DETERMINATION OF WIND

LOADS BY BS EN 1991-1-4:2005
SUPPORTED BY UK NATIONAL
ANNEX

Madhura Mukherjee
Nilkanta Barat
Pratip Bhattacharya
Somnath Mukherjee
WHAT IS WIND?

Wind is the term for air in motion and is usually

applied to the natural horizontal motion of the
atmosphere.
They are primarily generated by differences in
atmospheric pressure, and modified by rotation
of the earth
EARLY STUDIES IN WIND LOADS

The massiveness of yesteryear structures did little to

emphasize the importance of wind forces. Gustav Eiffel
was the first to conduct studies and measure
displacements at the top of his 300 m tall Eiffel Tower (in
1889) under action of winds.
EVOLUTION OF WIND ENGINEERING

The sky-scrapers boom of the 1930s resulted in an active

interest in wind forces and an appreciation of the merits
of stiffness.

During this time the description of wind engineering

has moved from simple notions of static drag forces to
more sophisticated models determined from wind
tunnel studies and code values.

Here is an attempt to present the procedure for determining

wind forces by the present British code BS EN 1991-1-
4:2005 that was used while handling the Asia Minerals
Limited Ferro-Alloy Complex in Sarawak, Malaysia.
SECTION 1 GENERAL

SCOPE

• Building and civil engineering works with heights up to 200m.

• Bridges with spans of less than 200m (subject to dynamic

response criteria).
SECTION 4: WIND VELOCITY AND VELOCITY
PRESSURE

BASIS FOR CALCULATION

The wind velocity and the velocity pressure are

composed of a mean and a fluctuating component.

The mean wind velocity vm is determined from the

basic wind velocity, vb, while the fluctuaing component
is represented by the turbulence intensity.
SECTION 4: WIND VELOCITY AND VELOCITY
PRESSURE (CONT’D)

BASIS FOR CALCULATION

The wind velocity and the velocity pressure are

composed of a mean and a fluctuating component.

The mean wind velocity vm is determined from the

basic wind velocity, vb, while the fluctuaing component
is represented by the turbulence intensity.
SECTION 4: WIND VELOCITY AND VELOCITY
PRESSURE (CONT’D)

Procedure of finding local wind speed

Basic wind speed at the project site, Bintulu

MS 1553:2002 Code of Practice on Wind Loading for Building Structure

Research on (value for 3-sec gust for 50 years return period 25.6 m/s)
PROCEDURE OF FINDING LOCAL WIND
SPEED (CONT’D)

The minimum design wind load, specified by MS 1553:2002, in

design of main wind force resisting system ≥ 0.65 kN/ m2.
p = (0.5ρair)[Vdes]2CfigCdyn Pa

p = Design wind pressure

vdes = Design wind speed
Cfig = Aerodynamic Shape Factor
Cdyn = Dynamic response factor (taken as 1, unless structure is
wind sensitive)
PROCEDURE OF FINDING LOCAL
WIND SPEED(CONT’D)
• Fundamental value
of Basic Wind
Velocity, vb,o is the
characteristic 10
minute mean wind
velocity.
vb,o = v 3sec / 1.38
= 33.5 / 1.38
=24.28 m/s.
PROCEDURE OF FINDING LOCAL WIND
SPEED(CONT’D)

• Fundamental value of Basic Wind Velocity

(without altitude correction),
vb,map = 24.28 m/s

• Fundamental value of Basic Wind Velocity

(with altitude correction),
vb,0 = Vb,map X calt
Calt = (1 + 0.001 x A )
A = altitude of site from MSL in m
• Basic Wind Speed,
vb = cdir x cseason x vb,o x cprob

Vb,0= 10 min mean velocity at 10 m above ground

cdir = directional factor Recommended value = 1
cseason = seasonal factor
cprob = probability factor
cprob = ((1-K.ln(-ln(1-p)))/(1-K.ln(-ln(0.98)))^n
n = exponent (recommended value 0.5)
K = shape parameter (recommended value 0.2)
Return period T = 50 yrs,
Probability p for annual exceedence, p=1/T = 0.02
Putting p=0.02, cprob= 1
 MEAN WIND: VARIATION WITH HEIGHT

• Mean wind velocity at a height z above the terrain,

vm (z) = cr(z) x co(z) x vb
cr (z) = roughness factor
= kr x ln (z/zo), zmin<z<zmax
=cr (zmin), z<zmin.
kr = terrain factor depending on roughness length zo
calculated using
= 0.19 x (zo/zoII)^0.07
zo,II = 0.05m (Terrain Category II)
zmax = 200 m.
zo and zmin are functions of the terrain category.
 Terrain Categories
• Category 0
Sea or coastal area exposed to the open sea.

• Category I
Lakes or flat and horizontal area with
negligible vegetation and without
obstacles.

• Category II
Area with low vegetation such as grass
and isolated obstacles (trees, buildings)
with separations of at least 20 obstacle
heights.
• Category III
Area with regular cover of vegetation
or buildings or with isolated obstacles
with separations of maximum 20 obstacle
heights (such as villages, suburban terrain,
permanent forest) .

• Category IV
Area where at least 15 % of the surface is
covered with buildings and their average
height exceeds 15m.
co(z) = orography factor
Effects of orography are neglected when the average
slope of the upwind terrain is less than 3 degree, and
co(z) = 1.
Where orography (e.g. hills, cliffs etc.) increases wind
velocities by more than 5 %, the effects should be taken
into account using orography factor co.

Effects of neighbouring structures and displacement

height may be taken into account.
 Wind velocity and velocity pressure

• Peak velocity pressure,

qp(z) = [1 + 7. Iv(z)]. 0.5 . ρ . vm(z)^2 ……… Eq (1)
for zmin≤z≤zmax, qp(z) = ce(z).0.5.ρ.vm(z)^2
……… Eq(2)
Iv = Turbulence Intensity
ρ = Air Density (1.25 kg/m^3 as per EN 1991-1-4)
ce(z) = exposure factor
• Graph for ce(z)
 WIND ACTIONS
• External wind forces, Fw,e = cscd.∑we. Aref ..Eq(a)
External pressure, we = qp(ze).cpe
(cpe = external pressure coefficient)

• Internal wind forces, Fw,i = ∑wi. Aref .. Eq(b)

Internal pressure, wi = qp(ze).cpi
(cpi = internal pressure coefficient)

• Friction force, Ffr = cfr. qp(ze).Afr ..Eq(c)

cfr = friction coefficient

Wind force is obtained by vectorial summation of Eq(a), (b) and (c).

Alternatively,
Wind Force, Fw = cscd.cf.qp(ze).Aref
Where , cscd = structural factor.
Aref = reference area of individual surface.
Afr = area of external surface parallel to the wind.
qp(ze)= peak velocity pressure at height ze.
 STRUCTURAL FACTOR cscd
The value of cscd may be taken as 1 in the
following cases :
• Buildings whose height is <15m.
• Cladding elements whose natural frequency>5Hz.
• Framed buildings with structural walls whose height<100m and
not more than 4xin-wind depth.
• Circular cross-section chimneys with height <60 m and not more
than 6.5 times the diameter.

cs = accounts for non-simultaneous occurrence of peak pressure.

cd = accounts for vibrations of the structure due to turbulence.
 STRUCTURAL FACTOR cscd (CONT’D)
Detailed procedure where cscd (size and dynamic factor) cannot be
taken as 1.0 or where precise result is desired:

ze = Reference Height
Kp = Peak Factor
Iv = Turbulence Intensity
B2 = Background factor allowing for lack of full correlation of the
pressure on the structure surface
R2 = Resonance factor allowing for turbulence in resonance with the
vibration mode.
 PRESSURE AND FORCE
COEFFICIENTS
List of pressure/force coeficients :
• Vertical walls
• Flat roofs
• Monopitch roofs
• Duopitch roofs
• Hipped roofs
• Multispan roofs
• Vaulted roofs and domes
• Canopy roofs
• Free-standing walls
• Signboards
 PRESSURE AND FORCE
COEFFICIENTS (CONT’D)
• Rectangular structural elements
• Polygonal structural elements
• Circular cylinders
• Spheres
• Lattice structures and scaffoldings
• Flags
• Multiskin facades and roofs
• Internal pressures
 PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS FOR A RECTANGULAR
PLAN BUILDING WITH DUOPITCH ROOF
There are two sets of pressure coefficients:
Cpe,1 for small elements and fixings.
Cpe,10 for large elements and overall forces.

The figure is based on the following:

For A<=1m2 Cpe=Cpe,1
For 1m2<A<10m2 Cpe=Cpe,1 – (Cpe,1-Cpe,10)log10A
For A>=10m2 Cpe=Cpe,10
 EXTERNAL PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS
a.For vertical walls of rectangular plan buildings :
The pressure distribution depends on the aspect ratio h/b for the
building.
b. For duopitch roofs
 INTERNAL PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS, Cpi
For a building without a dominant face, Cpi is a function of the ratio
of the height and the depth of the
building, h/d, and the opening ratio µ for each wind direction Θ.
µ = ∑ Area of openings where Cpe is negative or 0.0
∑ Area of all openings

This applies to façades and roof of buildings with and without

internal partitions.
Where it is not possible, or not considered justified, to estimate
μ for a particular case then Cpi should be taken as the more
onerous of +0,2 and -0,3.
 INFORMATIVE ANNEXES

ANNEX A
 Description of terrain types.
 Fetch factors.
 Orography.
 Effect of neighbouring structures.
 Displacement Height.
ANNEXES B,C & D
Procedures for determining cscd factor.
Annex B – Procedure 1.
Annex C – Procedure 2.
Annex D – Charts of cscd for common building forms.

ANNEX E
Vortex Shedding.
Galloping.
Interference galloping for free standing cylinders.
Divergence and flutter.
ANNEX F
 Dynamic characteristics of structures.
 Natural frequency.
 Damping.
 Mode shapes.
 NEW PROCEDURE AS PER UK
NATIONAL ANNEX
Procedure for finding basic wind velocity, vb,
remains same.
vb = (cdir . cseason . cprob)(calt)vb,map,
symbols have been explained earlier.
Classification of roughness categories has been
done to give three terrain categories:
• Terrain Category 0, i.e. Sea
• Terrain Category I and II, i.e. Country
• Terrain Category III and IV, i.e. Town

For the AML Project, the site could be

considered as Sea terrain (as per its
geographical location), and the distance
upwind from the shoreline to be taken as 0.1
Km.
 .

The effects of orography factor, presence of

large and tall neighbouring structures, and
closely spaced buildings and obstacles should be
followed as in BS EN 1991-1-4:2005
 DETERMINATION OF PEAK VELOCITY PRESSURE
qp(z)
Procedure recommended by BS EN 1991-1-4:2005 does not apply.
 When orography is not significant,
qp(z) = ce(z).qb for Country Terrain
qp(z) = ce(z).ce,T.qb for Town Terrain

 When orography is significant,

qp(z) = [qp(z)].[(co(z)+0.6)/1.6]2 for z≤50m
Or,
qp(z) = [1+3.Iv(z)]2.0.5.ρ. vm2 for z>50m
DETERMINATION OF THE EXPOSURE FACTOR ce(z) [fig. NA.7 ]
Values for the turbulence factor can be determined from Fig. NA.5
and Fig. NA.6
 DETERMINARION OF SIZE FACTOR cs

Where b= cross wind breadth of building, h= height of building,

z= reference height.
Zones A,B or C for a building can be determined from Fig. NA.7
and NA.8.
DETERMINATION OF DYNAMIC FACTOR cd
The Dynamic Factor cd may be determined from
BS EN 1991-1-4:2005 Expression (6.3) or Fig. NA.9.
Fig. NA.9 shows variation of Dynamic Factor cd for various
values of logarithmic decrement of structural damping, δs
(which is taken as 0.05 for steel structures from Annex F.5 of
BS EN 1991-1-4:2005).
Determination of Wind Load

Pressure co-efficients for vertical walls of

rectangular plan buildings, roofs (flat,
monopitch, duopitch, etc) are provided by the
National Annex.
COMPARISON OF BS EN 1991-1-4:2005
WITH THE UK NATIONAL ANNEX
 The scope of EN 1991-1-4 is wider compared to that of BS
6399-2, that it supersedes.
 There are poignant differences between EN and UK practices,
specially in calculation of wind speed profile and local external
pressures.
 Wherever a difference is encountered, UK will use
recommended EN procedures unless if the same does not
conform to current levels of safety and economy.