This file is licensed to John Murray (John9@gmail.com).

Publication Date: 6/1/2017

22.26 2017 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals (SI)

instead of subtracted in calculating p. In this case, H is the ver- Fixtures, Fixture Units Demand Pipe Size
tical distance of the fixture below the bottom of the tank. The No. and Type (Table 25 and Note c) (Figure 11) (Figure 14)
pressure conversion factor 9.8 is determined by the mass of 3 flush valves 36 = 18
water occupying a 1 m3 volume, or 9800 N/m2 (9.8 kPa/m). 2 bathtubs 0.75  2  2 = 3
7. From the expected rate of flow determined in step 3 and the value 3 lavatories 0.75  3  1 = 2.25
of p calculated in step 6, choose the sizes of pipe from Figure Total = 23.25 2.4 L/s 40 mm
14, 15, or 16. Velocities exceeding 3 m/s cause undesirable noise in the piping
system. This usually governs the size of larger pipes in the system,
Example 4. Assume a minimum street main pressure of 375 kPa; a height whereas in small pipe sizes, the friction loss usually governs the
of topmost fixture (a urinal with flush valve) above street main of 15 m; selection because the velocity is low compared to friction loss.
an equivalent pipe length from water main to highest fixture of 30 m; a Velocity is the governing factor in downfeed systems, where fric-
total load on the system of 50 fixture units; and that the water closets
are flush valve operated. Find the required size of supply main.
tion loss is usually neglected. Velocity in branches leading to pump
suctions should not exceed 1.5 m/s.
Solution: Use Equation (1): If the street pressure is too low to adequately supply upper-floor
p = ( ps – 9.8H – pf – pm)/L fixtures, the pressure must be increased. Constant- or variable-speed
ps = Street main pressure (given) = 375 kPa booster pumps, alone or in conjunction with gravity supply tanks, or
H = 15 m (given) hydropneumatic systems may be used.
Pf = 105 kPa from Table 24 Flow control valves for individual fixtures under varying pres-
Flow = 3.2 L/s from Figure 11 sure conditions automatically adjust flow at the fixture to a prede-
termined quantity. These valves allow the designer to (1) limit flow
For a trial run, use 40 mm; then Pm = 45 kPa from Figure 12 at 3.2 L/s.
The pressure drop available for overcoming friction in pipes and fit-
at the individual outlet to the minimum suitable for the purpose,
tings is 375 – 9.8  15 – 105 – 45 = 78 kPa. (2) hold total demand for the system more closely to the required
minimum, and (3) design the piping system as accurately as is prac-
At this point, estimate the equivalent pipe length of the fittings on
Licensed for single user. © 2017 ASHRAE, Inc.

ticable for the requirements.

the direct line from the street main to the highest fixture. The exact
equivalent length of the various fittings cannot be determined because
the pipe sizes of the building main, riser, and branch leading to the
Hydronic System Piping
highest fixture are not yet known, but a first approximation is necessary The Darcy-Weisbach equation with friction factors from the
to tentatively select pipe sizes. If the computed pipe sizes differ from Moody chart or Colebrook equation (or, alternatively, the Hazen-
those used in determining the equivalent length of pipe fittings, a recal- Williams equation) is fundamental to calculating pressure drop in
culation using the computed pipe sizes for the fittings will be neces- hot- and chilled-water piping; however, charts calculated from these
sary. It is common practice for the first trial to assume that the total equations (such as Figures 14, 15, and 16) provide easy determination
equivalent length of the pipe fittings is 50% of the total length of pipe.
of pressure drops for specific fluids and pipe standards. In addition,
In this example, 30 m  50% = 15 m.
The permissible pressure loss per metre of equivalent pipe is 78/(30 +
tables of pressure drops can be found in Crane Co. (1976) and
15) = 1.7 kPa/m. A 40 mm building main is adequate. Hydraulic Institute (1990).
The sizing of the branches of the building main, the risers, and the The Reynolds numbers represented on the charts in Figures 14,
fixture branches follows these principles. For example, assume that one 15, and 16 are all in the turbulent flow regime. For smaller pipes and/
of the branches of the building main carries the cold-water supply for or lower velocities, the Reynolds number may fall into the laminar
three water closets, two bathtubs, and three lavatories. Using the per- regime, in which the Colebrook friction factors are no longer valid.
missible pressure loss of 1.7 kPa/m, the size of branch (determined Most tables and charts for water are calculated for properties at
from Table 25 and Figures 14 and 11) is found to be 40 mm. Items
15°C. Using these for hot water introduces some error, although the
included in the computation of pipe size are as follows:
answers are conservative (i.e., cold-water calculations overstate the
Table 26 is a guide to minimum pipe sizing where flush valves pressure drop for hot water). Using 15°C water charts for 90°C
are used. water should not result in errors in p exceeding 20%.

Fig. 14 Friction Loss for Water in Commercial Steel Pipe (Schedule 40)
 This file is licensed to John Murray (John9@gmail.com). Publication Date: 6/1/2017

Pipe Design 22.27

Fig. 15 Friction Loss for Water in Copper Tubing (Types K, L, M)

Licensed for single user. © 2017 ASHRAE, Inc.

Fig. 16 Friction Loss for Water in Plastic Pipe (Schedule 80)

Table 26 Allowable Number of 25 mm Flush Valves 400 Pa/m for piping over 50 mm in diameter. Velocities in excess of
Served by Various Sizes of Water Pipe* 1.2 m/s can be used in piping of larger size. This limitation is gen-
erally accepted, although it is based on relatively inconclusive expe-
Pipe Size, mm No. of 25 mm Flush Valves
rience with noise in piping. Water velocity noise is not caused by
32 1 water but by free air, sharp pressure drops, turbulence, or a combi-
40 2 to 4 nation of these, that cause cavitation or flashing of water into steam.
50 5 to 12 Therefore, higher velocities may be used if proper precautions are
65 13 to 25 taken to eliminate air and turbulence.
75 26 to 40
100 41 to 100
Air Separation
*Two 20 mm flush valves are assumed equal to one 25 mm flush valve but can be
served by a 25 mm pipe. Water pipe sizing must consider demand factor, available Air in hydronic systems is usually undesirable because it
pressure, and length of run. causes flow noise, allows oxygen to react with piping materials,
and sometimes even prevents flow in parts of a system. Air may
Range of Usage of Pressure Drop Charts enter a system at an air/water interface in an open system or in an
General Design Range. The general range of pipe friction loss expansion tank in a closed system, or it may be brought in dis-
used for design of hydronic systems is between 100 and 400 Pa per solved in makeup water. Most hydronic systems use air separation
metre of pipe. A value of 250 Pa/m represents the mean to which devices to remove air. The solubility of air in water increases with
most systems are designed. Wider ranges may be used in specific pressure and decreases with temperature; thus, separation of air
designs if certain precautions are taken. from water is best achieved at the point of lowest pressure and/or
Piping Noise. Closed-loop hydronic system piping is generally highest temperature in a system. For more information, see
sized below certain arbitrary upper limits, such as a velocity limit of Chapter 13 of the 2016 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Systems and
1.2 m/s for 50 mm pipe and under, and a pressure drop limit of Equipment.