is important to consider the slow rate at which
volve NaCl (sodium chloride or common salt) and NO, most ground water moves.
(nitrate), but, if the well is near a sanitary landfill or other Deterioration in physical quality involves changes in appear-
waste-disposal site, the increase may involve almost any ance, taste, and temperature . Most commonly, a change in ap-
substance commonly used by man . pearance or color involves either the gradual or the sudden
Nitrate is an important constituent in fertilizers and is pres- appearance of rock particles in the water. These particles can
ent in relatively large concentrations in human and animal range in size from clay, which gives the water a turbid or
wastes. Therefore, nitrate concentrations in excess of a few "bluish" appearance, to sand . The size of the particles is indi-
milligrams per liter almost invariably indicate that water is ar- cated by the rate at which the particles settle . If the particles
riving at the well from shallow aquifers that are polluted by settle exceedingly slowly, or not at all, they are clay size. If
septic tanks or animal feedlots or that are contaminated by they settle immediately, they are sand size.
excess nitrates used in farming operations. The gradual appearance of particles generally indicates
Sodium chloride is the principal constituent of seawater that the finer grained material was not adequately removed
and is also present in significant concentrations in human and from the zone adjacent to the well during well development .
animal wastes and in some industrial wastes. An increase in (See "Well-Construction Methods .") During use of the well,
the chloride content in well water most commonly indicates these particles slowly migrate to and into the well . The sudden
upward movement of water from an underlying zone of salty appearance of particles-that is, when the concentration of
water. Other increases are due to pollution by sources at or particles is large (very obvious) from the beginning-generally
near the land surface, such as deicing operations on streets indicates the failure (collapse) of the screen or a rupture of the
and highways in the northern part of the country. well casing .
Although increases in chloride and nitrate content are prob- Changes in the quality of water produced by a well, likely
ably the most common changes in chemical quality that causes of the change, and suggested corrective action are
occur in ground water, changes may involve almost any sub- listed in the accompanying table.
ANALYSIS OF CHANGES IN WATER QUALITY

Change in quality Cause of the change Corrective action
Biological --------- Movement of polluted water from Seal annular space with cement grout or other
the surface or near-surface layers impermeable material and mound dirt around
through the annular space. the well to deflect surface runoff .
Chemical --------- Movement of polluted water into Seal the annular space. If sealing does not
the well from the land surface eliminate pollution, extend the casing to a
or from shallow aquifers . deeper level (by telescoping and grouting a
smaller diameter casing inside the original
casing).
Upward movement of water from Reduce the pumping rate and (or) seal the lower
zones of salty water . part of the well .
Physical ---------- Migration of rock particles into the Remove pump and redevelop the well
well through the screen or from
water-bearing fractures penetrated
by open-hole wells.
Collapse of the well screen or Remove screen, if possible, and install new screen .
rupture of the well casing . Install smaller diameter casing inside the
original casing .
Supply-Well Problems-Changes in Water Quality 79

VV C LL RCL,V RL1J /-%ICI LJ f 1 LCJ
The collection and preservation of records on the construc- of the test results . (See "Well-Acceptance Tests and
tion, operation, maintenance, and abandonment of supply Well Efficiency .")
wells are an essential but largely neglected activity. This 4. Pump and installation data, including the type of pump,
responsibility rests largely on the well owner or operator. The the horsepower of the motor, the depth to the pump
consequence of this neglect is that it is not possible to identify intake, a copy of the pump manufacturer's perform
and to economically correct problems of declining yield or ance and efficiency data, and data on the length of
deterioration in water quality, and the design of new wells the air line or a description of facilities provided for
cannot incorporate past operational experience . water-level measurements, including a description of
A file should be established on each supply well at the time the measuring point. (See "Measurements of Water
when plans for its construction are initiated . From the initial Levels and Pumping Rates.")
planning to the final abandonment of the well, the following 5. Operating record, including data on the type of meter used
records should be generated and carefully preserved in this to measure the flow rate, weekly readings of the flow-
file: meter dial, weekly measurements of the static and
1 . Initial design, including drawings or written specifications pumping water levels, and periodic analyses of water
on diameter, proposed total depth, position of screens quality . (See "Supply-Well Problems-Decline in
or open hole, method of construction, and materials Yield .")
to be used in construction . (See "Water-Well Design .") 6. Record of well maintenance, including the dates and the
2 . Construction record, including the method of construction activities instituted to increase the yield or to improve
and the driller's log and a geophysical log of the mate- the water quality and data showing the results
rials penetrated during construction, the diameter of achieved . (See "Supply-Well Problems-Decline in
casings and screens, the slot size and metallic compo- Yield" and "Supply-Well Problems-Changes in
sition of screens, the depths of casing and screens, the Water Quality .")
total depth of the well, and the weight of the casing . 7. Record of well abandonment, including the date that use
(See "Well-Construction Methods" and "Well Logs.") of the well was discontinued and a description of the
Records and logs should also be retained for all test methods and materials used to seal or plug the well .
wells, including those that were not successful The type of forms used for the records described above is
because of small yields. not of critical importance . It is more important that the
3. Well-acceptance test, including a copy of the water-level records be collected, regardless of the type of form that is
measurements made before, during, and after the used . It is important, however, that the date and the watch
drawdown (pumping) test, a record of the pumping time be noted with each measurement of pumping rate and
rate or rates, copies of any graphs of the data, and a depth to water and on each water sample collected for water-
copy of the hydrologist's report on the interpretation quality analyses.

REFERENCES
A large number of publications on ground-water hydrology were consulted in the preparation of this report . A citation is
shown in the text only where a publication was used as a specific source of tabular data.
The following list of principal references consulted is included to identify sources of specific information and fo- the
benefit of those who wish to obtain additional information .
General References Stratification and unsaturated flo",v

Bouwer, Herman, 1978, Groundwater hydrology : New York, McGraw- Palmquist, W . N ., Jr ., and Johnson, A .-L, 1962, Vadose flow in layered
Hill, 480 p. and nonlayered materials, in Short papers in geology and hydrol-
Fetter, C . W., Jr., 1980, Applied hydrogeology : Columbus, Charles ogy : U .S . Geological Survey Professional Paper 450-C, 146 p .
E . Merrill, 488 p .
Freeze, R. A ., and Cherry, J . A ., 1979, Groundwater: Englewood Cliffs,
N .J ., Prentice Hall, 604 p . Saturated flow and dispersion
Heath, R. C ., and Trainer, F. W ., 1981, Introduction to ground-water
hydrology : Worthington, Ohio, Water-Well Journal Publishing Danel, Pierre, 1953, The measurement of ground-water flow, in
Co., 285 p. Ankara Symposium on Arid Zone Hydrology, Paris 1953, Pro-
Todd, D . K., 1980, Groundwater hydrology, 2d ed . : New York, John ceedings : UNESCO, p . 99-107.
Wiley, 535 p .
Walton, W . C., 1970, Groundwater resource evaluation : New York,
McGraw-Hill, 664 p . Source of water derived from wells
Theis, C . V ., 1940, The source of water derived from well, essential
Section References factors controlling the response of an aquifer to development :
Civil Engineering, v . 10, no. 5, p. 277-280.
A few publications were consulted in the preparation of two or
more sections . To save space, the complete citation to a publication is
shown only the first time that it is mentioned . Aquifer tests
Stallman, R . W ., 1971, Aquifer-test design, observations, and data
Ground-water hydrology analysis : U .S. Geological Survey Techniques of Water-Resources
Investigations, Book 3, Chapter B1, 26 p .
L'vovich, M . I ., 1979, World water resources and their future (English
translation, edited by R . L . Nace) : Washington, D .C ., American
Geophysical Union, 415 p . Analysis of aquifer-test data
Jacob, C . E., 1963, Determining the permeability of water-table
Underground water aquifers: U .S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1536-I,
p . 1245-1271 .
Meinzer, O . E ., 1923, The occurrence of ground water in the United Lohman, S . W., 1972, Ground-water hydraulics : U .S . Geological
States, with a discussion of principles: U .S . Geological Survey Survey Professional Paper 708, 70 p.
Water-Supply Paper 489, 321 p. Theis, C . V., 1935, The relation between the lowering of the piezo-
metric surface and the rate and duration of discharge of a well
using ground-water storage: Transactions of the American Geo-
Hydrologic cycle physical Union, v. 16, p. 519-524 .
L'vovich (1979)
Time-d rawdown analysis
Porosity Jacob, C . E ., 1950, Flow of ground water, in Rouse, Hunter, Engineer-
ing hydraulics: New York, John Wiley, chapter 5, p . 321-386 .
Meinzer (1923)
Specific yield and specific retention Distance-drawdown analysis

Meinzer (1923) Jacob (1950)
Hydraulic conductivity Aquifer boundaries

Lohman, S . W ., and others, 1972, Definitions of selected ground- Ferris, 1 . G ., Knowles, D . B ., Brown, R. H ., and Stallman, R. W ., 1962,
water terms-Revisions and conceptual refinements : U .S . Geo- Theory of aquifer tests : U .S . Geological Survey Water-Supply
logical Survey Water-Supply Paper 1988, 21 p . Paper 1536-E, p . E69-El 74 .
Referen-es 81
Tests affected by lateral boundaries Water-well design
Moulder, E. A., 1963, Locus circles as an aid in the location of a U.S . Bureau of Reclamation, 1977, Ground-water manual : Wash-
hydrogeologic boundary, in Bentall, Ray, comp., Shortcuts and ington, D.C ., U.S . Government Printing Office, 480 p.
special problems in aquifer tests : U.S. Geological Survey Water-
Supply Paper 1545-C, p. C110-C115 .
Specific capacity and transmissivity
Mcclymonds, N . E., and Franke, O. L., 1972, Water-transmitting
Tests affected by leaky confining beds properties of aquifers on Long Island, New York: U.S . Geological
Survey Professional Paper 627-E, 24 p.
Hantush, M. S., 1960, Modification of the theory of leaky aquifers :
Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 65, no . 11, p. 3713-3725 . Quality of ground water
Hantush, M. S., and Jacob, C. E., 1955, Non-steady radial flow in an
infinite leaky aquifer : Transactions of the American Geophys- Hem, J. D., 1970, Study and interpretation of the chemical charac-
ical Union, v. 36, no . 1, p. 95-100 . teristics of natural water: U .S . Geological Survey Water-Supply
Jacob, C. E., 1946, Radial flow in a leaky artesian aquifer : Transac- Paper 1473, 363 p.
tions of the American Geophysical Union, v. 27, no . 2, p . 198-205. U.S . Environmental Protection Agency, 1977, National interim primary
drinking water regulations: EPA-57019-76-003, 159 p.
Well-construction methods Pollution of ground water

Campbell, M. C., and Lehr, J. H., 1973, Water well technology : New U.S . Environmental Protection Agency (1977)
York, McGraw-Hill, 681 p.
U .S . Environmental Protection Agency, 1974, Manual of individual
water-supply systems: EPA-43019-74-007, 155 p. Saltwater encroachment
Feth, J. H., and others, 1965, Preliminary map of the conterminous
United States showing depth to and quality of shallowest
Well logs ground water containing more than 1,000 parts per million dis-
solved solids : U.S . Geological Survey Hydrologic Investigations
Edward E. Johnson, Inc., 1966, Ground water and wells, 1st ed . : Atlas 199, scale 1 :3,168,000, two sheets, accompanied by
Saint Paul, Minn ., 440 p. 31-p . text .

IvUIVII1DC1%Jf CkjuH1 1UIVJ, HIVU L,UNVtKN1UNJ
The preceding discussions of basic ground-water hydrology involve the use of equations and physical units with which
some readers may not be familiar. This discussion of numbers, equations, and conversion of units from one system of meas-
urement to another is included for the benefit of those readers and for others who need to refresh their memories .
Expressing Large Numbers

1,000=10xlox10=1 x103
1,000,000= lox lox lox10x10x10=1x10 6
The numbers 3 and 6 are called exponents and indicate the number of times that 10 must be multiplied by itself to obtain the
initial number.
Expressing Small Numbers

1 1
0.001= _ = 1x10-3
1,000 1 x 103
0 .000001 = 1 = 1 =1 x 10 -6
1,000,000 1 x 106
Exponents in the denominator acquire a negative sign when they are moved to the numerator .
Simplifying Equations
Symbols in equations have numerical values and, in most cases, units of measurement, such as meters and feet, in which
the values are expressed . For example, Darcy's law, one of the equations used in basic ground-water hydrology, is
(dl~
dl
In metric units, hydraulic conductivity (K) is in meters per day, area (A) is in square meters, and hydraulic gradient (dhldl) is
in meters per meter . Substituting these units in Darcy's law, we obtain
meters meters meters4 =m

Q= xmeters' x = 4- ' d - '=m3 d - '
day meters meters day
Similarly, in inch-pound units, K is in feet per day, A is in square feet, and dhldl is in feet per feet . Substituting these units in
Darcy's law, we obtain
feet feet = feet4

Q= _
x feet' x ft4- ' d-1= ft3 d-'
day feet feet day
The characteristics of exponents are the same, whether they are used with numbers or with units of measurement . Ex-
ponents assigned to units of measurement are understood to apply, of course, to the value that the unit of measurement has
in a specific problem .
Numbers, Equations, and Conversions 83

conversion of units
Units of measurements used in ground-water literature are gradually changing from the inch-pound units of gallons, feet,
and pounds to the International System of units of meters and kilograms (metric units) . It is, therefore, increasingly important
that those who use this literature become proficient in converting units of measurement from one system to another. Most
conversions involve the fundamental principle that the numerator and denominator of a fraction can be multiplied by the
same number (in essence, multiplying the fraction by 1) without changing the value of the fraction . For example, if both the
numerator and the denominator of the fraction 1/4 are multiplied by 2, the value of the fraction is not changed. Thus,
1 2 2 1 1 2 1 _1
4x2 = $=4 or 4x2 = xl =
4 4
Similarly, to convert gallons per minute to other units of measurement, such as cubic feet per day, we must first identify
fractions that contain both the units of time (minutes and days) and the units of volume (gallons and cubic feet) and that,
when they are used as multipliers, do not change the numerical value. Relative to time, there are 1,440 minutes in a day.
Therefore, if any number is multiplied by 1,440 min/d, the result will be in different units, but its numerical value will be un-
changed . Relative to volume, there are 7.48 gallons in a cubic foot . Therefore, to convert gallons per minute to cubic feet per
day, we multiply by these "unit" fractions, cancel the units of measurement that appear in both the numerator and the
denominator, and gather together the units that remain . In other words, to convert gallons per minute to cubic feet per day,
we have
gallons _ gallons 1,440 min cubic feet

x
minute minute d x 7.48 gal
and, canceling gallons and minutes in the numerators and denominators, we obtain
gallons 1,440 ft'

=192 .5 ft' d -'
minute 7.48 d
which tells us that 1 gal min- ' equals 192 .5 ft' d - ' .
We follow the same procedure in converting from inch-pound units to metric units. For example, to convert square feet
per day to square meters per day, we proceed as follows:
ft 2 ft 2 m2 m2
- = x = = 0.0929 m2 d- ' = 9.29x 10 -2 m2 d -'
d d 10 .76 ft2 10.76 d

DEFINITIONS OF TERMS
[Number in parentheses is the page on which the term is first mentioned]
AQUIFER ( 6 ): A water-bearing layer of rock that will yield water in a usable quantity to a well or spring .
BEDROCK ( 2 ) : A general term for the consolidated (solid) rock that underlies soils or other unconsolidated surficial
material .
CAPILLARY FRINGE ( 4 ): The zone above the water table in which water is held by surface tension. Water in the capillary
fringe is under a pressure less than atmospheric .
CONE OF DEPRESSION ( 30 ) : The depression of heads around a pumping well caused by the withdrawal of water.
CONFINING BED ( 6 ): A layer of rock having very low hydraulic conductivity that hampers the movement of water into
and out of an aquifer.
DATUM PLANE ( 10 ) : An arbitrary surface (or plane) used in the measurement of ground-water heads. The datum most
commonly used is the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929, which closely approximates sea level.
DISPERSION ( 19 ) : The extent to which a liquid substance introduced into a ground-water system spreads as it moves
through the system .
DRAWDOWN ( 34 ) : The reduction in head at a point caused by the withdrawal of water from an aquifer.
EQUIPOTENTIAL LINE ( 21 ) : A line on a map or cross section along which total heads are the same .
FLOW LINE ( 21 ) : The idealized path followed by particles of water.
FLOW NET ( 21 ) : The grid pattern formed by a network of flow lines and equipotential lines.
GROUND WATER ( 4 ): Water in the saturated zone that is under a pressure equal to or greater than atmospheric pressure .
HEAD See TOTAL HEAD.
HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY ( 12 ) : The capacity of a rock to transmit water. It is expressed as the volume of wate~ at the
existing kinematic viscosity that will move in unit time under a unit hydraulic gradient through a unit area measured at
right angles to the direction of flow .
HYDRAULIC GRADIENT ( 10 ): Change in head per unit of distance measured in the direction of the steepest chang- .
POROSITY ( 7 ): The voids or openings in a rock . Porosity may be expressed quantitatively as the ratio of the volume or
openings in a rock to the total volume of the rock .
POTENTIOMETRIC SURFACE ( 6 ): A surface that represents the total head in an aquifer; that is, it represents the height
above a datum plane at which the water level stands in tightly cased wells that penetrate the aquifer.
ROCK ( 2 ) : Any naturally formed, consolidated or unconsolidated material (but not soil) consisting of two or more
minerals .
SATURATED ZONE ( 4 ) : The subsurface zone in which all openings are full of water.
SOIL ( 4 ) : The layer of material at the land surface that supports plant growth .
SPECIFIC CAPACITY ( 58 ): The yield of a well per unit of drawdown .
SPECIFIC RETENTION ( 8 ): The ratio of the volume of water retained in a rock after gravity drainage to the volume of the
rock .
SPECIFIC YIELD ( 8 ): The ratio of the volume of water that will drain under the influence of gravity to the volume of satu-
rated rock.
STORAGE COEFFICIENT ( 28 ) : The volume of water released from storage in a unit prism of an aquifer when the head is
lowered a unit distance .
STRATIFICATION (18 ): The layered structure of sedimentary rocks.
TOTAL HEAD ( 10 ): The height above a datum plane of a column of water . In a ground-water system, it is composed of
elevation head and pressure head .
TRANSMISSIVITY ( 26 ): The rate at which water of the prevailing kinematic viscosity is transmitted through a unit width
of an aquifer under a unit hydraulic gradient. It equals the hydraulic conductivity multiplied by the aquifer thickness.
UNSATURATED ZONE ( 4 ) : The subsurface zone, usually starting at the land surface, that contains both water and air.
WATER TABLE ( 4 ) : The level in the saturated zone at which the pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure .
Definitions of Terms 85
RELATION OF UNITS OF HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY, TRANSMISSIVITY, RECHARGE RATES, AND FLOW RATES
Hydraulic conductivity (K)
Centimeters per Gallons per day

Meters per day second Feet per day per square foot
(m d - ') (cm s - ') (ft d - ') (gal d - ' ft -2)
1 1 .16x10 -3 3.28 2 .45 x 10'

8 .64 x 102 1 2 .83 x 103 2 .12x10 4
3 .05 x 10 - ' 3 .53 x 10 -4 1 7.48
4 .1 x 10 -2 4.73 x 10- ' 1 .34x10 - ' 1
Transmissivity (T)
Gallons per day

Square meters per day Square feet per day per foot
(ft2
(m 2 d - ') d-') (gal d - ' ft - ')
1 10.76 80 .5
.0929 1 7 .48
.0124 .134 1
Recharge rates
Unit depth Volume

per year (m3 d - ' km -2) (ft3d - ' mi -2 ) (gal d - ' mi -2)
(In millimeters) 2 .7 251 1,874

(In inches) 70 6,365 47,748
Flow rates
(m 3 s - ') (m 3 min -1 ) (ft3 s - 1 ) (ft' min - ) (gal min - )
60 35 .3 2,120 15,800
.0167 1 .588 35 .3 264
.0283 1 .70 1 60 449
.000472 .0283 .0167 1 7 .48
.000063 .00379 .0023 .134 1
UNITS AND CONVERSIONS
Metric to inch-pound units Inch-pound to metric units
LENGTH LENGTH
1 millimeter (mm)=0.001 m=0 .03937 in . 1 inch (in .)=25.4 mm=2 .54 cm =0.W54 m
1 centimeter (cm)=0 .01 m=0.3937 in .= 0 .0328 ft 1 foot (ft) =12 in. = 30 .48 cm = 0. 3048 m
1 meter (m)=39 .37 in . =3 .28 ft =1 .09 yd 1 yard (yd)=3 ft = 0.9144 m-0 .0009144 km
1 kilometer (km) =1,000 m =0 .62 mi 1 mile (mi)=5,280 ft =1,609 m=1 .603 km
AREA AREA
1 cmz=0 .155 in .z 1 in .z=6.4516 cmz
1 m z =10.758 ftz =1 .196 ydz 1 ftz=929 cmz=0 .0929 ml
1 kmz=247 acres =0 .386 miz 1 miz=2 .59 kmz
VOLUME VOLUME
1 cm 3 =0 .061 in . 3 1 in . 3 -0.00058 ft3 =16 .39 cm 3
1 m 3 =1,000 1=264 U .S. gal=35 .314 ft3 1 ft' =1728 in . 3 =0 .02832 m 3
1 liter (I)=1,000 cm 3 =0.264 U .S. gal 1 gallon (gal) =231 in . 3 =0 .13368 ft3=0 .00379 m3
MASS MASS
1 microgram (.ug)=0 .000001 g 1 ounce (oz)=0 .0625 lb=28.35 g
1 milligram (mg)=0.001 g 1 pound (lb)=16 oz=0 .4536 kg
1 gram (g) = 0.03527 oz = 0.002205 I b
1 kilogram (kg)=1,000 g=2 .205 lb

Basic Groundwater Hydrology

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Basic Ground-Water Hydrology

Prepared in cooperation with the

U .S. Geological Survey

U .S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 1983

For sale by U .S . Geological Survey, Information Services

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publications Data

The science of hydrology would be relatively simple if water were

FRACTURED ROCK FRACTURES IN CAVERNS IN

2 Basic Ground-Water Hydrology

Rocks and Water 3

0 < ( CAPILLARY FRINGE ~M(((

4 Basic Ground-Water Hydrology

6 Basic Ground-Water Hydrology

Vt-Vs Vv Equal-size spheres (marbles) :

Volume of voids ( Vim ) 0 .3 m3

8 Basic Ground-Water Hydrology

Material Porosity Specific yield Specific retention

Specific Yield and Specific Retention 9

Measuring point ( top of casing)

Well I (Alt IOOm) (Alt 98 m ) well 2

10 Basic Ground-Water Hydrology

(e) 26 .2-26 .07

Heads and Gradients 11

Unit prism of aquifer

form of an equation by Henry Darcy, a French engineer, in Adh (m') (M) d

Thus, the units of hydraulic conductivity are those of veloc-

12 Basic Ground-Water Hydrology

IGNEOUS AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS

14 Basic Ground-Water Hydrology

Functions of Ground-Water Systems 1s

16 Basic Ground-Water Hydrology

DATUM PLANE (NATIONAL GEODETIC VERTICAL DATUM 1929)

Capillarity and Unsaturated Flow 17

18 Basic Ground-Water Hydrology

Saturated Flow and Dispersion 19

20 Basic Ground-Water Hydrology

Ground-Water Flow Nets 21

22 Basic Ground-Water Hydrology

Ground-Water Flow Nets 23

The angles of refraction (and the spacing of flow lines in

,Confined aquifer tan 0, KZ

they are refracted back toward the direction parallel to the

24 Basic Ground-Water Hydrology

Water-table ground-water velocity. The missing term is porosity (n)

1 . Aquifer composed ofcoarse sand

The rate of movement of ground water is important in many K

The capacity of an aquifer to transmit water of the prevail- Q=TwW

Equation 3 is also used to calculate transmissivity, where

(2) The units of transmissivity, as the preceding equation

Equation 2 modified to determine the quantity of water (Q T- (m3 d-')(m) _ m 2

26 Basic Ground-Water Hydrology

The storage coefficient (S) is defined as the volume of water

volume of water __ (m 3 ) __ _m3

The size of the storage coefficient depends on whether the

28 Basic Ground-Water Hydrology

30 Basic Ground-Water Hydrology

32 Basic Ground-Water Hydrology

Withdrawal (Q) = Reduction in storage (LS)

Withdrawal (Q) = Reduction in storage (Z~S) + Reduction in discharge (pD)

volume of water (m 3 ) _m3