Russian grammar

Russian grammar employs an Indo-European inflexional structure, with considerable adaptation.

Russian has a highly inflectional morphology, particularly in nominals (nouns, pronouns, adjectives and numerals). Russian literary
syntax is a combination of a Church Slavonic heritage, a variety of loaned and adopted constructs, and a standardized vernacular
foundation.

The spoken language has been influenced by the literary one, with some additional characteristic forms. Russian dialects show
various non-standard grammatical features, some of which are archaisms or descendants of old forms discarded by the literary
language.

Various terms are used to describe Russian grammar with the meaning they have in standard Russian discussions of historical
grammar, as opposed to the meaning they have in descriptions of the English language; in particular, aorist, imperfect, etc., are
considered verbal tenses, rather than aspects, because ancient examples of them are attested for both perfective and imperfective
verbs. Russian also places the accusative case between the dative and the instrumental, and in the tables below, the accusative case
appears between the nominative and genitive cases.

Contents
Nouns
First declension
Feminine and masculine nouns ending with 'а' or я vowel
Second declension
Masculine nouns ending with a consonant sound
Neuter nouns
Third declension
Feminine nouns ending with letter ь
Neuter nouns ending with мя
Indeclinable nouns
Additional cases
Adjectives
Adjectival declension
Comparison of adjectives
Possessive adjectives
Pronouns
Personal pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns
Possessive adjectives and pronouns
Interrogative pronouns
Numerals
Verbs
Infinitive
Present-future tense
Examples
Past tense
Examples
Exceptions
Moods
Imperative mood
Conditional mood
Verbs of motion
Unprefixed
Directionality

1
 Unidirectional perfectives with по-
Going versus taking
Prefixed motion verbs
Idiomatic uses
Adjectival participle
Active present participle
Reflexive verbs paradigm
Active past participle
Reflexive verbs paradigm
Passive present participle
Passive past participle
Adverbial participle
Irregular verbs
Word formation
Syntax
Impersonal sentences
Negation
Multiple Negatives
Adverbial answers
Coordination
Subordination
Absolute construction
See also
Notes
References
External links

Nouns
Nominal declension involves six cases – nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, and prepositional  – in two numbers
(singular and plural), and absolutely obeying grammatical gender (masculine, feminine, and neuter). Up to ten additional cases are
identified in linguistics textbooks,[1][2][3] although all of them are either incomplete (do not apply to all nouns) or degenerate (appear
identical to one of the six main cases) – the most recognized additional cases are locative, partitive and vocative. Old Russian also
had a third number, the dual, but it has been lost except for its use in the nominative and accusative cases with the numbers two,
three, and four (e.g. два стула, "two chairs"), where it is now reanalyzed as genitive singular.

More often than in many other Indo-European languages, Russian noun cases may supplant the use of prepositions entirely.[4]
Furthermore, every preposition is exclusively used with a particular case (or cases). Their usage can be summarised as:[5]

nominative (имени́тельный):
main subject;
default case to use outside sentences (dictionary entries, signs, etc.);
prepositions: за '(what) kind of?'; в: 'join the ranks of' (with plural noun only);
accusative (вини́тельный):
direct object;
some time expressions;
prepositions indicating motion: в 'into, in(ward)', на 'onto (the top of)', за 'behind, after', под 'under';
other prepositions: про 'about', через 'over, through', сквозь 'through';
genitive (роди́тельный):
possession – 'of' (genitive noun);
numerals and quantifiers;
negated verbs (which take direct objects in Accusative) to indicate total absence;
some time expressions;

2
 prepositions: без 'without', вместо 'instead of', возле 'near', вокруг 'around', впереди 'ahead of', для 'for', до
'before', из 'from', из-за 'because of, from behind', от 'from', кроме 'except for', мимо 'past by', около 'near',
после 'after', против 'against, opposite', среди 'among', у 'by', близ 'near', вдоль 'along', вне 'out of, outside',
внутри 'inside';
verbs: бояться 'afraid of', достигать 'reach', избегать 'avoid';
adjectives: полный 'full of' (genitive noun);
dative (да́тельный):
indirect object – 'to' (dative noun);
some time expressions;
impersonal clauses: мне холодно – 'I am cold', lit. "to_me (is) cold";
age statements: мне двадцать лет – 'I am 20 (years old)', lit. 'to_me (is) 20 years';
prepositions: по 'on', к 'to(wards)', благодаря 'thanks to';
auxiliaries: нужно or надо 'need/must (to)', можно 'allowed', нельзя 'forbidden';
verbs: верить 'believe', помочь 'help', советовать 'advise', звонить 'call', удивить(ся) 'amaze (self)';
instrumental (твори́тельный):
instrument used in the action or means by which action is carried out – 'by' (I. noun);
logical subject of passive clause: письмо написано Иваном – 'the letter was written by Ivan';
secondary direct object: его считают студентом – 'he is considered (to be) a student';
durational time expressions;
verbs: интересовать(ся) 'interest (to be interested in)', пользоваться 'use', занимать(ся) 'occupy (to be
preoccupied with)';
associates of connective verbs: быть 'be', стать 'became', остаться 'remain', казаться 'appear to be', оказаться
'turn out to be';
prepositions of position: за 'behind', перед 'in front of', над 'above', под 'below', между 'between', (вместе) с
'(together) with';
adjective: довольный 'pleased by';
prepositional (предло́жный):
prepositions of place: в 'inside', на 'on (top of)';
other prepositions: о 'about', при 'by/of/with';

Definite and indefinite articles (corresponding to 'the', 'a', 'an' in English) do not exist in the Russian language. The sense conveyed
by such articles can be determined in Russian by context. However, Russian also utilizes other means of expressing whether a noun
is definite or indefinite:

The use of a direct object in the genitive instead of the accusative in negation signifies that the noun is indefinite,
compare: Я не ви́жу кни́ги ("I don't see a book" or "I don't see any books") and Я не ви́жу кни́гу ("I don't see the
book").
The same goes for certain verbs expressing a desire to achieve something: wait, wish, ask, want, etc. When the
inanimate object is definite (certain, or at least expected), the accusative is used; when it is indefinite (uncertain),
the genitive is used. Compare: Я жду автобус ("I'm waiting for the bus", а specific, scheduled bus) and Я жду
автобуса ("I'm waiting for a bus", any bus, if one will come).[6]
The use of the numeral one sometimes signifies that the noun is indefinite, e.g.: Почему́ ты так до́лго? – Да так,
встре́тил одного́ дру́га, пришло́сь поговори́ть ("Why did it take you so long?" – "Well, I met one [=a] friend and
had to talk").
Word order may also be used for this purpose; compare В ко́мнату вбежа́л ма́льчик ("Into the room rushed a boy")
and Ма́льчик вбежа́л в ко́мнату ("The boy rushed into the room").
The plural form may signify indefiniteness: Вы мо́жете купи́ть э́ то в магази́нах ("You can buy this in shops") vs.
Вы мо́жете купи́ть э́ то в магази́не ("You can buy this in the shop").

The category of animacy is relevant in Russian nominal and adjectival declension.[7] Specifically, the accusative has two possible
forms in many paradigms, depending on the animacy of the referent. For animate referents (persons and animals), the accusative form
is generally identical to the genitive form. For inanimate referents, the accusative form is identical to the nominative form. This
principle is relevant for masculine singular nouns of the second declension (see below) and adjectives, and for all plural paradigms
(with no gender distinction). In the tables below, this behavior is indicated by the abbreviation 'N or G' in the row corresponding to
the accusative case.

Russian uses three declensions:[8]

3
 The first declension is used for feminine nouns ending with -а/-я and some masculine nouns having the same form
as those of feminine gender, such as па́па (papa) or дя́дя (uncle); also, common-gender nouns like зади́ра (bully)
are masculine or feminine depending on the person to which they refer.
The second declension is used for most masculine and neuter nouns.
The third declension is used for feminine nouns ending in ь.

A group of irregular "different-declension nouns" (Russian: разносклоняемые существительные), consists of a few neuter nouns
ending in -мя (e.g. время "time") and one masculine noun путь "way". However, these nouns and their forms have sufficient
similarity with feminine third declension nouns that scholars such as Litnevskaya[9] consider them to be non-feminine forms of this
declension.

Nouns ending with -ий, -ия, -ие (not to be confused with substantivated adjectives) are written with -ии instead of -ие in
prepositional (as this ending is never stressed, there is no difference in pronunciation): тече́ние – в ни́жнем тече́нии реки́
"streaming – in lower streaming of a river". However, if words в течение and в продолжение represent a compound preposition
meaning – "while, during the time of" – they are written with -е: в тече́ние ча́са "in a time of an hour". For nouns ending in -ья,
-ье, or -ьё, using -ьи in the prepositional (where endings of some of them are stressed) is usually erroneous, but in poetic speech it
may be acceptable (as we replace -ии with -ьи for metric or rhyming purposes): Весь день она́ лежа́ла в забытьи́ (Fyodor
Tyutchev).

First declension

Feminine and masculine nouns ending with 'а' or я vowel

singular plural

nominative -а -я, -ия -ы -и, -ии

accusative -у -ю, -ию N or G

genitive -ы -и, -ии ∅ -ь, -ий

dative -е -е, -ии -ам -ям, -иям
instrumental -ой -ей, -ией -ами -ями, -иями
prepositional -е -е, -ии -ах -ях, -иях

Second declension

Masculine nouns ending with a consonant sound

singular plural

-ы -и, -ии, -е
nominative ∅ -ь/-й, -ий, +ин-∅

accusative N or G

genitive -а -я, -ия, +ин-а -ов -ей/-ев, -иев, -∅

dative -у -ю, -ию, +ин-у -ам -ям, -иям, -ам
instrumental -ом -ем, -ием, +ин-ом -ами -ями, -иями, -ами
prepositional -е -е, -ии, +ин-е -ах -ях, -иях, -ах

Some singular nouns denoting groups of people may include -ин- suffix before ending.

Neuter nouns

4
 singular plural

nominative -а -я
-о -е
accusative N or G

-а -я
genitive ∅ -й, -ей
dative -у -ю -ам -ям
instrumental -ом -ем -ами -ями
prepositional -е -е -ах -ях

Third declension

Feminine nouns ending with letter ь

singular plural

nominative -и
-ь
accusative N or G -и

genitive -ей
-и
dative -ям
instrumental -ью -ём -ями -я́ми
prepositional -и -ах -ях

Neuter nouns ending with мя

singular plural
nominative
-я -ена́ -ёна
accusative

genitive -ён -ён

-ени
dative -ена́м -ёнам
instrumental -енем -ена́ми -ёнами
prepositional -ени -ена́х -ёнах

Indeclinable nouns

Some nouns (such as borrowings from other languages, abbreviations, etc.) are not modified when they change number and case.
This occurs especially when the ending appears not to match any declension pattern in the appropriate gender. An example of an
indeclinable noun is кофе ("coffee").

Additional cases

Some nouns use several additional cases. The most important of these are:

Locative (ме́стный): the most common minor case, used after prepositions of location (на, в(о)). With most nouns
the prepositional form is used in such instances. When there is a distinct locative, it may match the dative, or may
take a unique form. For example, in во рту́ ("in the mouth"), the locative of рот ("mouth") matches the dative form
ртy (and thus differs from the prepositional ртe). In в лесу́ ("in the forest"), the locative of лес ("forest") differs from
both the prepositional ле́се and the dative ле́сy (the dative and locative are spelt identically but pronounced
differently).
Partitive (отдели́тельный), or second genitive: sometimes used instead of the genitive: налить ча́ю (to pour tea) –
not налить ча́я.[10]
Vocative (зва́тельный): used in archaic expressions to call or identify a person: Бо́же мой! (My God!). The modern
vocative (sometimes called neo-vocative) is used to produce a person's nickname by removing the vowel ending

5
 from the affectionate version of the name: Ива́н (general) — Ва́ня (short, affectionate) — Вань (neo-vocative);
Мари́я — Ма́ша — Маш. The neo-vocative has no plural form and can only be applied to names frequently used in
Russian; rare names (chiefly non-Slavic) do not have affectionate versions and thus no means of forming the neo-
vocative.
Caritive (лиши́тельный), used with the negation of verbs: не знать пра́вды (not know the truth) – знать пра́вду
(know the truth). This case is sometimes identical to the genitive and sometimes to the accusative.

Adjectives
A Russian adjective (и́мя прилага́тельное) is usually placed before the noun it qualifies, and it agrees with the noun in case,
gender, and number. With the exception of a few invariant forms borrowed from other languages, such as беж ('beige', non-adapted
form of бе́жевый) or ха́ки ('khaki-colored'), most adjectives follow one of a small number of regular declension patterns (except for
some that complicate the short form). In modern Russian, the short form appears only in the nominative and is used when the
adjective is in a predicative role: нов, нова́, нóво, новы́ are short forms of но́вый ('new'). Formerly (as in the bylinas) short
adjectives appeared in all other forms and roles, which are not used in the modern language, but are nonetheless understandable to
Russian speakers as they are declined exactly like nouns of the corresponding gender.[11]

Adjectives may be divided into three general groups:

qualitative (ка́чественные) – denote a quality of the object; this is the only group that usually has degrees of
comparison.
relational (относи́тельные) – denote some sort of relationship; unlikely to act as a predicate or have a short form.
possessive (притяжа́тельные) – denote belonging to a specific subject; have some declensional peculiarities.

Adjectival declension

The pattern described below holds true for full forms of most adjectives, except possessive ones. It is also used for substantivized
adjectives as учёный ("scientist, scholar" as a noun substitute or "scientific, learned" as a general adjective) and for adjectival
participles. Russian differentiates between hard-stem and soft-stem adjectives, shown before and after a slash sign.

singular
plural
masculine neuter feminine
nominative -ый/-ий -ая/-яя -ые/-ие
-ое/-ее
accusative N or G -ую/-юю N or G
genitive -ого/-его -ых/-их
dative -ому/-ему -ым/-им
-ой/-ей
instrumental -ым/-им -ыми/-ими
prepositional -ом/-ем -ых/-их
short form zero ending -о -а -ы/-и

The masculine and neuter genitive singular adjectival endings -ого and -его are pronounced as -ово and -ево.
After a sibilant (ш, ж, ч, щ) or velar (к, г, х) consonant, и is written instead of ы.
When a masculine adjective ends in -ой in the nominative, the stress falls on the final syllable throughout its
declension: прямо́й ([prʲɪˈmoj], "straight"), compare упря́мый ([ʊˈprʲamɨj], "stubborn").
The "хоро́шее rule" states that after a sibilant consonant, neuter adjectives end in -ее.
The masculine accusative singular and the accusative plural endings depend on animacy, as with nouns.
The instrumental feminine ending -ой/-ей has old-fashion alternative form -ою/-ею for all adjectives, which has
only a stylistic difference.
There are often stress changes in the short form. For example, the short forms of но́вый ("new") are нов (m.), но́во
(n.), нова́ (f.), новы́ /но́вы (pl.).
In the masculine singular short form, when a word-final consonant cluster is being formed after ending removal, an
additional е or о interfix is inserted after the root, as in го́лоден, from голо́дный ("hungry").
Some adjectives (e.g. большо́й "big", ру́сский "Russian") have no short forms.

Comparison of adjectives

6
 Comparison forms are usual only for qualitative adjectives and adverbs. Comparative and superlative synthetic forms are not part of
the paradigm of original adjective but are different lexical items, since not all qualitative adjectives have them. A few adjectives have
irregular forms that are declined as usual adjectives: большо́й 'big' – бо́льший 'bigger', хоро́ший 'good' – лу́чший 'better'. Most
synthetically-derived comparative forms are derived by adding the suffix -е́е or -е́й to the adjective stem: кра́сный 'red' – красне́е
'more red'; these forms are difficult to distinguish from adverbs, whose comparative forms often coincide with those of their adjectival
counterparts.[11] Superlative synthetic forms are derived by adding the suffix -е́йш- or -а́йш- and additionally sometimes the prefix
наи-, or using a special comparative form with the prefix наи-: до́брый 'kind' – добре́йший 'the kindest', большо́й 'big' –
наибо́льший 'the biggest'.

An alternative is to add an adverb to the positive form of the adjective. The adverbs used for this are бо́лее 'more' / ме́нее 'less' and
са́мый 'most' / наибо́лее 'most' / наиме́нее 'least': for example, до́брый 'kind' – бо́лее до́брый 'kinder' – са́мый до́брый 'the
kindest'. This way is rarely used if special comparative forms exist.

Possessive adjectives

Possessive adjectives are less frequently used in Russian than in most other Slavic languages,[12] but are in use. They respond to the
questions чей? чья? чьё? чьи? (whose?) and denote only animate possessors. See section below.

Pronouns

Personal pronouns

singular plural
3rd reflexive
1st 2nd 1st 2nd 3rd
neuter masculine feminine
English I you (thou) it he she we you they -self
nominative я ты оно́ он она́ мы вы они́
accusative
меня́ тебя́ его́ её нас вас их себя́
genitive
dative мне тебе́ ему́ ей нам вам им себе́
мной тобо́й ей собо́й
instrumental им на́ми ва́ми и́ми
(мно́ю) (тобо́ю) (ею) (собо́ю)
prepositional мне тебе́ нём ней нас вас них себе́

Russian is subject to the T–V distinction. The respectful form of the singular you is the same as the plural form. It
begins with a capital letter: Вы, Вас, Вам, etc., in the following situations: personal letters and official papers
(addressee is definite), and questionnaires (addressee is indefinite); otherwise it begins with minuscule. Compare
the distinction between du and Sie in German or tu and vous in French.
When a preposition is used directly before a third-person pronoun, it is prefixed with н-: у него (read: у нево), с неё,
etc. Because the prepositional case always occurs after a preposition, the third person prepositional always starts
with an н-.
There are special cases for prepositions before first person singular pronouns: со мной – "with me" (usually с), ко
мне – "to me" (usually к), во мне – "in me" (usually в), обо мне – "about me" (usually о). All of these preposition
forms are unstressed.
Like adjectives and numerals, letter "г" (g) in masculine and neuter 3rd person genitive and accusative forms is
pronounced as "в" (v): (н)его – (н)ево.
English "it" can be translated as both оно́ (neuter personal pronoun) and э́ то (neuter proximal demonstrative,
"this"). The latter is used as a stub pronoun for a subject: э́ то хорошо́ – "it/this is good", кто́ это? – "who is it/this?".

Cecil Leigh Wilson, a PhD student of the University of Wisconsin-Madison, wrote that she observed that some non-binary people
who speak Russian use both feminine and masculine pronoun forms instead of attempting to create a gender-neutral one.[13] Emma
Friedlander, writing in The Moscow Times, stated that some use both gendered forms while others claimed the gender neutral
"Ono".[14]

Demonstrative pronouns

7
 этот ('this') тот ('that')
masculine neuter feminine plural
masculine neuter feminine plural
nominative э́тот э́та э́ти nominative тот та те
э́то то
accusative N or G э́ту N or G accusative N or G ту N or G
genitive э́того э́тих genitive того́ тех
dative э́тому э́тим dative тому́ тем
э́той той
instrumental э́тим э́тими instrumental тем те́ми
prepositional э́том э́тих prepositional том тех

If the preposition "about" is used (usually о), for singular demonstrative pronouns (as with any other words starting with a vowel) it is
об: об э́ том – about this.

Possessive adjectives and pronouns

Unlike English, Russian uses the same form for a possessive adjective and the corresponding possessive pronoun. In Russian
grammar they are called possessive pronouns притяжательные местоимения (compare with possessive adjectives like Peter's =
Петин above). The following rules apply:

Possessive pronouns agree with the noun of the possessed in case, gender, and number.
The reflexive pronoun свой is used when the possessor is the subject of the clause, whatever the person, gender,
and number of that subject.
No non-reflexive exists for the third person: the genitive of the personal pronoun is instead, i.e. его for a
masculine/neuter singular possessor, её for a feminine singular possessor and их for a plural possessor. But
unlike other genitives used with a possessive meaning, in modern Russian these words are usually placed before
the object of possession.
Example of the difference between reflexive and non-reflexive pronouns:
"Он лю́ бит свою́ жену́ = He loves his (own) wife"   while   "Он лю́ бит его́ жену́ = He loves his (someone
else's) wife".
Unlike Latin where a similar rule applies for the third person only, Russian accepts using reflexives for all persons:
"Люблю́ (свою́ ) жену́ = (I) love my wife"
"Люблю́ себя́ = (I) love myself"

мой (my, mine) твой (your, yours) for a singular possessor

masculine neuter feminine plural
masculine neuter feminine plural

nominative мой моя́ мои́ nominative твой твоя́ твои́

моё твоё
accusative N or G мою́ N or G accusative N or G твою́ N or G
genitive моего́ мои́х genitive твоего́ твои́х
dative моему́ мои́м dative твоему́ твои́м
мое́й твое́й
instrumental мои́м мои́ми instrumental твои́м твои́ми
prepositional моём мои́х prepositional твоём твои́х

свой (one's own) наш (our, ours)

masculine neuter feminine plural
masculine neuter feminine plural

nominative свой своя́ свои́ nominative наш на́ша на́ши

своё на́ше
accusative N or G свою́ N or G accusative N or G на́шу N or G
genitive своего́ свои́х genitive на́шего на́ших
dative своему́ свои́м dative на́шему на́шим
свое́й на́шей
instrumental свои́м свои́ми instrumental на́шим на́шими
prepositional своём свои́х prepositional на́шем на́ших

8
 ваш (your, yours) for a plural possessor
masculine neuter feminine plural
nominative ваш ва́ша ва́ши
ва́ше
accusative N or G ва́шу N or G
genitive ва́шего ва́ших
dative ва́шему ва́шим
ва́шей
instrumental ва́шим ва́шими
prepositional ва́шем ва́ших

The ending -его is pronounced as -ево́.

Interrogative pronouns

кто ('who') and что ('what')

кто что
nominative кто
что (read: што)
accusative
кого́ (read: ково́)
genitive чего́ (read: чево́)
dative кому́ чему́
instrumental кем чем
prepositional ком чём

These interrogatives are used by scholars to denote "usual" questions for correspondent grammatical cases (prepositional is used with
о): (кто?) Ма́ша лю́ бит (кого?) Ва́сю – (who?) Masha [N.] loves (whom?) Vasya [G.].

чей ('whose')
masculine neuter feminine plural
nominative чей чья чьи
чьё
accusative N or G чью N or G
genitive чьего́ чьих
dative чьему́ чьим
чьей
instrumental чьим чьи́ми
prepositional чьём чьих

The ending "-его" is pronounced as "-ево".

Numerals
Russian has several classes of numerals ([имена] числительные): cardinal, ordinal,
collective, and also fractional constructions; also it has other types of words, relative to
numbers: collective adverbial forms (вдвоём), multiplicative (двойной) and counting-system
(двоичный) adjectives, some numeric-pronominal and indefinite quantity words (сколько,
много, несколько). Here are the numerals from 0 to 10:

Nouns are used in the nominative

case after "one" (один рубль, 'one
ruble').

9
 ordinal numbers

collective
cardinal numbers (nominative case,
numbers
masculine)
0 ноль or нуль нулево́й —
оди́н (m.), одна́ (f.), одно́ (n.), одни́
1 (pl.) пе́рвый —
(раз is used when counting)
2 два (m., n.), две (f.) второ́й дво́е
3 три тре́тий тро́е After certain other numbers (following
4 четы́ре четвёртый че́тверо Grammatical number rules in
Russian) nouns must be declined to
5 пять пя́тый пя́теро
genitive plural (десять рублей, 'ten
6 шесть шесто́й ше́стеро rubles').
7 семь седьмо́й се́меро

8 во́семь восьмо́й (во́сьмеро)[15]

9 де́вять девя́тый (де́вятеро)
10 де́сять деся́тый (де́сятеро)

Verbs
Grammatical conjugation is subject to three persons in two numbers and two simple tenses (present/future and past), with periphrastic
forms for the future and subjunctive, as well as imperative forms and present/past participles, distinguished by adjectival and
adverbial usage (see adjectival participle and adverbial participle). Verbs and participles can be reflexive, i.e. have reflexive suffix
-ся/-сь appended after ending.

The past tense is made to agree in gender with the subject, for it is the participle in an originally periphrastic perfect formed (like the
perfect passive tense in Latin) with the present tense of the verb "to be" быть [bɨtʲ], which is now omitted except for rare archaic
effect, usually in set phrases (откуда есть пошла земля русская [ɐtˈkudə jesʲtʲ pɐˈʂla zʲɪˈmlʲa ˈruskəjə], "whence is come the
Russian land", the opening of the Primary Chronicle in modern spelling). The participle nature of past-tense forms is exposed also in
that they often have an extra suffix vowel, which is absent in present/future; the same vowel appears in infinitive form, which is
considered by few scholars not to be verbal (and in the past it surely used to be a noun), but in which verbs appear in most
dictionaries: ходить "to walk" – ходил "(he) walked" – хожу "I walk".

Verbal inflection is considerably simpler than in Old Russian. The ancient aorist, imperfect, and (periphrastic) pluperfect have been
lost, though the aorist sporadically occurs in secular literature as late as the second half of the eighteenth century, and survives as an
odd form in direct narration (а он пойди да скажи [ɐ on pɐjˈdʲi də skɐˈʐɨ], etc., exactly equivalent to the English colloquial "so he
goes and says"), recategorized as a usage of the imperative. The loss of three of the former six tenses has been offset by the
development, as in other Slavic languages, of verbal aspect (вид). Most verbs come in pairs, one with imperfective
(несоверше́нный вид) or continuous, the other with perfective (соверше́нный вид) or completed aspect, usually formed with a
(prepositional) prefix, but occasionally using a different root. E.g., спать [spatʲ] ('to sleep') is imperfective; поспать [pɐˈspatʲ] ('to
take a nap') is perfective.

The present tense of the verb быть is today normally used only in the third-person singular form, есть, which is often used for all the
persons and numbers.[16] As late as the nineteenth century, the full conjugation, which today is extremely archaic, was somewhat
more natural: forms occur in the Synodal Bible, in Dostoevsky and in the bylinas (былины [bɨˈlʲinɨ]) or oral folk-epics, which were
transcribed at that time. The paradigm shows as well as anything else the Indo-European affinity of Russian:

10
 English Russian Latin Classical Greek Sanskrit

(есмь) sum εἰμί अस्मि

"I am"
[jesʲmʲ] [sũː] [eːmí] [ˈɐsmi]

(еси́) es εἶ असि
"you are" (sing.)
[jɪˈsʲi] [ɛs] अस्मि[êː] [ˈɐsi]

есть est ἐστί(ν) अस्ति

"he, she, it is"
[jesʲtʲ] [ɛst] [estí(n)] [ˈɐsti]

(есмы́) sumus ἐσμέν स्मः

"we are"
[jɪˈsmɨ] [ˈsʊmʊs] [esmén] [smɐh]

(е́сте) estis ἐστέ स्थ

"you are" (plural)
[ˈjesʲtʲɪ] [ˈɛstɪs] [esté] [stʰɐ]

(суть) sunt εἰσί(ν) सन्ति

"they are"
[ˈsutʲ] [sʊnt] [eːsí(n)] [ˈsɐnti]

Infinitive

The infinitive is the basic form of a verb for most purposes of study. In Russian it has the suffix -ть/-ти (the latter is used after
consonants), or ends with -чь (but -чь is not a suffix of a verb). For reflexive verbs -ся/-сь suffix is added in the end. Note that due to
phonological effects, both -ться and -тся endings (later is used for present-future tense of a 3rd person reflexive verb; see below) are
pronounced as [t͡sə] or [tsə] and often cause misspellings even among native speakers.

Present-future tense

Future tense has two forms: simple and compound.

Future simple forms are formed by the perfective verbs with the help of personal endings: "She will read" (She will
have read) — "Она прочита́ет"; "She will read" (She will read [for a certain amount of time]) — "Она почита́ет".
Future compound forms are formed by the imperfective verbs: future simple tense form of the verb "быть" (to be)
and the infinitive of the imperfective verb. The Russian compound future tense is remarkably similar in structure to
the English simple future tense: "She will read" (She will be reading) — "Она бу́дет чита́ть".

First conjugation Second conjugation

1st singular -у or -ю -у or -ю
2nd singular -ешь -ишь
3rd singular -ет -ит
1st plural -ем -им
2nd plural -ете -ите
3rd plural -ут or -ют -ат or -ят

-у/-ут,-ат is used after a hard consonant or ж, ш, щ or ч; otherwise -ю/-ют,-ят is used.

A mutating final consonant may entail a change in the ending.
е becomes ё when stressed.

Two forms are used to conjugate the present tense of imperfective verbs and the future tense of perfective verbs.

The first conjugation is used in verb stems ending in:

a consonant,
-у,-ы or -о,-я
-е (In addition to below)
Бить, пить, жить, шить, лить, вить, гнить, брить, стелить, зиждить.
-а not preceded by a hush (ж, ш, щ or ч):

The second conjugation involves verb stems ending in:

-и or -е (Тереть, глядеть, смотреть, видеть, ненавидеть, обидеть, зависеть, терпеть, вертеть, пыхтеть, сидеть,
лететь, гудеть, гореть, сопеть, дудеть, блестеть, храпеть, смердеть, хрипеть, шелестеть, хрустеть, сипеть,

11
 кишеть, бдеть, звенеть, кряхтеть, кипеть, корпеть, зудеть, скорбеть, тарахтеть, шуметь, зреть, висеть, греметь,
шипеть)
-а preceded by a hush (ж, ш, щ or ч)(Слышать, дышать, держать, лежать, дребезжать, жужжать, брюзжать,
дрожать, бренчать, стучать, мычать, кричать, молчать, рычать, мчать, урчать, звучать, бурчать, ворчать,
торчать, журчать, гнать):
Стоять, бояться

Example: попро-с-ить – попро-ш-у, попро-с-ят [pəprɐˈsʲitʲ, pəprɐˈʂu, pɐˈprosʲɪt] (to have solicited – [I, they] will have solicited).

Examples

First conjugation
чита́ть ('to read', stem: чита–)
я чита́ю I read (am reading, do read)
ты чита́ешь you read (are reading, do read)
он/она́/оно́ чита́ет he/she/it reads (is reading, does read)
мы чита́ем we read (are reading, do read)
вы чита́ете you (plural/formal) read (are reading, do read)
они чита́ют they read (are reading, do read)

First conjugation: verbs ending in -нуть

верну́ть ('to return [something]', stem: верн–)
я верну́ I will return
ты вернёшь you will return
он/она́/оно́ вернёт he/she/it will return
мы вернём we will return
вы вернёте you will return
они верну́т they will return

First conjugation: verbs ending in -овать, -евать

рисова́ть ('to draw', stem: рису-) плева́ть ('to spit', stem: плю-) танцева́ть ('to dance', stem: танцу-)
я рису́ю я плюю́ я танцу́ю
ты рису́ешь ты плюёшь ты танцу́ешь
он/она́/оно́ рису́ет он/она́/оно́ плюёт он/она́/оно́ танцу́ет
мы рису́ем мы плюём мы танцу́ем
вы рису́ете вы плюёте вы танцу́ете
они́ рису́ют они́ плюю́ т они́ танцу́ют

First conjugation: verbs ending in -чь

мочь ('to be able', stem: мог-/мож-) печь ('to bake', stem: пек-/печ-)
я могу́ I can я пеку́ I bake
ты мо́жешь you can ты печёшь you bake
он/она́/оно́ мо́жет he/she/it can он/она́/оно́ печёт he/she/it bakes
мы мо́жем we can мы печём we bake
вы мо́жете you (all) can вы печёте you (all) bake
они́ мо́гут they can они́ пеку́т they bake

12
 First conjugation (verbs ending in -сти, -сть)
нести́ ('to carry', stem: вести́ ('to lead', stem: мести́ ('to sweep', stem: грести́ ('to row', stem: красть ('to steal', stem:
нес-) вед-) мет-) греб-) крад-)
я несу́ I carry я веду́ I lead я мету́ I sweep я гребу́ I row я краду́ I steal
ты несёшь you carry ты ведёшь you lead ты метёшь you sweep ты гребёшь you row ты крадёшь you steal
он/она́/оно́ he/she/it он/она́/оно́ he/she/it он/она́/оно́ he/she/it он/она́/оно́ he/she/it он/она́/оно́ he/she/it
несёт carries ведёт leads метёт sweeps гребёт rows крадёт steals
мы несём we carry мы ведём we lead мы метём we sweep мы гребём we row мы крадём we steal
you (all) you (all) you (all) you (all) you (all)
вы несёте вы ведёте вы метёте вы гребёте вы крадёте
carry lead sweep row steal
они́ несу́т they carry они́ веду́т they lead они́ мету́т they sweep они́ гребу́т they row они́ краду́т they steal

First conjugation (verbs ending in -зти, -зть)

везти́ ('to convey', stem: вез-) лезть ('to climb', stem: лез-)
я везу́ I convey я ле́зу I climb
ты везёшь you convey ты ле́зешь you climb
он/она́/оно́ везёт he/she/it conveys он/она́/оно́ ле́зет he/she/it climbs
мы везём we convey мы ле́зем we climb
вы везёте you (all) convey вы ле́зете you (all) climb
они́ везу́т they convey они́ ле́зут they climb

First conjugation: verbs ending in -ыть

мыть ('to wash', stem: мо-)
я мо́ю I wash
ты мо́ешь you wash
он/она́/оно́ мо́ет he/she/it washes
мы мо́ем we wash
вы мо́ете you (all) wash
они́ мо́ют they wash

First conjugation (verbs бить, вить, лить, пить, шить)

бить ('to beat', stem: вить ('to weave', stem: лить ('to pour', stem: пить ('to drink', stem: шить ('to sew', stem:
бь-) вь-) ль-) пь-) шь-)
я бью I beat я вью I weave я лью I pour я пью I drink я шью I sew
ты бьёшь you beat ты вьёшь you weave ты льёшь you pour ты пьёшь you drink ты шьёшь you sew
он/она́/оно́ he/she/it он/она́/оно́ he/she/it он/она́/оно́ he/she/it он/она́/оно́ he/she/it он/она́/оно́ he/she/it
бьёт beats вьёт weaves льёт pours пьёт drinks шьёт sews
мы бьём we beat мы вьём we weave мы льём we pour мы пьём we drink мы шьём we sew
you (all) you (all) you (all) you (all) you (all)
вы бьёте вы вьёте вы льёте вы пьёте вы шьёте
beat weave pour drink sew
они́ бьют they beat они́ вьют they weave они́ льют they pour они́ пьют they drink они шьют they sew

First conjugation (verbs жить, плыть, слыть)

жить ('to live', stem: жив-) плыть ('to swim', stem: плыв-) слыть ('to pass for', stem: слыв-)
я живу́ I live я плыву́ I swim я слыву́ I pass for
ты живёшь you live ты плывёшь you swim ты слывёшь you pass for
он/она́/оно́ живёт he/she/it lives он/она́/оно́ плывёт he/she/it swims он/она́/оно́ слывёт he/she/it passes for
мы живём we live мы плывём we swim мы слывём we pass for
вы живёте you (all) live вы плывёте you (all) swim вы слывёте you (all) pass for
они́ живу́т they live они́ плыву́т they swim они́ слыву́т they pass for

13
 Second conjugation
говори́ть ('to speak', stem: говор-)
я говорю́ I speak (am speaking, do speak)
ты говори́шь you speak (are speaking, do speak)
он/она́/оно́ говори́т he/she/it speaks (is speaking, does speak)
мы говори́м we speak (are speaking, do speak)
вы говори́те you (plural/formal) speak (are speaking, do speak)
они говоря́т they speak (are speaking, do speak)

Second conjugation (verbs ending in -бить, -вить, -пить, -мить)

лови́ть ('to catch', stem:
люби́ть ('to love', stem: люб-) топи́ть ('to sink', stem: топ-) корми́ть ('to feed', stem: корм-)
лов-)
я люблю́ I love я ловлю́ я топлю́ я кормлю́
ты лю́ бишь you love ты ло́вишь ты то́пишь ты ко́рмишь
он́/она́/оно́ he/she/it
он́/она́/оно́ ло́вит он́/она́/оно́ то́пит он́/она́/оно́ ко́рмит
лю́ бит loves
мы лю́ бим we love мы ло́вим мы то́пим мы ко́рмим
вы лю́ бите you (all) love вы ло́вите вы то́пите вы ко́рмите
они́ лю́ бят they love они́ ло́вят они́ то́пят они́ ко́рмят

Second conjugation (verbs ending in -сить, -зить, -тить, -дить, -стить)

проси́ть ('to ask', вози́ть ('to convey', плати́ть ('to pay', stem: ходи́ть ('to go [to walk]', прости́ть ('to forgive',
stem: прос-) stem: воз-) плат-) stem: ход-) stem: прост-)
я прошу́ я вожу́ я плачу́ I pay я хожу́ я прощу́
ты про́сишь ты во́зишь ты пла́тишь you pay ты хо́дишь ты прости́шь
он/она́/оно́ he/she/it
он/она́/оно́ про́сит он/она́/оно́ во́зит он/она́/оно́ хо́дит он/она́/оно́ прости́т
пла́тит pays
мы про́сим мы во́зим мы пла́тим we pay мы хо́дим мы прости́м
you (all)
вы про́сите вы во́зите вы пла́тите вы хо́дите вы прости́те
pay
они́ про́сят они́ во́зят они́ пла́тят they pay они́ хо́дят они́ простя́т

There are five irregular verbs:

бежа́ть (run), бре́зжить (glimmer) – first conjugation in the plural third person, second in other forms;
хоте́ть (want) – first conjugation in the singular, second in plural;
дать (give) – дам, дашь, даст, дади́м, дади́те, даду́т;
есть (eat) – ем, ешь, ест, еди́м, еди́те, едя́т.

Past tense

The Russian past tense is gender specific: –л for masculine singular subjects, –ла for feminine singular subjects, –ло for neuter
singular subjects, and –ли for plural subjects. This gender specificity applies to all persons; thus, to say "I slept", a male speaker
would say я спал, while a female speaker would say я спалá.

Examples

14
 Past of сде́лать ('to do', 'to make')
masculine feminine neuter plural
мы
я сде́лал I made (says a man) я сде́лала I made (says a woman) we made
сде́лали
ты you made (is said to a you made (is said to a вы you (all)
ты сде́лала
сде́лал man) woman) сде́лали made
он она́ оно́ it они́
he made she made they made
сде́лал сде́лала сде́лало made сде́лали

Exceptions

Verbs ending in -сти, -сть, -зти, -зть

infinitive present stem past
ле́зть лез- лез, ле́зла, ле́зло, ле́зли
нести́ нес- нёс, несла́, несло́, несли́
везти́ вез- вёз, везла́, везло́, везли́
вести́ вед- вёл, вела́, вело́, вели́
мести́ мет- мёл, мела́, мело́, мели́
грести́ греб- грёб, гребла́, гребло́, гребли́
расти́ раст- рос, росла́, росло́, росли́

Verbs ending in -чь

infinitive present stem past
мочь мог-/мож- мог, могла́, могло́, могли́
печь пек-/печ- пёк, пекла́, пекло́, пекли́

Verbs ending in -ереть

infinitive past
умере́ть у́мер, умерла́, у́мерло, у́мерли

The verb идти́ ('to go, to walk') and verbs ending in -йти
infinitive past
идти́ (to go) шёл, шла, шло, шли
уйти́ (to go away) ушёл, ушла́, ушло́, ушли́
найти́ (to find) нашёл, нашла́, нашло́, нашли́
пройти́ (to pass) прошёл, прошла́, прошло́, прошли́
прийти́ (to come) пришёл, пришла́, пришло́ пришли́
вы́йти (to go out) вы́шел, вы́шла, вы́шло, вы́шли

The verb есть (to eat)

infinitive past
есть ел, е́ла, е́ло, е́ли

Moods

Russian verbs can form three moods (наклонения): indicative (изъявительное), conditional (сослагательное) and imperative
(повелительное).[17]

Imperative mood

The imperative mood second-person singular is formed from the future-present base of most verbs by adding -и (stressed ending in
present-future, or if base ends on more than one consonant), -ь (unstressed ending, base on one consonant) or -й (unstressed ending,
base on vowel). Plural (including polite на вы) second-person form is made by adding -те to singular one: говорю 'I speak' –

15
говори – говорите, забуду 'I shall forget' – забудь – забудьте, клею 'I glue' – клей – клейте. Some perfective verbs have first-
person plural imperative form with -те added to similar simple future or present tense form: пойдёмте 'let us go'. Other forms can
express command in Russian; for third person, for example, пусть particle with future can be used: Пусть они замолчат! 'Let them
shut up!'.[18]

infinitive present stem imperative (2nd singular) imperative (2nd plural)

де́лать де́ла- де́лай де́лайте
рисова́ть рису- рису́й рису́йте
тро́нуть трон- тро́нь тро́ньте
верну́ть верн- верни́ верни́те
ве́рить вер- верь ве́рьте
люби́ть люб- люби́ люби́те
услы́шать услыш- услы́шь услы́шьте
смотре́ть смотр- смотри́ смотри́те
пла́кать плач- плачь пла́чьте
писа́ть пиш- пиши́ пиши́те

лезть ле́з- лезь ле́зьте

везти́ вез- вези́ вези́те
нести́ нес- неси́ неси́те
вести́ вед- веди́ веди́те
мести́ мет- мети́ мети́те
грести́ греб- греби́ греби́те
расти́ раст- расти́ расти́те

Conditional mood

The conditional mood in Russian is formed by adding the particle бы after the word which marks the supposed subject into a
sentence formed like in the past tense. Thus, to say "I would (hypothetically) sleep" or "I would like to sleep", a male speaker would
say я спал бы (or я бы поспа́л), while a female speaker would say я спалá бы (or я бы поспала́).

Conditional of the verb сказа́ть ('to say')

masculine feminine neuter plural
я бы I would say (says a male я бы I would say (says a female мы бы we would
сказа́л speaker) сказа́ла speaker) сказа́ли say
ты бы you would say (said to a ты бы you would say (said to a вы бы you (all)
сказа́л male speaker) сказа́ла female speaker) сказа́ли would say
он бы она́ бы оно́ бы it would они́ бы they would
he would say she would say
сказа́л сказа́ла сказа́ло say сказа́ли say

Negative conditional forms

masculine feminine neuter plural
я бы не I wouldn't say (says a я бы не I wouldn't say (says a мы бы не we wouldn't
сказа́л male speaker) сказа́ла female speaker) сказа́ли say
ты бы не you wouldn't say (said to ты бы не you wouldn't say (said to a вы бы не you (all)
сказа́л a male speaker) сказа́ла female speaker) сказа́ли wouldn't say
it
он бы не она́ бы не оно́ бы не они́ бы не they wouldn't
he wouldn't say she wouldn't say wouldn't
сказа́л сказа́ла сказа́ло сказа́ли say
say

Verbs of motion

Verbs of motion are a distinct class of verbs found in several Slavic languages. Due to the extensive semantic information they
contain, Russian verbs of motion pose difficulties for non-native learners at all levels of study.[19] Unprefixed verbs of motion, which
are all imperfective, divide into pairs based on the direction of the movement (uni- or multidirectional — sometimes referred to as

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 determinate/indeterminate or definite/indefinite). As opposed to a verb-framed language, in which path is encoded in the verb, but
manner of motion typically is expressed with complements, Russian is a satellite language, meaning that these concepts are encoded
in both the root of the verb and the particles associated with it, satellites.[20] Thus, the roots of motion verbs convey the lexical
information of manner of movement, e.g. walking, crawling, running, whereas prefixes denote path, e.g. motion in and out of
space.[21][note 1] The roots also distinguish between means of conveyance, e.g. by transport or by one's own power, and in transitive
verbs, the object or person being transported.[22] The information below provides an outline of the formation and basic usage of
unprefixed and prefixed verbs of motion.

Unprefixed

Pairs of Russian verbs of motion, adapted from

Muravyova.[22][note 2]
English unidirectional multidirectional
to run бежа́ть бе́гать
to wander брести́ броди́ть
to convey, transport везти́ вози́ть
to lead вести́ води́ть
to drive, chase гна́ть гоня́ть
to go by vehicle, ride е́хать е́здить
to go, walk идти́ ходи́ть
to roll кати́ть ката́ть
to climb ле́зть ла́зить (ла́зать)
to fly лете́ть лета́ть
to carry нести́ носи́ть
to swim, float плы́ть пла́вать
to crawl ползти́ по́лзать
to drag тащи́ть таска́ть

Directionality

Unidirectional verbs describe motion in progress in one direction, e.g.:

We are headed to the library.

Мы идём в библиотеку.
I was on my way to work.

Я шла на работу.
The birds are flying south.

Птицы летят на юг.

Multidirectional verbs describe:

1. General motion, referring to ability or habitual motion, without reference to direction or destination, e.g.:
The child has been walking for six months.

Ребёнок ходит шесть месяцев.

Birds fly, fish swim, and dogs walk.

Птицы летают, рыбы плавают, а собаки ходят.

2. Movement in various directions, e.g.:
We walked around the city all day.

Мы ходили по городу весь день.

3. Repetition of completed trips, e.g.:
She goes to the supermarket every week.

Она ходит в супермаркет каждую неделю.

4. In the past tense, a single completed round trip, e.g.:
I went to Russia (and returned) last year.

В прошлом году я ездил в Россию.

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Unidirectional perfectives with по-

The addition of the prefix по- to a unidirectional verb of motion makes the verb perfective, denoting the beginning of a movement,
i.e. 'setting out'. These perfectives imply that the agent has not yet returned at the moment of speech, e.g.,[23]: 3 53–355 

a. He went to a friend's place (and has not returned; unidirectional perfective).

Он пошёл к другу.

Compare with:
b. He was on his way to a friend's place (unidirectional imperfective).

Он шёл к другу.
c. He used to go to a friend's place (multidirectional).

Он ходил к другу.
d. He went to a friend's place (and has returned; see prefixed perfective forms of motion verbs below).

Он сходил к другу.

Going versus taking

Three pairs of motion verbs generally refer to 'taking', 'leading' with additional lexical information on manner of motion and object of
transport encoded in the verb stem. These are нести/носить, вести/водить, and везти/возить. See below for the specific
information on manner and object of transport:[23]

A. нести/носить – 'to take (on foot), carry'

a. He carries a briefcase.

Он носит портфель.
b. She is taking her assignment to class.

Она несёт домашнее задание на занятия.

B. вести/водить – 'to take, lead (people or animals)'; 'to drive (a vehicle)'
a. The teacher was taking the children to a field trip.

Учитель вёл школьников на экскурсию

b. She took her friend to the theatre.

Она водила свою подругу в театр.

c. She knows how to drive a car.

Она умеет водить машину.

C. везти/возить – 'to take, drive, convey by vehicle'
a. She is wheeling her grandmother in a wheelchair.

Она везёт бабушку в инвалидном кресле.

b. The train took the passengers to England (and back).

Поезд возил пассажиров в Англию.

Prefixed motion verbs

Motion verbs combine with prefixes to form new aspectual pairs, which lose the distinction of directionality, but gain spatial or
temporal meanings. The unidirectional verb serves as the base for the perfective, and the multidirectional as the base for the
imperfective. In addition to the meanings conveyed by the prefix and the simplex motion verb, prepositional phrases also contribute
to the expression of path in Russian.[24] Thus, it is important to consider the whole verb phrase when examining verbs of motion.

In some verbs of motion, adding a prefix requires a different stem shape:[25]

A. идти → -йти 'go (on foot)'

a. For prefixes ending in a consonant, an -o- is added in all forms, e.g.: войти.
b. й is lost in the non-past conjugated forms of прийти, e.g.: приду 'I come'.
B. ездить → -езжать 'go (by conveyance)'
For prefixes ending in a consonant, a hard sign (ъ) is added before –ехать
and –езжать, e.g.: въезжать 'enter (by conveyance)'.
C. бéгать → -бегáть 'run'
The formation of the verb remains the same, but stress shifts from the stem to the endings,
e.g.: убегáть 'run away'.
D. плáвать → -плывáть 'swim'
The vowel in the root changes to -ы- and the stress shifts to the endings.
E. In perfective verbs with the prefix вы-, the prefix is stressed in all forms, e.g. вы́ йдешь 'go out'.

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 See below for a table the prefixes, their primary meanings, and the prepositions that accompany them, adapted from Muravyova.[22]
Several examples are taken directly or modified from Muravyova.

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 Prefixed verbs of motion
Prefix / primary meanings Examples / additional meanings Prepositional
Phrases
spatial
в-, о- The tram stopped and the girl entered. в / на + acc.
Movement inwards across a threshold, entering Трамвай остановился, и девушка вошла.
Antonym: вы-
вы- She exited the office. из / с / от +
Movement out of something across a threshold, exiting Она вышла из кабинета. gen.
Antonym: в- в / на + acc.
Other: к + dat.

1. Step out for a short period of time, e.g.:

The secretary left for ten minutes.

Секретарь вышел на десять минут.

2. Leave at a specific time frame, e.g.:

They left early in the morning to catch their train/plain .

Они выехали рано утром, чтобы успеть на поезд/

самолёт.

при- He arrived in Moscow a week ago. в / на + acc.

Intended arrival, signals presence of the agent at a Он приехал в Москву неделю назад. к + dat.
location as a result of motion из / с / от +
Antonym: у- gen.
у- They will leave Vladivostok in a month. в / на + acc.
Intended departure, signals absence Они улетят из Владивостока через месяц. к + dat.
Antonym: при- Where is Igor? He already left. из / с / от +
Где Игорь? Он уже ушёл. gen.
под-, подо- He approached the girl to ask for her number. к + dat.
Approach Он подошёл к девушке, чтобы спросить её номер. до + gen.
Antonym: от-
Other:
Подвезти – give someone a lift, e.g.:

He took me (as far as) downtown.

Он подвёз меня до центра.

от-, ото- The boy stepped back from the stranger who had offered him от + gen.
Withdrawal a short distance away candy.
Antonym: под- Мальчик отошёл от незнакомца, который предложил ему
конфеты.

Other:
With transitive verbs, delivering or dropping
something off (agent does not remain), e.g.:

I'll drop the book off at the library, then come.

Я отнесу книги в библиотеку, потом приду.

до- The passengers reached the last station and exited the bus. до + gen.
Reaching a limit or destination Пассажиры доехали до последней остановки и вышли из
автобуса.

Other:
Characterizing the duration of a journey,
especially when it is long, e.g.:

We finally reached the dacha.

Мы наконец доехали до дачи.

за- The old woman walked behind the corner and disappeared. в / на / за +
Movement behind an object; stopping off on the way Старушка зашла за угол и исчезла. acc.
к + dat.
Other: за + inst.

1. Action performed on the way to a destination, e.g.:

On the way home I stopped at the store for bread.

По дороге домой я зашла в магазин за хлебом

2. A short visit, e.g.:

The young man often stops by his mother's place.

Молодой человек часто заходит к маме.

3. Movement deep into something, at a great distance (inside,
upwards or downwards), e.g.:

The ball flew onto the roof of the house.

Мяч залетел на крышу дома.

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 про- We drove through the city. сквозь /
Movement across, through, or past something Мы проехали через город. через / в +
We passed the metro station. acc.
Мы прошли мимо станции метро. мимо + gen.
without
Other: preposition

1. Movement beyond one's destination (possibly

unintentional), e.g.:

I'm afraid we already passed the store.

Я боюсь, что мы уже прошли магазин.

2. Movement forward with the distance covered specified,
e.g.:

You'll go three stops and get off the tram.

Вы проедете три остановки и выйдете из трамвая.

пере- The ducks swam across the river. через + acc

Movement across, from one point to another; through Утки переплыли реку. without
preposition +
Other:
Changing residence, e.g.: acc.
I moved to another city.
Я переехала в другой город.

вз-, взо-, воз-, вс-, вос- The mountain climber walked up the mountain. в / на + acc.
Movement upwards Альпинист взошёл на гору.
Antonym: с-
с-, со- After the performance, the actor got off the stage. c + gen.
Movement downwards После представления актёр сошёл со сцены. на + acc.
Antonym: вз- к + dat.
за + inst.
о-, об-, обо- The little girl walked around the puddle. вокруг + gen.
Movement around an object or involving a consecutive Девочка обошла лужу. without
number of objects, circling, covering a whole place I'm going around to all the stores in the mall. preposition +
Я обхожу все магазины в центре. acc.
из-, изо-, ис- I traveled over the whole world. without
Movement involving the entire area concerned and carried Я изъездил весь мир. preposition +
out in all directions acc.
*only formed from multidirectional verb of motion
на- A cloud crept onto the sun. в/на + acc.
Movement onto the surface of an object Туча наползла на солнце. without
*only formed from multidirectional verb of motion preposition +
Other:
Quantified movement, e.g.: acc.
The driver covered 50 kilometers.
Водитель наездил 50 километров.
I had 2500 flight hours in Boeing 737.
Я налетал 2500 часов на Боинге 737.

с-, со- (+сь, +ся) In order to study, the student brought all her textbooks from в / на + acc.
Convergent movement from various directions towards other rooms to her desk. к + dat.
one center Чтобы заниматься, студентка снесла все учебники из
Antonym: раз-, разо-, рас- (+сь, +ся) других комнат на письменный стол.
The children ran (from all directions) to the playground.
Дети сбежались на детскую площадь
раз-, разо-, рас- (+сь, +ся) Grandfather Frost brought the gifts to the (various) houses. по + dat. pl.
Divergent movement in various directions from one center Дед Мороз разнёс подарки по домам. в + асс. pl.
Antonym: с-, со- (+сь, +ся) After dinner, we went to our separate homes.
После ужина, мы разошлись по домам.
temporal
по- I went to the university. в / на + acc.
Beginning of unidirectional movement Я пошла в университет. к + dat.
*with unidirectional verb of motion из / с / от +
Other: gen.
по + dat.
without prep.
1. Intention to carry out a movement in the future, e.g.:

+ inst.
In the winter I plan to go to Florida.

Зимой я собираюсь поехать во Флориду.

2. Approximate location of the agent at moment of speech,
e.g.:

Where's Dad? He went to (is at) work.

Где папа? Он пошёл на работу.

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 за- She started running around the room. по + dat.
Beginning of multidirectional movement Она забегала по комнате.
*With multidirection verb of motion
про- We walked around the woods all day. without prep +
Prolonged multidirectional movement Мы проходили по лесу весь день. acc.
*with multidirectional verb of motion
по- She walked around the apartment pensively and finally decided
Slow and measured multidirectional movement to leave.
*with multidirectional verb of motion Она задумчиво походила по квартире и наконец решила
уйти.
resultative
с- I went to the pharmacy for medicine and went to bed. в / на + acc.
Completed semelfactive movement in opposite directions, Я сходил в аптеку за лекарством и лёг спать. к + dat.
there and back.
*only formed with multidirectional verb of motion

Idiomatic uses

The uni- and multidirectional distinction rarely figures into the metaphorical and idiomatic use of motion verbs, because such phrases
typically call for one or the other verb. See below for examples:[23]: 3 57–358 

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 Idiomatic uses of motion verbs
Verb Example
unidirectional
идти
1. It's not raining, but it is snowing.

Идёт не дождь, а снег.

2. The clock is going.

Часы идут.
3. A film is on.

Идёт фильм.
4. That dress suits you.

Это платье тебе идёт.

5. The government is moving towards democracy.

Правительство идёт к демократии.

6. The president is going against the will of the people.

Президент идёт против воли народа.

вести
1. The country is waging a war.

Страна ведёт войну.

2. The girl keeps a diary.

Девочка ведёт дневник.

3. The friends carry on a correspondence for a long time.

Друзья долго ведут переписку.

4. The road leads to the city.

Дорога ведёт в город.

5. No good comes from lying.

Ложь к добру не ведёт.

нести
1. The woman bears the responsibility of her children.

Женщина несёт ответственность за детей.

2. The farmer bears the losses from the drought.

Фермер несёт потери от засухи.

3. The criminal undergoes severe punishment.

Преступник несёт тяжёлое наказание.

4. The speaker is talking nonsense.

Оратор несёт чушь.

лететь
1. Time flies.

Время летит.
2. Shares are plummeting because of the economic crisis.

Акции летят от экономического кризиса.

лезть
The hooligans are getting into a brawl.
Хулиганы лезут в драку.

везти
She is lucky/got lucky.
Ей везёт / повезло.

бежать
1. Blood flows from the wound.

Кровь бежит из раны.

2. The days fly past.

Дни бегут.

multidirectional
носить
1. Ivan Ivanovich bears the name of his father.

Иван Иванович носит имя отца.

2. The clothes bear the imprint of old age.

Одежда носит отпечаток ветхости.

3. She wears pretty clothing.

Она носит красивую одежду.

ходить
Rumor has it that she left her husband.
Ходит слух, что она бросила мужа.

водить
He fooled me for a long time when he said that everything was fine in our firm.
Он долго водил меня за нос, когда говорил, что в нашей фирме всё хорошо.

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 кататься
I like to ski, skate, cycle, and row.
Мне нравится кататься на лыжах, на коньках, на велосипеде и на лодке.

Adjectival participle

Russian adjectival participles can be active or passive; have perfective or imperfective aspect; imperfective participles can have
present or past tense, while perfective ones in classical language can be only past.[26] As adjectives, they are declined by case,
number and gender. If adjectival participles are derived from reciprocal verbs, they have suffix -ся appended after the adjectival
ending; this suffix in participles never takes the short form. Participles are often difficult to distinguish from deverbal adjectives (this is
important for some cases of orthography).

Active present participle

Лю́ ди, живу́щие в э́ том го́роде, о́чень до́брые и отве́тственные – The people living in this city are very kind and responsible.

In order to form the active present participle, the "т" of the 3rd person plural of the present tense is replaced by "щ" and add a
necessary adjective ending:

де́лать (to do, to make) – де́лают (they do/make) – де́лающий (doing, making)

Declension of де́лающий
singular
plural
masculine neuter feminine
nominative де́лающий де́лающая де́лающие
де́лающее
accusative N or G де́лающую N or G
genitive де́лающего де́лающих
dative де́лающему де́лающим
де́лающей
instrumental де́лающим де́лающими
prepositional де́лающем де́лающих

Note: Only imperfective verbs can have an active present participle.

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 Examples
3rd person plural
infinitive active present participle
(present Tense)
First conjugation
име́ть (to have) име́ют име́ющий
писа́ть (to write) пи́шут пи́шущий
пря́тать (to conceal) пря́чут пря́чущий
рисова́ть (to draw) рису́ют рису́ющий
вести́ (to lead) веду́т веду́щий
печь (to bake) пеку́т пеку́щий
жить (to live) живу́т живу́щий
люби́ть (to love) лю́ бят лю́ бящий
коло́ть (to break) ко́лют ко́лющий
идти́ (to go) иду́т иду́щий
пить (to drink) пьют пью́ щий
мыть (to wash) мо́ют мо́ющий
брить (to shave) бре́ют бре́ющий
петь (to sing) пою́ т пою́ щий
дава́ть (to give) даю́ т даю́ щий
жать (to press) жмут жмущий
тону́ть (to sink) то́нут то́нущий
Second conjugation
слы́шать (to hear) слы́шат слы́шащий
сто́ить (to cost) сто́ят сто́ящий
стоя́ть (to stand) стоя́т стоя́щий
хоте́ть (to want) хотя́т хотя́щий
Other verbs
бежа́ть (to run) бегу́т бегу́щий
есть (to eat) едя́т едя́щий
быть (to be) *суть *су́щий

(*) Note: These forms are obsolete in modern Russian and they are not used in the spoken language as forms of the verb 'to be'.

Reflexive verbs paradigm

де́лающийся – being done/being made

singular
plural
masculine neuter feminine
nominative де́лающийся де́лающаяся де́лающиеся
де́лающееся
accusative N or G де́лающуюся N or G
genitive де́лающегося де́лающихся
dative де́лающемуся де́лающимся
де́лающейся
instrumental де́лающимся де́лающимися
prepositional де́лающемся де́лающихся

The participle agrees in gender, case and number with the word it refers to:

Я посвяща́ю э́ ту пе́сню лю́ дям, живу́щим в на́шем го́роде – I dedicate this song to the people living in our
city.
Я горжу́сь людьми́, живу́щими в на́шем го́роде – I'm proud of the people living in our city.

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Active past participle

The active past participle is used in order to indicate actions that happened in the past:

Де́вушка, чита́вшая тут кни́гу, забы́ ла свой телефо́н – The girl, that read this book here, forgot her phone (the
girl read the book in the past).

Compare:

Де́вушка, чита́ющая тут кни́гу, – моя́ сестра́ – The girl reading this book here is my sister (she is reading the
book now, in the present).

In order to form the active past participle the infinitive ending '-ть' is replaced by the suffix '-вш-' and add an adjective ending:

де́лать (to do, to make) – де́лавший

Declension of де́лавший
singular
plural
masculine neuter feminine
nominative де́лавший де́лавшая де́лавшие
де́лавшее
accusative N or G де́лавшую N or G
genitive де́лавшего де́лавших
dative де́лавшему де́лавшим
де́лавшей
instrumental де́лавшим де́лавшими
prepositional де́лавшем де́лавших

Examples
infinitive active past participle
име́ть (to have) име́вший
рисова́ть (to draw) рисова́вший
тону́ть (to drown) тону́вший
люби́ть (to love) люби́вший
писа́ть (to write) писа́вший
коло́ть (to poke through with a needle) коло́вший
бить (to hit) би́вший
мыть (to wash) мы́вший
дава́ть (to give) дава́вший
жать (to squeeze/compress) жа́вший
стать (to become) ста́вший
жить (to live) жи́вший

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 Exceptions
past tense

infinitive active past participle

(masculine)
Some verbs ending in consonant + нуть
со́хнуть (to dry) сох сохший
проту́хнуть (to become rancid) проту́х проту́хший
сдо́хнуть (to die ("croak")) сдох сдо́хший
Verbs ending in -зть
лезть (to climb) лез ле́зший
Verbs ending in -ти
везти́ (to convey) вёз вёзший
вести́ (to lead) вёл ве́дший
нести́ (to carry) нёс нёсший
мести́ (to sweep) мёл мётший
грести́ (to row) грёб грёбший
расти́ (to grow) рос ро́сший
Verbs ending in -чь
помо́чь (to help) помог помо́гший
печь (to bake) пёк пёкший
Verbs ending in -ереть
умере́ть (to die) у́мер у́мерший
запере́ть (to lock) за́пер за́перший
стере́ть (to erase) стёр стёрший
The verb красть
красть (to steal) крал кра́вший
The verb идти́
идти́ (to go) шёл шедший

Reflexive verbs paradigm

де́лавшийся – being done/being made

singular
plural
masculine neuter feminine
nominative де́лавшийся де́лавшаяся де́лавшиеся
де́лавшееся
accusative N or G де́лавшуюся N or G
genitive де́лавшегося де́лавшихся
dative де́лавшемуся де́лавшимся
де́лавшейся
instrumental де́лавшимся де́лавшимися
prepositional де́лавшемся де́лавшихся

Passive present participle

обсужда́ть – to discuss;
обсужда́емый (full form), обсужда́ем (short form) – being discussed or able to be discussed;

In order to form the passive present participle it is necessary to add an adjective ending to the 1st person plural of the present tense:

оставля́ть (to leave) – оставля́ем (we leave) – оставля́емый

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 masculine form оставля́емый
feminine form оставля́емая
neuter form оставля́емое
plural form оставля́емые

Examples
1st person plural
infinitive passive present participle
(present tense)
поздравля́ть (to congratulate) поздравля́ем поздравля́емый
рисова́ть (to draw [a picture]) рису́ем рису́емый
люби́ть (to love) лю́ бим люби́мый
гнать (to race) го́ним гони́мый
мыть (to wash) мо́ем мо́емый

Exceptions
infinitive present stem passive past participle
Verbs ending in -авать
узнава́ть (to discover) узнава́емый
Verbs ending in -зть, -зти, -сть, -сти
везти́ (to carry [by cart or vehicle]) вез- везо́мый
вести́ (to lead) вед- ведо́мый
нести́ (to carry [by hand]) нес- несо́мый
мести́ (to sweep) мет- мето́мый
грести́ (to row) греб- гребо́мый
красть (to steal) крад- крадо́мый

Passive participles are occasional in modern Russian. Often, same meaning is conveyed by reflexive active present participles:

рису́ющийся (self-drawing) instead of рису́емый (being drawn, drawable);

мо́ющийся (self-washing) instead of мо́емый (being washed);

The forms ending in -омый are mostly obsolete. Only the forms ведо́мый (from вести́ – to lead) and иско́мый (from иска́ть – to
search, to look for) are used in the spoken language as adjectives:

ведо́мый челове́к – a slave (driven, following) man;

иско́мая величина́ – the sought quantity.

Passive past participle

сде́лать – to do/to make (perfective verb)

сде́ланный – done/made

Passive past participles are formed by means of the suffixes '-нн-' or '-т-' from the infinitive stem of perfective verbs. Besides that,
this kind of participle can have short forms formed by means of the suffixes '-н-' or '-т-':

написа́ть (to write) – напи́санный (written) / напи́сан (short form)

уби́ть (to kill) – уби́тый (killed) / уби́т (short form)

full form short form

masculine напи́санный напи́сан
feminine напи́санная напи́сана
neuter напи́санное напи́сано
plural напи́санные напи́саны

28
 full form short form
masculine уби́тый уби́т
feminine уби́тая уби́та
neuter уби́тое уби́то
plural уби́тые уби́ты

29
 Participle-forming models (for perfect verbs)
infinitive participle short forms
Verbs in -ать, -ять, -еть with a present stem ending in a vowel
сде́лать (to do, do make) сде́ланный сде́лан
поменя́ть (to change) поме́нянный поме́нян
нарисова́ть (to draw) нарисо́ванный нарисо́ван
услы́шать (to hear) услы́шанный услы́шан
написа́ть (to write) напи́санный напи́сан
погреба́ть (to bury) погребённый погребён, погребена́, погребено́, погребены́
Verbs ending in -ить and -еть referred to the second conjugation
пожа́рить (to fry) пожа́ренный пожа́рен
уви́деть (to see) уви́денный уви́ден
оби́деть (to offend) оби́женный оби́жен
оплати́ть (to pay) опла́ченный опла́чен
порази́ть (to amaze) поражённый поражён, поражена́, поражено́, поражены́
спроси́ть (to ask) спро́шенный спро́шен
прости́ть (to forgive) прощённый прощён, прощена́, прощено́, прощены́
проломи́ть (to break in) проло́мленный проло́млен
установи́ть (to install, to set up) устано́вленный устано́влен
истреби́ть (to exterminate) истреблённый истреблён, истреблена́, истреблено́, истреблены́
купи́ть (to buy) ку́пленный ку́плен
Verbs ending in -зть, -сть, -зти or -сти
сгрызть (to chew) сгры́зенный сгры́зен
укра́сть (to steal) укра́денный укра́ден
проче́сть (to read) прочтённый прочтён, прочтена́, прочтено́, прочтены́
увезти́ (to drive away) увезённый увезён, увезена́, увезено́, увезены́
увести́ (to take away) уведённый уведён, уведена́, уведено́, уведены́
подмести́ (to sweep) подметённый подметён, подметена́, подметено́, подметены́
унести́ (to carry away) унесённый унесён, унесена́, унесено́, унесены́
Verbs ending in -чь
испе́чь (to bake) испечённый испечён, испечена́, испечено́, испечены́
сбере́чь (to save) сбережённый сбережён, сбережена́, сбережено́, сбережены́
Verbs ending in -йти
найти́ (to find) на́йденный на́йден
Verbs ending in -нуть
согну́ть (to bend) со́гнутый со́гнут
Verbs ending in -оть
уколо́ть (to prick) уко́лотый уко́лот
Verbs ending in -ыть
намы́ть (to wash) намы́тый намы́т
забы́ть (to forget) забы́тый забы́т
Verbs ending in бить, вить, лить, пить, шить
уби́ть (to kill) уби́тый уби́т

Adverbial participle

Adverbial participles (деепричастия) express an earlier or simultaneous action providing context for the sentence in which they
occur, similar to the English constructions "having done X" or "while doing Y".

30
 Like normal adverbs, adverbial participles are not declined. They inherit the aspect of their verb; imperfective ones are usually
present, while perfective ones can only be past (since they denote action performed by the subject, the tense corresponds to the time
of action denoted by the verb). Almost all Russian adverbial participles are active, but passive constructions may be formed using
adverbial participle forms of the verb быть (past бывши "having been", present будучи "being"); these may be combined with either
an adjectival participle in the instrumental case (Будучи раненным, боец оставался в строю – Being wounded, the combatant
remained in the row), or a short adjective in the nominative (Бывши один раз наказан, он больше так не делал – Having been
punished once, he didn't do it any more).

Present adverbial participles are formed by adding the suffix -а/-я (or sometimes -учи/-ючи, which is usually deprecated) to the stem
of the present tense. A few past adverbial participles (mainly of intransitive verbs of motion) are formed in the same way, but most are
formed with the suffix -в (alternative form -вши, always used before -сь), some whose stem ends with a consonant, with -ши. For
reflexive verbs, the suffix -сь remains at the very end of the word; in poetry it can take the form -ся.[27][28]

In standard Russian, adverbial participles are considered a feature of bookish speech; in colloquial language they are usually replaced
with single adjectival participles or constructions with verbs: Пообедав, я пошёл гулять ("Having eaten, I went for a walk") → Я
пообедал и пошёл гулять ("I had dinner and went for a walk"). But in some dated dialects adverbial and adjectival participles may
be used to produce perfect forms which sound illiterate and do not occur in modern Russian; e.g. "I haven't eaten today" will be "Я
сегодня не евши" instead of "Я сегодня не ел".

Adverbial participles
infinitive present tense present adverbial participle past adverbial participle

думать (to think, impf.) думаю думая (думав)[tavp 1]

сказать (to say, pf.) — — сказав (сказавши)

учиться (to be learning, impf.) учусь учась (учившись)[tavp 1]

научиться (to learn, pf.) — — научившись

войти (to enter, pf.) — — войдя (вошед,[tavp 2] вошедши)

сплести (to weave, pf.) — — сплётши (сплетя)

ехать (to ride/to drive, impf.) еду (ехав, ехавши)[tavp 1] (едучи)[tavp 3]

1. Rare but existing forms; they appear e.g. in negative sentences: как Он знает Писания, не учившись? (John 7:15).
2. Deprecated irregular form.
3. Described by investigators other than Zaliznyak as still alive and neutral -учи form.[29]

Irregular verbs

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 Russian verb paradigm

брать1 ви́деть2 дава́ть1 дать3 есть3 жить1 звать1 идти́1 писа́ть2

give
English take see give eat live call go write
(pf.)
1st
беру́ ви́жу даю́ дам ем живу́ зову́ иду́ пишу́
singular
2nd
берёшь ви́дишь даёшь дашь ешь живёшь зовёшь идёшь пи́шешь
singular
3rd
берёт ви́дит даёт даст ест живёт зовёт идёт пи́шет
singular
Present
1st
берём ви́дим даём дади́м еди́м живём зовём идём пи́шем
plural
2nd
берёте ви́дите даёте дади́те еди́те живёте зовёте идёте пи́шете
plural
3rd
беру́т ви́дят даю́ т даду́т едя́т живу́т зову́т иду́т пи́шут
plural
брал ви́дел дава́л дал ел жил звал шёл писа́л
брала́ ви́дела дава́ла дала́ е́ла жила́ звала́ шла писа́ла
Past
бра́ло ви́дело дава́ло да́ло́ е́ло жи́ло зва́ло шло писа́ло
бра́ли ви́дели дава́ли да́ли е́ли жи́ли зва́ли шли писа́ли
Imperative бери́ видь дава́й дай ешь живи́ зови́ иди́ пиши́

Active present беру́щий ви́дящий даю́ щий – едя́щий живу́щий зову́щий иду́щий пи́шущий
Participle past бра́вший ви́девший дава́вший да́вший е́вший жи́вший зва́вший ше́дший писа́вший
Past passive
за́бранный уви́денный – да́нный съе́денный – по́званный – напи́санный
participle
за́бран уви́ден дан съе́ден по́зван напи́сан
Past passive
за́брана уви́дена дана́ съе́дена по́звана напи́сана
participle (short – – –
за́брано уви́дено дано́ съе́дено по́звано напи́сано
forms)
за́браны уви́дены даны́ съе́дены по́званы напи́саны

Adverbial present беря́ ви́дя дава́я – едя́ живя́ зовя́ идя́ –

Participle past брав ви́дев дава́в дав ев жив звав ше́дши писа́в

1 These verbs all have a stem change.

2 These verbs are palatalised in certain cases, namely с → ш for all the present forms of "писа́ть", and д → ж in the first person
singular of the other verbs.

3 These verbs do not conform to either the first or second conjugations.

Word formation
Russian has on hand a set of prefixes, prepositional and adverbial in nature, as well as diminutive, augmentative, and frequentative
suffixes and infixes. All of these can be stacked one upon the other to produce multiple derivatives of a given word. Participles and
other inflectional forms may also have a special connotation. For example:

32
 мысль [mɨs⁽ʲ⁾lʲ] "thought"
мысли́шка [mɨˈs⁽ʲ⁾lʲiʂkə] "a petty, cute or a silly thought"
мысли́ща [mɨˈs⁽ʲ⁾lʲiɕːə] "a thought of fundamental import"
мышле́ние [mɨˈʂlʲenʲɪjə] "thought, abstract thinking, reasoning"
мы́слить [ˈmɨs⁽ʲ⁾lʲɪtʲ] "to think (as to cogitate)"
мы́слящий [ˈmɨs⁽ʲ⁾lʲɪɕːɪj] "thinking, intellectual" (adjective)
мы́слимый [ˈmɨs⁽ʲ⁾lʲɪmɨj] "conceivable, thinkable"
мы́сленно [ˈmɨs⁽ʲ⁾lʲɪn(ː)ə] "mentally, in a mental manner"
смысл [smɨsl] "meaning" (noun)
осмы́слить [ɐˈsmɨs⁽ʲ⁾lʲɪtʲ] "to comprehend, to conceive; to grasp" (perfect)
осмы́сливать [ɐˈsmɨs⁽ʲ⁾lʲɪvətʲ] "to be in the process of comprehending" (continuous)
переосмы́слить [pʲɪrʲɪɐˈsmɨs⁽ʲ⁾lʲɪtʲ] "to reassess, to reconsider"
переосмы́сливать [pʲɪrʲɪɐˈsmɨs⁽ʲ⁾lʲɪvətʲ] "to be in the process of reassessing (something)"
переосмы́сливаемые [pʲɪrʲɪɐˈsmɨs⁽ʲ⁾lʲɪvəjɪmɨje] "(something or someone plural) in the process of being reconsidered"
бессмы́слица [bʲɪˈsmɨs⁽ʲ⁾lʲɪtsə] "nonsense"
обессмы́слить [ɐbʲɪˈsmɨs⁽ʲ⁾lʲɪtʲ] "to render meaningless"
бессмы́сленный [bʲɪˈsmɨs⁽ʲ⁾lʲɪnːɨj] "meaningless"
обессмы́сленный [ɐbʲɪˈsmɨs⁽ʲ⁾lʲɪnːɨj] "rendered meaningless"
необессмы́сленный [nʲɪəbʲɪˈsmɨs⁽ʲ⁾lʲɪnːɨj] "not rendered meaningless"

Russian has also proven friendly to agglutinative compounds. As an extreme case:

металло̀ломообеспече́ние [mʲɪtəlɐˌlomɐɐbʲɪsʲpʲɪˈtɕenʲjɪ] "provision of scrap metal"

металло̀ломообеспе́ченный [mʲɪtəlɐˌlomɐɐbʲɪˈsʲpʲetɕɪnːɨj] "well supplied with scrap metal"

Purists (as Dmitry Ushakov in the preface to his dictionary) frown on such words. But here is the name of a street in St. Petersburg:

Каменноостровский проспект [ˌkamʲɪnːɐɐˈstrovskʲɪj prɐˈsʲpʲekt] "Stone Island Avenue"

Some linguists have suggested that Russian agglutination stems from Church Slavonic. In the twentieth century, abbreviated
components appeared in the compound:

управдом [ʊprɐˈvdom] = управляющий домом [ʊprɐˈvlʲӕjʉɕːɪj ˈdoməm] "residence manager"

Syntax
Basic word order, both in conversation and written language, is subject–verb–object. However, because grammatical relationships are
marked by inflection, considerable latitude in word order is allowed, and all possible permutations can be used. For example, the
words in the phrase "я пошёл в магазин" ('I went to the shop') can be arranged:

Я пошёл в магазин. (I went to the shop; I went to the shop.)

Я в магазин пошёл. (I to the shop went; approx. I am going out, my destination is the shop.)
Пошёл я в магазин. (Went I to the shop; two meanings: can be treated as a beginning of a narrated story: "Went I to
the shop, and something happened." or a decision made by someone after a long contemplation: "OK, I think I will
go the shop.")
Пошёл в магазин я. (Went to the shop I; rarely used, can be treated as a beginning of a line of a poem written in
amphibrach due to uncommon word order, or when the speaker wants to highlight that exactly this subject "went to
the shop". In that case, the subject is stressed)
В магазин я пошёл. (To the shop I went; two meanings: can be used as a response: "I went to the shop." – "Sorry,
where did you go?" – "To the shop—that's where I went." or an emphasis on the way of transportation: I went to the
shop on foot.)
В магазин пошёл я. (To the shop went I; It was me who went to the shop.)

while maintaining grammatical correctness. Note, however, that the order of the phrase "в магазин" ("to the shop") is kept constant.

33
Word order can express logical stress, and degree of definiteness. The primary emphasis tends to be initial, with a weaker emphasis at
the end. Some of these arrangements can describe present actions, not only past (despite the fact that the verb пошёл is in the past).

In some cases, alternative word order can change the meaning entirely:

Не надо меня уговаривать. ("No need me [to] persuade" → One should not persuade me [as I would never agree
to do something].)
Меня не надо уговаривать. ("Me no need [to] persuade" → There is no need to persuade me [as I will do it
anyway].)

Impersonal sentences

Russian is a null-subject language – it allows constructing sentences without subject (Russian: безличные предложения). Some of
them are claimed to not be impersonal, but to have oblique subject. One possible classification of such sentences distinguishes:[30]

Subjectless impersonals contain an impersonal verb (in form of single third-person or single neutral), and no
other word is used as a subject
Смеркалось. '(It got) dusky.'
В Москве полночь. '(It's) midnight in Moscow.'
Dative impersonals usually express personal feelings, where experiencer in dative case can possibly be
considered as subject
Мнеdat. скучно. 'I'm bored.'
Other impersonals have an element which is neither nominative nor dative, but still is a nominal verb argument
Меняacc. тошнит. 'I feel sick.'
Васюacc. ударило токомinstr.. 'Vasya had an electric shock.'

Negation

Multiple Negatives

Unlike in standard English, multiple negatives are compulsory in Russian, as in "никто никогда никому ничего не прощает" [nʲɪk
ˈto nʲɪkɐɡˈda nʲɪkɐˈmu nʲɪtɕɪˈvo nʲɪ prɐɕˈɕæjɪt] ('No-one ever forgives anyone for anything' literally, "no one never to no-one
nothing does not forgive"). Usually, only one word in a sentence has negative particle or prefix "не" or belongs to negative word
"нет", while another word has negation-affirmative particle or prefix "ни"; but this word can often be omitted, and thus ни becomes
the signal of negation: вокруг никого нет and вокруг никого both mean "there is nobody around".

Adverbial answers

As a one-word answer to an affirmative sentence, yes translates да and no translates нет, as shown by the table below.

Answer to an affirmative sentence

English Russian
First speaker It's raining Идёт дождь
Agreeing with speaker (rain is falling) Yes = it's raining Да = идёт дождь
Disagreeing with speaker (rain is not falling) No = it's not raining Нет = дождь не идёт

No simple rule supplies an adverbial answer to a negative sentence. B. Comrie[31] says that in Russian answer да or нет is
determined not so much by the negative form of the question as by the questioner's intent for using negation, or whether the response
is in agreement with his presupposition. In many cases that means that the adverbial answer should be extended for avoiding
ambiguity; in spoken language, intonation in saying нет can also be significant to if it is affirmation of negation or negation of
negation.

34
 Answer to a negative question
Positive answer
Negative answer
Question Interpretation what was negated is
what was negated is refused
declared

Не желаете ли печенья?
Да, пожалуйста. Нет, спасибо.
Would you like to have Negation is used only for more politeness
Yes, please. No, thank you.
some cookies?
Не задумывались ли вы
над этим? Presence of a negative particle is conditioned by the Да, задумывался. Нет, не задумывался.
Haven't you considered expectation of a positive answer Yes, I have. No, I haven't.
this?
Так что, не ку́пите? Да, не берём (less common). /
Negation is forced by the presumption of negative Нет, берём.
So, you (definitely) won't Нет, не берём.
answer No, we will buy it.
buy (it)? No, we won't buy it.
Ты ведь не сердишься
Нет, я сержусь. / Нет, не сержусь. / Да, не
на меня?
Negation is hoped for, rather than expected Да, сержусь. сержусь (less common).
(But) you are not angry
Yes, I am angry. No, I am not angry.
with me, (are you)?

Note that while expressing an affirmation of negation by extending "да" with a negated verb is grammatically acceptable. In practice
it is more common to answer "нет" and subsequently extend with a negated verb paralleling the usage in English. Answering a
negative sentence with a non-extended "нет" is usually interpreted as an affirmation of negation again in a way similar to English.

Alternatively, both positive and negative simple questions can be answered by repeating the predicate with or without не, especially
if да/нет is ambiguous: in the latest example, "сержусь" or "не сержусь".

Coordination

The most common types of coordination expressed by compound sentences in Russian are conjoining, oppositional, and separative.
Additionally, the Russian grammar considers comparative, complemental, and clarifying. Other flavors of meaning may also be
distinguished.

Conjoining coordinations are formed with the help of the conjunctions и "and", ни … ни ("not … not" — simultaneous negation),
та́кже "also", то́же ("too"; the latter two have complementary flavors), etc. Most commonly the conjoining coordination expresses
enumeration, simultaneity or immediate sequence. They may also have a cause-effect flavor.

Oppositional coordinations are formed with the help of the oppositional conjunctions: а "and"~"but", но "but", одна́ко "however",
зато́ "on the other hand", же "and"~"but", etc. They express the semantic relations of opposition, comparison, incompatibility,
restriction, or compensation.

Separative coordinations are formed with the help of the separative conjunctions: и́ли "or", ли́бо "either", ли … ли "whether …
or", то … то "then … then", etc. They express alternation or incompatibility of things expressed in the coordinated sentences.

Complemental and clarifying coordination expresses additional, but not subordinated, information related to the first sentence.

Comparative coordination is a semantic flavor of the oppositional one.

Common coordinating conjunctions include:

и [i] "and", enumerative, complemental;

а [a] "and", comparative, tending to "but" or "while";
но [no] "but", oppositional.

The distinction between "и" and "а" is important:

"и" implies a following complemental state that does not oppose the antecedent;
"а" implies a following state that acts in opposition to the antecedent, but more weakly than "но" ("but").

они́ уе́хали, [ɐˈnʲi ʊˈjexəlʲɪ]

they have left,

и мы уезжа́ем [ɪ ˈmɨ ʊ(ɪ̯)ɪˈʐːa(ɪ̯)ɪm] and we are leaving (too)

они́ уже́ уе́хали, [ɐˈnʲi ʊˈʐɛ ʊˈjexəlʲɪ]
they have already left,

а мы ещё нет [ɐ ˈmɨ ʊ(ɪ̯)ɪˈʐːa(ɪ̯)ɪm] while (but) we haven't (left) yet

они уе́хали,
[ɐˈnʲi ʊˈjexəlʲɪ]
they have left,

но ненадо́лго [nə nʲɪnəˈdoɫɡə] but not for long

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The distinction between "и" and "а" developed after medieval times. Originally, "и" and "а"
were closer in meaning. The unpunctuated ending of the Song of Igor illustrates the potential
confusion. The final five words in modern spelling, "князьям слава а дружине аминь"
[knʲɪˈzʲjam ˈslavə ɐ druˈʐɨnʲɪ ɐˈmʲinʲ] can be understood either as "Glory to the princes and to
their retinue! Amen." or "Glory to the princes, and amen (R.I.P.) to their retinue". Although
the majority opinion is definitely with the first interpretation, no consensus has formed. The
psychological difference between the two is quite obvious.

Subordination

Complementizers (subordinating conjunctions, adverbs, or adverbial phrases) include:

если [ˈjesʲlʲɪ] 'if' (meaning 'in case where' not meaning 'whether');
потому что [pətɐˈmu ʂtə] 'because'
так как [tak kak] 'since' (meaning 'for the reason that')
чтобы [ˈʂtobɨ], дабы [ˈdabɨ] (bookish, archaic) 'so that'
после того, как [ˈposʲlʲɪ tɐˈvo kək] 'after'
хотя [xɐˈtʲa] 'although' The Catherine manuscript of the
Song of Igor, 1790s
In general, Russian has fewer subordinate clauses than English, because the participles and
adverbial participles often take the place of a relative pronoun/verb combination. For
example:

Here (is) a man

Вот человек,
[vot tɕɪlɐˈvʲek]
who has lost (all) hope.

потерявший надежду. [pətʲɪˈrʲavʂɨj nɐˈdʲeʐdʊ]

[lit. having lost hope]
When I go for a walk in the city, I always
Гуляя по городу, всегда
[ɡʊˈlʲӕjɪ pɐ ˈɡorədʊ vsʲɪɡˈda]
pause by the Rostral Columns.
останавливаюсь у Ростральных колонн. [ɐstɐˈnavlʲɪvəjʉsʲ ʊ rɐˈstralʲnɨx kɐˈlon]
[lit. Walking in the city, I...]

Absolute construction

Despite the inflectional nature of Russian, there is no equivalent in modern Russian to the English nominative absolute or the Latin
ablative absolute construction. The old language had an absolute construction, with the noun in the dative. Like so many other
archaisms, it is retained in Church Slavonic. Among the last known examples in literary Russian occurs in Radishchev's Journey
from Petersburg to Moscow (Путешествие из Петербурга в Москву [pʊtʲɪˈʂɛstvʲɪjɪ ɪs pʲɪtʲɪrˈburɡə v mɐˈskvu]), 1790:

Едущу мне из Едрова, Анюта из мысли моей не выходила. [ˈjedʊɕːʉ mnʲe ɪzʲ jɪˈdrovə, ɐˈnʲutə ɪz ˈmɨsʲlʲɪ mɐˈjej
nʲɪ vɨxɐˈdʲilə] "As I was leaving Yedrovo village, I could not stop thinking about Aniuta."

See also
List of Russian language topics
Reduplication in the Russian language

Notes
1. Nesset (2008) applied Leonard Talmy's (1985, 2000) terms "manner" and "path" to her image schema for Russian
verbs of motion.
2. Researchers have also included the reflexive verbs катиться/кататься, гнаться/гоняться, нестись/носиться, and
тащиться/таскаться (Gagarina 2009: 451–452).

References
1. (in Russian) Zaliznyak A. A. "Русское именное словоизменение." Moscow.: Science, 1967
2. (in Russian) Uspenskij V. A. "К определению падежа по А. Н. Колмогорову // Бюллетень объединения по
проблемам машинного перевода." Issue. 5. Moscow., 1957 online copy (http://www.kolmogorov.pms.ru/uspensky-
k_opredeleniyu_padezha_po_kolmogorovu.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20120423181920/http://ww
w.kolmogorov.pms.ru/uspensky-k_opredeleniyu_padezha_po_kolmogorovu.html) 2012-04-23 at the Wayback
Machine

36
 3. (in Russian) Klobukov E. V. "Семантика падежных форм в современном русском литературном языке.
(Введение в методику позиционного анализа)" Moscow: Moscow State University Press, 1986.
4. "The Cases of Russian Nouns" (http://masterrussian.com/aa071600a.shtml). Master Russian. Retrieved 31 March
2015.
5. "Russian case functions in brief" (http://www.alphadictionary.com/rusgrammar/casefunc.html). alphaDictionary.
Retrieved 3 August 2016.
6. (in Russian) Жду звонка... (http://gramma.ru/RUS/?id=13.21)
7. Cooljugator: The Smart Declinator in Russian nouns (https://cooljugator.com/run)
8. Translated from the Russian by V. Korotky
9. Е. И. Литневская. Русский язык. Краткий теоретический курс для школьников (http://learning-russian.gramota.r
u/book/litnevskaya.html) БСМП "ЭЛЕКС-Альфа", 2000
10. Илья Бирман. Хитрые падежи русского языка (http://ilyabirman.ru/meanwhile/all/cases/)
11. Современный русский язык / Под ред. В. А. Белошапковой.
12. Corbett, Greville G. (June 1987). "The Morphology/Syntax Interface: Evidence from Possessive Adjectives in
Slavonic" (http://www3.surrey.ac.uk/LIS/SMG/MorphsyntaxInterface.pdf) (PDF). Language. 2. 63 (2): 299–345.
doi:10.2307/415658 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F415658). JSTOR 415658 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/415658).
Retrieved 13 December 2013.
13. Wilson, Cecil Leigh (2018-10-25). "Can You Be Nonbinary in Russian?" (https://u.osu.edu/seej/2018/10/25/can-you
-be-nonbinary-in-russian/). Slavic and East European Journal. Ohio State University. Retrieved 2022-06-24.
14. Friedlander, Emma (2018-08-24). "Lost for Words: Non-Binary Russians Fight the Limits of Their Language" (https://
www.themoscowtimes.com/2018/08/24/lost-for-words-non-binary-russians-fight-the-limits-of-their-language-a6265
0). The Moscow Times. Retrieved 2022-06-24.
15. Collective numerals for more than 7 are seldom used.
16. In very bookish speech also can appear plural third-person form суть; it's often misused by some native Russian
writers who don't know what this word really is.
17. Björn Rothstein; Rolff Thieroff (2010). Mood in the Languages of Europe (https://books.google.com/books?id=o3L8
oKcbZtoC&pg=PA325). John Benjamins Publishing. p. 326.
18. "Russian verbs: How to form the imperative" (http://www.russian-language-for-lovers.com/russian-verbs.html#five).
19. Gor, K., Cook, S., Malyushenkova, V., & Vdovina, T (2009). "Verbs of Motion in Highly Proficient Learners and
Heritage Speakers of Russian". The Slavic and East European Journal. 53 (3): 386–408. JSTOR 40651163 (https://
www.jstor.org/stable/40651163).
20. Talmy, Leonard (1985). "Lexicalization Patterns: Semantic Structure in Lexical Forms". In Timothy Shopen (ed.).
Language Typology and Syntactic Description, vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 57–149.
21. Nesset, Tore (2008). "Path and Manner: An Image-Schematic Approach to Russian Verbs of Motion". Scando-
Slavica. 54 (1): 135–158. doi:10.1080/00806760802494232 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00806760802494232).
S2CID 123427088 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:123427088).
22. Muravyova, L (1986). V. Korotky (ed.). Verbs of Motion in Russian / Glagoly dviženija v russkom jazyke (5 ed.).
Moscow: Russkij jazyk. pp. 211–212, 218–225.
23. Wade, Terence (2011). A Comprehensive Russian Grammar (2 ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd.
24. Hasko, Victoria (2010). "Semantic Composition of Motion Verbs in Russian and English" (https://books.google.com/
books?id=tzuasq80e58C&q=%22Semantic+Composition+of+Motion+Verbs+in+Russian+and+English%22&pg=PA
197). In Renee Perelmutter (ed.). New Approaches to Slavic Verbs of Motion. Amsterdam: John Benjamins
Publishing Company. pp. 197–224. ISBN 978-9027205827.
25. Mahota, William (1996). Russian Motion Verb for Intermediate Students. New Haven: Yale University Press.
26. Anna, Medvedeva. "Classification - Russian language grammar on RussianLearn.com" (http://russianlearn.com/gra
mmar/category/classification). russianlearn.com.
27. Paul Cubberley (2002). Russian: A Linguistic Introduction (https://books.google.com/books?id=yOGzAyN3V88C&p
g=PA10). Cambridge University Press. pp. 162, 164. ISBN 0-521-79641-5.
28. А. А. Камынина (1999). Современный русский язык. Морфология (https://books.google.com/books?id=GA8CM
wEACAAJ). Издательство МГУ. p. 180. ISBN 5-211-04133-X.
29. "Деепричастие" (http://rusgram.ru/Деепричастие). Русская корпусная грамматика. Retrieved 2013-09-26.
30. Bailyn, John F. (2012). The Syntax of Russian (https://books.google.com/books?id=_Zvx-uS7eaoC&pg=PA115).
Cambridge University Press. pp. 115–118. ISBN 978-0-521-88574-4.
31. Comrie, Bernard (1984). "Russian" (https://books.google.com/books?id=f9rTJlYRqTQC&pg=PA7). Typological
Studies in Language. 4 (Interrogativity: A Colloquium on the Grammar, Typology, and Pragmatics of Questions in
Seven Diverse Languages, Cleveland, Ohio, October 5th, 1981 – May 3rd, 1982): 36–37.

External links

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 Interactive On-line Reference Grammar of Russian (http://www.alphadictionary.com/rusgrammar/)
Wikibooks Russian (https://wikibooks.org/wiki/Russian)
Concise one-page tabular grammar reference (https://cromwell-intl.com/russian/grammar.html)
Gramota.ru – dictionaries (http://gramota.ru/)
Wiktionary has word entries in Cyrillic with meanings and grammatical analysis in English (https://en.wiktionary.org/
wiki/Category:Russian_language)
Russian Wiktionary gives word meanings and grammatical analysis in Russian (https://ru.wiktionary.org/)
Russian grammar overview with practice tests (http://www.practicerussian.com/Grammar/Grammar.aspx)
Over 400 links to Russian Grammar articles around the Net (wayback machine) (https://web.archive.org/web/20120
213193204/http://www.russianresources.info/links.aspx/grammar)
Free online Russian grammar book (http://wikitranslate.org/wiki/Russian_grammar_book) (with videos)
The history of Russian language (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vDSn1HWY8J8) on YouTube

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