THE INSTITUTE OF FINANCE

MANAGEMENT

Module Code: GSU 07102

COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Module Facilitator: Emmanuel S.

Mtani
Office: Block A, Rm. 504
 Introduction
The Importance of Communication Skills
Good communication skills are critical for students’ learning while at university or college.
The skills are also fundamental for their future as professionals in almost any career path
they will pursue. In the present business world, communication is considered one of
the university’s generic graduate attributes. Hence success or failure of one being offered a
job depends also on the ability to communicate effectively.

For this reason, it is essential that all students acquire:

• the ability to express ideas concisely and clearly,
• an awareness of discourse styles specific to their discipline or professional area,
• skills in verbal reasoning, and
• listening comprehension skills that equip them to deal with varied situations, from note-
taking in lectures to work placement situations.
 Part I
Note Taking
What is Note taking?
-Is the process of writing down important information from spoken texts such
as lectures, speeches , or other learning opportunity in order to review and
remember the information later.

Information presented in classes often contains the central concepts of the

course and the material most likely to be included on exams. Unfortunately,
most students frequently do not realise the importance of note taking and
listening. Active listening and purposeful note taking are critical tools for
preparing for exams.

Therefore Note taking aims at meeting three major objectives;

• To review past lessons regularly
• To recite (repeating key concepts from class)
• To reflect (connect class ideas and other sources or readings)
 Note Taking
Why do we need to take notes?
The following are some reasons;

• Taking notes forces one to listen carefully and test his/her understanding of
the material.
• Notes provide a gauge to what is important in the text when one reviews
later.
• Personal notes are usually easier to remember than the text.
• The writing down of important points helps one to remember them even
before he/she has studied the material formally.
 Note taking

What to be taken as notes?

• Material written on the board

• Repetition
• Emphasis
- Emphasis can be judged by tone of voice and gesture.
- Emphasis can also be judged by the amount of time the instructor spends
on points and the number of examples he or she uses.
• Word signals (e.g. "There are two points of view on . . . " "The third
reason is . . . " " In conclusion . . . ")
• Summaries given at the end of class.
• Reviews given at the beginning of class.
 Note taking

What methods can be used to take notes?

There are several methods individuals use to take notes. However, most
students find the following suggestions helpful.

1. Make your notes brief.

- Never use a sentence where you can use a phrase. Never use a phrase
where you can use a word.
- Use abbreviations and symbols, but be consistent.

2. Put most notes in your own words. However, the following should be
noted exactly:
- Formulas
- Definitions
- Specific facts
 
 Note taking
3. Use outline form and/or a numbering system. Indentation helps you
distinguish major from minor points.

3. If you miss a statement, write key words, skip a few spaces, and get
the information later.

3. Don't try to use every space on the page. Leave room for coordinating
your notes with the text after the lecture. (You may want to list key
terms in the margin or make a summary of the contents of the page.)

3. Date your notes. Perhaps number the pages.

 Note making
Introduction

Often, students are deceived into thinking that because they understand
everything that is said in class they will therefore remember it. This is wrong!
Learning to make notes effectively will help you to improve your study and
work habits and to remember important information. As you make notes, you
will develop skill in selecting important material and in discarding
unimportant
material. The secret to developing this skill is practice. Notes enable you to
retain important facts and data and to develop an accurate means of arranging
necessary information.
 Note Making
The Do’s and Don’ts of Note Making
• Don't write down everything that you read. Be attentive to the main points;
focus on the "meat" of the subject and forget the trimmings.

• Notes should consist of key words or very short sentences.

• Take accurate notes. You should usually use your own words, but try not
to change the meaning. If you quote directly from an author, quote
correctly.

• Think a minute about your material before you start making notes. Don't
take notes just to be taking notes! Take notes that will be of real value to
you when you look over them at a later date.
 Note Making
The Do’s and Don’ts of Note Making
• Have a uniform system of punctuation and abbreviation that will make
sense to you. Use a skeleton outline and show importance by indenting.
Leave lots of white space for later additions.

• Omit descriptions and full explanations. Keep your notes short and to the
point. Condense your material so you can grasp it rapidly.

• Don't keep notes on oddly shaped pieces of paper. Keep notes in order
and in one place.

• Shortly after making your notes, go back and rework (not re-do) your notes
by adding extra points and spelling out unclear items. Remember, we
forget rapidly. Budget time for this vital step just as you do for the class
itself.
 Note Making
The Do’s and Don’ts of Note Making
• Review your notes regularly. This is the only way to achieve lasting
memory.
• Take down some tips about the source you read;

-Author’s names
-Title of the source
-Year of publication
-Place of publication
-Publishers and
-Page number

These pieces of information will help you to remember the source for
citation and reference.
 Referencing Skills

Referencing has to do with documenting others’

ideas/contributions on a topic that one writes. This is generally
called citation (in-text citation and reference list)

Why citation?
There are three main reasons for this.
i) To document the contribution of other writers on the topic
ii) To tell readers where your information comes from
iii) To give credit to the writers from whom you have borrowed words or
ideas.
If one borrows others’ ideas or words without proper
Acknowledgement, it becomes an academic dishonest known as
plagiarism.
(Visit http://owll.massey.ac.nz/referencing/what-is-referencing.php)
 How to cite other’s works?

There are two ways;

a) By paraphrasing (means taking others ideas and use one own words to
explain them)
b) By quoting (means taking others ideas and words without changing them)

Examples:
a) Paraphrasing
When the government has financial resources and supremacy, there are likely
to be wastage or mismanagement of public money ( O’Rourke, 2010).

b) Quotation
O’Rourke, (2010) argued: “Giving money and power to the government is like
giving whiskey and car keys to a teenage boy”.
 Referencing formats/styles

There are different referencing styles that one can use; here are
some of them which are commonly used.
a) American Psychological Association (APA). Mostly used in
science and social science fields.

b) Modern Linguistics Association (MLA). Mostly used in

linguistics, and literature.

c) Chicago Humanities. Mostly used in law, history,

anthropology, and philosophy
 How sources appear in the three formats?

a) APA

Schaller, G. B. (2010). The Dark Age. Chicago: University of Chicago

Press.

b) MLA

Schaller, G. B. The Dark Age. Chicago: University of Chicago

Press, 2010.
 How sources appear in the three formats?

c) Chicago Humanities

…When the government has financial resources and supremacy, there are
likely to be wastage or mismanagement of public money.1

________________________
1 O’Rourke, J.K. (2010). Power and Governance. Dar es Salaam: Mkuki na

Nyota.
 Part II
Communication
The term ‘communication’ is familiar to most of us. This is because we often
communicate in our daily life. Of course humans are social beings; it is natural
for them to keep interacting to one another. And it is communication that
keeps humans’ interactions alive. Without communication no human being
would have been able to prosper.

• What is Communication?

• Sillars (1988) defines communication as ‘the giving, receiving or exchange

of information, opinions or ideas by writing, speech or visual means-or
any
combination of the three-so that the materials communicated is completely
understood by everyone concerned.’
 Communication

• Communication is a purposeful process of passing/exchanging ideas or

information from one person to another or one person to a group or from a
group to another group. The word process implies that something has to be
done in a planned and systematic way.

• Is a two-way process in which the speaker must have a listener and the
writer a reader to share experience (Baselmi, 1979) .

From this three definitions we get three things.

1. Communication should always be a purposeful process.
2. Communication should be mutually shared.
3. In any communication cycle, the message communicated should be
completely understood.
 Elements of Communication

In order for any communication to take place there should be the following
basic elements;
• Sender/Source
• Message
• Channel
• Receiver
• Feedback
Consider the following Berlo’s SMCR Communication Model
Sender Message Channel Receiver
Knowledge content hearing knowledge
Com. Skills code Seeing Com. Skills
Social Systems treatment touching Social Systems
Attitude structure Smelling Attitude
tasting
feedback
 Elements of Communication

• The Source idea is the process by which a Sender formulates an idea to

communicate to a Receiver. This process can be influenced by both
external and internal stimuli. The Source idea is the basis for the
communication.

• Encoding is how an idea is crafted into a message. It involves choices of

words , sentences, needs and different forms of conventions by which a
message will be communicated. The message is normally converted into a
suitable form for transmission. For example, the message will take a
different form if the communication will be spoken or written. The basic
question to ask at this level is “What has to be communicated to Who and
How?”
 Elements of Communication

• The Message is the actual content to be communicated to a Receiver. It is

based on the source idea; therefore it has to meet the purpose of
communication. The Message is a complex package of various elements;
tone, structure, code and content.

• The Channel is the medium of the communication; it must be able to

transmit the message from a Sender to a Receiver without changing the
content of the message. The Channel can be a piece of paper,
communication medium such as radio, TV, or it can be an email. In other
words the Channel is the path of the communication; it involves the five
human sense organs. When choosing the channel/medium a sender needs
to consider reliability, the receiver, nature of relationship, formality,
confidentiality, cost, suitability to purpose and speed (Stuart, 1988).
 Elements of Communication

• The Receiver is the party receiving the Message. The Receiver has to be
the right party intended by the Sender; it uses the Channel to get the
Message from the Sender.

• Decoding is the process where the Message is interpreted for its content. It
also means the Receiver thinks about the message's content and
internalizes the message. In this process , the receiver compares the
message to prior experiences or external stimuli.

• Feedback is the final step in the communications process. Once the

message is understood (encoded) by the Receiver. The Receiver formats
an appropriate reply following the same series of events/steps and sends it
to the Sender of the original message.
“This is to say the communication process is cyclic”.
 Forms of Communication

Communication takes different forms which can be broadly divided into two.

1. Verbal Forms

Written Spoken/Oral
-letters -planned informal talk
-memo -unplanned exchange
-informal note -interview
-press release -telephone call
-forms -group meeting
-notice -committee meeting
-reports -formal presentation
-electronic means (fax, telex, emails, telemessage etc.)
-newsletters, committee documents etc.
 Forms of Communication

2. Non-verbal forms

Body language Non-body language

-eye contact -moving images
-facial expression -graphic images
-gestures -time and space
-postures -signs and symbols
-space -pictures
-dress
 Oral vs. Written Communication
Advantages and Disadvantages

ORAL COMMUNICATION WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

It allows personal contact It is always planned

-It provides a room for quick -It gives a reader an ample time to go
response through a text
-It allows exchange of points -It allows formal records
-It allows the use of non-verbal cues - Its authenticity is valid
especially in face to face contact - It’s a non-time consuming
-It sounds natural - It follows certain conventions
-It is flexible to some degrees
 Oral vs. Written Communication
Advantages and Disadvantages

ORAL COMMUNICATION WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

-It consumes time -It does not allow personal

-It is not reliable in record keeping interaction
-It is mostly not planned -Since it keeps permanent records, it
-Personality clashes is greater than does not allow alteration
-Its authenticity is not guaranteed -Mostly no quick response
-No use of body cues
 Effective Communication

What is effective communication?

We cannot have an operational meaning of effective communication, but we
can generally say;

“Effective communication means the ability to express ourselves well, both

verbally and non-verbally, in ways which are proper to our cultures and
situations to achieve the intended goal”.

In today’s era, effective communication is not just only about exchanging

ideas; it is also about understanding the emotion behind the information,
improving relationships at school, college, home, work, and in social situations
by deepening one’s connections to others and improving teamwork, decision
making, and problem solving, communicating negative or difficult messages
without creating conflict or destroying trust.
 Why Effective Communication

Effective communication is important to insure that the intended goal is

accurately achieved and that all parties involved in the communication process
completely understand one another.

However, in any communication process, no matter how harder the

participants try to understand one another, there always still some problems
which may hinder the smoothness of communication. These problems are
collectively referred to as barriers to effective communication.
 Barriers to Effective Communication
There are different barriers to effective communication ; here are four.

• Semantic Barriers
There can be always a possibility of misunderstanding the feelings of the
sender of the message or getting a wrong meaning of it. The words, signs,
and figures explained by the receiver in the light of his experience may
create doubtful situations. This may happen because;
-the message is badly expressed
-of the use of words and symbols with different meaning
-of faulty translation
-of unclear assumptions
-of technical Jargon
-of body language and gestures decoding
 Barriers to Effective Communication
• Psychological or Emotional Barriers
Communication depends on the mental condition of both the parties. A
mentally disturbed party can be a hindrance in communication. Emotional
barriers can be caused by following;
-Premature evaluation
-Distrust
-lack of attention
-loss by transmission or retention

• Organisational Barriers
Organisational structure greatly affects the capability of the employees as far
as the communication is concerned. Some major organisational hindrances in
the way of communication are the following;
 Barriers to Effective Communication

Organisational policies
-Rules and regulations
-Status
-Organisational facilities
-Complexities in Organisational structure

• Personal Barriers
Personal barriers emanate from a person himself/herself. Here are divided
into two types.
(a) Barriers related to Superior; these include
-fear of challenges of authority
-lack of confidence in subordinates
 Barriers to Effective Communication

(b) Barriers related to subordinates; these include

-unwillingness to communicate, and
-lack of proper incentives

How to overcome the barriers?

-Listen attentively and develop a reflective listening
-Use a language that can be easily understood by others
-Use appropriate verbal and non-verbal cues to different people of different
cultural background
- Avoid premature judgment on a topic or a person
- Develop an appropriate and a customary organisational structure that
support easy flow of information
The general rule is ‘Study the CONTEXT first and then Communicate.’
 Inter and Intra Personal Communication

What is interpersonal communication?

Is a face-to-face communication though which people exchange information,
opinions, feelings and meaning through verbal and non-verbal messages.

Interpersonal communication is not just about what is actually said – the

language used - but how it is said and the non-verbal messages sent through
tone of voice, facial expressions, gestures and body language.

People often use speech and non-verbal behaviour to communicate varied

messages. Even if, for instance, a person appears in a particular dress, he/she
might not be intentionally communicating but the dress may still
communicate a lot to others around. Thus, interpersonal communication does
not necessarily focus on the intended messages in actual communication but
also it considers the unintended ones.
 Elements of Interpersonal Communication
Much research has been done to try to break down interpersonal
communication into a number of elements in order that it can be more easily
understood.

 The Communicators
 The Message
 Noise
 Context
 Channel
 Feedback
 Elements of Interpersonal Communication
 The Communicators
For any communication to occur there must be at least two individuals
involved. Sending and receiving messages is always done simultaneously;
while one person is talking the other is listening - but while listening they are
also sending feedback in the form of smiles, head nods etc. In other words,
the communicators are in an interactive process.

 The Message
Message not only means the speech used or information conveyed, but also the
non-verbal messages exchanged such as facial expressions, tone of voice,
gestures and body language. Non-verbal behaviour can convey additional
information about the spoken message. In particular, it can reveal more about
emotional attitudes which may underlie the content of speech.
 Elements of Interpersonal Communication

 The Noise
It refers to anything that distorts the message, so that what is received is
different from what is intended by the speaker. The use of complicated
jargon, inappropriate body language, inattention, disinterest,
and cultural differences can be considered 'noise' in the context of
interpersonal communication. In other words, any distortions or
inconsistencies that occur during an attempt to communicate can be seen as
noise.
 Elements of Interpersonal Communication
 The Context
All communication is influenced by the context in which it takes place.
Apart from looking at the situational context of where the interaction
takes place, for example in a room, office, or perhaps outdoors, the social
context also needs to be considered, for example the roles, responsibilities and
relative status of the participants. The emotional climate and participants‘
expectations of the interaction will also affect the communication.

 Channel
The channel refers to the physical means by which the message is transferred
from one person to another. In face-to-face context the channels which are
used are speech and vision, however during a telephone conversation the
channel is limited to speech alone.
 Elements of Interpersonal Communication

 Feedback
Feedback consists of messages the receiver returns, which allows the sender to
know how accurately the message has been received, as well as the receiver's
reaction. The receiver may also respond to the unintentional message as well
as the intentional message. Types of feedback range from direct verbal
statements, for example "Say that again, I don't understand", to indirect non-
Verbal cues, for example a thumb up sign to agree or like something, to
subtle facial expressions or changes in posture that might indicate to the
sender that the receiver feels uncomfortable with the message. Feedback
allows the sender to regulate, adapt or repeat the message in order to improve
communication.
 Inter and Intra Personal Communication
What is intrapersonal communication?
This is the communication within self. It is the most basic level of
communication whereby an individual develop his senses about
himself/herself. This communication is all about thinking ‘who you are and
what you think of yourself’.

Intrapersonal Communication takes place within a single person for the

purpose of clarifying ideas, or analyzing a situation and to reflect up on or
appreciate something.

Intrapersonal Communication has got the following elements

 Self-Concept
 Perception
 Expectation
 Motivation
 Elements of Intrapersonal Communication

 Self- Concept
Self-Concept determines how a person sees herself and is oriented towards
others. Developing a Self-Concept, one may be influenced by beliefs, values,
attitudes, prejudices, cultural orientations, etc.

 Perception
Perception is the organisation, identification and interpretation of sensory
information in order to represent and understand the environment . All
perception involves signals in the nervous system, which in turn result to
physical stimulation of the sense organs.
 Elements of Intrapersonal Communication

 Expectations
Expectations are future-oriented messages dealing with long-term roles,
sometimes called life scripts.

 Motivation
Internal and external factors that stimulate desire and energy in a person to be
continually to do something or to make an effort to attain a goal. (See the
Maslow Hierarchy of Needs)

Intrapersonal Communication is of three types

1. Internal discourse (thinking, concentration, analysis, prayers, meditation)
2. Solo vocal communication ( speaking aloud to yourself)
3. Solo written communication (writing for yourself; personal journal or
diary)
 Intra and Inter Personal Communication in Johari Window
Model
What is Johari Window?
Is a simple useful tool for understanding and training self-awareness, personal
development, improving communication, interpersonal relationships, group
dynamics, team development and intergroup relationships within the context of
communication.

The Model was developed by two American Psychologists- Joseph Luft and
Harry Ingham in the 1950’s calling it ‘Johari’ after combining their first names
Joe and Harry.
 Johari Widow Model

I know I don’t know

Other Ask
Know Feedback

Open Area (Arena) Blind Spot

Others Tell
don’t
know Hidden Area (Façade) Unknown Area
 Part III
The English Tense System
English has two tenses and aspects combination which make a total of twelve
tense aspects.
A tense is a verb that indicates time.
Aspect is a part of a verb that indicates habit or regular repetition, duration and
completion within a particular time.

What is Time?
It is a continuous measurable quantity extending from the past to the present
and through the future.

In all human languages, time is divided into three areas that can be represented
on a timeline.
Now-The current moment
Past-Time before the current moment
Future-Time after the current moment
 The English Tense System

Past Now Future

From this Timeline we can derive the following three major tense aspects.

Past Present Future

-Past Simple - Present Simple -Future Simple
-Past Progressive -Present Progressive -Future Progressive
-Past Perfect -Present Perfect -Future Perfect
-Past Perfect Prog -Present Perfect Prog -Future Perfect
Prog
 The English Tense System
The Present Tense (the Now time)
It is divided into four sub-tenses.
 Present Simple Tense: this refers to actions that are generally true or habitual; that
is they took place in the past, they continue to take place in the present, and they
will take place in the future.

The action does not necessarily take place at the actual moment of speaking
but can be at any point on the Timeline surrounds the present time.
For example;
-We attend GSU 07102 Lecture at 7:00 every Monday.
-They live in a small house outside the township.
-I go to work on foot everyday.
How to form Present Simple?
Use a bare verb (without ‘to’) marked for person and number (singular/plural)
 The English Tense System

 Present Progressive Tense: this indicates that an action is taking place at

the moment, Now. Not in the past or future.
For example;
-Other students are attending classes now.
-We are listening to the lecturer.
-The lecturer is talking right now.
-I am listening and taking some notes.
How to form a Present Progressive Tense?
Use the following form.
present form of ‘be’ + verb + ing

- She is look-ing at me.

- I am going home.
 The English Tense System

 Present Perfect Tense: this indicates an action that has been completed
sometime before ‘Now’ with a result that still affects the current situation.

For example;
- I have entered in the class.
-We have seated to listen to the lecturer.
-He has gone outside for a while.

How to form Present Perfect Tense?

Use the present perfective form ‘have’ + past participle

-She has cook -ed some food. (regular verbs)

-We have left the place. (irregular verbs)
 The English Tense System

 Present Perfect Progressive: this indicates an action that started in the

past
and is continuing at the present time.
For example;
-He has been teaching GSU 07102 since 2008.
-We have been studying GSU 07102 since October, 2015.
-The lecture has been running for about thirty minutes now.

How to form Present Perfect Progressive?

Use the present perfective form ‘have’ + been + verb + ing

- She has been attend-ing lectures the whole day.

-They have been playing netball for an hour.
 The English Tense System

The Past Tense (the bygone time)

Like the Present Tense, Past Tense is also divided into four sub-tenses.
 Past Simple Tense: this indicates an action that took place before the
current moment and has no connection with the current time.
For example;
-She grew up in Mwanza.
-We got our independence in 1961.
-We had dinner last night.
How to form a Past Simple Tense?
verb + ed

-They play-ed tennis.

-She wrote a letter.
 The English Tense System

 Past Progressive Tense: this indicates an action in the past that is longer in
duration than another action in the past.
For example;
-When you called me, I was watching a football match.
-He was cleaning the kitchen.
-They were going to see him.

How to form a Past Progressive Tense?

Use past tense of ‘be’ + verb + ing

- She was giv-ing me a book.

-We were dancing on the stage.
 The English Tense System
 Past Perfect Progressive Tense: this indicates an action in the past that
took place before another time or event in the past and continued during
the second event or time in the past.
For example;
-She had been completing her assignment when I called her.
-They had been jogging when we entered the gym.

How to form a Past Perfect Progressive Tense?

Past form of ‘have’ + been + verb + ing

- It had been eat-ing its meal.

-I had been going to school before I was seven.
 The English Tense System

The Future Tense (the predictable time)

‘Future Tense’ has no distinctive forms like the other tenses (present and
past). This is because, we project or plan events in the future basing on the
present time. Thus, there are various forms of describing future events. But the
basic ones are four.
 Future Simple: this indicates an action that will take place after the
current moment, and that has real connection with the current time.
For example;
-He will walk home.
-We shall come back early.
How to form Future Simple Tense?
Use the modal auxiliary verb ‘will’ + verb (in its bare form)

They will go to pray.

 The English Tense System

 Future Progressive Tense: this indicates an action in the future that is

longer than another event or time in the future.
For example;
-They will be graduating when the college opens.
-She will be writing her novels when her husband gets home.

How to form Future Progressive Tense?

Use modal auxiliary ‘will’ + be + verb + ing

I will be play-ing netball when my father arrives.

 The English Tense System

 Future Perfect Tense: this indicates an action in the future that will have
been completed before another event or time in the future.

For example;

-I will have finished this task by the time my father arrives home.
-She will have gone to see her grandma by next month.

How to form a Future Perfect Tense?

Use modal auxiliary ‘will’ + have + verb + ed

-He will have giv-en Anna what she deserves by the moment you
arrive.
 The English Tense System
 Future Perfect Progressive Tense: this indicates an action in the future
that will have been continuing until another time or event in the future.

For example;

-She will have been going to school in 2014.

-We will have been cultivating the land when it rains on October.

How to form a Future Perfect Progressive Tense?

will + have + been + verb + ing

-They will have been marking the scripts in December.

 References

Galvin, K., and Book, C. (1994). An Introduction to Speech Communication:

Person to Person. National Textbook Company: Illinois.

Murthy, J. D. (1998). Contemporary English Grammar. Book Palace: New

Delhi.
Sillars, S. (1988). Success in Communication. John Murray Ltd: London.

Wren, P.C, H. Martin and R.N. Prasada (2003), High School Grammar, S.
Chand & Co, New Delhi.

Visit www.elihinkel.org/tips/tenses.htm
 PART IV
Writing Skills
Sentence Structure (Clause level)
What is sentence?
A sentence is a group of words with at least one main clause that expresses a
complete idea. The main clause must have subject and predicate.
For instance:
-Our semester will end in three months time.
-Honorable Samia Suluhu becomes the first woman to the position of Vice
President of the United Republic of Tanzania.
-Fast moving cars can be dangerous to our safety.
-Before we begin our session, an attendance has to be taken first.
-Unless we study hard, the doors to discontinuation are widely open.
 Sentence Structure (Clause level)
What is Subject?
Always we hear people saying ‘the subject is the doer of an
action’; the one who performs an action in a sentence. This is true
to some extent on one hand. But on the other hand ‘Subject’ of a
sentence is just a realization of ‘the first position’ that is
occupied by some elements of a clause.
For instance;
-She killed a lion. (‘She’ is a subject because it is the doer of an
action).
-She was killed by a lion. (Juma is a subject not in the sense of
performing an act but in the sense of being the concern of the
message)
 Sentence Structure (Clause level)
What is Predicate?
A predicate is that part of a clause which describes an action and
all other elements.
For instance;
Juma killed a lion. (‘killed a lion’ is a predicate with one
‘Object’-a lion).
The money is lost. (‘is lost’ is a predicate with a complement’-
lost).
Note:
Any sentence constructed must have Subject and Predicate. These
two components are the ones which make a sentence to have a
complete thought.
 Sentence Structure (Clause level)
Sentence

Clauses

Independent clause Dependent clause

Examples: Examples:
-I am going to swim. -If I am done my work
-You must close the doors. -Before it gets dark

The clauses can be combined to form one sentence

-Before it gets dark, you must close the doors.
-I am going to swim if I am done my work.
 Sentence Structure (Clause level)
Sentence types
Sentences can be categorised according to their structures and
functions.

Sentence types

Structure Function
-Simple sentence -Declarative function
-Compound sentence -Imperative function
-Complex sentence -Interrogative function
-Compound-Complex sentence -Exclamatory function

Notice: there is no one to one relationship between structure and function

 Sentence Structure (Clause level)
Sentence Structure
 Simple sentence: This sentence is formed by one clause which
has a complete thought.
For example;
-I wake up early in the morning everyday.
-I like to live in Mwanza City.
-Tanzania is my motherland country.
-Mr. Johnson and I are best friends.
-That beautiful dress near that Chinese suit can fit my fiancé.
 Sentence Structure (Clause level)
 Compound Sentence: This sentence is formed by two clauses
joined by a coordinate conjunction or a semi colon.
Coordinate conjunctions such as and, but, or, for, nor, so, and yet
are used to join words, phrases or clauses of equal grammatical
function or importance.
For example;
-I like this book very much, for it explains each concept well.
-John was late to class, yet he was not punished.
-We can pay them all the dues, but we need to verify the details.
-They went to see their lecturer, so they can have a talk with her.
 Sentence Structure (Clause level)
A compound sentence can also be formed by using semi colon.
A semi colon is used, among other uses, to join two independent
clauses that are related and that are not connected by a coordinate
conjunction.
For example;
-The house was very old; it had been built in 1915.
-The Scholastic Aptitude Test is widely used in US; each year
over million students take it.
-The National Assembly seconded the new tax bill; it favours
public interests.
 Sentence Structure (Clause level)
 Complex sentence: This sentence is formed by at least two
clauses; one independent and the other dependent.
A complex sentence has no coordinate conjunction; it has
subordinate conjunction.
For example;
- If I were you, I would have completed this assignment.
- Before it gets dark, make sure that you wash all the dishes.
- When it started to rain, Miss. Grace was not around.
- Unless you study hard everyday, you will not pass the test.
- Provided that we are together, we will not fall apart.
 Sentence Structure (Clause level)
 Compound-Complex Sentence: This sentence is formed by
at least three clauses; two independent clauses joined by a
coordinate conjunction and one dependent clause.
For examples;
-As I was waving a hand to them, I saw Jane reading a book and
Asha was swinging.
-Before we started a meeting, the chairperson entered the
venue awkwardly and all members stood up and shouted at him.
 Sentence Functions
Sentences have different functions. Some functions have direct
relationship to the way a sentence is structured and punctuated
whereas other functions are indirect in the sense that they do not
have direct relationship with structure and punctuations used.

But the point to remember and notice is this ‘functions of

sentences are determined by the context in which
they are used’.
 Sentence Functions
 Declarative function: This function is that of giving or
providing information to a reader who needs that information. To
declare is to state something publicly or to let something known
to people. A declarative sentence always ends with a period (.).
Examples;
- John is my uncle.
- I am a student at the Institute of Finance Management
- Tanzania attained her independence in 1961.
- Our classes end at 9:00 pm.
 Sentence Functions
However, there are some declarative sentences that do not just
end by providing information. They also have another function in
them-the function of causing something to happen.
For instance a sentence like;
-I hereby pronounce Lucia and John wife and husband.
This sentence does not only declare but it also causes a marriage
to happen.
-I declare war between X and Y.
Once a sentence like this is said by a head of state, at the
point of finishing saying it, the actual fight at the battle ground
begins.
Sentences of these kinds do perform some acts.
 Sentence Functions
 Imperative function: This function is that of causing
someone to do something in favour of a writer or speaker. It is
the function that makes a reader or a listener to act in some ways
according to the writer or speaker’s wish.

Imperative sentences are of three kinds;

i) command,
ii) request/entreaty, and
iii)suggestion
 Sentence Functions
i) Command: This function is that of manifesting power,
control, or order one has over another person.
Examples;
-Get out of my office!
-Shut up!
-Go and bring me a glass of water!
-Open the door!
-Provide us some chairs, please!

In most cases, commanding sentences do have hidden subjects

and they end up with an exclamatory mark to indicate that they
have a rising tone.
 Sentence Functions
ii) Request/entreaty: This function is that of manifesting a polite
form for demanding something or a serious politeness for
demanding something.
Examples;
-Please call our number in case you have any problem.
-Could you assist me to carry this luggage?
-May I take this bag inside?
-Please our dear Lord, have mercy on us!

Notice: Sentences that perform this function may end up with

different marks.
 Sentence Functions
iii) Suggestion: This function is that of making someone accept
or get convinced or influenced with an idea, or a plan in favour of
someone who has it.
Examples;
-What do you think if you and I get married?
-It is too dark now; shall we go home?
-I think it is time that you start your own business.
-What if we have a break for a few minutes and then we
continue?

Notice: Sentences of this function may also end up with different

marks.
 Sentence Functions
 Interrogative function: This function is that of seeking
information or confirmation about something from another
person who has the information or knows something.
Interrogative sentences are of two kinds;

i) The Yes/No questions (using forms of verb to ‘Be’).

ii) Wh-questions (using wh-words like why, where, how etc).
 Sentence Functions
i) The Yes/No questions: these kind of questions are used in
two conditions;
a) A person who asks has the ‘provided information’ of which
s/he wants to confirm form another person.
b) A person who asks assumes that the ‘provided information’ is
shared by another person from whom s/he wants to confirm.
Examples;
-Is this house yours?
-Do you know that man?
-Is this chair mine?
-Does this kid go to school?
 Sentence Functions
 The Wh-questions: These kind of questions are used when a
person is in need of particular information and believes that there
is someone who knows or has that information.
Examples;
-How did you get here?
-Why do you want to withdraw your membership?
-When are you coming?
-What are you doing over there?
 Sentence Functions
 Exclamatory function: This function is that of expressing
individual personal feelings or emotions towards something. The
feelings or emotions could be anger, surprise, excitement, pain,
happiness, sadness, shocks etc.
Examples;
-Wow! This looks great!
-Ouch! That hurt!
-What a wonderful score this is!
-Aha! So you planned all this, did you?
 PART V
Writing Skills
Paragraph Writing
What is Paragraph?
Is a unit of writing that discusses one idea. It can also be defined as a number
of sentences grouped together and relating to one topic.

Types of Paragraph
i) Introductory paragraph (this begins an essay; often it states the essay’s
thesis)
ii) Body paragraphs (information that provides more details about the thesis)
iii) Concluding paragraph (ends an essay in logical and memorable way)

Note: The most important paragraphs in an essay are two; introduction

and concluding paragraphs.
 Paragraph Writing
Principles of Paragraph Writing
A good written paragraph has in-built principles. It is these principles which
provide guidance and direction on how coherent ideas could be in an essay.

The following are basic principles;

i) Topic sentence
ii) Unity
iii) Order
iv) Coherence
v) Variety
vi) Concluding or transitional sentence
 Paragraph Writing
Principles of Paragraph Writing
i) Topic Sentence: It is a sentence that often comes first; it is the one which
introduces the main ides or the thesis of a paragraph. Often it is expressed in one
sentence.
For example;
Communication is a word of Latin; it means sharing of information or intelligence. The
most common medium of communication is language. While speaking we often resort
to physical gestures. We wave our hands, shrug our shoulder, smile and nod to
reinforce
what we say. Besides, there are several other means of communication available to us.
We use non-linguistic symbols such as traffic lights, road signals, railway signs to
convey information relating to movement of vehicles and trains. We also use
telegraphic code for quick transmission of messages and secrete codes for
communicating defense and other highly confidential information. For communication
all these codes are valid in their frames of references…(Book & Galvin, 1994).
 Paragraph Writing
The paragraph above explains about the concept/idea of communication. This
idea is stated by the first sentence (the topic sentence) which appears in italics.

ii) Unity: This means that each paragraph must deal with only ONE idea. And
that ALL sentences in a paragraph must support the idea. In other words,
the sentences must be connected to the idea. (Refer to the above paragraph)

iii) Order: This principle has to do with how sentences are arranged in a
logical way. There should be always a systematic way of putting ideas
according to their relationship. The question of which ideas should come
first or last is of important.
iv) Coherence: This principle has to do with connectivity of ideas within a
paragraph. A paragraph is coherent if all of its sentences are logically
connected.
 Paragraph Writing
How do we connect words, phrases, clauses and ideas?
Connection of words, phrases, clauses or ideas can be done by;
a) Using transitions
b) Referring to words and ideas that have been mentioned earlier.

a) Using Transitions
Transitions/connectives are words, phrases, and even sentences that make a
clear connection between one idea and another, between one sentence and
another, or between one paragraph and another.

When writing a paragraph, we use transitions/connectives for different

purposes.
 Paragraph Writing
1. We use transitions to indicate time
Transitions that relate to time are; afterwards, after a short while, all the
while, as soon as, all of a sudden, a short time later, at that time, by then,
by that time, during, in a few hours, in the mean time, in those days, mean
while, since, soon, suddenly, then, thereafter, thereupon, until then, when,
whenever, while etc.

2. We use transitions to show similarities and differences

Similarities Differences
Similarly, in the same way although, even though
Likewise, as, as if, as though etc though, in contrast, on the
contrary, on the other hand
etc.
 Paragraph Writing
3. We use transitions to add information
Transitions used to add information are; and, also, as well, besides, further,
furthermore, in addition, moreover, too etc.

4. We use transitions to introduce information that contrasts, changes, or

qualifies what we have said earlier.
Examples of transitions;
Although, even so, even though, in contrast, nevertheless, nonetheless, on the
other hand, otherwise, still, though, then again, while, yet, however, but etc.

5. We use transitions to introduce examples, repeat information, or

emphasize a point.
Examples of transitions;
 Paragraph Writing
Introduce examples Repeat information Emphasize a point
as an example again as a matter of facts
for instance once again indeed
specifically, once more more important
such as to be

6. We use transitions to show cause and effects.

Examples of transitions;
as a result, because, hence, since, so that, then, therefore, thus, consequently,
etc.

7. We use transitions to show condition.

Examples of transitions;
as long as, as soon as, in case, in order to, provided that, unless, when, if, etc.
 Paragraph Writing
Identify different types of transitions used in the following paragraph.

Communication is a word of Latin; it means sharing of information or intelligence. The

most common medium of communication is language. While speaking we often resort
to physical gestures. We wave our hands, shrug our shoulder, smile and nod to
reinforce
what we say. Besides, there are several other means of communication available to us.
We use non-linguistic symbols such as traffic lights, road signals, railway signs to
convey information relating to movement of vehicles and trains. We also use
telegraphic code for quick transmission of messages and secrete codes for
communicating defense and other highly confidential information. For communication
all these codes are valid in their frames of references…(Book & Galvin, 1994).
 Paragraph Writing
a) Using referring words and ideas that have been mentioned earlier.
Sometimes we connect ideas by using words like pronouns, or restating
important details or ideas.
1. Pronouns
Pronouns can be personal pronouns, relative pronouns, demonstrative
pronouns, or indefinite pronouns. [see examples below]

Several months ago, my son, who is only six years old, came home from school
with an unusual drawing. What made this picture different from his others was
its brilliant array of colours. Ordinarily, Ibrahimu’s drawings consist of a fast
dash of pencil or marker with the scribble of a single colour to fill in the
outline. They are unusual, to say at least. But even more amazing, Ibrahimu
had been careful with lines and borders. Each was clear and distinct.
Obviously, something had intrigued him to sit still longer than his normal 30
seconds; I wanted to know what it was…(Buscemi et al, 1998)
 Paragraph Writing
The Basics is a designed for use both as a classroom tool and as a reference guide that
even beginning writers can use independently. As its subtitle indicates, it offers college
writers an introduction to important writing strategies as well as an accessible
handbook of grammar and usage. One of the most important features of The Basics is
its comprehensive coverage of rhetoric. It also contains three chapters on how to build
effective paragraphs and to practice methods of development and organization. Another
special feature is the “Guides for ESL Students,” which appear the end of several
chapters. They provide clear, concise advice on problems unique to speakers of English
as a second language and have been placed within appropriate chapters so that ESL
students can continue their study of specific points without the convenience of having
to turn to an appendix at the end of the book…(Buscemi et al, 1998).
 Paragraph Writing
2. Restating important details or ideas.
We normally use synonyms (words with similar meaning) to refer to ideas
that
mentioned earlier.

Example;
Radon is not new. It is a naturally occurring substance that results when
radium disintegrates. However, only during the last decade has the
Environmental Protection Agency labeled prolonged exposure to radon a
health hazard. The gas seeps through the ground and through cracks in the
foundations of houses… (Carole A. Leppig in Buscemi et al, 1998).
 Paragraph Writing
Paragraph Development
Paragraph development means to use details to support and explain
paragraph’s central idea and arrange those details in a logical way. Developing
paragraphs depends on the purpose of the writer. And the following methods
can be used to develop paragraphs.

1. Narration
Use narration when you want to recall an event or when you want to explain
how a process works. This method mostly uses action verbs, which moves a
story or a process along. Transitions that are commonly used are words like
first, then, soon, after, suddenly etc.
A paragraph or an essay that has been developed using this method is called a
narrative paragraph or a narrative essay.
 Paragraph Writing
Paragraph Development
2. Description
To describe means to present the salient features of a thing as they appear.
unlike narration which presents information from beginning to end,
information under description method can be arranged in any how as they
appear.

3. Explanation, Persuasion, and Convincement

-Explaining means presenting information as it is.
-Persuading means presenting information that needs actions to be taken.
-Convincing means presenting information based on facts to make one accepts.

Several techniques can be used to develop paragraphs by using the above

methods.
 Paragraph Writing
Paragraph Development
-By illustration: means offering vivid examples to explain, persuade, or
convince .
-By comparison and contrast: means giving similarities and difference of
somethings .
-By definitions: means providing authoritative meaning of some things.
-By classification: means providing distinctive features among types.
-By cause and effect: means explaining why something happens.
-By conclusion and support: means using facts and statistics to clarify an
idea, to support an opinion, or to support an assumption.
 Paragraph Writing
Paragraph Organisation
Ideas in a paragraph or an essay need to organized in such a way that readers
can easily understand and follow the flow of the writer. There are mainly four
patterns that ideas can be organized (reasoned).

1. General to Specific (deductive reasoning)

This kind of reasoning presents an idea in its broad perspective then it
moves to particulars.

Example;
Every day, I leave for work in my car at eight o’clock.
Every day, the drive to work takes 45 minutes.
Every day I arrive to work on time.
Therefore, if I leave for work at eight o’clock today, I will be on time.
 Paragraph Writing
Paragraph Organisation
2. Specific to General (Inductive Reasoning)
This kind of reasoning moves from the particular to general. It provides series
of observations of individual entities and arrives at a general conclusion
through inferences. An Inference is any conclusion drawn from a set of
propositions.

Example of inductive organization;

Last year I had a cat; it was black in colour.
The same year I visited Jane and I saw a black cat laying on the sofa.
The newly born cat that you brought today is also black.
Therefore all cats are black.
 Paragraph Writing
Paragraph Organisation
Which Pattern is more appropriate in writing?

NOTE: Deduction and induction by themselves are inadequate to

make a compelling argument. While deduction gives absolute
proof, it never makes contact with the real world, there is no
place for observation or experimentation, no way to test the
validity of the premises. And, while induction is driven by
observation, it never approaches actual proof of a theory.
Therefore an effective paper will include both types of logic.
 Paragraph Writing
Paragraph Organisation
3. Order of Importance
This pattern normally starts a paragraph (s) with least important details and
ends with the most important. Graphically, the pattern appears in the following
form.
Conclusion
(High)
Most ideas
Body paragraphs

Introduction

Least ideas
(Low) Coverage of details
 Paragraph Writing
Paragraph Organisation
4. Question to Answers
This patterns follows the ways questions have been set and
arranged?
For example;
When setting an outline on an essay about Malaria, one may start
by saying;
-What is Malaria?
-When did the disease actually begin?
-What causes Malaria?
-What are the symptoms of Malaria?
-How can it be combated?
-What consequences Malaria brings to human beings?
 Essay Writing

What is essay?
Is a unit of written information based on the writer’s point of view about
certain subject matter (Nkoko, 2013). An essay presents writer’s own
understanding of the reality.

In academia, writing essay is probably the prime activity. Staffs such as term
papers, reports, essay papers require someone to be skillful in essay writing.
 Parts of Academic Essays

Academic essays have four parts:

1. Introduction (explains a thesis statement)

2. Main body (provides supportive details/facts)
3. Conclusion, and (provides a summary of what has been covered)
4. List of references/Bibliography (shows variety of sources used)
 Classification of Essays

Essays are generally classified into two types.

Essays

Expository Essays Argumentative Essays

-Narrative essay -Persuasive essay
-Descriptive essay -Analytical essay
 Essay Writing

The Structure of Essay Questions

In order to respond correctly to essay questions, one needs to understand the
core structure of essay questions. Most of essay questions will have the
following three structure;
i) Instruction words/Key words (nature of an essay to be)
ii) Content (central theme)
iii) Requirements/Special requirements (limits of the question)
For example;
Examine the major factors contributing to the failure of microfinance outreach
in rural Tanzania.
Italicized word: Key word
Underlined words: content/theme
Bolded words: special requirements.
 Essay Writing

Examples of some of key words that are commonly used in essay questions.

-Name, mention, state, identify, list,

-Explain, account for, discuss, illustrate, trace, outline, describe, differentiate,
distinguish, demonstrate, analyze, examine, assess etc.
 THE WRITING PROCESS

What is Writing?

• Is a medium of communication that represents language through the

inscription of signs and symbols.

• Is a method of representing language in visual or tactile form. Writing

systems use sets of symbols to represent the sounds of speech, and may
also have symbols for such things as punctuation and numerals.

Writing is a learned skill; it needs someone to practice a lot to become a good

writer. Through practice we also lean new insights that relate with the writing
process.

As a process, writing involves the following stages;

 THE WRITING PROCESS
Buscemi, et al (1998) outline five stages in writing; prewriting,
drafting/writing, revising, editing and proofread.

Stage 1: Prewriting
At this stage, one needs to gather information about a subject/topic. Gathering
information can take three forms: recording what is known already,
interviewing, and research.
-Writing down what is already known: this can be done through focused
free writing, brainstorming.
-Interviewing: this can be done to persons who know something about a
subject matter.
-Researching: this is about investigating a subject matter in books, magazine,
articles, and many other relevant materials
 THE WRITING PROCESS

Stage 2: Writing a Rough Draft

At this stage, one needs to clarify the purpose of writing and also to decide on
a preliminary central idea. This is a focal point to which all details are
centered. The main idea has to be provided by a thesis statement.

Once the central idea has been developed, one needs to set an outline that
indicates the number of points to support the central idea. An outline should be
set in such a way that it limits the manageability of the central idea.
After setting an outline, a first version has to be written.

Stage 3: Revising the Rough Draft

At this stage, one has to rewrite the draft several times until it becomes more
clear. Revising helps to clarify ideas, develop concepts in greater details, and
reorganize sentences and paragraphs.
 THE WRITING PROCESS
At this stage, the following questions may be helpful:
a) Has my main point about my subject changed? Should I revise my thesis
statement to make it clearer or more accurate?
b) Is my writing unified? Have I included details that are unrelated to my
thesis or are unnecessary?
c) Should I reorganize my writing by rearranging paragraphs?
d) Is each Paragraph unified? Should some details be shifted from one
paragraph to another?
e) Is each Paragraph adequately developed, or does it need more details?
f) Are my paragraph coherent, or do I need to add transitions and linking
pronouns?
g) Have I written an interesting introduction and conclusion?
 THE WRITING PROCESS

Stage 4: Edit the Draft

To edit means to read carefully the work and to correct distracting problems.
The most common problems are wordiness and mistakes in subject-verb
agreement, verb tenses, sentence structure, punctuation, word choice, spelling,
and capitalization. Editing also involves going through the entire work and see
if it is coherent and organized well.

Tips for Editing Final Draft

i) Put the work away for a while so it can be given a fresh look during editing
ii) Check every sentence individually to make sure it is complete. Correct run-
ons and comma splices
iii) Find the subject of every sentence and make sure its verb agrees with it in
number.
 THE WRITING PROCESS

iv) Read the work aloud at all stages and listen for errors in grammar and
punctuation.
v) Read every word carefully. Eliminate unnecessary words and redundancies.
Make sure that every word is used according to its correct meaning.

Stage 5: Proofread the final Draft

Proofread means carefully reading the work to correct typing errors, to
eliminate repeated words, to add missing words or marks of punctuation, or
to fix other minor problems.

Tips for Proofread

i) Read it aloud and listen carefully. Correct all typographical errors.
ii) Check for punctuation problems, especially missing commas, periods, and
apostrophes.
iii) Make sure you have capitalized words that begin each sentence, letters of
first proper nouns, and other words require capitals.
 REPORT WRITING
What is a report?
Many authors provide meanings of a ‘report’ according to contexts in which
the term is applied. One general definition of a report could be;
“Is a communication from someone who has information to someone who
wants to use that information” (Brown, 1971).

A report always communicates information to someone. Such kind of

information must be organized in such a way that it meets the
purpose of it audience. Thus, reports have the following features.
 REPORT WRITING

General Characteristics of Reports

• A report is a formal statement of facts that account for something.
• A report is presented in a conversational form.
• A report is written for a specific audience.
• A report includes procedures for data collection and significance of such
data.
• A report contains conclusions reached by the writer.
• A report often includes recommendations.

Types of Reports

Generally there are two types; Oral and Written.

 REPORT WRITING
Reports
Oral Written

Informal Formal

Informational Interpretive Routine

(descriptive) (analytical) (descriptive)

memos/letters
-Informational Report: contains observed facts in an organized form; it
presents the situation as it is and not as it should be. It does not contain
conclusions and recommendations.
-Interpretive Report: contains observed facts and includes an evaluation or
interpretation or analysis of the data together with the writer’s conclusions. It
may also have recommendations for action.
 REPORT WRITING
- Routine Report: is written in prescribed form for recording routine
matters
at regular intervals. For example, confidential reports on employees, periodic
reports on the progress of projects, reports on inspection of equipment, etc.

Structure and Layout of Formal Reports

Formal Reports’ layout is divided into three part;
i) Front Matters: Cover page, Title page, Copyright Notice,
Acknowledgements, Table of Contents, List of Illustrations, an Abstract or
Executive Summary
ii) Main Body: Introduction, Description, Analysis and Discusion,
Conclusion, and Recommendations
iii) Back Matters: List of References/Bibliography, Appendices, Glossary,
and Index
 PART VI
READING SKILLS
We read to receive what others have communicated to us through the written
communication. In order to understand or comprehend the written
materials, there are strategies/techniques that we normally use to go through
variety of texts. The use of these skills will, however, depend on the purpose
of
the reader. So, reading is of four types;
i) Skimming ( running the eyes over quickly to get the gist of the entire text)
ii) Scanning ( look for a particular piece of information from a text)
iii) Extensive /study reading (reading longer texts for pleasure and global
understanding)
iv) Intensive/critical reading ( extracting specific information for more
details and deep understanding)
 READING SKILLS

Seven Critical Reading Strategies

Critical reading makes someone to comprehend a text in its holistic perspective
in relation to other realities. This kind of reading, in academia, is probably the
most effective way for understanding a variety of texts. The following are
strategies for critical reading.

1. Previewing: learning about a text before really reading it (skimming).

2. Contextualizing: placing a text in its historical, geographical, and cultural
contexts.
3. Questioning to understand and remember: ask questions about the
content.
4. Reflecting on challenges to your beliefs and values: examine your
personal responses.
 READING SKILLS

5. Outlining and summarizing: identify the main ideas and restate them in
your own words.
6. Evaluating an argument: testing the logic of the text as well as its
credibility and emotional impact.
7. Comparing and contrasting related readings: exploring likenesses and
differences between texts to understand them better.
 PART VII
ORAL PRESENTATION
What is Presentation?
Various definitions are offered on this term. The variations arise
due to contexts in which each definition is given.
• Wilctionary defines presentation as a lecture of speech given
in front of an audience.
• Kernerman English Learner’s Dictionary defines
presentation as an occasion when somebody shows or explains
something to somebody.
• Princeton’s WordNet defines presentation as the act of
making something publicly available.
 Oral Presentation

What is Presentation?

Raman and Singh, (2006) define presentation as a formal talk

addressed to one or more people and ‘present’ ideas or
information in a clear, structured way.

Sillars, (1988) defines presentation as a modern formal talk in

which one person talks to a group of others about a topic of
business interest-a new product, a change in company policy, or
an aspect of training etc.
 Oral Presentation

What is Presentation?
Brail (1991:249) defines presentation as “a quick and
potentially
effective method of getting things done through other people”.
He adds that, presentations are used as a formal method for
bringing people together to plan, monitor, and review progress of
an activity.

The definition above implies that any presentation should be

Interactive so that both the presenter and the audience become
familiar on the subject matter..
 Why Presentation Should be Interactive?
• First; it puts someone on display. An audience needs to see
evidence of decisive planning and leadership so that it is
confident in the position of the presenter. In the case of
undertaking a task, an audience needs to be motivated and
inspired to undertake the task(s) which are presented.

• Second; it allows someone to ask questions and to initiate

discussion; it does allow the presenter to raise issues, present
problems and at least to establish who amongst the audience
could provide valuable input for decision making. And,
 Why Presentation Should be Interactive?

• Third; presentations can be fun. They give chances to speak

one’s mind, to tell people what the world is really like. While
the presenter is on stage, the audience is bound by good
manners to sit still and watch the performance.
 How to do a Presentation

Being able to express information and ideas clearly and in a well

organized way in front of a group of people is a learned skill.
People enjoy presenters who are inviting, engaging, and
informative.

Suppose you have a talk to give, where do you start?

 Planning

What do you Plan?

You plan on the following;
• Occasion
• Audience
• Purpose
• Thesis
• Materials
• Structuring
• Delivery

What to consider on each of these?

 1. Occasion

The factors under occasion are facilities available, time, and

context.
Facilities include the venue, seating, light, projection facilities,
ventilation, acoustic provision etc.

Time refers to the time of the day one will present and the
duration of a presentation.

Context refers to the events surrounding the presentation.

 2. Audience
Factors to consider under audience are position, size, preferences,
attitudes, knowledge, and demographic characteristics.

Position of the audience: In what status is the audience?

Managers, co-workers, customers, subordinators etc.

Size of the audience: Is there a large group, small group, or just

few individuals?

Preferences: What does the audience prefer? A formal

presentation, a casual one, does the audience like humor, does the
audience prefer speed or slow talking?
 2. Audience

Attitudes: Is the audience friendly or hostile towards the

presenter ? How does the audience feel about the topic?

Knowledge: At what level of education is my audience?

Is the audience skilled in a particular field? As a presenter, do I
share knowledge with my audience?

Demographic characteristics: What cultural background is my

audience? What economic status is my audience? What is the
age? What is the ratio of sex?
 3. Purpose

Before one presents, the following question has to be asked?

“Why am I making this presentation?”

-Do I need to INFORM, PESUADE, or ENTERTAIN?

The statement of purpose should not only indicate what one

wants to accomplish but also help to know whether one has
achieved the same.
 4. Thesis
Thesis is a central idea. This is normally stated in a single
statement that summarizes the message.
Thus everything that is presented should revolve around this core
idea so that the audience is not confused.
Here below are examples of a thesis and statement of purpose.

• Recent advances have changed the course of our project

• I want my project team members to change over to the new
technique
 5. Materials
Once one has formulated a thesis, she needs to develop the
information which elaborates it. Information to be collected could
be researched projects, company’s records, statistics, publications
or through survey and interviews.

The collected information needs to be assembled at one place and

organized.
 6. Structuring

For effective presentation, the collected materials need to be

well-
structured. A well-organized presentation makes the message
more comprehensible, keeps the audience happy, and boosts the
image of the presenter.

A well-structured presentation is organized in three patterns;

1. Introduction
2. Main body
3. Conclusion
 6. Structuring

Introduction: at this point, a presenter needs to grab audience’s

attention, introduce a topic, establish credibility, preview a
presentation, establish rules for questions and discussion, and
establish a smooth transition to the main text.

Main topic: at this stage, arrange sub-topics sequentially and in a

logical way, talk about one point in a time and move to another
Point.

Here below are six basic pattern to organize the main body.
 6. Structuring

1. Chronological order
Here is when the points are arranged in the way in which they
occurred or were observed. For instance, if one presents on the
historical growth of the company, she will need to adopt this
approach.

2. Spatial Pattern
Here the points are arranged in the order of relationship. For
instance, if one presents on the production processes of
machines, she will have to show the ways each machine relates
with another machine in production.
 6. Structuring

3. Topical Pattern
Here the points are presented in forms of categories or logical
themes of divisions.

4. Cause and Effect Pattern

Here the presenter organizes her presentation in a chain of cause
and effect. For instance, how and why conflicts arise in the
company and what are the impacts of those conflicts.
 6. Structuring

5. Problem and Solution Pattern

This pattern is mostly used in persuasive speaking when a
presenter wants changes in opinion or behaviour by establishing
that problems exist, then providing solutions.

6. Climactic Pattern
Here the presenter structures her presentation in the order of
importance starting from the least to the most important.
 6. Structuring

Conclusion: at this stage, a presenter has to briefly highlight all

main concerns, re-emphasizing points, giving vote of thanks and
invite questions from the audience.

Like the introduction part, the conclusion also needs to be

designed carefully as it reflects back on what has been taking
place at the main body stage.
 7. Delivery

This is how to do the actual presentation. The ways a presenter

adopts or uses to get across what she has prepared.

Raman and Singh, (2006) claim that Successful speakers are

always remembered not because of eloquent, humorous, or had a
good dressing style, but primarily and principally because of their
message and ideas caused a change in their audience’s actions,
attitudes, lives, or made the purpose clear to them.

Here below are modes one can adopt when presenting.

 7. Delivery

1. Speaking from notes

This is technically known as extemporaneous delivery. A
presenter delivers her speech by the help of an outline, or note
card, or visual aids she has prepared.
Advantages of this mode:
• Conversational quality will be good under the control of the
presenter.
• It can be used in a wide range of situations because of its
adoptability.
• Speakers have precise more control of ideas and language
• Speakers will be able to freely use non-verbal cues
appropriate to situations.
 7. Delivery

2. Speaking Impromptu
This is unprepared talks that someone gives before the audience.
For example, it may happens that during a presentation one finds
that certain information which is probably important to be linked
with what has already been prepared is unknown by the audience;
as a result, a presenter will have to make it known first. By so
doing, she will have to deliver a talk that she never formally
prepared.

An impromptu presentation can effectively be given when the

following guidelines are observed.
 7. Delivery

 One needs to anticipate that she may be asked to speak.

As a presenter prepares her presentation, she needs to know the
questions that she might be asked by the audience.

 One needs to decide immediately the points to speak.

As a presenter, one needs to make quick decision on what points
to be spoken.

 One needs to present her viewpoints.

As a presenter do not attempt to memorize on what others had
said rather one has to give her ‘understandings’ on a topic asked.
 7. Delivery

 One needs to be as brief as possible.

As a presenter do not try to give unnecessary explanations.
Remember that few explanations with firm points will make the
audience understand more. Lots of explanations may end up
confusing the audience. Brevity is an important characteristic of
all impromptu presentations.
 7. Delivery

3. Speaking from Memory

It is advisable that one memorizes quotations, an opening or a
concluding remarks. It not advisable to keep memorizing the
whole presentation. This will make a presenter lose rapport with
her audience. Memorizing is probably the most difficult mode of
presentations. If one decides to use it, she must have good
memories.
 7. Delivery

4. Reading from Manuscript

Some business presentations requires verbatim reading, that is,
reading words after words. This mode is mostly used by
presidents when addressing people, or used when one presents a
technical or complex text, or when one presents a court decision
or policy statements.

Note: Whatever mode one chooses, a good presentation needs to

sound natural, that is, coming direct form a presenter and not
form a written text. A text has to be used as a guideline. But what
appears on a text has to be paraphrased.
 -END-

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