Anuv

SCIENCE
GRADE 9
SCIENCE | GRADE 9
C
CM
MY
CY
CMY
Ministry of Education, Tertiary Education,

Science and Technology
© Mauritius Institute of Education - 2021
ISBN: 978-99949-53-86-8
i
Professor Vassen Naëck - Head Curriculum Implementation,Textbook Development and Evaluation
SCIENCE PANEL
MAURITIUS INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION

Dr Sarojiny Saddul-Hauzaree - Coordinator, Associate Professor, MIE
Mohammad Shakeel Cassam Atchia - Lecturer, MIE
Vickren Narrainsawmy - Lecturer, MIE
Karuna Baguant - Educator

Ummeh Wazeela Ahsun - Educator
Ajeshwaree Douquia - Educator
Priya Darshini Lollchund - Educator
Maya Mohabeer - Educator
Nandini Sukhoo-Busawon - Educator
Kiran Saddul-Ramasamy - Educator
Maneeshah Ramkurrun - Educator
Sandeep Seebaluck - Educator
John Harry Tan Wee - Educator (Rodrigues)
Design
Kamla Ernest - Chief Technician, MIE
Leveen Nowbotsing
- Graphic Designer, MIE
Rakesh Sookun - Graphic Designer, MIE
Acknowledgements
The Science textbook panel wishes to thank:
- Dr Anwar Bhai Ramjaun (Associate Professor, MIE), Dr Ravhee Bholah (Associate Professor, MIE),
Mohun Cyparsade (Associate Professor, MIE) and Dr Fawzia Narod (Associate Professor, MIE) for their contribution.
elina Hookoomsing (Senior Lecturer, MIE), Majhegy Murden-Louise (Lecturer, MIE), Suryakanti Anu Fulena
-H
(Lecturer, MIE) and Kamini Moteea (Lecturer, MIE) for proofreading.
© Mauritius Institute of Education - 2021
ISBN: 978-99949-53-86-8
Consent from copyright owners has been sought. However, we extend our apologies to those we might have overlooked.
All materials should be used strictly for educational purposes.
ii
FOREWORD
With the Grade 9 textbooks, we now complete textbook production for Grades
1-9 in the context of the Nine Year Continuous Basic Education (NYCBE) project of
the Ministry of Education and Human Resources, Tertiary Education and Scientific
Research. The textbooks are designed in line with the National Curriculum
Framework (NCF) and the syllabi for Grades 7, 8 and 9 which are accessible on the
MIE website, www.mie.ac.mu.
These textbooks build upon the competencies learners developed in Grades 7 and
8, based on the philosophy of the NCF for the NYCBE. The content and pedagogical
approaches allow for incremental and continuous improvement of the learners’
cognitive skills using contextualised materials which should be highly appealing to
the learners.
The writing of the textbooks involved several key contributors, namely academics
from the MIE and educators from Mauritius and Rodrigues, as well as other
stakeholders. We are especially appreciative of comments and suggestions made
by educators who were part of our validation panels, and whose opinions emanated
from long-standing experience and practice in the field.
The development of textbooks has been a very challenging exercise for the writers
and the MIE. We had to ensure that the learning experiences of our students are
enriched through approaches which appeal to them, without compromising on
quality. I would, therefore, wish to thank all the writers and contributors who have
produced content of high standard thereby ensuring that the objectives of the
National Curriculum Framework are skilfully translated through the textbooks.
Every endeavour involves several dedicated, hardworking and able staff whose
contribution needs to be acknowledged. Professor Vassen Naëck, Head Curriculum
Implementation and Textbook Development and Evaluation provided guidance
with respect to the objectives of the NCF, while ascertaining that the instruction
designs are appropriate for the age group targeted. I also acknowledge the efforts
of the graphic artists who put in much hard work to maintain the quality of the MIE
publications. My thanks also go to the support staff who ensured that everyone
receives the necessary support and work environment conducive to a creative
endeavour.
I am equally thankful to the Ministry of Education, Human Resources, Tertiary

Education and Scientific Research for actively engaging the MIE in the development
of textbooks for the reform project.
I wish enriching and enjoyable experiences to all users of the new set of Grade 9
textbooks.
Dr O Nath Varma
Director
Mauritius Institute of Education
iii
PREFACE
The Grade 9 science textbook is in compliance with the National Curriculum
Framework (NCF, 2017) and the Teaching and Learning Syllabus (TLS, 2017) for
science. The textbook ensures a smooth transition from the earlier grades by
building upon content learnt up to Grade 8.
The textbook is conceptualised in such a way that it includes a number of

inquiry-based activities and accompanying tasks for learners. In line with the
constructivist approach, the activities will enable learners to build and reinforce
understanding of science concepts. As such, a conscious effort must be made
to actively engage pupils in all activities and to allow them to manipulate
specimens, materials, simple equipment and apparatus safely and under
supervision.
The use of everyday experiences and contexts that students can easily relate
to is favoured. Care is taken to incorporate learner-centred strategies like
project-based learning and concept mapping to actively engage the learners
in the learning process and to provide for independent learning. Furthermore,
whenever relevant, applications of the science concepts learnt in real life
situations are highlighted.
Additionally, the activities seek to develop in students the necessary skills,

attitudes and values for scientific inquiry. Students must be given ample time to
actively engage in the activities, communicate their findings and observations
in multiple ways, discuss with their friends and teachers and think before
writing down their answers. Though many questions are incorporated within
the activities, educators are encouraged to prompt learners with additional
questions while implementing them in the classroom.
The textbook includes important features that support effective assessment.

“Test yourself” is for formative purposes and are meant to reinforce and
consolidate understanding of the concepts learnt and the inquiry skills that
students have developed. At the end of each unit, the questions are scaffolded
so that students can apply their knowledge and understanding to solve simple
as well as challenging questions.
More importantly, for Grade 9, the textbook seeks to provide relevant and
authentic assessment materials for the purpose of the National Certificate
of Education (NCE) assessment at the end of the NYBCE cycle. The “End of
Unit Exercises” provides educators with opportunities to assess learners’
understanding of concepts addressed in the units and to provide timely
feedback and support. This section comprises a variety of exercises, such
as fill-in-the-blanks, matching, multiple choice and structured questions,
amongst others. It is recommended to encourage learners to develop higher
order thinking skills and to justify their answers as and when appropriate as
this promotes critical analysis and deeper conceptual understanding. Using a
differentiated approach, educators are expected to develop more assessment
exercises or to adapt those provided to assess learners of different abilities.
iv
The “What I have learnt” icon summarises the concepts learnt through the
inquiry-based activities. The “Find out” icon aims at encouraging students to
look for information beyond the scope of the textbook and to develop the
habit and skills of looking for information from various sources. The “Did you
know?” icon is included to trigger students’ interest and curiosity about science.
This section not only provides them with interesting information related to
the concepts being addressed but it also helps to stimulate their curiosity and
stretch their imagination further. Suggestions are made for “Project work” to
promote cooperative learning.
A “Summary of unit” and “Concept map” are incorporated at the end of each unit
to clearly summarise all the key and relevant concepts learnt. With the visual
impact that graphic organisers afford, students can make connections among
concepts in the hope that learning is aided, consolidated and eventually a high
retention rate is ensured.
It is sincerely hoped that the textbook helps motivate learners, stimulates

their interest in science and develops the habits of mind and skills for scientific
inquiry.
Dr (Mrs) Sarojiny Saddul-Hauzaree

Coordinator
The Science Panel
Dr (Mrs) Sarojiny Saddul-Hauzaree
Coordinator
The Science Panel
v
Table of
Contents
UNIT P1
Measurement
in Science
Pg 1-40
UNIT P2
Reflection and
Refraction of Light
Pg 41-82 UNIT P3
Energy, Heat
and Temperature
Pg 83-126
UNIT P4 Y
Car A
87 m
Z
Motion 50 m
100 m
Car B
Pg 127-152 21
Car C
125 m
UNIT P5
X
Electricity
Pg 153 -194
UNIT B1
Blood Circulatory
System
Pg 195-224
UNIT B2
Reproduction
Pg 225-244
UNIT B3
Biodiversity
Pg 245-274
UNIT B4
Nutrition in Plants
Pg 275-304
vi
Table of
Contents
UNIT C1
Atmosphere
and Environment
Pg 305-354
UNIT C2
Mixtures and
Separation Techniques
Pg 355-392 UNIT C3
Language
of Chemistry
Pg 393-424
UNIT C4
Metals and
Reactivity Series
Pg 425-458 UNIT C5
Salts
Pg 459 -480
vii
viii
Measurement in Science Unit
Unit
P1
1
Unit
Measurement in Science P1
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• State the SI units of length, mass, volume, time and temperature

• Describe how to measure a variety of lengths with appropriate accuracy using tapes,
rulers and vernier callipers
• Recognise the types of errors associated with the measurement of length, namely,
parallax error and zero error
• Describe how to use a measuring cylinder to measure the volume of a liquid
• Discuss the experimental determination of the volume of a small irregular solid
• Read balances to record mass in its correct unit
• Describe how to measure a variety of time intervals using stopwatches and a simple
pendulum
• Record the temperature from laboratory and clinical thermometers
The foundation of Physics rests upon physical quantities in terms of which the laws of Physics
are expressed. Therefore, these quantities have to be measured and expressed accurately.
A physical quantity is one that can be measured and it consists of a magnitude and a unit.
1
Unit Measurement in Science
P1
Study the pictures below to identify the physical quantities measured, and fill Table 1.
Table 1
Diagram Physical quantity Symbol of quantity SI unit Symbol of unit
Study the list below and ring the one which is NOT a physical quantity.
volume time newton temperature area kelvin
density speed electric current length joule
2
Unit
P1
1
Measurement of Length
In Grade 8, you learnt about measurement of length. In Grade 9, we will emphasize more on the
techniques of measurement and learn about the vernier calliper which is an instrument used
to measure length.
Length is the distance between any two points.
How long is the pencil?
Read the scale at the ends of the pencil.
x1 =
x2 =
The distance from one end of the pencil to the other end of the pencil is _______.
Length of pencil = _______
The SI unit of length is the metre. The symbol is m.
Other units of length are:

TEST YOURSELF
kilometre, km
Convert the following:
millimetre, mm
1. 2 m = ________ cm
centimetre, cm
2. 25 mm = ________ cm
Conversion of length 3. 4.5 km = ________ m
1 km = 1000 m
4. 0.028 km = ________ cm
1 m = 100 cm
1cm = 10 mm 5. 52.0 cm = ________ m
6. 280 mm = ________ m
Conversion factors
x 1000 x 100
km m cm mmx 10
3
P1
Convert the following:
1 km = _________ m
1 km = _________ cm
1 km = _________ mm
1m = _________ cm
1m = _________ mm
1 mm = _________ cm
1 cm = _________ m
1 mm = _________ m
Some words used to describe length are:
Width Thickness
Width
Circumference, Radius and Diameter
Radius
r Diameter
Identify the circumference.
4
Unit
P1
1
Instruments used to measure length are:

• Measuring tape
• Metre rule
• Half metre rule
• Ruler
• Vernier calliper
ACTIVITY 1.1 – Recalling the instruments used to measure length
Match the instrument’s name in Table 2 to its picture.
Table 2
Instrument name Picture

Measuring tape
Metre rule
Ruler
Vernier calliper
5
P1
Reading the Scale of the Ruler

When making a measurement, read the instrument to its smallest scale division.
Determining the smallest division on the ruler
10 divisions = 1 cm
1 division = 1 cm / 10
= 0.1 cm = 1 mm
Since each smallest division on the ruler corresponds to 0.1 cm, the measurements recorded with
a ruler are expressed in cm to 1 decimal place. So the precision of the ruler is 0.1 cm (or 1 mm).
Read the value shown on each scale at the mark shown by the arrow.
a.
b.
c.
d.
6
Unit
P1
1
ACTIVITY 1.2 – Measuring the length of various items
In this activity, you will use a metre rule, a half metre rule, a ruler or a measuring tape to measure
the lengths of objects given in the table below.
Materials required
• A coin
• Two wooden blocks
• A metre rule, a half metre rule, a ruler, a measuring tape
Procedure:
Use appropriate instruments to measure the lengths listed below and record your results in the
table.
Quantity to be measured Instrument used Length recorded / unit
Length of physics book
Height of your chair
Length of your classroom
Width of door
Length of an eraser
A. Diameter of a coin using a single coin
The aim of this activity is to use a half-metre rule to measure the diameter of a coin.
Procedure:
1. Place the half metre rule along the edge of the table. Along the edge of the scale, place the
set-square P and then the coin. Place set-square Q on the other side of the coin, such that it
touches the coin.
2. Then, looking vertically downwards, note the readings from the scale from the two sides of
the coin.
3. Diameter of coin = X2 – X1.
7
P1
B. Diameter of a coin using ten coins
Procedure:
1. Place the half metre rule along the edge of the table. Along the edge of the scale, place the
set-square P and then the ten coins, such that there is no gap between the coins. Place set-
square Q on the other side of the coins, such that it touches the coin.
2. Then looking straight and vertically downwards, note the readings from the scale from the
sides of the coin.
3. Diameter of ten coins = X2 – X1

X2 – X1
4. Diameter of one coin =
10
Suggest which of the two methods, A or B, gives a more accurate value for the diameter.
TEST YOURSELF
1. The figure below shows a mobile phone.
X a. Use a half-metre rule to measure the width X and length Y on

the diagram of the mobile phone to the nearest mm.
X = ________ cm Y = ________ cm
b. The diagram shown is drawn one-half of its full size.

Y Determine the actual length and width of the mobile phone.
Length = ________ cm Width = ________ cm
8
Unit
P1
1
The Vernier Calliper

The vernier calliper is used to measure the length of objects with greater precision. The vernier
calliper is used in laboratories and by engineers. It is important to know the different parts of the
vernier calliper before using it. In this section, you will know more about the vernier calliper and
its various parts.
The vernier calliper has two scales:
• A fixed scale (the main scale)

• A sliding scale (the vernier scale)
The vernier calliper is used to measure linear length such as:
• Internal and external diameters

• Depth
Other parts of the vernier calliper are the:
• Internal jaws
• External jaws
• Tail (a depth-measuring blade)
Function of the inside jaws
The inside jaws are used

to measure internal diameters.
9
P1
Function of the external jaws
The external jaws are used to measure

external diameters.
Function of the tail
The tail is used to measure the depth

of objects or holes.
Reading the vernier calliper
The reading on the vernier calliper is a combination of the main scale reading and the vernier scale
reading.
The measurement reading from the vernier calliper is to 2 decimal places in cm.
E.g. length of an eraser, using a vernier calliper = 2.13 cm.
Step 1: Reading the main scale

Read the value on the main scale immediately
to the left of the 0 mark of the vernier scale.
e.g. 4.3 cm
Step 2: Reading the vernier scale

Identify the division of the vernier which
coincides with a division of the main scale.
If the 5th division coincides, the vernier scale
reading is 0.05 cm.
Step 3: Add the main scale and vernier scale

readings together
e.g. 4.3 cm + 0.05 cm = 4.35 cm.
10
Unit
P1
1
Worked Example
Let us study the vernier calliper reading shown below.
The main scale reading:
3.3 cm is to the immediate left of the zero on the vernier scale.

Hence, the main scale reading is 3.3 cm.
The vernier scale reading:
Look at the picture on the right and look closely

for an alignment of the scale lines of the main
scale and vernier scale.
In the image above, the alignment corresponds

to the 4th division of the vernier scale. Hence, the
vernier scale reading is 0.04 cm.
The final measurement reading:
Add the main scale reading and vernier scale reading together.
This will give 3.3 cm + 0.04 cm = 3.34 cm.
11
P1
TEST YOURSELF
Look at the scale below and answer the questions to find the reading of the vernier
calliper.
(a)
The zero of the vernier scale is between
_______ cm and _______ cm of the main
scale.
Main scale reading = _______
The _______ division of the vernier scale
coincides with the main scale.
Vernier scale reading = _______
Final measurement reading = _______ cm
(b)
Main scale reading = ______________
Vernier scale reading = ______________
Total reading = ______________
(c)
Main scale reading = ______________
Vernier scale reading = ______________
Total reading = ______________
C. Diameter of a coin using a vernier calliper
Materials required:
• Coin
• Vernier calliper
12
Unit
P1
1
Procedure:
The coin is placed between the external jaws of the calliper as shown, and the diameter of the coin
is determined.
Diameter of coin = _______________ cm
TEST YOURSELF
1. Name the instrument used to measure the:
a. Length of your physics book: __________________________
b. Internal diameter of a test tube: ____________________
c. Length of the teacher demonstration table: __________________
d. Thickness of 500 sheets of paper: ___________________________
2. Describe how you would determine the thickness of a sheet of paper, given that you
have 100 sheets of paper available.
Accuracy in measurement
• Accuracy is vital in all scientific activities. Accuracy describes how closely a measurement is to
its true value.
• When working with real-world data, it is crucial that every measured value be as accurate as
possible.
• Parallax error and zero error make the measurement greater or smaller than the true value.
13
P1
Parallax Error
Parallax error causes the measured quantity to be greater or smaller than the true value.
ACTIVITY 1.3 – Understanding the cause of parallax error
Aim: To study the cause of parallax error
Materials required:
• Masking tape
• Metre rules
Procedure:
1. Use masking tape to place a mark at the centre of a table.
2. Place a thick metre rule (you may place two metre rules on top of each other to make the
rule thicker, if required) on the masking tape so that the mark is vertically above the 50 cm
mark.
3. Read the position of the mark by viewing from A and C and record your readings.
4. Record the position of the mark from vertically above the mark at position B.
Record the name of your team members and complete the table below to summarise
your results.
Table 3
Student Name When viewed from When viewed from When viewed from vertically
end A end C above the mark at B
14
Unit
P1
1
Parallax error occurs when the observer places his eyes in the wrong positions A and C.
How to avoid parallax error
Parallax error is avoided by placing the eyes directly opposite to the mark being read. i.e.
position B. The correct positions of an observer’s eye while reading a scale are shown below.
Correct position
Wrong position
Wrong position
Observer’s eye
glass rod
10 11 12
Describe how parallax error can be avoided. _________________________________________
15
P1
TEST YOURSELF
A student has 50 small glass beads of different sizes and shapes in a jar, as shown below. The glass
beads are spherical.
The student has a 30 cm rule and two rectangular blocks of wood.
a. Draw a diagram to show clearly how you would arrange the apparatus to measure the
diameter of one of the beads.
b. Suggest an apparatus that measures the diameter of this bead more accurately than a ruler.
____________________________________
ACTIVITY 1.4 – Understanding the zero error
Examine your rulers and answer the following questions.
Where is the 0 cm mark of the ruler?
16
Unit
P1
1
Zero error occurs when the student takes a measurement from the extremity of a rule which
does not coincide with the zero mark.
Read the length shown in the diagram.

Length of block = _________ cm
To avoid zero error, the end of the block must be placed on the zero mark of the rule.
Corrected length of block = _________ cm
Zero error also occurs when the observer starts a measurement from the damaged end of a rule.
To avoid zero error, the pencil is placed on a clearly visible division and the end readings are taken.
The correct length of the pencil is obtained by the difference in the two readings.
17
P1
Zero error can also happen in a vernier calliper, as shown below.
Vernier scale
jaws closed
When the jaws are closed, the reading is not zero. This indicates the presence of a zero error.
Measurement of Volume
Volume is the amount of space occupied by an object.
The volume of a liquid can be determined using a measuring cylinder. The liquid is gently poured
into the measuring cylinder and the volume of liquid in the measuring cylinder is read and
recorded.
18
Unit
P1
1
Precautions:
The curved surface formed by a liquid is known as the meniscus. The eyes must be placed level
with the meniscus of the liquid.
The proper way of reading the measuring cylinder:

1. The measuring cylinder is placed on a flat horizontal surface.
2. The scale should face the observer.
3. The line of sight must be perpendicular to the scale, and level with the meniscus.
TEST YOURSELF
Reading the scales of a measuring cylinder
A student pours some water into a measuring cylinder as shown below. Draw the line of sight
for each measuring cylinder shown below. Record the volume of the liquid in each example.
Measuring cylinders
19
P1
Volume of solids of regular shapes
The volumes of these objects are obtained by taking measurements such as length, height,
width, diameter and then calculating the volume using their respective formula.
Volume of irregular solids
Volumes of irregular solids cannot be obtained by using formulas. They are determined by other
methods such as the displacement method.
When an object is immersed in water, it displaces a volume of water that is equal to its own
volume. This method is known as the displacement method.
Let us use the displacement method to find the volume of an irregular object.
ACTIVITY 1.5 – Determining the volume of a small irregular object
In this experiment, you will use the displacement method to find the volume of a small stone
using a measuring cylinder.
Materials required:
• Measuring cylinder
• Small irregular object (stone)
• A beaker of water
• Thin non-absorbent thread
20
Unit
P1
1
Procedure:
1. The measuring cylinder is half filled with water and the volume of
water in the measuring cylinder is recorded as V1.
V1 = _________ cm3
2. The stone is tied with the piece of thread and gently immersed
into the measuring cylinder. The new volume is recorded as V2.
V2 = _________ cm3
3. The volume of the stone is calculated using:

Volume of stone = (V2 – V1 ) cm3
= ______________
Precautions to be taken:
1. The measuring cylinder is placed on a flat horizontal surface when reading the volumes.
2. The line of sight must be perpendicular to the scale, and level with the meniscus of water.
3. The stone is gently immersed to avoid the splashing of water.
Further investigation
The stone is submerged so that it is at the base, and the level of water in the measuring cylinder
is observed.The stone is raised slowly such that it is still completely submerged just below the
water, and the level of water in the measuring cylinder is recorded. What do you observe?
______________________________________________________________________________
21
P1
Volume of a large irregular object
The volume of a large irregular solid can be determined using the displacement can.
ACTIVITY 1.6 – Determining the volume of a large irregular object

using a displacement can
Materials required:
1. Large irregular stone

2. Thin non-absorbent thread
3. Displacement can
4. Beaker of water
5. An empty beaker
6. An empty measuring cylinder
7. Wooden block
The displacement method
Procedure:
1. The displacement can is placed on a wooden block on the

table with the empty beaker at its spout.
2. The displacement can is completely filled with water until the
excess water overflows into the beaker.
3. The beaker is replaced with the empty measuring cylinder and
the stone, tied with the piece of thread is gently immersed
into the displacement can. The stone should be completely
immersed in the water.
4. The volume of water collected in the measuring cylinder is
recorded.
The displacement method
Volume of water displaced into the measuring cylinder = Volume of the stone
22
Unit
P1
1
FIND OUT
Web link:
A TEDEd video that tells the story about Archimedes’ discovery of the way to measure volume of an
irregular solid.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=89&v=ijj58xD5fDI
ACTIVITY 1.7 – Measuring the volume of one drop of water
Materials required:
1. a beaker of water
2. a small measuring cylinder
3. a dropper
Procedure:
1. Add 100 drops of water carefully to the empty measuring cylinder, without splashing.
2. Read the volume of the 100 drops.
Volume of 100 drops of water = ________________
3. Determine the volume of one drop of water.
Volume of 1 drop of water = ________________
Why should you avoid splashing while adding water?
______________________________________________________________________________
23
P1
TEST YOURSELF
A group of students is determining the volume of

a sample of cards. Each student has a stack of ten
cards. The diagram is drawn to scale.
a (i) In the figure above, measure the height (h) of the stack of cards, h = ____________ cm
(ii) Calculate the average thickness (t) of one piece of card, t = ____________ cm
b (i) Measure the length (l) and width (w) of the top piece of card.
l = ____________ cm w = ____________ cm

(ii) Calculate the volume (V) of one card.
V = ____________ cm
Measurement of Mass
Mass is a measure of the amount of matter.
The SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg). The instruments used to measure mass are:
Electronic balance Compression balance Beam balance
24
Unit
P1
1
ACTIVITY 1.8 – Measuring the mass of various objects
An electronic balance
Procedure:
1. The electronic balance is placed on a flat, horizontal surface and then switched on. Wait for
the balance to show zeroes on the digital screen.
2. Place the objects listed in Table 4 on the balance.
3. Read and record its mass in Table 4.
Table 4
Object Mass / Unit
A paper clip
A pencil
A protractor
A plastic ruler
A coin
An apple
FIND OUT
1. How is the mass of water kept in a measuring cylinder determined?

2. Why is the mass of an object on Earth the same as its mass on Moon?
25
P1
Measurement of Time
Time is the interval between two events.
Time can be measured using:
An analogue stopwatch
A simple pendulum
A digital stopwatch
26
Unit
P1
1
Reading an analogue stopwatch
The analogue stopwatch can have a second or minute scale or both as shown below.
With second scale only
With both second scale and minute scale
What is the reading on the stopwatch with the second scale only? ___________
Reading a digital stopwatch
Study the pictures below and write down the readings shown. The first one has been done for you.
Reading = 37.22 s
Reading = __________________
Reading = __________________
27
P1
A simple pendulum
The simple pendulum consists of a small mass (called the

pendulum bob) attached to a string, suspended from a rigid
support as shown. Displace the bob slightly and observe what
happens.
One oscillation is the complete to-and-fro motion of the bob.
The time period is the time taken by the bob to make one
complete oscillation.
Shorten the length of the pendulum bob. Let it oscillate. What

do you observe?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
ACTIVITY 1.9 – Determining the time period of a simple pendulum
Materials required:
1. Pendulum bob
2. Wooden block
3. 90 cm of cotton thread
4. Stopwatch
5. Stand, boss, clamp
One complete oscillation

Procedure:
1. The pendulum bob, attached to a thread is held in the clamp using two wooden blocks.
2. The bob is made to swing by moving it to one side and then released. The time for the
period of 20 oscillations is measured using a stopwatch.
Time, t1 = ____________s
3. The time taken for 20 oscillations is measured again and the results are recorded.
Time, t2 = ____________s
4. The average time for 20 oscillations is calculated.
<t> = ____________s
<t>
5. The time period of the pendulum is calculated using:
20
T = ____________s
28
Unit
P1
1
How to use the simple pendulum to measure a time interval?
A simple pendulum of known period, such as 2s is taken. It is set into oscillation.
A person is asked to walk from a point A to another point B that is 10 m away. The number
of oscillations during this event is noted. Let us suppose it takes 20 oscillations to cover this
distance.
One oscillation of the bob takes 2s. So 20 oscillations take 20 x 2s = 40s.
So the person takes 40s to walk through a distance of 10 m.
Measurement of temperature
Temperature is a measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of a body.
The SI unit of temperature is the kelvin, K.

Another unit of temperature is the degree Celsius, oC.
Instruments used to measure temperature are:
Laboratory thermometer Clinical thermometer Digital clinical thermometer
The clinical thermometer is used to measure the temperature of the human body.
Reading a thermometer
Part of a thermometer scale in degrees Celsius is shown below.
30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
The smallest division on the scale represents a temperature change of ____________.

The position of the mercury meniscus is at ____________.
29
P1
TEST YOURSELF
1. A student measures room temperature.
Write down the value of room temperature shown on the thermometer above. ____________
2. The figure below shows shows the upper part of the thermometer.
On figure above, draw

(i) a vertical line to show a temperature of 65 °C.
(ii) a second vertical line to show an increase of temperature by around 10.5 °C.
3. The diagram below shows a clinical thermometer.
a. Label the parts A and B of the thermometer.
b. State the range of the clinical thermometer. _______________________________________
30
Unit
P1
1
Summary of unit
• A physical quantity is one that can be measured and has a magnitude and a unit.
• Length is the distance between two points. The SI unit of length is the metre, m. Other
units of length are the mm, cm and km.
• The meter rule, measuring tape and vernier callipers are used to measure the length
of an object.
• The vernier calliper is used to measure the internal diameter, external diameter and
depth of objects.
• Parallax error occurs when the observer places his eyes at an angle to the mark being
read. Parallax error can be avoided by placing the eyes perpendicular and in line with
the mark being read.
• Zero error in a rule occurs when the object is placed at the dead end of a rule or the
damaged end of the rule.
• Zero error is avoided by placing the object between two clearly visible marks and
the end readings are noted. The measured quantity is calculated using the difference
between the two end readings.
• Volume is the amount of space occupied by an object. The SI unit of volume is the
cubic metre, m3.
• The volume of an irregular solid is found by the displacement method.
• Mass is a measure the amount of matter. The SI unit of mass is the kilogram, kg. The
electronic balance is used to measure the mass of an object.
• The digital and the analogue stopwatches are commonly used to measure time
intervals in a laboratory. The SI unit of time is the second, s.
• Temperature is a measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. The SI unit
of temperature is the kelvin, K.
31
32
• Unit P1 • Measurement in Science P1
Unit
distance between any two points
parallax error zero error
defined as
second SI unit length SI unit metre
errors associated metre rule

Measurement in Science
stopwatch measured using time

measured using tape
Measurement
kelvin SI unit temperature vernier calliper
measured using
m3
measured using
a measuring cylinder
SI unit
laboratory thermometer clinical thermometer defined as space occupied

volume
mass
irregular solid
SI unit defined as displacement method
kilogram
a measure of the
amount of matter
measured using
electronic balance
Unit
P1
1
END OF CHAPTER QUESTIONS
1. The diagram shows four identical spheres placed between two wooden blocks.
What is the diameter of one sphere?

A. 1.0 cm B. 2.0 cm C. 3.0 cm D. 4.0 cm
END OF UNIT EXERCISES

2. A manufacturer measures accurately the dimensions of a wooden floor tile. The approximate
dimensions of the tile are shown.
Which instruments are used to measure accurately each of these dimensions?
length width
A. Measuring tape Measuring cylinder
B. Measuring tape Rule
C. Rule Vernier calliper
D. Rule Measuring cylinder
33
P1
3. The diagram shows a measuring instrument.
Which physical quantity does this instrument measure?

A. Area B. Density C. Mass D. Volume
4. A measuring cylinder contains 20 cm3 of water. A stone is placed in the water and the water
level rises to 38 cm3. What is the volume of the stone?
A. 18 cm3 B. 29 cm3 C. 38 cm3 D. 58 cm3
34
Unit
P1
1
5. Which instrument is used to measure mass?
A. Balance B. Meter rule

C. Measuring cylinder D. Stopwatch
6. A block of metal is placed on an electronic balance to record its mass. What is the unit of the
reading on the electronic balance?

A. m B. s C. g D. °C
7. A pendulum is set in motion and 20 complete swings are timed. The time measured is 10 s.
What is the time for one complete swing of the pendulum?
A. 2 s B. 0.75 s C. 0.5 s D. 3 s
35
P1
8. One oscillation of a swinging pendulum occurs when the bob moves from X to Y and back to
X again.
Using a stopwatch, which would be the most accurate way to measure the time for one
oscillation of the pendulum?
A. Time 20 oscillations and multiply by 20.
B. Time 20 oscillations and divide by 20.
C. Time one oscillation.
D. Time the motion from X to Y, and double it.
10. Which of the following is used to measure the temperature of a sick patient?
A. alcohol-in-glass laboratory thermometer
B. clinical thermometer
C. mercury-in-glass laboratory thermometer
D. pendulum clock
36
Unit
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1
WORK OUT
1. Fill in the blank spaces by choosing the correct words from the list given below:
mass measuring cylinder second length

1. ______________ is a measure of the distance between two points.
2. ______________ is the amount of matter in a given body.
3. A ______________ is used to measure the volume of a liquid.
4. The SI unit of time is the ______________
2. The statements given below are incorrect. Write the correct statements.

1. One kilometre is equal to 100 metres.
___________________________________________________________________________
2. The degree of hotness or coldness is called heat energy.
___________________________________________________________________________
3. A clinical thermometer can measure the temperature of boiling water.
___________________________________________________________________________
3. Here is a list of instruments.
ruler stopwatch measuring tape electronic balance

Choose the correct instrument for the measurement of the following quantities:
Time to boil rice: _________________________
The mass of a pen: _________________________
Length of your trousers: _________________________
37
P1
5. The figure below shows a measuring cylinder containing a copper cylinder.
A student uses the measuring cylinder to find the volume

V of the copper cylinder. She pours 45 cm3 of water into the
measuring cylinder. She lowers the copper cylinder gently
into the measuring cylinder.
Use information in the figure to calculate the volume V of

the copper cylinder.
V = ____________________ cm3.
6. A displacement can is a container with a spout and used to determine the volume
of an irregular object. The figures below show a displacement can and its cross-section.
The can is filled with water to the level of its spout.
displacement can cross-section
spout
spout
water
a. (i) Explain how the displacement can is used to measure the volume of an irregular object
such as a glass stopper. State any additional apparatus that is required.
(ii) State one possible difficulty in using a can that has:
1. a very small diameter.
2. a spout that is attached near the middle of the can.
(iii) Describe two steps that can be taken to make the measurement more accurate.
38
Unit
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1
7. The temperature of some water is 38.5 °C. A student is looking at a thermometer from
the position marked by the eye in the diagram below.

a. Explain why the temperature appears to be different from 38.5 °C when seen by the student.
You may draw on the diagram.
b. To describe the correct use of a thermometer, a student wrote: “The line of sight must be
vertical to the thermometer”. This is wrongly described. Write the correct description.
c. Draw the correct position of the eye on the diagram.
39
P1
40
Reflection and Refraction of light Unit
Unit
P2
1
Unit
Reflection and Refraction of Light P2
Learning Outcomes
• Investigate the importance of light for vision

• Differentiate between luminous and non-luminous objects by giving examples
• Recognise that stars produce their own light
• Recognise that planets and moons reflect light received from the sun
• Describe a simple experiment to show that light travels in straight lines
• Describe the reflection of light
• State the laws of reflection
• Use ray diagrams to demonstrate reflection
• Describe and explain the refraction of light
• Investigate refraction of light in daily life examples and use ray diagrams to illustrate the
refraction of light
We certainly see with our eyes but, as you may have noticed, even with our eyes wide open,
vision is not possible when there is no light! In fact, light is a vital form of energy that helps in all
aspects of our lives. In the absence of light, plants would not be able to manufacture their food,
as sunlight is required for the process of photosynthesis to occur.
Light comes from a number of different sources that may be natural or artificial. Our main
natural light source is the Sun.
Apart from the Sun, other sources of light include stars, flame from a combustion process and
artificial light sources such as electric light-bulbs and torches operated with batteries.
41
Unit Reflection and Refraction of Light
P2
Importance of Light
Light is required for vision. Light allows us to see.
The following activity will help you to investigate why light is important for vision.
ACTIVITY 2.1 – Investigating the importance of light for vision
Materials required:
A small box (for example a shoe box), a pair of scissors or a cutter, a small object
Procedure:
1. Make a central hole in the top face (lid) of the box and another central hole in one face of
the box as shown below.
2. Remove the lid and place the small object inside

the box at its centre.
3. Cover the box with the lid.
4. Cover the hole on the lid of the box with one

hand as shown and observe the object from the
hole on the side of the box.
What do you observe? Can you see the object inside the box?
____________________________________________________________________
Now, remove your hand from the lid and again look at the object through the side hole of the
box.
42
Reflection and Refraction of Light Unit
Unit
P2
1
Can you see the object inside the box?
From Activity 2.1, we learn that without light nothing can be seen. In fact, light is essential for
vision. The visual ability of humans and other animals is the result of the interaction of light,
eyes and the brain. We are able to see because light from an object can move through space and
reach our eyes. Once light reaches our eyes, signals are sent to our brain. Our brain translates
their information in order to interpret the appearance, location and movement of the objects
we are looking at.
The whole process would not be possible without light coming from different sources.
In the next section, you will learn about sources of light and their importance.
TEST YOURSELF
If you are in a room at night and you close all the windows, doors and draw the curtains shut,
do you see any objects? Do you see yourself in the mirror? Why? Discuss.
DID YOU KNOW…
Light arrives on Earth from the Sun after a trip that covers a distance
of about 149 million kilometres travelling at the fastest speed known
to us!
FIND OUT
Given that light travels at 300 thousand kilometres per second and that the distance between the Sun
and the Earth is 149 000 000 km, calculate the time taken for light to travel from the Sun to the Earth.
43
P2
Luminous and Non-Luminous Objects

We can see objects around us because of the presence of light. Only some of these objects have
the ability to emit light while most objects do not emit light. They just reflect light.
ACTIVITY 2.2 – Identifying luminous and non-luminous bodies
In the table below, there are a few objects which emit light and a few which do not emit light.
Put a tick ( ) in the appropriate column according to whether the object emits light or not.
Table 1
Object Emits light Does not emit light

1. Lighted matchstick
2. Mirror
3. Sun
4. Tree
5. Star
44
Unit
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1
6. Cloud
7. Traffic light (switched on)
8. Moon
9. Lighted torch
10. Lighted candle
11. Glow worm
12. Crystal Jelly
45
P2
Light is a form of energy that is produced by certain living and non-living things.
In Activity 2.2, you have separated objects into two categories according to their ability to emit
light or not. We refer to them as luminous or non-luminous bodies.
Luminous objects are objects that emit light.

Examples are: Sun, star, traffic lights (on), lighted torch and lighted candle
Non-luminous objects are objects that do not emit light.

Examples are: matchstick, mirror, tree, cloud and moon
Sources of light can also be natural or man-made.
TEST YOURSELF
In Table 2, put a tick in the appropriate column according to whether you consider each object
as luminous or non-luminous and a natural source or artificial source of light.
Support each of your answer by a short justification for your choice.
Table 2
Object Luminous Non-luminous Natural Artificial Justification
1. Candle
2. Lighted matchstick
3. Planets
46
Unit
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1
4. Angler fish
5. Diamond
6. Stainless steel
7. Screen of a mobile
phone
8. Chair
9. Firefly
10. Lava
47
P2
After having learnt about luminous and non-luminous objects, you will now study how light
travels.
Light Travels in Straight Lines

Once light has been produced at a source, it will keep travelling away from the source until it
hits something along its path.
When you wear a hat on a sunny day, you actually apply this idea. The brim of the hat blocks the
sunlight from hitting your eyes. Similarly, we are able to avoid the heat of the sun by standing
in the shade of a tree as the sunlight is blocked by the leaves of the tree.
Brim of a hat blocking sunlight Trees blocking light rays from the sun
Let us now confirm experimentally that light travels in straight lines.
ACTIVITY 2.3 – Investigating that light travels in straight lines
Materials required:
• 2 filament lamps
• 2 retort stands with clamps
• Black chart paper about 40 cm long and 30 cm wide
• Sticky tape
Procedure:
1. Roll the chart paper to make a paper cylinder that is about 40 cm long and of diameter
about 5 cm. Stick the paper tube with a sticky tape.
2. Suspend the filament lamp from the clamp of one retort stand.
48
Unit
P2
1
Clamp the paper tube horizontally in the clamp of the second retort stand and on the same
level as the filament lamp, with one end of the tube pointing directly towards the lamp as
shown on the figures below.
3. Check that the lamp is visible when looking at it through

the opposite end of the tube.
4. Switch on the lamp and observe through the tube.
5. Can you see the light from the lamp? ___________
6. Do you think that the appearance would be the same if

the tube was bent? _________________
7. Switch off the lamp. Now bend the end of the tube near
the lamp at an angle of about 900.
8. Keeping the tube bent, switch on the lamp and look through the tube.
9. Can you see the light of the lamp? _______________
10. What do you conclude from this experiment?

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
49
P2
TEST YOURSELF
Procedure:
1. Arrange three cards having a small hole at their centre in front of a lamp as shown above.
2. Switch on the lamp.
3. Align the cards carefully.
4. What do you observe?
__________________________________________________________________________
5. What would happen if the holes are smaller?
__________________________________________________________________________
6. If one of the cards is displaced sideways, what do you observe? Explain?
__________________________________________________________________________
FIND OUT
Web link
Watch the following video from Youtube about an experiment to show that light travels in a straight
line: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9gqWzKI-tXI
50
Unit
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1
DID YOU KNOW…
Light travels at an exact speed of 299,792,458 m/s (that is nearly 300,000 km/s!). The distance around
the Earth is 40,000 km, so in 1 second, an object travelling at the speed of light could go around the
world seven and a half times!
Sound only travels at about 330 m/s through the air, so light is nearly a million times faster than
sound.
Reflection of Light
A few general properties of light are given below.
1. Light is a form of energy.

2. Light travels in straight lines.
3. A ray of light represents the direction in which light travels. It is represented by an arrow.
A ray of light
4. A group of light rays travelling together is called a beam of light. There are three types of
light beams: parallel, converging and diverging.
Parallel beam Converging beam Diverging beam
51
P2
Parallel beam Converging beam Diverging beam
Rays of light travelling Rays of light travelling Rays of light starting from
parallel to each other towards a common point a point and travelling in
various directions
The process by which light rays falling on the surface on an object bounce back is called the
reflection of light. Thus, when light falls on the surface of an object, the latter reflects back the
light. Reflection is what allows us to see non-luminous objects. Light, from a source such as the
Sun, strikes the objects and is reflected back to our eyes.
Ray Diagrams
A ray diagram can be drawn to show the path that light takes when it travels in a given
situation.
The ray diagram below illustrates the reflection of light on a plane mirror.
52
Unit
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1
Terms used in the study of reflection of light
1. Normal – line perpendicular to the reflecting surface
2. Incident ray – line incident on the reflecting surface
3. Reflected ray – ray of light bouncing off the reflecting surface
4. Point of incidence – point where the normal, incident ray and reflected ray meet
5. Angle i – angle of incidence (measured from the normal to the incident ray)
6. Angle r – angle of reflection (measured from the normal to the reflected ray)
ACTIVITY 2.4 – Investigating the reflection of light
CAUTION: A dark room is required for the observations of this experiment to be easily visible.
Materials needed:
• transparent container of cuboid shape (e.g. a small aquarium), small mirror, ray box,
protractor, marker, a pinch of powdered milk
Procedure:
1. On one flat face of the transparent container draw lines to represent the incident and reflected
rays of light at angles of 70o and 50o measured between the ray of light and the normal
as shown below. A blank sheet of paper can be placed behind the container for improved
visibility.
53
P2
2. Place the mirror flat at the bottom of the container with the reflecting surface facing upwards.
3. Place the container on a flat surface (the laboratory bench is suitable) and fill it with water.
4. Add the pinch of powdered milk to the water and stir gently to give the water a cloudy
appearance. The cloudy water will make the path of the light visible.
5. Now the ray box is switched on and the beam is aligned with the line drawn at the angle of 50o.
6. What do you observe about the angles of incidence and reflection? ____________________
7. Repeat step (5) above for the angle of incidence of 70o.
8. What do you conclude about the angles of incidence and reflection? ____________________
9. What do you conclude from this experiment? ______________________________________
On carefully observing the results we conclude that:

1. The angle of incidence equals to the angle of reflection.
2. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane.
The results above are the laws of reflection of light.
54
Unit
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1
TEST YOURSELF
incident ray
1. A ray of light is incident at an angle of 35o onto a plane mirror as shown above.
(a) Complete the diagram by drawing and labelling the normal and the reflected ray.
(b) Label the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection as i and r on the diagram.
(c) Calculate the angle of incidence.
(d) Deduce the angle of reflection? __________

Give a reason for your answer.
_______________________________________________________________________
2. The diagram shows a light ray incident on a plane mirror.

incident ray
What must be the angle of incidence if the sum of the angles
between the incident and reflected rays is 90o?
__________________________________________
3. A mirror is tilted at an angle of 20o with respect to the bench.

A light ray is directed so that it hits the mirror at an angle of 25o to the surface of the mirror.
incident ray
mirror
bench
(i) Draw and label the normal and the reflected ray.
(ii) What is the angle of reflection? _________________________
55
P2
Formation of an Image in a Plane Mirror
A plane mirror forms the image of objects in front of it by reflection. These images appear to be
behind the plane in which the mirror lies, that is, inside the mirror. But how do the rays of light
actually travel to form the image?
Procedure for drawing a ray diagram for reflection in a plane mirror:

1. Draw a plane mirror at the centre of a blank page.
2. Draw the letter L at a measured distance from the plane mirror as in the Figure 1.
3. Draw the reflection of the letter L at the same measured distance as in step 2, but behind
the plane mirror, exactly opposite to the object as in the Figure 1.
4. Next, draw two rays of light from the lower right tip of the letter L to the surface of the plane
mirror. The two rays must be sloping downwards and diverge slightly away from each other.
5. Now, draw the reflection of the two rays of light from the lower left tip of the image of the
letter L.
6. The rays must be drawn as broken lines behind the mirror, then extended as continuous
lines in front of the plane mirror. Again, the two rays must be sloping downwards and
diverge slightly away from each other.
7. Finally, note that the rays of light that are real (in front of the mirror) represent the incident
and reflected rays and the arrowheads are drawn as appropriate to indicate their respective
directions.
8. The rays of light behind the mirror are virtual and are not drawn with arrowheads.
56
Unit
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1
Figure 1
The image formed in the mirror has the following characteristics:

1. The image is of the same size as the object.
2. The image is virtual (that is, it cannot be projected on a screen).
3. The image is laterally inverted (that is, the right side of object appears as left side of image,
and vice versa).
4. The image is upright.
5. The image distance behind the mirror is the same as the object distance in front of it.
FIND OUT
If you have ever seen an ambulance, the word “AMBULANCE”

is written in the form of a mirror image in vehicles (that is, the
word is laterally inverted). Why is it so?
57
P2
TEST YOURSELF
1. The image formed by a plane mirror is virtual and laterally inverted.

(a) Explain what is meant by:
(i) A virtual image
_________________________________________
(ii) A laterally inverted image

_________________________________________
(b) List three other characteristics of an image formed by a plane mirror.
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
2. The figure shows a domino placed in front of a plane mirror.

(a) Draw the image of the domino
mirror
(b) Construct a ray diagram to show how the observer is able to see the image of the domino.
58
Unit
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1
3. Car X is following car Y. The registration number

of car X is FEL9Z as shown on the diagram. Write
down the registration number of car X as seen
by the driver of car Y in the rear view mirror.
_________________________
4. A man sits on a chair and views the reflection of a

painting which is found behind him at a distance
of 3 m. The mirror is at a distance of 1 m in front of
the man.
(i) What is the distance between the man and his

image?
_________________________
(ii) What is the distance between the man and the image of the painting?
_________________________
(iii) The man moves back 1 m. What is the new distance between the man and the image of the
painting?
_________________________
5. Two students, Jim and Sara are facing the mirror and standing in such a way that Jim can
see Sara and Sara can see Jim. With reference to light rays and the laws of reflection, explain
this observation.
59
P2
WORK OUT
1. Which of the following emits light?
A. Moon B. Sun C. Mars D. Earth
2. A ray of light hits a surface of a plane mirror at 900 as shown below.
What is the angle of reflection?
A. 90o B. 180o C. 45o D. 0o
3. The image formed by a plane mirror is
A. In front of the mirror B. Real C. Smaller D. Laterally inverted
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Unit
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1
4. A light ray strikes a plane mirror as shown below. Identify the numbered parts.
1 2 3
A. Reflected ray Normal Incident ray
B. Normal Incident ray Reflected ray
C. Incident ray Normal Angle of incidence
D. Incident ray Normal Angle of reflection
5. Which of the following statements is correct for the figure shown above?
Correct Incorrect
A. The angle of incidence is greater than the angle of reflection.
B. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
C. The normal, the incident ray and the reflected ray at the point of
incidence, do not lie in the same plane.
D. The angle of incidence is always less than the angle of reflection.
6. An experiment involving light is performed as shown below.
What could be the possible aim of this experiment?
A. Light can be reflected. C. Light travels in straight lines.
B. Light can be refracted. D. Light travels faster than sound.
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P2
7. An optician's test card is fixed 80 cm behind the eyes of a patient, who looks into a
plane mirror 300 cm in front of him, as shown in the diagram.
The distance from his eyes to the image of the card is
A. 680 cm B. 600 cm C. 300 cm D. 380 cm
8. A ray of light strikes a mirror as shown below. What is the angle of reflection?
A. 15o B. 30o C. 54o D. 45o
9. The light phenomenon by which the incident light falling on a surface is sent back into the
same medium is known as
A. Refraction B. Reflection C. Diffusion D. Repulsion
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Unit
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1
10. An object is placed 2 m from a plane mirror and then shifted by 0.5 m away from the mirror.
What is the final distance between the object and its image?
A. 2 m B. 5 m C. 2.5 m D. 4.5 m

11. A ray of light is reflected between two glass panes as shown below.
What is the value of the angle θ in the diagram?
A. 30o B. 90o C. 60o D. 45o
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P2
12. An object O is placed in front of a plane mirror. A person looks into the mirror as
shown in the diagram. In which position is the image of O seen?
13. A boy stands beside a girl in front of a large plane mirror. They are both the same
distance from the mirror, as shown below. Where does the boy see the girl’s image?
14. A ray of light strikes a plane mirror and is reflected.
Which pair of angles must be equal in value?
A. w and x B. w and y C. x and z D. x and y
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Unit
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1
15. A man stands in front of a plane mirror. The diagram shows two divergent rays of light
from the man’s head being reflected from the plane mirror.
At which position is the image formed?
16. A boy is running at a speed of 0.7 m/s towards a plane mirror.

The boy and his image in the mirror are moving
A. Towards each other at a speed of 1.4 m/s
B. Away from each other at a speed of 1.4 m/s
C. Away from each other at a speed of 0.7 m/s
D. Towards each other at a speed of 0.7 m/s
STRUCTURED QUESTIONS
1. State whether each the following statement is TRUE or FALSE.
1. A luminous body absorbs light energy. _________________
2. The Moon is a body that emits light energy. _________________
3. Light do not travel in straight lines. _________________
5. The angle of incidence is not always the angle of reflection. _________________
6. The image formed by plane mirror is always virtual. _________________
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P2
2. (a) What is a ray of light?

(b) The diagram below shows a ray of light being reflected at the surface of a plane mirror.
(i) Write down the names of the lines labelled A, B and C.

A: ______________________________
B: ______________________________
C: ______________________________
(ii) What is the value of the angle of reflection?

______________________________

3. A student tries to reflect the word TEST in a plane mirror.

(i) Draw the appearance of the image that the student will see below.
(ii) State three characteristics of the image formed in the plane mirror.
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4. (a) State the meaning of the following terms:

(i) laterally inverted image
______________________________________________________________
(ii) virtual image

______________________________________________________________
(b) A girl is sitting in front of a plane mirror at a distance of 150 cm. There is a photo frame
hanging 2.5 metres behind her on the wall.
(i) What is the distance between the photo frame and its image?
______________________________________________________________

(ii) What is the distance between the girl and the image of the photo frame?
______________________________________________________________
(iii) If the girl moves towards the mirror by 50 cm, what will be the distance between her
image and the photo frame?
______________________________________________________________
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5. (a) Complete the following diagrams by drawing two rays of light to show how the
image of each object is formed in the plane mirror and is viewed by the observer.
(i) (iii)
(ii) (iv)
6. The figure below shows a ray of light being shone onto a plane mirror.
(a) State the laws of reflection.

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
(b) Measure the angle of incidence.
__________________________________________________________________
(c) Hence, write down the angle of reflection.
__________________________________________________________________
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(d) On the figure, complete the path of the ray of light after being reflected by the
plane mirror.
(e) Add an arrow to show the direction of the reflected ray.
Refraction of Light
In the previous section, you have investigated how light rays travel through air. What will
happen to the light rays if they travel from one transparent medium to another? Will the light
rays continue to travel in the same direction as seen in the previous section or they will change
direction?
In this section, you will investigate how the light rays behave when light travels from one
medium to another different medium.
ACTIVITY 2.5 – Investigating the refraction of light by water
Materials required:
• Beaker, water, pencil
Procedure:
1. Place a pencil in an empty beaker.

2. Fill the beaker with some water.
3. Observe the pencil through the beaker of water.
Figure 1
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P2
Observation:
You must have surely noticed that when you place a pencil in a beaker containing water, the
pencil appears to be broken or bent. However, when the same pencil is placed in an empty
beaker there is no change in its appearance.
Have you ever asked yourself why this is so?

Light bends or changes direction when it travels from one medium to another of different
optical densities. This light phenomenon is known as refraction.
Example 1: Figure 2 shows a ray of light entering water from air.
Incident ray Normal

Angle
of incidence
air i
water ON: Normal

Refracted ray
OA: incident ray
Angle of refraction r
OB: refracted ray
‘i’ : angle of incidence
‘r’: angle of refraction
Figure 2
Water and air are separated by a boundary or interface.
When light travels from an optically less dense medium into a denser medium it bends towards
the normal.
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Example 2: Figure 3 shows a ray of light entering air from water.
Figure 3
When light travels from an optically denser medium into a less dense medium it bends away
from the normal.
Example 3: Figure 4 shows a ray of light entering glass from air at 90°.
Figure 4
When a ray of light enters a medium at 90°, no refraction takes place.
The ray of light passes through the glass block without any deviation.
In this case, the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction are zero.
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Daily Phenomena of Refraction
1. When a pencil is viewed in water, light passes from

water to air causing the path of the light to change.
When light bends, the pencil appears broken or
bent.
2. A swimming pool appears shallower when viewed

from the surface.
3. A fish in a pond appears nearer to the surface.
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TEST YOURSELF
1. What is meant by refraction?

2. (a) Complete the following diagrams to show what happens when a ray of light passes from
air through the glass block and into air again.
air air
glass glass
(b) Light passing from air to glass is refracted ____________________ the normal.
(c) Light passing from glass to air is refracted ____________________ the normal.
3. Label (i) the incident ray

(ii) refracted ray
(iii) the normal
(iv) the angle of incidence
(v) the angle of refraction.
State the angle which is greater.

___________________________
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4. The figure shows a side view of an object at the bottom of a tank of liquid. Draw two rays
from the object into the air. Use these rays to locate the image. Label this image I.
FIND OUT
• Watch this video from Youtube to understand the basic idea about luminous and non-luminous
objects: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3qJ8D-t6qNo
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CBcGxaxopok
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WORK OUT
1. Light passes through a glass block. What is the correct path of the light?
2. The diagram shows light travelling from glass to air. What is the angle of refraction for this
ray of light?
A. 20° B. 40° C. 50° D. 70°
3. Light passes into a glass block.
Which is the angle of refraction?
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4. The diagram shows a ray of light entering a block of glass.
Which numbered angles are the angles of incidence and of refraction?
Angle of incidence Angle of refraction?

A. 1 3
B. 1 4
C. 2 3
D. 2 4
5. A ray of red light passes into a semi-circular glass block.
What is shown at M?
A. Dispersion B. Rarefaction
C. Reflection D. Refraction
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6. A ray of light travels from air towards a glass as shown below.
air
glass
What happens when the ray of light enters the glass block?
A. The ray refracts by bending away from the normal.
B. The ray refracts by bending towards the normal.
C. The ray travels without any deflection.
D. The ray reflects inside the glass block.
STRUCTURED
Question 1
(a) Label the diagram below with the following words:
Refracted ray Normal Refracted angle Incident angle

Glass block Incident ray Emergent ray
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Question 2
Figures A and B show two different rays of light passing through glass Block A and glass
Block B.
Figure A Figure B
(i) State what is meant by the “normal”.
(ii) State the value of the angle of incidence of the ray of light through block A.
Angle of incidence = ____________
(iii) On Figure A, use a ruler to draw the path of the ray of light passing through Block A and
emerging into air.
(iii) Measure the angle of incidence for the ray of light in block B.
(v) Sketch the path of the light ray inside Block B and emerging into air.
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Question 3
The figure below shows a ray of light incident on a rectangular glass block at point X.
The ray of light is refracted at X.

On the figure above:
(a) draw the normal at X
(b) draw the path of the ray through the glass block until it reaches the surface RS
(c) label, at X, the angle of incidence with a letter i and the angle of refraction with a letter r
(d) draw the path of the ray of light leaving the glass block.
Question 4
Are these statements about refraction true or false?
Light rays travelling from air to glass bend towards the normal. ____________
Light rays travelling from glass into air bend towards the normal. ____________
When light enters a more dense medium, the angle of incidence is

____________
greater than the angle of refraction.
When the angle of incidence is 0 degrees, refraction does not occur. ____________
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Summary of unit
Reflection
• Light is an important form of energy for vision.
• Luminous objects emit light whereas non-luminous objects do not emit light.
• Stars are luminous whereas moons and planets are non-luminous.
• Light travels in straight lines.
• Reflection of light is the bouncing off of light from a reflecting surface.
• There are two laws of reflection:
• (i) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
• (ii) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in
the same plane.
• Ray diagrams are used to demonstrate reflection. They are used to show the formation
of image in a plane mirror.
• The image formed in a plane mirror is virtual, upright, the same size as the object,
laterally inverted and as far behind the mirror as the object is in front of it.
Refraction
• Refraction is the bending of light when it travels from one medium to another of
different optical densities.
• Light moving from a less dense medium into a denser medium (from air to glass)
bends towards the normal.
• Light moving from a denser medium to a less dense medium (from glass to air) bends
away from the normal.
• Ray diagrams are used to demonstrate refraction.
• Effects of refraction in everyday life:
(i) Bending of rods when immersed in water
(ii) Apparent depth of swimming pool
80
• Unit P2 • Reflection and Refraction of Light
luminous objects
Energy making non-luminous objects
is emitted by
is a form of visible
by
can undergo LIGHT
travels in reflection governed by Laws of Reflection
is refraction represented by
straight lines
is
bending of light has ray diagrams represented by

bouncing off of light
applications/effects
ray diagrams
denser to less
dense medium apparent bending of partially
examples
immersed objects
less dense to
denser medium
apparent depth
bending is away
from normal
Reflection and Refraction of Light
bending is towards
normal
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P2
Unit
Unit
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82
Energy, Heat and Temperature Unit
Unit
P3
1
Unit
Energy, Heat and Temperature P3
Learning Outcomes
• Explain the concept of work and solve problems using W= Fd, where d is the distance
moved in the direction of the force
• Relate power to work done and time
• State the principle of conservation of energy
• Solve problems related to the conservation of energy in simple systems including fall-
ing objects and the simple pendulum
• Describe the production of electricity using renewable and non-renewable sources of
energy
• Classify the polluting and non-polluting sources of energy for electricity production
• List the advantages and disadvantages of producing electricity using renewable and
non-renewable sources of energy
• Demonstrate an understanding of the concept of heat and temperature
• Describe the expansion of solids, liquids and gases
• Explain some of the everyday uses and dangers of the thermal expansion
In Grade 8, you learnt about work, energy and power. You learnt how to solve simple problems
related to work done and power using appropriate formulas. You also learnt about kinetic and
potential energies and how to calculate them.
In this unit, you will review some of these concepts and you will extend your knowledge about
energy conversions.
You will also learn about the production of electricity using renewable and non-renewable
energy sources.
In addition, you will develop an understanding of heat, temperature and the thermal expansion
of matter.
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Work
In Grade 8, you learnt that work is done when a force moves a body in the direction of the
applied force.
ACTIVITY 3.1 – Recalling when work is done in physics
Observe the following pictures and state whether work is being done or not. Give a reason for
your choice.
(a) Horses pulling a cart (b) A man working on his laptop
(c) A girl climbing the stairs (d) A parachutist falling from the sky with
uniform velocity
(e) A man standing on top of a building (f) A woman standing and holding a baby
We observe that there are some examples where work is done, especially where a force is
applied to move a body.
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ACTIVITY 3.2 – Calculating work done
Figure 1 shows a man pushing a trolley in a supermarket.
The force exerted by him on the trolley is 30 N and the trolley moves through a distance of 5 m
in the direction of the force.
Figure 1
(a) State the distance moved by the trolley, d =

(b) State the force exerted on the trolley, F=
(c) Write down the formula used to calculate the work done.
(d) Calculate the work done by the force on the trolley.
Key points from what you learnt in Grade 8:
• Work done depends on the force applied, F, and distance, d, moved in the direction of the
force.
• Work is said to be done when a force produces motion in the direction of the force.
• Work done = force x distance moved in the direction of the force.
Distance = 5 m
Force = 30 N 1 Nm is same as 1 J
Work done = force x distance
= 30 N x 5 m = 150 Nm
= 150 J
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Definition of Work Done

Work done is defined as the product of the applied force (F) on a body and the distance (d)
moved by the body in the direction of the applied force.
Formula
Work done (W) = Force (F) × distance (d) moved in the direction of the force

W = F × d; where W is work done by a force and is measured in joule (J), F is the applied force
measured in newton (N) and d is the distance moved in the direction of the force and is
measured in metre (m).
The SI unit of work is joule (J).
DID YOU KNOW…
Sometimes, the kilojoule (kJ) is used, which is a larger unit. 1 kJ = 1000 J
TEST YOURSELF 3.1
1. Calculate the missing values in the table below.
Force (N) Distance moved (m) Work done (J)

in the direction of the force
1000 4
15000 40
100 600
25 5000
RECALL
Weight = mass × acceleration due to gravity

i.e. W = mg
where g = 10 m/s2 on Earth and m is in kg.
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2. An electric motor lifts a body of mass 20 kg to a height of 15 m.
(a) What is the weight of the body?
(b) Calculate the work done in lifting the body.
Power
In this section, you will recall the concept of power that you learnt in Grade 8.
ACTIVITY 3.3 – Recalling what is meant by power
Study the given example.
Sam and John have equal masses. They are standing at the foot of a tall building.
Sam takes only 5 minutes to climb the stairs to reach the fifth floor of the building while John
takes 10 minutes to climb the same height.
1. Discuss in groups and state who has done more work. Explain your answer.
2. Who is more powerful among the two boys? Explain your answer.
Actually, both of them have done the same amount of work in climbing the stairs through
the same vertical distance.
Sam is more powerful because he has done the same amount of work in less time.
In the above example, the rate of doing work is greater for Sam than for John.
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Definition of Power
Power is defined as the rate of doing work.
Or
Power is the amount of work done per unit time. James Watt
(19 January 1736 – 25 August
Formula used to calculate Power 1819) was a Scottish inventor,
mechanical engineer, and
chemist.
Work done Energy
Power = Power =
Time taken Time taken
Unit of power is the watt (W) or J/s 1 W = 1 J/s
DID YOU KNOW…
Sometimes a larger unit is used. It is the kilowatt (kW). 1 kW= 1000 W
Power Rating of Electrical Appliances
ACTIVITY 3.4 – Understanding the meaning of power rating
Observe the three electrical devices shown.
40 W bulb 500 W drilling machine 6 W mobile phone
1. What is the meaning of a 40 W bulb? Discuss in your group and state a possible answer.
2. Explain what 500 W and 6 W represent for the drill and the mobile phone respectively.
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TEST YOURSELF 3.2
1. A crane lifts a load of 6000 N through a vertical distance of 15 m in 30 s. What is the power
during this operation?
2. A girl of 40 kg takes 20 s to run the flight of stairs. Use information from the diagram below
to calculate the power developed by the girl.
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P3
ACTIVITY 3.5 – Identifying the power rating of electrical devices at

home
1. Search for the power rating of some electrical appliances at home.
2. List their names and their corresponding power ratings.
No. Electrical appliances Power rating / W

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
3. Compare your data with your friends and discuss which electrical appliances use more
power.
ACTIVITY 3.6 – C
alculating the power exerted by cranes
from given data
Four cranes A, B, C and D are lifting some loads.
Crane Load (N) Vertical distance (m) Time (s) Work done/ J Power/ W
A 500 5 10
B 1000 10 10
C 1000 10 12
D 1500 12 15
1. Compare cranes B and C. Without doing any calculation state which one is more powerful.
Give a reason for your answer.
2. Complete the table by calculating the work done and the power exerted in each case.
3. Among the four cranes, which one exerts more power?
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TEST YOURSELF 3.3
1. A boy, who weighs 50 N, runs up a flight of stairs 6.5 m high in 7 seconds. How much
power does he develop?
2. When the driver of a car applies the brakes, a force of 4000 N brings the car to a stop over a
distance of 50 m.
(a) Calculate the work done by the braking force.
(b) Calculate the braking power if the time taken to stop the car is 5.0 s. Give your answer
in kilowatts (kW).
Energy
In Grade 8, you learnt about the different forms and sources of energy.
In this unit, you will learn more about energy conversions and conservation in various real-life
situations.
You have learnt that energy is needed to perform our daily activities. For example, an athlete
needs energy to be able to run a 200 m race. From where does the athlete get this energy that
he needs? In which form is this energy available? Let us find out.
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ACTIVITY 3.7 – Recalling the various forms of energy
Table 1 shows various forms of energy.
1. Study Table 1.
2. Discuss in groups and then state the form/s of energy involved in each case.
Table 1
energy The stretched rubber The dry cells stores

is stored in the food. band possesses energy.
energy.
energy The hot coffee possesses A bird sitting on the

comes from the drum. energy. branch possesses
energy.
The lighting bulb gives out The radioactive particles

and release energy in the circuit lights
energy. energy during a nuclear the bulb.
reaction.
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Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy

In this section, you will recall about kinetic and potential energy that you learnt in Grade 8.
Kinetic Energy
Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a moving body. The pictures below show instances
where kinetic energy is involved.
Figure 2 Figure 3
The runners in Figure 2 possess kinetic energy as they are in motion. The faster a body moves,
the more kinetic energy it has.
The two airplanes in Figure 3 are moving with the same speed. However, the bigger airplane
possesses more kinetic energy as it has a greater mass.
Calculation of Kinetic Energy

If a body of mass (m) is moving with a constant speed (v), its kinetic energy is calculated using
the formula:
1
Kinetic energy = x mass of the body x (speed )2
2
1
K.E = mv2
2
where, m is the mass of the body in kg and v is the speed of the body in m/s.
The unit of kinetic energy is the joule (J).
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Worked example
A boy hits a ball of mass 0.4 kg. The speed of the ball is 10 m/s.
Calculate the kinetic energy possessed by the ball.
Given,
Mass = 0.4 kg
Speed = 10 m/s
1
Using, K.E = 2 mv2
1
= 2 x 0.4 x 102
= 20 J
TEST YOURSELF 3.4
1. A man fires a gun and a bullet leaves the gun at a speed of 100 m/s. Calculate the kinetic
energy of the bullet given that it has a mass of 40 g. (Note 1 kg = 1000g)
2. A vehicle moving with a speed of 8 m/s has kinetic energy of 64000 J. Calculate its mass.
Potential Energy
Potential energy is the energy possessed by a body due to its position above the ground or its
state.
Potential energy can be classified into:
1. Gravitational potential energy
2. Elastic potential energy
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Gravitational Potential Energy

The coconuts in Figure 4 have gravitational potential energy stored in them.
Position A
Position B
Position C
Ground Figure 4
A ball is shown at three different heights during a game. At position A, the ball has maximum
gravitational potential energy. It is because its position is highest above the ground.
Guess at which position the ball will have the least potential energy. Explain your answer.
Calculation of Gravitational Potential Energy

If a body of mass (m) is placed at a height (h) above the ground, gravitational potential energy
is calculated using the formula:
Gravitational potential energy = mass of body x height of body x acceleration due to gravity
So,
G.P.E = mgh
weight = mg
= weight x height
Where, m is the mass of the body in kg, h is the height above the ground in m and g = 10 m/s2
on Earth.
The SI unit of gravitational potential energy is the joule (J).
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P3
Worked example
Rita runs up a flight of 30 stairs each of height 20 cm. If she has a mass of 60 kg, calculate
the gravitational potential energy gained by her body.
Given,
Mass, m = 60 kg
Vertical height = 30 × 0.2 = 6 m
g = 10 m/s2
Using gravitational potential energy = m × g × h

= 60 × 10 × (30 × 0.2)
= 3600 J
TEST YOURSELF 3.5
1. What is the gravitational potential energy of a body having a mass of 50 kg held at a height
of 4 m above the ground level?
2. Mike is at the top of a ladder and his gravitational potential energy is 4000 J. Given that he
is 5 m vertically above the ground, calculate his mass.
Elastic Potential Energy

Elastic potential energy is defined as the energy stored in a body due to its deformation. It
happens when the body has an elastic nature. For example, a bent ruler or a stretched spring.
Figure 5
The bent ruler and the stretched spring have stored elastic potential energy.
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Energy Conversions and Conservation

In Grade 8, you were introduced to the idea of energy conversions. You learnt that energy
changes from one form to another. So let us recall what you learnt.
ACTIVITY 3.8 – Investigating energy conversions
The diagram below shows an apple falling from a tree.
1. Observe the diagram and discuss.
(a) What form of energy is stored in the fruit hanging on a tree?
(b) What form of energy decreases as the fruit falls?
(c) What form of energy increases as the fruit falls?
(d) What happens to this energy as the fruit hits the ground?
(e) Write down the energy changes that occur as the fruit falls and hits the ground.
2. Suggest other examples of energy conversions.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
The apple stores gravitational potential energy when it is on the tree. As it falls, the
gravitational potential energy is converted gradually into kinetic energy. The gravitational
potential energy goes on decreasing until it is zero, while the kinetic energy goes on
increasing until it becomes maximum just before it hits the ground.
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P3
On hitting the ground, the kinetic energy of the apple is turned into sound energy and some
heat energy.
This shows that we can always keep track of the energy conversion in any example. There is
no energy lost and the total energy remains the same. The energy can only change form but it
cannot be created or destroyed. This fact is known as the Principle of Conservation of Energy.
Principle of Conservation of Energy

The principle of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed,
but it can be converted from one form to another.
It also means that the total amount of energy remains constant.
The following examples illustrate the conservation of energy.
The simple pendulum
Figure 6 shows a simple pendulum.
Stand and clamp

Light and inextensible string

Small but heavy metal bob
Figure 6
In Figure 7, when the bob is pulled on one side and released, it swings. The to-and-fro motion
of the pendulum is called an oscillation.
Figure 7
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Unit
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The path taken by the pendulum
The simple pendulum while oscillating is a very good example to illustrate the transformation
of gravitational potential energy to kinetic energy and vice versa.
As the pendulum oscillates, there is a continuous interchange of energy as shown in the
diagram below.
Figure 8
• Positions 1 and 5 are the extreme positions. At these points the gravitational potential
energy is maximum, as the bob is at its highest point.
• When the pendulum moves from position 1 to 3, its gravitational potential energy decreases
and kinetic energy increases.
• At position 3, the pendulum has the maximum kinetic energy and minimum gravitational
potential energy, being the lowest position.
• From position 3 to 5, the pendulum bob gains gravitational potential energy, as it moves higher.
At any instant, the sum of the kinetic energy and potential energy is constant.
That is, the total energy remains constant.
ACTIVITY 3.9 – Investigating energy conservation in a simple

pendulum
1. With reference to the pendulum, discuss in groups and complete the table below.
Gravitational Total energy /J

Positions Kinetic energy /J
potential energy/J (Kinetic + Potential)
1 0 40
2 20
3 40
4 20
5 40
What conclusion can be drawn from the values observed in the table? Write it.
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ACTIVITY 3.10 – Investigating energy conservation for a ball falling
Consider a ball being dropped from a table to the ground.
ball
ground
1. Discuss in groups and then answer the questions that follow.
(a) State the energy possessed by the ball at the top of the table.
(b) What happens to this energy mentioned in part (a) as the ball falls?
(c) State the energy conversion that occurs when the ball hits the ground.
It is found that the conservation of energy for the falling ball follows the same pattern as the
apple falling from the tree.
TEST YOURSELF 3.6
1. Write the energy changes that take place in the following:
(a) An electric bulb that is lit:
(b) Charging the battery of a mobile phone:
(c) Climbing a ladder:
(d) A moving car braking to stop completely:
(e) A lift going down:
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Unit
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2. (a) (i) Define kinetic energy.
(ii) What is the difference between kinetic energy and potential energy?
(b) A tennis ball is tested before a tennis match. It is dropped onto a concrete surface
from position A as shown below. It rebounds and rises to position B, at a height of
1.4 m. The mass of the ball is 50 g.
A
B
2.5 cm
1.4 cm
(i) Write down the formula needed to calculate the gravitational potential
energy of a body.
(ii) Determine the gravitational potential energy of the ball at position A.
(iii) Write down the kinetic energy of the ball just before impact with the concrete
surface.
(iv) Calculate the velocity with which the ball strikes the concrete surface.
(c) It is observed that the ball reaches a height of 1.4 m after first impact with the surface.
(i) Calculate the gravitational potential energy of the ball at B.
(ii) Calculate the energy loss on impact with the surface.
(iii) State two types of energy into which the gravitational potential energy is
converted on impact with the surface.
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Renewable and Non-renewable Energy Sources

In this section, you will learn about renewable and non-renewable sources of energy and how
they can be used in the production of electricity.
In lower grades, you learnt about various sources of energy such as:
• Sun
• Wind
• Falling water
• Firewood
• Food
• Bagasse
• Fossil fuels
Energy sources can be classified into two groups:
(i) renewable and (ii) non-renewable sources
ACTIVITY 3.11 – Comparing renewable and non-renewable sources

of energy
1. Observe Figure 9 below. Identify and name the sources of energy.
Figure 9
2. Discuss and state which one is a renewable source. Justify your choice.
3. What is the difference between a renewable and a non-renewable energy source?
4. State two renewable and two non-renewable sources of energy used in Mauritius.
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A renewable energy source is one that can be replaced or replenished naturally after it has
been used.
A non-renewable energy source is one that cannot be replaced or replenished after it has
been used, and it will eventually run out.
ACTIVITY 3.12 – Classifying sources of energy as renewable or non-

renewable
1. Study the list of sources of energy given below.
biogas, heavy oil, coal, wind, falling water, natural gas, geothermal, sun, food, bat-
teries, firewood, charcoal, saw dust, ethanol, domestic waste, gasoline, diesel
2. Discuss in groups and classify each one of the list as being renewable or non-renewable.
Table 2
Renewable Energy Source Non-renewable Energy Source
3. Record your answers using Table 2.
It is observed that all the sources of energy that we use are either renewable or non-renewable.
These sources can further be classified as being polluting or non-polluting. For example,
bagasse is a renewable source of energy but it is a polluting one, whereas falling water is a
non-polluting renewable source of energy. Fossil fuels are polluting non-renewable sources of
energy.
DID YOU KNOW…
Coal, oil and natural gas are called fossil fuels.
Fossil fuels were formed from the decomposition of dead plants and animals millions of year ago.
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Production of Electricity using Renewable and Non-renewable

Sources of Energy
In this section, we will investigate how renewable and non-renewable sources of energy are
used in the production of electricity. We will study their advantages and disadvantages on the
environment.
In Mauritius and Rodrigues, falling water, sun, wind, biogas, and coal are some main sources
of energy for the production of electricity.
Production of Electricity using Falling Water

Electricity generated using falling water is called hydro-electricity.
To store the water, dams are built across large rivers to form a reservoir.
Figure 10
The water stored behind the dam possesses gravitational potential energy. The water is made
to flow downwards through large pipes to turn a turbine. Then, the turbine turns a generator.
The kinetic energy of the moving water is transformed into electrical energy.
The energy conversion for a hydroelectric power station is represented as follows:
Gravitational Potential Energy Kinetic Energy Electrical Energy
Production of Electricity using Coal

CO2 rich emission
Water
Furnace Steam turbine Cooling water

Generator
Coal
Power lines
Figure 11
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Unit
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In the coal power station, the coal (fuel) which stores chemical energy is burnt so as to release
heat energy. The heat energy is used to heat water in a boiler to produce high pressure steam.
The kinetic energy of the steam turns the turbines to generate electricity.
The energy conversion for a coal power station is represented as follows:
Chemical Energy Heat Energy Kinetic Energy Electrical Energy
ACTIVITY 3.13 – C
omparing the advantages and disadvantages
of using renewable and non-renewable sources
of energy
In lower grades, you learnt about the advantages and disadvantages of using renewable and
non-renewable sources of energy.
1. Discuss in your groups about the advantages and disadvantages of using renewable
sources of energy to produce electricity.
2. Then fill in the table below. One example is given.
Table 3
Production of electricity Advantages Disadvantages
Solar energy No pollution
Renewable
Free of cost
Wind
Hydro electric energy
Fossil fuels
Geothermal
3. Add other examples to this list.
TEST YOURSELF 3.7
1. The figure below shows a block diagram of a power station.

The four boxes represent different parts of the power station. The first box is labelled.
oil electrical energy output

boiler
Each of the boxes should contain one of the items from the list below:
generator, motor, turbine, solar panel
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P3
(a) On the figure, label the boxes using the correct items from the list.
(b) State one environmental problem caused by burning oil to produce electricity.
(c) Oil is a non-renewable energy source.
(i) State why oil is described as a non-renewable energy source.
(ii) State one renewable energy source.
2. When electricity is needed, the water in the high reservoir is allowed to flow to the low level
reservoir. The flowing water generates electricity.
Figure 11
Use the correct items from the box to complete each sentence.
electrical gravitational potential sound kinetic turbine
(a) The water in the high level reservoir stores energy.
(b) The flowing water has energy.
(c) The water turns the which is connected to the generator.
(d) The generator produces some that is wasted energy.
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3. Different energy sources are used to generate electricity.
(a) Energy sources are renewable or non-renewable.
(i) Petrol is described as a non-renewable source.

Explain what is meant by a non-renewable energy source.
(ii) State one way in which using wind energy is better for the environment than using
heavy oil.
(iii) State one way in which using bagasse is bad for the environment.
Heat and Temperature

In this section, you will learn about heat and temperature. Though they are related ideas, they
are not the same. You have learnt in the previous section that heat is a form of energy, it is
measured in joules, whereas temperature is measured in degrees Celsius.
Heat
Consider a metal rod which is being heated as shown in the figure below. The right hand side
of the rod is held by the hand.
Figure 12
Ater some time, we can feel the heat in our hand. It is because heat flows from the hotter end
to the cooler end. Normally, heat flows from a region of high temperature to a region of lower
temperature.
Heat is the energy that is transferred from one object to another because of a temperature
difference.
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Temperature
Long ago, people used the sense of touch to measure temperature. Even now people use
this method. However, such a method is not a reliable one as it does not provide an accurate
result and it does not involve scientific measurements. A much more reliable method must be
used where the same results are obtained when experiments are repeated under the same
conditions.
In lower grades, you learnt about temperature in the topic of measurement.
Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body.
A thermometer is an instrument that measures temperature.
The SI unit of temperature is the kelvin (K).
Other units of temperature are degrees Celsius (°C) and degrees Fahrenheit (°F).
Alcohol and mercury are the two liquids which are used in thermometers.
Observe closely a laboratory thermometer and draw it below showing all its different parts.
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Types of Thermometers
Different types of thermometers are used to measure temperature.
Types of Thermometers Features
Laboratory Thermometer 1. A laboratory thermometer is used to measure temperature

in a science laboratory.
2. A laboratory temperature reads temperature from -10°C

to 110°C.
3. The capillary bore is narrow so that the mercury can move

a longer distance along the capillary tube for a small
change in temperature.
4. The bulb is made up of thin glass to allow heat to reach

the mercury quickly.
Clinical Thermometer 1. Doctors use a clinical thermometer to measure human

body temperature.
2. This thermometer is calibrated from 35°C to 42°C because

this is the range within which human body temperature
can vary.
3. The thermometer is generally placed in the armpit or in the

mouth of a patient whose temperature is to be measured.
4. The bulb is thin to allow heat to reach the mercury quickly.
5. The constriction in the mercury thermometer prevents the

backflow of mercury when the thermometer is taken out
from the patient’s mouth or any part of the body.
Digital clinical 1. It is used to measure human body temperature.

Thermometer
2. It is easier to read.
3. It does not make use of a poisonous liquid. Which liquid

is it?
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P3
TEST YOURSELF 3.8
1. Find out the most likely temperature for each of the following:
(a) The normal body temperature.
(b) The temperature of a room.
(c) The melting point of pure ice at normal conditions.
(d) The lowest outdoor temperature recorded in the world.
(e) The melting point of iron.
2. Figure 14 shows a labelled liquid-in-glass thermometer.
Figure 14
Thermal Expansion of Matter

When a body is heated, its temperature increases. At the same time there is an increase in its
size. This increase in size is called thermal expansion.
When a hot body is allowed to cool, its temperature falls and there is a decrease in size. The
body is said to contract.
In the next sections, you will investigate the expansion of matter: solids, liquids and gases.
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Expansion of Solids
You will now investigate that a solid expands on heating.
ACTIVITY 3.14 – Investigating the expansion of a solid
Materials needed:
Brass metal ball and ring, Bunsen burner, beaker with cold water
Figure 13
Procedure:
1. Insert the metal ball into the ring. Does the metal ball pass through the ring?
2. Now turn on the Bunsen burner and hold the metal ball above the flame. Heat it for two
minutes.
3. Now try to put the heated metal ball through the ring. Does the metal ball pass through the
ring?
4. Put the heated metal ball in the beaker with the cold water.
5. Insert the cooled metal ball through the ring again.
6. Does the metal ball pass through the ring?
7. What do you conclude from this experiment? Write down your conclusion.
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Expansion of Liquids
ACTIVITY 3.15 – Investigating the expansion of a liquid
You will now investigate how a liquid expands.
Materials needed:
Conical flask, thin capillary tube, coloured water (potassium permanganate), Bunsen burner
Capillary tube
Figure 14
Procedure:
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 14.
2. Turn on the Bunsen burner.
3. Observe carefully the liquid in the capillary tube.
Discuss within your groups and answer the following questions:
(a) Explain why coloured water is used instead of tap water.
(b) Why is a thin capillary tube used?
(c) Explain why the liquid level in the capillary tube initially falls.
(d) Write a conclusion to your observations.
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Expansion of Gases
ACTIVITY 3.16 – Investigating the expansion of a gas
Materials needed:
Round-bottom flask, thin capillary tube, water, beaker, cork
Figure 15
Procedure:
1. Fit an empty 500 ml round-bottom flask with a cork and a glass tubing.
2. Place a beaker with some water on the bench. The experimental set-up is as shown
in Figure 15.
3. Rub your hands together thoroughly and hold the round-bottom flask.
5. Observe what happens.
6. Write a conclusion to your observations.
The experiments have shown that solids, liquids and gases expand on heating. Further
experiments can also be performed to show that there is contraction on cooling.
DID YOU KNOW…
From 0°C to 4°C, water contracts on heating but from 4°C onwards, it expands.
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Uses of Thermal Expansion

1. In the kitchen, a tight metal lid can be removed from a glass bottle by immersing the lid in
warm water so that it expands. This is shown in Figure 16.
Figure 16
2. A thermostat works on the principle of thermal expansion of solid materials. A bimetallic

strip is used to control the thermostats. It can be used in fire alarms.
Figure 17 shows a bimetallic strip which is made up of copper and iron.
Figure 17
Copper expands more than iron, so the strip bends. The thermostat is a device which is used
to maintain a desired temperature in a refrigerator, an air conditioner, an iron and other
devices.
3. In thermometers, mercury is used as it expands rapidly with an increase in temperature.
COLD WARM
mercury
Figure18
It should be noted that the amount of mercury is the same, it is just that the expansion of
the liquid due to heating that causes it to move along the capillary tube in the thermometer.
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Dangers of Thermal Expansion

It is observed that thermal expansion has several uses. It also represents some dangers that you
will study below.
1. On hot days concrete runway sections in airports expand and this causes craking of the slabs.
To solve this problem small gaps must be left between the sections as shown in Figure 19.
Figure 19
2. Steel railway lines expand in hot weather. Gaps are left between sections of railway lines
to avoid damage of the rails. If the gaps are too small, the lines can bend and cause serious
accidents.
Figure 20
3. On hot days, electricity and telephone cables expand and sag. On cold days, they contract
and tighten. If they become too tight, the wires can break.

Therefore, when cables and wires are installed, allowance is made for expansion and
contraction so that they do not sag too much or become tight.
Figure 21
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P3
TEST YOURSELF 3.9
1. Explain the following observations:
(a) The metal lid on a glass jam jar can be unscrewed easily if the jar is inverted for a few
seconds with the lid kept in warm water.
(b) Wooden furniture may creak at night after a warm day.
(c) Concrete roads are laid in sections with a pitch placed between them. Explain.
2. A bimetallic strip is made from aluminium and copper. The two sheets are riveted together,
one on top of the other.
When heated it bends in the direction shown in Figure 22.
aluminium
at room
temperature
copper
after heating
Figure 22
Which metal expands more for the same rise in temperature, aluminium or copper?
Draw a diagram to show how the bimetallic strip would appear if it were cooled below room
temperature.
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Summary of unit
• Work is defined as the product of the applied force (F) on a body and the distance
moved (d) by the body in the direction of the applied force.
• The SI unit of energy is the joule (J).
• Power is defined as the rate of doing work and its SI unit is the watt (W).
• Energy is the ability to do work and its SI unit is the joule (J).
• There are various forms of energy namely: wind, electrical, chemical, geothermal,
light, sound, nuclear, tidal, kinetic and potential energy.
• Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a body due to its motion.
• Potential energy is the energy possessed by a body due to its position or state.
• Gravitational potential energy is defined as the energy stored in a body due to its
position.
• Elastic potential energy is defined as the energy stored in a body due to its state.
• The principle of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be converted
nor destroyed but it can be converted from one form to another and the total
amount of energy remains constant.
• A renewable energy source is one that can be replaced or renewed naturally after it
has been used whereas a non-renewable energy source is one that cannot be re-
placed or renewed after use and it will eventually run out.
• The energy conversion for a hydroelectric power station is represented as follows:
gravitational potential energy kinetic energy electrical energy
• The energy conversion for a coal power station is represented as follows:
chemical energy heat energy kinetic energy electrical energy
• Heat flows from a region of high temperature to a region of lower temperature.
• Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. It is the main difference
between a hot and a cold body.
• A thermometer is an instrument that measures temperature.
• The SI unit of temperature is the kelvin (K).
• Solids, liquids and gases expand when heated and contract when cooled.
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P3
• Unit 3 • Energy, Heat and Temperature

Unit
SI Unit joule
related to is related to
Energy Power Work
exists in many forms
Energy, Heat and Temperature
SI Unit is defined as product of force

and distance moved in W =Fxd
the direction of the force
Watt F = force
Potential Light Tidal d = distance
energy energy
Rate of doing work
Power = work = energy

time time
Elastic potential Gravitational Chemical Geothermal
where
energy potential energy
W = work done (J)
G.P.E= mgh Solar
E = energy (J)
Electrical t = time taken (s)
Kinetic energy
K.E. = 1 mv2 Nuclear Waves Heat related to
2
causes expansion in
Thermometer measures Temperature SI Unit kelvin

Solids
Liquids
Gases
Types
Clinical Digital Laboratory

Thermometer Thermometer Thermometer
Unit
P3
1
WORK OUT
Multiple choice questions
1. What is the source of the energy converted by a hydro-electric power station?

A Hot rocks B Falling water C Oil D Waves
2. The diagram shows a man diving into water.

Which form of energy is increasing as he falls?
A Chemical B Gravitational C Kinetic D Elastic
3. A boy and a girl run up a hill in the same time.
The boy weighs more than the girl.
Which statement is true about the power developed?

A The boy developes more power.
B The girl developes more power.
C They both develope the same power.
D It is impossible to tell who developes more power.
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4. Energy is stored in a battery and in a box of matches.

Which type of energy is stored in each of them?
A battery A box of matches
A Chemical Chemical
B Chemical Heat
C Electrical Chemical
D Electrical Heat
5. Which movement will require the greatest amount of work to be done?

A A force of 10 N moving an object a distance of 3.0 m
B A force of 10 N moving an object a distance of 5.0 m
C A force of 15 N moving an object a distance of 3.0 m

D A force of 15 N moving an object a distance of 5.0 m
6. Energy from uranium is transferred to electrical energy in a nuclear power station.

What is the correct order of the stages of this process?
A boiler generator reactor turbine
B generator boiler turbine reactor
C reactor boiler turbine generator
D reactor turbine boiler generator
7. The list contains three energy resources P, Q and R.
P: geothermal energy from hot rocks

Q: nuclear fission in reactors
R: sunlight on solar panels
Which of these resources are renewable?
A P and Q only
B P and R only
C Q and R only
D P, Q and R
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8. The diagram shows a ball hanging on a string. The ball swings from point W to point Z and
back to point W.
Which statement about the ball is correct?
A The kinetic energy of the ball is greatest at point W.

B The kinetic energy of the ball is greatest at point X.
C The kinetic energy of the ball is greatest at point Y.
D The kinetic energy of the ball is the same at all points of the swing.

9. A student who weighs 500 N climbs up a flight of stairs 10 metres high in 5 seconds.
What power does she develop?
A 500 x 10 x 5 W
500 x 10
B W
5
500 x 5
C W
10
5
D W
500 x 10
10. A rock of mass 20 kg is travelling in space at a speed of 6 m/s.
What is its kinetic energy?
A 60 J
B 120 J
C 360 J
D 720 J
11. Which represents the main energy changes that take place in a coal power station?
A chemical heat kinetic electrical
B chemical heat light electrical
C chemical kinetic electrical potential
D kinetic heat light electrical
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12. An object is falling from the top of a building.

What is the principal energy conversion taking place?
A kinetic energy gravitational potential energy.

B kinetic energy thermal energy (heat)
C gravitational potential energy kinetic energy
D gravitational potential energy chemical energy
13. The box contains the names of eight different energy resources.
How many of these energy resources are renewable?
natural gas geothermal solar waves
hydroelectric oil wind coal
A 3
B 4
C 5
D 6
14. The diagram shows part of a thermometer.

What is the reading on the thermometer?
A 17.2° C
B 17.4 °C
C 17.7°C
D 18.3 °C
Structured Questions
1. A falling metal hammer is used to drive a hollow steel post into the ground, as shown in
Figure 23.
Figure 23
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1
The hammer is lifted by an electric motor and then falls freely to hit the baseplate.
(a) (i) State the law of conservation of energy.
(ii) State the energy conversions that take place as the hammer falls, starting from the
initial potential energy of the hammer before it is dropped.
(b) The metal hammer has a mass of 1500 kg and it hits the baseplate with a speed of 8.0
m/s.
(i) Calculate the kinetic energy of the hammer as it hits the baseplate.
(ii) State the initial potential energy of the hammer.

(iii) Calculate the height above the baseplate from which the hammer is dropped.
Take gas 10 N/kg.
(c) (i) In raising the hammer, the electric motor uses more energy than that stated in
(b)(ii). State and explain two reasons why the motor uses more energy.
(ii) State one change to the equipment in Figure 23 that would cause the baseplate to
move further into the ground each time the hammer falls.
2. Figure 24 illustrates the journey of a cyclist from point A to point B. Points A and B are at
the same height.
Figure 24
The cyclist starts from rest at A and pedals up and over a hill. Near the bottom of the hill,
she starts to brake and comes to rest at B.
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P3
(a) Describe the energy changes that take place as she pedals up the hill at constant
speed.
(b) Explain how the law of conservation of energy applies to the complete journey from A
to B.
(c) At one point in the journey, the gravitational potential energy of the cyclist has increased
by 5400 J. The mass of the cyclist is 60 kg. The gravitational field strength is 10 N / kg.
Calculate the height above A of the cyclist at this point.
3. A tidal barrage (dam) produces electricity using tides. Figure 25 shows a diagram of a tidal
barrage (simplified).
Figure 25
(a) The water behind the barrage (dam) is a store of energy. State the name of this stored
energy.
(b) Explain how the tidal barrage (dam) produces electricity.
4. A metal tyre for a wooden wheel is made from an iron ring. This is shown in Figure 26 wooden
wheel iron ring joints.
Figure 26
The iron ring is made slightly too small to fit on the wheel.
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(a) Explain why heating the iron ring will help it fit on the wheel.
(b) Explain what will happen to the iron ring after it has been fitted on the wheel and left
to cool.
(c) Suggest what happens to the joints in the wooden wheel after fitting the iron ring.
5. Figure 27 shows a battery-operated alarm clock.

Figure 27
Use words from the box to complete the sentences.
chemical electrical kinetic light sound heat
The battery stores energy. When the battery is first connected, electrical
energy is transferred to energy of the clock’s hands. Some of the electrical
energy is transferred to the surroundings as energy. When the alarm bell
rings, electrical energy is transferred to energy.
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6. A student is measuring the temperature of a mixture of water and ice using a thermometer.
The water and ice are at the same temperature.
(a) Figure 28 shows a thermometer.
Figure 28
(i) On Figure 28, label X and Y.
(ii) The thermometer is put into the mixture of water and ice.
On Figure 28, draw an arrow indicating the temperature of the mixture.
126
Motion Unit
Unit
P4
1
Unit
Motion P4
Learning Outcomes
• Distinguish between scalars and vectors and give examples of each

• Define distance and displacement
• Calculate distance and displacement in different situations
• Define speed and velocity
• Calculate speed using the equation speed = distance/time and velocity using the
equation velocity = displacement/time
• Define acceleration
• Calculate acceleration using the equation acceleration = change in velocity/time taken
• Demonstrate an understanding that deceleration is a negative acceleration
• Plot and interpret speed-time graph for motion in a straight line
• Recognise from the shape of a speed-time graph when a body is:
• at rest
• moving at constant speed
• moving with changing speed
• Interprete and solve problems related to speed-time graphs
Motion is a very important aspect of our lives. Many bodies such as cars, buses, animals or
even people move from one place to another. We move to go to school, to work and in order
to perform our day-to-day activities. Motion is also an integral part of our leisure, since many
activities such as athletics, football or racing depend on motion.
In this unit, you will gain an understanding of various aspects of the motion of bodies.
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Unit Motion
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Scalar and Vector Quantities

In Unit 1 – Measurement, you have learnt the term ‘physical quantity’. You have learnt that
a physical quantity is described using a magnitude and a unit. However, for some physical
quantities an additional information must be provided, which is, direction.
ACTIVITY 4.1 – Understanding different types of physical quantities

A person is going to Grand Gaube by car. He reaches a junction and sees the road sign shown
in Figure 1.
Petit Raffray 5 km
Roche Terre 2 km
Grand Gaube 6 km
Poudre d’Or 10 km
Figure 1
1. What important information is missing on the road sign for the person to be able to reach
Grand Gaube?
2. Study the Table 1, where a list of quantities is given. Tick (√) the quantities which have a
direction.
Table 1
Quantity Has a direction
1 Mass
2 Time
3 Force
4 Volume
5 Displacement
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WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
There are some quantities that have a direction. The direction needs to be specified
along with the numerical value (magnitude).
Some examples of how quantities are expressed are given in the Table 2.
Table 2
Quantities that require a direction Quantities that do not require a direction

A force of 10 N to the left A mass of 10 kg
A velocity of 40 km/h in a westerly direction A temperature of 10 oC
A displacement of 40 m downwards A speed of 10 m/s
A scalar quantity is a physical quantity that has a magnitude only, while a vector quantity is a
physical quantity that has both magnitude and direction.
Table 3 provides some examples of scalar and vector quantities.
Table 3
Scalar quantities Vector quantities
Mass Weight
Temperature Acceleration
Speed Force
Distance Velocity
Time Displacement
Work
Power
Energy
In the next section, you will learn about the difference between two quantities i.e., distance and
displacement.
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Unit Motion
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Distance and Displacement
ACTIVITY 4.2 – Understanding different types of physical quantities
Study the situation described below.
A student is running in a park. She wants to move from a point A to a point C as shown
in Figure 2.
D C
30 m
A 40 m B
Figure 2
The student takes the path indicated by the arrows in the diagram, that is, she moves from A to
B and then from B to C. The length of the path from A to B and then to C is called the distance.
1. What is the distance from the point A to the point C?

However, there is another path that the student can take if she wants to move from point A
to point C. This path is shown in Figure 3.
D C
A B
Figure 3
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This path is a straight line from the point A to point C. This straight line from an initial
position to a final position is called the displacement. Displacement is a vector quantity, as
its direction is important.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
The meaning of the distance of an object is different from the meaning of the
displacement of the object. This is explained below.
Definitions of Distance and Displacement
The distance of a body is the path taken by a body when moving from an initial position to a
final position.
Distance is a scalar quantity.
The displacement of a body is the distance travelled from the initial position to the final position,
and in a specific direction.
Displacement is a vector quantity.
Determine the displacement of the student when she is moving from point A to point D in
Figure 2.
TEST YOURSELF 4.1
Use Figure 3 to answer the following question.
1. Determine the distance travelled by the student when she moves from point A to point D,
passing through points B and C.
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Unit Motion
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Speed and Velocity

Speed
The student running in the park, moves from point A to point B and travels a distance of 40 m.
However, moving from one point to another takes time.
If the student travels this distance in a time of 10 s, then it means that she travels, on average,
a distance of 4 m in 1 s. So, she travels a distance of 4 m per s. This distance that is travelled in 1
s is called the speed.
Speed is a scalar quantity, as the direction need not be specified.

40 m
D C
30 m 30 m
A B
40 m
Definition of speed
Speed is defined as the distance travelled per unit time.
Speed = Distance travelled

Time taken
Average speed = Total distance travelled

Total time taken
The SI unit of speed is the m/s.
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Worked example
A girl walks to school every day. She walks Solution

500 m from her house to a shop in 250 s, (a) The total distance travelled
where she meets her friend. They then run = 500 + 1000
1000 m together to reach the school in a = 1500 m
further 250 s.
(b) The total time taken
= 250 + 250 = 500 s
Calculate:
(c) Average speed =
(a) The total distance travelled
Total distance travelled
(b) The total time taken Total time taken
(c) The average speed of the girl over =1500/500 m/s = 3 m/s
the whole journey.
In the previous section, we have learnt how to calculate the speed of an object or a person. We
have also learnt that the SI unit of speed is m/s. However, the unit kilometre per hour (km/h) is
often used. It is, thus, very important for you to be able to convert a speed given in km/h into
m/s.
If an object has a speed of 1 km/h, it means that the distance travelled is 1000 m and time taken
is 1 h, i.e. 60 minutes, which is equal to 60 x 60 s = 3600 s.
So, the speed of the object is 1000/3600 = 10/36 = 5/18 m/s = 0.28 m/s
Thus, it is said that 1 km/h is same as 0.28 m/s.
Constant Speed
A body has a constant speed if it covers the same distance in the same interval of time (e.g.
every second).
Velocity
Speed is a scalar quantity and it has only a magnitude. However, velocity is a vector quantity
and it has both magnitude and direction.
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Unit Motion
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ACTIVITY 4.3 – Understanding the difference between speed

and velocity
Read the definition of speed given in the previous section. Now read the definition of velocity
given below.
Velocity is the rate of change of displacement.

Or
Velocity is the distance moved by a body per unit time in a specified direction.
SI unit of velocity is the m/s.
1. Now discuss in your groups and then list the differences between speed and velocity.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
It is noted that though speed and velocity appear to be the same, the main difference
is that speed is the rate of change of distance whereas velocity is the rate of change of
displacement. Speed is a scalar quantity whereas velocity is a vector quantity.
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Unit
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1
Worked example
C
30 m
A 40 m
A student walks from point A to point C in 50 s.
Calculate
(a) The magnitude of the displacement when the student is at point C.

(b) The average velocity of the student during its motion from point A to point C.
Solution
(a) Displacement is the distance moved in a straight line. So displacement is along the
red arrow shown in the diagram.

Displacement = √402 + 302
= √1600 + 900

= √2500
= 50 m
Total displacement
(b) Average velocity =
Total time taken
= 50
50
= 1m/s
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Unit Motion
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Acceleration
A body experiences an acceleration when its velocity changes. The change in velocity can be
either an increase or a decrease.
It should be noted that even if the speed remains constant, a change in direction means that
there is an acceleration.
Definition of acceleration
Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity.
Change in velocity
Acceleration =
Time taken
Final velocity - Initial velocity

Acceleration =
Time taken
The SI unit of acceleration is the m/s2 (read as metres per second square).
Worked example
A car starts from rest (0 m/s) and accelerates for 10 s to reach a speed of 25 m/s.
Calculate the acceleration of the car.
Solution
Initial speed = 0 m/s

Final speed = 25 m/s
Time taken = 10 s
Hence acceleration a = (final velocity – initial velocity) / time taken

25 - 0 25
a = = = 2.5 m/s2
10 10
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Worked example
A car moving at a speed of 20 m/s decelerates to stop in 4 s.
Calculate the acceleration experienced by the car.
Solution
Initial speed =20 m/s

Final speed = 0 m/s
Time taken = 4 s
Hence acceleration, a = (final velocity – initial velocity) / time taken

0 - 20 -20
a = = = -5.0 m/s2
10 4
Negative acceleration means deceleration, i.e. the car is slowing down.
TEST YOURSELF 4.2
1. A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly for 10 s until it reaches a speed of 20 m/s.
The car then decelerates to rest in a further 5 s.
(a) Calculate the acceleration of the car during the first 10 s.
(b) Calculate the acceleration of the car during the last 5 s.
Deceleration
As we have seen in the previous section, an acceleration can be either negative or positive.
If the velocity is increasing, the acceleration is positive. If the velocity is decreasing, then the
acceleration is negative.
Another way to describe a decreasing velocity is to use the term deceleration. If deceleration
is used then the negative is not used since the term deceleration already implies a decreasing
velocity.
We shall now see an example to illustrate this.
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Unit Motion
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Worked example
A boy is running at a speed of 10 m/s. He decelerates uniformly to stop in 4 s.
Calculate the deceleration experienced by the boy.
Solution
The acceleration must first be calculated.

Initial speed =10 m/s
Final speed = 0 m/s
Time taken = 4 s
Hence acceleration
0 -10 -10
a = = = 2.5 m/s2
4 4
acceleration = -2.5
deceleration = 2.5 m/s2
TEST YOURSELF 4.3
1. A car is moving at a constant speed of 50 m/s for 20 s. The driver then applies the brakes
and as a result the car decelerates to come to rest in 25 s.
Calculate the acceleration of the car.
Speed-Time Graph
The speed-time graph is a graph that shows how a body is moving. It describes the motion of
an object or person. Furthermore, it is easy to deduce information from a speed-time graph,
such as the acceleration and the distance travelled.
Sketching a Speed-Time Graph

We are now going to sketch the speed-time graph of a body.
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For sketching the speed – time graph, two sets of values are required. These are the values of
the speeds at various intervals of time, as shown below.
Speed/m/s Time/s
1
2
3
4
ACTIVITY 4.4 – Sketching a speed-time graph from a table of data
Study the example given below.

A car starts from rest at t = 0 s and accelerates uniformly for 10 s until it reaches a speed of 10
m/s. The car then travels at this constant speed for a further 10 s. The car then decelerates uni-
formly for another 5 s till it comes to rest.
1. Discuss in your groups and answer the questions that follow.
(i) What is the total time taken by the car to complete its motion?
(ii) Complete the table below by indicating the speed of the car at different times.
Time/s Speed/m/s
0
10
20
25
(c) Sketch a speed-time graph on the axes shown below.

Speed/m/s
Time/s
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WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
A velocity–time graph can be plotted using given values of velocity and time.
ACTIVITY 4.5 – Problem solving using a speed-time graph
Study the information given below.
1. Discuss in your groups and answer the questions that follow.
A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly for 10 s until it reaches a speed of 20 m/s.
The car then travels at this constant speed for a further 20 s.
Then it decelerates to come to rest in a further 10 s.
(a) Sketch a speed-time graph using the information given above.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
When a body is travelling at a constant speed, its acceleration is zero.
Types of Speed-Time Graphs

We are now going to study a few examples of speed-time graphs.
1. An object is at rest.
Speed /m/s
The speed of the object is zero at all times.

So it is at rest.
The graph is a horizontal line on the x-axis.

Time/s
0
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2. An object has a constant speed.

Speed /m/s
40
Time/s
0 10
The graph is a horizontal line parallel to the x-axis.
So, the acceleration of the object is zero.
It is moving with a constant speed of 40 m/s for 10s.
3. An object moves with increasing speed.
Speed /m/s
40
Time/s
0 10
The body is said to have a constant acceleration. This is shown by a straight line.
4. An object moves with decreasing speed.

Speed /m/s
40
Time/s
0 10
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How to obtain the distance covered by a body from its speed-time graph?
The distance of a body can be obtained by calculating the area under a speed-time (v-t) graph.
Distance = Area under v-t graph
Worked example
The following is a speed-time graph representing the motion of a car over a period
of 10 s. Calculate the distance travelled by the car during the 10 s.
Speed /m/s
40
Time/s
0 10
A v-t graph
Solution
The distance travelled = Area under graph = Area of the triangle

= ½ x 10 x 40
= 200 m
Therefore, the distance covered by the car in 10s is equal to 200 m.
Interpreting speed-time graphs
Different information that can be deduced from a speed-time graph:
• the nature of the motion

• the values of speed at various times
• the acceleration of the body
• the distance covered by the body
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ACTIVITY 4.6 – Extracting information from a speed-time graph
Study the example given below, discuss in your groups and answer the questions that follow.
A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly for 10 s until it reaches a speed of 20 m/s. The
car then travels at this constant speed for a further 20 s. Then, it decelerates to come to rest in
a further 10 s.
The v-t graph obtained is as shown below.
speed /m/s
20
Time/s
0 10 30 40
From this graph, the following information is obtained:
1. The nature of the motion: The car has uniform acceleration, then uniform velocity and
finally uniform deceleration (or retardation).
2. The values of speed at different times can be read.
3. The area under the graph gives the distance covered by the car.
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Summary of unit
• A scalar quantity is a physical quantity that has a magnitude only, while a vector
quantity is a physical quantity that has both magnitude and direction.
• The distance of a body is the path taken by a body when moving from an initial
position to a final position.
• The displacement of a body is the distance travelled in a straight-line from the initial
position to the final position, and in a specific direction.
• Average speed = Total distance travelled

Total time taken
• A body has a constant speed if it covers the same distance in the same interval of
time (e.g. every second).
Displacement
• Velocity =
Time taken
• Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity.
Change in velocity
• Acceleration =
Time taken
• The area under the speed-time graph gives the distance covered by an object.

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• Unit 4 • Motion
MOTION
Motion
represented by involves
speed-time graphs physical quantities
where
classified as such as
distance travelled = area under the graph
average speed velocity displacement

scalars vectors velocity
examples examples average distance

speed
equals to equals to
distance displacement
time velocity deceleration
mass force equals to
distance/time
temperature acceleration (m/s) is opposite of
speed weight
total displacement/total time displacement/time acceleration

(m/s) (m/s)
equals to
equals to
velocity/time taken
total distance/total time
(m/s2)
(m/s)
Motion
decrease in velocity/time taken

(m/s2)
1
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Unit
Unit
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WORK OUT
1. Which one of the following quantities is a scalar quantity?

A Speed B Velocity C Displacement D Acceleration
2. What additional information is provided by a vector quantity?

A Size B Colour C Direction D Thickness
3. Which of the following consists of a pair of vector quantities?

A Speed and distance
B Time and distance
C Acceleration and mass

D Displacement and Force
4. Which of the following describes a scalar quantity?
A 4 m
B 4 m/s2 to the right
C 6 m/s in a southerly direction
D 6 m in a northerly direction
5. Which of the following is the formula for speed?
A Speed = distance x time taken

Distance
B Speed =
Time taken
Time taken
C Speed =
Distance
D Speed = Acceleration x time taken
6. Which of the following is the formula for velocity?
A Velocity = distance x time taken

Distance
B Velocity =
Time taken
Time taken
C Velocity =
Distance
Displacement
D Velocity =
Time taken
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The following diagram is to be used for questions 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11.
Three cars move from point X to point Z. They follow three different paths as shown in the
diagram below.
Y 87 m Z
Car A
50 m
100 m
Car B
Car C
21

125 m
X
7. What is the distance travelled by car A when it moves from point X to point Z?

A 50 m B 75 m C 100 m D 137 m
8. If car A takes 10 s to move from point X to point Y, what is the average speed of car A?

A 5 m/s B 8 m/s C 10 m/s D 13.7 m/s
9. What is the distance travelled and the displacement of car C?
Distance travelled Displacement

A 125 m 100 m
B 125 m 125 m
C 100 m 125 m
D 100 m 100 m
10. Which of the following statements is correct?
A All three cars have the same distance travelled.

B The three cars have the same displacement.
C Car A has the smallest displacement.
D Car B has the greatest displacement.
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11. Car C moved from point X to point Z in 25 s. What is the speed of the car C?
A 4 m/s B 5 m/s C 9 m/s D 15 m/s
12. Which one of the following is the formula of accelration?
A Acceleration = distance x time taken

Speed
B Acceleration =
Time taken
Time taken
C Acceleration =
Speed
Velocity
D Acceleration =
Time taken
13. A toy accelerates from 5 m/s to 10 m/s in 10 s. What is the acceleration of the toy?
A 0.5 m/s2 B 1.0 m/s2 C 1.5 m/s2 D 2.0 m/s2
14. A truck starts from rest and accelerates for 10 s at a rate of 5 m/s2. What is the final speed of
the car?
A 10 m/s B 20 m/s C 40 m/s D 50 m/s
15. A lorry travelling at 40 m/s decelerates for 10 s until it reaches 20 m/s. What is the deceleration
of the lorry?
A 1.5 m/s2 B 2.0 m/s2 C - 1.5 m/s2 D - 2.0 m/s2
The graph below is to be used for question 16 and 17. The speed-time graph represents the
speed of a motorcycle over a time of 10 s.
Speed (m/s)
48
Time/s)
0 4 10
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16. Which of the following information can be deduced from a speed-time graph?
A Acceleration and velocity

B Distance and displacement
C Speed and velocity
D Acceleration and distance
17. What is the distance travelled by the motorcycle during the 10 s of the trip?
A 200 m B 240 m C 280 m D 320 m
Structured Questions

1.(a) Differentiate between a scalar quantity and vector quantity.
(b) List two scalar quantities and two vector quantity.
2. The diagram below represents a rectangular shaped track used by Peter to jog.
D C
30 m
A 40 m B
He starts his run at point A and then moves to points B, C and D to finally come back to A.
(a) What is the difference between distance and displacement?
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(b) Determine the distance and the displacement of Jack when he is
(i) at Point C
(ii) at Point D
(iii) back to point A.
(c) Define the terms:
Speed:
velocity:
(d) Jack takes 20 s to run from point A to point C. Calculate his speed and velocity during
his run from A to C.
3. Rita leaves for school in the morning at 7.00 am. She walks a distance of 600 m and reaches
her friend’s house at 7.10 am. She and her friend then walk a distance of 1200 m to school.
They reach school at 7.40 am.
(a) Suggest an instrument used to measure the distance walked by Rita.
(b) How long does Rita take to walk to school in the morning?
(c) Calculate the speed of Rita in m/s

(i) during the first part of her walk.
(ii) during the whole walk.
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4. A car accelerates uniformly from rest for 10 s to reach a speed of 15 m/s. The car then remains
at that speed for a further 10 s. It then decelerates uniformly to come to rest in 5 s.
(a) Define the term acceleration.
(b) Use the axes below in order to sketch the speed-time graph of the car.
Speed/m/s

Time/s
5. The diagram below represents the speed-time graph of Jane as she is running along on an
athletic track.
Speed/m/s
Time/s
(a) Determine the distance travelled by Jane from 0 s to 10 s.
(b) Hence calculate the average speed of Jane from 0 s to 10 s.
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6 A car accelerates from rest in a straight line. During the first 14 s, the acceleration is
uniform and the car reaches a speed of 28 m/s.
(a) (i) Calculate the acceleration of the car.
(ii) After the first 14 s, the speed of the car continues to increase but the acceleration
decreases.
From 44 s to 64 s after the start, the car moves at a constant speed of 58 m/s.
On the graph below, draw a possible speed-time graph for the car. Label the axes.
(b) Use your graph to calculate the distance travelled by the car during the first 44 s.
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Unit
Electricity P5
Learning Outcomes
• Identify symbols of electrical components

• Show an understanding that current is the rate of flow of charge and use the formula
Q = It to solve problems
• Measure current using an ammeter
• Define potential difference as the work done per unit charge moved between two points
in an electric circuit
• Measure potential difference using a voltmeter
• Define e.m.f. as the work done per unit charge moved round a whole circuit
• Use the formula W = QV to solve problems
• Define resistance as the ratio of the potential difference across a conductor to the current
flowing through it and use the formula R = V/I to solve problems
• Draw electric circuits in series and in parallel using appropriate circuit symbols
• Determine the combined resistance of a combination of resistors arranged in series and
in parallel
• Solve problems related to electric circuits
In our daily life, we are surrounded by one of the most significant discoveries of all time, that is,
electricity. Electrical energy is the most versatile form of energy that exists and it plays a pivotal
role in our life. Almost all the devices at homes and in industries operate with electricity.
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When your mobile phone displays a “low battery” warning, what do you do to re-energise it?
What makes machines in factories operate? Obviously, the answer is electrical energy.
In fact, it is really hard to imagine our life without electricity!
In Grade 7, you learnt about the importance of electricity and some simple electric circuits. In
Grade 9, you are going to learn more on electric circuits and how to solve simple problems
related to these circuits.
Symbols of Electrical Components

As you have learnt in Grade 7, each circuit component can be represented by a symbol.
The symbol is used to represent electrical components more conveniently when drawing
electrical circuit diagrams.
There are many electrical components that exist and which are used in electric circuits.
The circuit symbols of some common electrical components are listed in Table 1.
Table 1
Component Symbol Use
1) Connection Wire
conducts current
across a circuit
2) Cell
supplies electrical
energy
3) Battery
supplies electrical
energy
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4) Switch (closed)
allows current to
flow or completes a
circuit
5) Switch (open)
stops the flow of

current or breaks a
circuit
6) Bulb/lamp
converts electrical
energy to light
or energy and heat
energy
7) Resistor
limits the current

flowing in a circuit
8) Ammeter
(a) Analogue ( b) Digital
ammeter ammeter
used to measure
current
9) Voltmeter used to measure

(a) Analogue (b) Digital • potential
voltmeter voltmeter difference
between two
points in a circuit
• e.m.f. of a cell/
battery
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Since the terminals of a cell are bare, it is difficult to connect wires

to them. Therefore, the cell has to be placed in a cell holder for
facilitating connections to its ends. A cell holder has NO circuit
symbol. The figure beside shows a typical cell holder.
Since we are dealing with electricity, it will be helpful to understand

exactly what electricity is concerned with. In simple terms, electricity
is the study of charges.
Cell holder
Electric Current
An electric current consists of the flow of charges (electrons) through a conductor. Since we
cannot see electrons, it is helpful to have a model or an analogy of electric circuits to help us
understand circuits better.
For instance, water flowing through a pipe is a mechanical system that is a lot like an electrical
circuit. This idea is illustrated in Figures 2(a) and 2(b).
water at low pressure water at high pressure
Tap
Water Pump
pipe
water flow
water flow
Dirt/particles inside pipe
Figure 2(b): A simple electric circuit consisting of a cell driving

Figure 2(a): A mechanical system consisting of a pump pushing a current through it
water through a closed pipe
Compare the two figures above.
If you imagine that the electric current is similar to the water flowing through the pipe, then the
following comparisons can be made:
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Figure 2(a) Figure 2(b) Explanation
Pump Battery The pump is like the battery. It provides

energy.
Pipe Wire The pipe is like the wire in the electric circuit. It
is the pathway for particles to move through.
Water flow Current The flow of water in the pipe is similar to the
flow of current in the wire.
Pressure Potential The pressure difference generated by the

difference difference pump drives water through the pipe and that
is similar to the potential difference generated
by the battery, which drives electrons through
the circuit.
Dirt/particles resistance Small particles, like mud/dirt/rust, deposit

inside the pipe and slow down the flow of
water, creating a pressure difference from
one end to the other. In a similar way, the
resistance in the electric circuit resists the
flow of electricity.
An electric current is defined as the rate of flow of charges.

charge Q
Current = I =
time t
Q = charge, unit: coulomb, C
Or Q = It where: I = current, unit: ampere, A
t = time, unit: second, s
The SI unit of electric current is the ampere (A).
Current flows from the positive to the negative terminal of a cell or battery through a circuit.
Worked example
When the circuit shown is closed for 5s, 10 C of
charge flows through the lamp. Calculate the current
I flowing through the lamp.
Solution
charge Q 10 C
Current = I = = = 2A
time t 5s
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TEST YOURSELF 5.1
1. A conductor carries a current of 4 A in an electrical circuit.

Calculate the charge that flows through a point in 40 s.
2. A current of 0.5 A flows in a circuit.
How long does it take for 100 C to flow past a given point in the circuit?
3. The current in an electric heater is 10 A. It is switched on for five minutes.
How much charge flows through the heater.
The source of electrical energy of an electric circuit is a cell, a battery or a power supply as
shown in Figure 3(a), (b) and (c) respectively.
Figure 3(a): a cell Figure 3(b): a battery = a group of cells

Figure 3(c): power supply
A cell converts chemical energy into electrical energy.
A group of cells connected end-to-end is called a battery.
Measurement of Electric Current

An ammeter is used to measure electric current.
An ammeter has a positive (+) terminal, usually red coloured, and

a negative (-) terminal, usually black coloured. The positive terminal
of the ammeter is connected to the positive terminal of the cell or Figure 4: Ammeter connected in series
battery. While the negative terminal is connected to the negative terminal of the cell or battery.
An ammeter is always connected in series in a circuit as shown in Figure 4.
TEST YOURSELF 5.2
1. Draw the circuit diagram for Figure 4 above and indicate the direction of the current flow.
2. What do you understand by a current of 2 A?
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DID YOU KNOW…
André-Marie Ampère (1775-1836) was a French physicist and mathematician

who invented numerous applications, such as the electrical telegraph. His
name endures in everyday life in the ampere, the unit for measuring electric
current.
ACTIVITY 5.1 – Measuring electric current and relating current

to brightness
Materials needed:
Battery, two bulbs, an ammeter, a switch and connecting wires
Procedure:
1. Set up the circuit as shown in Figure 5(a).
2. Close the circuit and measure the current displayed by the

ammeter.
• Observe the brightness of the bulb. Figure 5(a)
• How do we call such type of circuit (open or closed)?
• Draw the equivalent circuit by using symbols.
3. Switch off the circuit.
• What do you observe?
• How do we call such types of circuits (open or closed)?

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4. Now, set up the second circuit as shown in Figure 5(b).
5. Close the circuit and measure the current.

• Observe the brightness of the bulbs.
• Draw the equivalent circuit by using symbols.
Figure 5(b)

• What can you conclude from your results?
The electric current is obtained from the battery which causes the charges in a circuit to move
by providing an electromotive force. The next section will elaborate more on this idea.
Electromotive Force (E.M.F.)

We are now going to refer back to the water flow analogy mentioned earlier and use it to explain
electromotive force.
Consider Figure 6.
Figure 6
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Just as the pump pushes (that is, provides energy to) the water for it to move out at high
pressure, similarly the battery pushes (provides energy to) the charges for them to move out of
the positive terminal.
Definition of E.M.F.
The e.m.f. of a battery is defined as the work done per unit charge moved round a complete
circuit.
work done W
e.m.f. = E = or W = QE
charge flowing Q

Where: W = work done (J), Q = charge flowing (C), E = e.m.f (volt, V)
The SI unit of e.m.f. is the volt (V).

Another unit of e.m.f. is the joule per coulomb (J/C).
One volt is equal to one joule per coulomb (J/C), that is, 1 V = 1 J/C.
Note: e.m.f. is not a force.
The electromotive force of a source represents the energy supplied by the source to 1 C of
charge in a circuit. Now, since energy cannot be destroyed, what happens to the energy of the
charges? The answer lies in the concept of potential difference that will be discussed in the next
section.
Potential Difference
To get a better idea of what potential difference represents in a circuit, it may be useful to refer
back to the analogy between water flow and electric current.
Figure 7
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In the above example, for water to be able to flow from point B to point A, the water at B must
be at a high pressure while the water at A must be at a low pressure. This pressure difference
provides the energy needed for water to flow between the two points.
Similarly, for current to flow between two points in a circuit (that is, for charges to move) there
must be a potential difference between the two points in the circuit so that charges can move
from one point to another (that is, for current to flow).
The Formula for Potential Difference

The potential difference between two points in a circuit is defined as the work done from
electrical to other forms per unit charge moved between the two points.
work done W
potential difference = V =
charge flowing Q
W = work done (joule, J)
Or W = QV where: Q = charge flowing (coulombs, C)
V = potential difference (volts, V)

The SI unit of potential difference is the volt (V).
A potential difference of 5 V means that 5 J of work is done when one coulomb of charge
is moved between two points in a circuit.
DID YOU KNOW…
Italian physicist Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta

(1745-1827) was a pioneer of electricity and power, who is
credited as the inventor of the voltaic pile (now known as the
dry cell). The volt is named in his honour.
Measurement of Potential Difference (or Voltage)

A voltmeter is used to measure the potential difference, or voltage, between two points in an
electrical circuit.
In order to measure the potential difference across a device, the voltmeter must always be
connected in parallel to that device.
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Figure 8
An e.m.f. of 3 V for the battery means that 3 J of energy is supplied by the battery per coulomb of
charge. Thus, electromotive force represents energy supplied to every charge flowing through
the battery.
A potential difference of 3 V for the lamp means that 3 J of work is done per coulomb of
charge moved across the lamp. Thus, potential difference represents energy used by every
charge moving across two points in the (external) circuit.
Using the formula W = QV to solve problems
Worked example
Question:
Calculate the work done in moving a charge of 6 C through a potential difference of

30 V in an electrical circuit.
Answer:
Work done = charge × potential difference = 6 C × 30 V = 180 J.
TEST YOURSELF 5.3
1. The potential difference between the ends of a conductor is 12 V. How much electrical
energy is converted to other forms of energy in the conductor when 100 C of charge flows
through it?
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2. What is the potential difference between two points in an electrical circuit if 2 C of charge
needs 4 J of energy to move between them?
3. A 12 V car battery is connected to a lamp for 1 minute. A current of 2 A flows through the
lamp. Calculate:
(i) The charge flowing through the lamp
(ii) The energy used by the lamp
4. A battery of e.m.f. 12 V is connected to an electrical component through which a current of

4 A flows for 20 s.
(i) What is meant by an e.m.f. of 12 V?
(ii) What is the work done by the battery?
ACTIVITY 5.2 – Measuring potential difference and comparing

brightness of bulbs
Materials needed:
2 cells of 1.5 V each, 2 bulbs, one voltmeter, one switch and connecting wires.
Figure 9(a)
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1. Set up the circuit as shown in Figure 9(a).

(a) How is the voltmeter connected?
(b) Observe the brightness of the bulb.
2. Record the voltmeter reading.

(a) What does this value indicate?
(b) Draw the equivalent circuit using electrical symbols.
3. Now, connect the second bulb in parallel with the first bulb as shown in Figure 9 (b).
(a) Observe the brightness of the bulbs.
Figure 9(b)
4. Record the voltmeter reading.
(a) What does this value indicate?
(b) Draw the equivalent circuit using electrical symbols.
(c) What do you conclude from this experiment?
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DID YOU KNOW…
Different sources of electrical energy have different values of electromotive force.

Typical voltage of different sources of electrical energy are shown in Table 2.
Table 2
Dry cell 1.5 V
Car battery 12 V
Mobile phone 4.7 V

battery
Mains supply 240 V

(from an electrical
power socket)
Lightning Approximately 300 000 V

(300 kV); up to a million
volts
You may recall from Grade 7 that some materials conduct electricity better than other materials.
But why are some materials good conductors of electricity and some are poor conductors?
In the next section, we will discuss about the reason for this in more details.
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Resistance
Materials are generally classified as conductors or insulators of electricity.
Relatively little electrical energy is needed for charges to move through conductors whereas
even considerable amounts of electrical energy may not be sufficient to move charges through
insulators.
The property of materials responsible for the difference in energy needed to drive an electric
current through them is called ‘electrical resistance’.
Once more, the analogy between electricity and water flow can help us understand this
property in more detail.
Figure 10
As illustrated in the above figure, the presence of dirt and other particles can oppose the flow
of water in a water pipe. A greater number of such particles provides a greater opposition to
the flow of water.
Similarly, the property called (electrical) resistance of a material opposes or resists the flow of
an electric current (charges) through the material. Thus, a material of higher resistance has a
greater opposition to the flow of an electric current.
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DID YOU KNOW…
Good conductors have a low resistance which permits easy flow of a current through them.
On the other hand, poor conductors have a high/large resistance which strongly opposes the
flow of current through them.
Definition of Resistance
Consider the circuit which consists of a cell connected
in series with a closed switch, an ammeter and a fixed
resistor, R.
A voltmeter is connected across the fixed resistor, R.
Current, I, flows through the circuit. Figure 11

The resistance of a resistor is defined as the ratio of the potential difference across it to
the current flowing through it.
The SI unit of resistance is the ohm (Ω).
Resistance is calculated by using the following formula:
potential difference V
Resistance = R = or V = IR
electric current I
where V is the potential difference (V), I is the electric current (A) and R is the resistance (Ω).
A resistor is a component which limits the flow of current. It can either be connected in series
or in parallel in a circuit.
DID YOU KNOW…
George Ohm (1789-1854), was a German physicist and mathematician. As

a school teacher, Ohm began his research with the new electrochemical
cell, invented by Italian scientist Alessandro Volta. He found that there is a
direct proportionality relationship between the potential difference of a
conductor and the current flowing through it. He named it Ohm’s law. The
unit of resistance, that is the ohm (Ω), is named in his honour.
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ACTIVITY 5.3 – Measuring resistance
Materials needed:
A battery, a switch, an ammeter, a fixed resistor, a voltmeter
1. Connect the circuit including the fixed resistor and as shown below.
Figure 12 (a)
2. Close the switch.
3. (i) Record the ammeter reading.
(ii) Record the voltmeter reading.
4. Calculate the resistance of the resistor.
5. Open the switch.
Figure 12 (b)
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6. Now, replace the fixed resistor by another resistor having greater resistance.
7. Close the switch and record the ammeter and the voltmeter readings.
(a) Calculate the resistance of the resistor.
(b) What can you conclude from this experiment?
Worked example
A 10 V battery is connected in series with a resistor of resistance 20 Ω.
What current flows in the circuit?
Calculate the current I that flows through the lamp.
Solution: Using the formula

V 10 1
V = IR I = = = A = 0.5 A
R 20 2
TEST YOURSELF 5.4
1. What is the potential difference across a resistor of resistance of 40 Ω if a current of 2 A flows

through it?
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2. What is the resistance of a component if potential difference of 12 V causes a current of 2 A

to flow through it?
3. Consider the circuit in Figure 13 (a) and answer the questions that follow.
Figure 13 (a)
Voltmeter reading Ammeter reading

Figure 13 (b)
(a) Draw a circuit diagram representing the above circuit.
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(b) What physical quantity is the voltmeter measuring?
(c) Write down the values shown by each meter.
(d) Calculate the resistance of the bulb.
(e) If the current flows for one minute, calculate:
(i) the amount of charge flowing through the bulb,
(ii) the energy transferred through the bulb.
DID YOU KNOW…
There are two types of resistors: fixed and variable.
Fixed resistors come in different ratings, shapes,

sizes and colours as shown in the figure beside.
A rheostat is a variable resistor. By changing

the resistance you can control the current
flowing through it.
Figure 14
Resistors are available commercially in standard values of resistance only. Often, however,
specific values of resistance are required for certain specific applications but these values
of resistance are not available. In such cases, resistors need to be combined to achieve the
required value of resistance.
But how are resistors combined and how are the values of the combinations calculated?
We will study this in the next section.
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Circuit Diagrams: Series and Parallel Circuits

Electrical components can either be connected in parallel or in series in a circuit.
The following activities will help you understand series and parallel circuits.
Before making any change to the circuit, the switch must always be open.
ACTIVITY 5.3a – Investigating series circuits
Materials needed:
Battery, switch, ammeter, two identical bulbs, voltmeter, connecting wires.
1. Connect the circuit as shown below by placing the ammeter at point A and close the
switch.
Figure 15 (a)
2. Note down the ammeter reading.
3. Now connect the ammeter at point B as shown below and close the switch.
Figure 15 (b)
5. Connect the ammeter at point C and close the switch.
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Figure 15 (c)
7. Comment on the values of the currents measured at points A and C.
8. Connect the voltmeter across each bulb in turn and note down the potential difference
across each one.
Figure 15 (d)
9. What can you conclude from this experiment about:
(i) the current at different points in a series circuit?
(ii) the potential difference across each bulb (component) in a series circuit?
10. Remove one bulb and close the switch. What happens to the other bulb?
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Figure 15 (e)
11. Replace the first bulb and remove the second bulb. Close the switch. What happens to
the first bulb?
12. What can you conclude about a series connection from the steps (10) and (11) above?
ACTIVITY 5.3b – Investigating parallel circuits
Materials needed:
Battery, switch, ammeter, two identical bulbs, voltmeter, connecting wires.
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 16(a) by placing the voltmeter in parallel with the
first bulb and close the switch.
Figure 16(a)
2. Note down the ammeter and voltmeter readings.
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3. Now, connect the circuit as shown in Figure 61(b) by placing the voltmeter in parallel to
the other bulb and close the switch.
Figure 16 (b)
4. Note down the ammeter and voltmeter readings.
5. What can you conclude from this experiment about the potential difference across each
bulb (component) in a parallel circuit?
6. What do you think will happen if you remove one bulb?
Figure 16 (c)
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7. Replace the first bulb and remove the second bulb. Close the switch.
What happens to the first bulb?
8. What can you conclude about a parallel connection from the steps (6) and (7) above?
As you have clearly seen from the previous activity, series and parallel circuits are different in
many ways. The following table lists the main differences between both types of circuits.
Series circuits Parallel circuits
e.m.f.
e.m.f.
• Electric current through each • Potential difference across each

component in a series circuit is the same. component is the same.
• Potential difference across each • Electric current along each branch/
component is different depending on component may be different depending
the resistances of the components. on the resistances of the components.
• A series circuit has one path for current to • A parallel circuit has two or more paths
flow. for current to flow through.
The sum of the p.ds across each bulb is The sum of the currents through each
equal to the total p.d. of the circuit. path is equal to the total current that
flows from the source.
V = V1 + V 2 I = I1 + I2
The p.d. across each bulb may be different The current in each path may be different
but the current through each bulb is the but the p.d. across each bulb is the same.
same.
• If one of the bulb is removed, the current • If one bulb is removed, nothing happens
flow to the remaining bulbs would be to the other light bulbs in a parallel
interrupted because the circuit is broken circuit because the other light bulbs still
or becomes incomplete. remain connected to the voltage source
(closed circuit).
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FIND OUT
The following figures show 1.5 V cells connected in different arrangements.

Calculate the total e.m.f for each of the combinations shown.
(a) (b) (c)
After having learnt about the basics of series and parallel circuits, you will now learn how resistors
are connected in such circuits and how their resistances are then combined and calculated.
Combined Resistance for Resistors in Series and in Parallel

Resistors can either be connected in series or in parallel in circuits.
Resistors are connected in series by placing Resistors are connected in parallel by placing
them one after the other end-to-end as the resistors across each other as shown
shown below. below.
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Consider the circuit following diagrams where three resistors are connected in series and in
parallel respectively. The EMF of the battery is V and the ammeter which is connected in series
with the resistors measures the current flow in the circuit.
Resistors in series Resistors in parallel
The total resistance (combined or effective The total resistance R is given by the equation:
resistance) R is given by the equation:
1 1 1 1
= + +
R = R1 + R2 + R3 R R R R
1 2 3
If the resistance of each resistors is different, The total current, flowing in the circuit is
then the e.m.f., V, is equal to the sum of the equal to the sum of currents flowing through
potential differences, V1, V2 and V3 across each resistor.
each resistor.
If all the three resistors have the same
If all the three resistors have the same resistance, then the current through each
resistance, then, the p.d., across each resistor resistor is equal.
is equal.
V = V1 = V2 = V3 = e.m.f. I = I1 + I2 + I3
The same current flows through each resistor The potential difference V is the same across
and throughout the circuit. each resistor irrespective of the resistance of
the resistors.
(1) When resistors are connected in series, the combined resistance increases in the circuit and
thus lowering the current.
(2) When resistors are arranged in parallel, the total resistance in the circuit is lower as compared
to their series circuit and hence increasing the current.
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Worked example
1. Three resistors of resistance 2Ω, 3Ω

and 5Ω respectively are connected
in series with a battery, an ammeter
and a switch as shown.

If the potential difference across
the 3Ω resistor is 4.5 V, calculate:
(i) the combined resistance of all the resistors,
(ii) the current flowing through each resistor,

(iii) the potential difference across each resistor,

(iv) the total potential difference of the circuit.
Solution:
(i)
Since the resistors are connected in series, using the formula for series combination
gives the total resistance R as:
R = R1 + R2 + R3
=2Ω + 3Ω + 5Ω = 10Ω
(ii)
Using the formula V = IR the current I is
V 4.5
I = = = 1.5 A
R 3
Since the resistors are connected in series, the current through each one is the
same, that is 1.5 A
(iii)
Using the formula V = IR ,
P.d. across the 2Ω resistor 1.5 x 2 = 3.0 V
P.d. across the 3Ω resistor = 4.5V
P.d. across the 4Ω resistor 1.5 x 5 = 7.5V
(iv)
Total p.d. = sum of p.d. across each resistor in series
= 3.0V + 4.5V + 7.5V = 15V
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Worked example
e.m.f. = 12 V
2. Two resistors of resistance 2Ω and 3Ω

respectively are connected in parallel.
This parallel arrangement is connected
to the terminals of a cell of emf 12V, an
ammeter and a switch.
Calculate:

(i) the combined resistance of the resistors,
(ii) the current flowing through each resistor,

(iii) the potential difference across each resistor.

Solution:
(i)
Since the resistors are connected in parallel, using the formula for parallel
combination gives the total resistance as:
1 1 1 1 1 5
= + = + = Ω
R R1 R2 2 3 6
6
R= = 1.2 Ω
5
(ii)
Using
V 12
I2 = = = 6A, for resistor 2 Ω
R2 2
Using
V 12
I3 = = = 4A, for resistor 3 Ω
R3 3
(iii)
Noting that each resistor is connected directly across the battery, the p.d. across
each one is equal to the emf across the battery, that is 12V.
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DID YOU KNOW…
Electric eels can produce strong electric shocks of around 500V!
They use this ability to hunt and to protect themselves too.
TEST YOURSELF 5.5
1. A cell has an emf of 1.5V. It is connected in series with two resistors of resistance 4Ω and 6Ω
connected each as shown in the figure. e.m.f. = 1.5 V

Calculate the:
(a) combined resistance,

(b) current flowing through the circuit,
(c) potential difference across each resistor.
2. Three resistors of resistance 4Ω, 6Ω and 12Ω are connected in parallel. This parallel
arrangement is connected in series with a resistance of 1Ω and a cell of emf 1.5V.
(a) Draw the circuit.
(b) Calculate (i) the combined resistance in the parallel arrangement.
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(ii) The current in the circuit.
(iii) The potential difference across the parallel arrangement.
(iv) current through each of the resistors in parallel.
3. A circuit is set up as shown in the diagram.

e.m.f. = 3 V
(a) What is the value of the resistor R?
(b) Calculate the p.d across each resistor.
4. A battery consists of 3 cells of 1.5V arranged in series. Two identical bulbs are connected in
series together with the battery as shown in the diagram. The resistance of one lamp is 150 Ω.
Calculate:

(a) the e.m.f. of the battery,
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(b) the potential difference across each bulb,
(c) the current through the bulbs.
5. A battery consists of two cells of emf 12V. This is connected to an ammeter and 2 identical
bulbs of 100 Ω each are connected across a voltmeter as shown in the figure.
(a) Write down the voltmeter reading across the bulbs.
Calculate the combined resistance of the circuit.
(b) What is the total current flowing through the circuit?
(c) Calculate the current through each bulb.
DID YOU KNOW…
The type of electricity that we get from cells and batteries are
known as direct current (d.c.).
However, electrical energy is generated and distributed in a

different form called alternating current (a.c.). For example,
a television set or the washing machine at your home uses
alternating current. The reason for using alternating current
is mostly because its transmission across large distances
and distribution at different voltages is more practical and
efficient. In Grade 11 you will learn more about alternating St Louis Power station
current.
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Summary of unit
In this unit you have learnt about
• An electric current is defined as the rate of flow of charge.

• The unit of charge is the coulomb (C).
• The unit of electric current is the ampere (A).
• The formula used to calculate electric current is current = charge/time
• An ammeter is used to measure electric current and is always connected in series in a
circuit.
• As the number of bulbs in series increases in a circuit, the brightness of each bulb decreases.
• Potential difference is the amount of energy required to move a charge of 1 coulomb
between two points in a circuit.
• The e.m.f. of a source is numerically equal to the work done per unit charge moved
round a complete circuit.
• The units of potential difference and e.m.f. are volt (V) or joule per coulomb (J/C).
• Potential difference is measured with a voltmeter and is always connected in parallel
in a circuit.
• The brightness of bulbs conected in parallel in a circuit is same because the potential
difference across each bulb is same (provided similar bulbs have been used).
• Resistance of a resistor is defined as the ratio of the potential difference across it to the
current flowing through it.
• Resistance can be calculated by using the formula V= IR.
• Components in a circuit can be either connected in series or parallel.
• In series circuits, the electric current is the same throughout the circuit whereas the
potential difference across each component may be different.
• In parallel circuits, the electric current may be different across components (depending
on the resistances of the components) whereas the potential difference across each
component is the same.
• The formula used to calculate the combined resistance of resistors in series:
R = R1 + R2 + R3 where R is the total resistance and R1, R2 and R3 are respective
resistances.
• The formula used to calculate the combined resistance of resistors in parallel:
1 1 1 1
= + + where R is the effective resistance and R1 , R2 and R3
R R1 R2 R3
are respective resistances.
185
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P5
• Unit 5 • Electricity
Unit
ELECTRICITY
Electricity
circuit symbols
does not flow through flows through
study of
represented by
made up of flows in in the flow of
Insulators conductors connected with circuit components circuits Current, I charge Q
measured in
electromotive force, generates potential difference, V coulomb (C)

causes flow of
e.m.f.
has unit measured with formula

measured with has unit calculated as
ampere (A) ammeter charge Q
resistor =
voltmeter volt (V) work done W
time T
=
charge flowing Q
connected in connected in
parallel connected in has

series
resistance, R
series parallel
total resistance total resistance
R = R1 + R2 + R3
calculated as unit
1 1 1 1
= + + potential difference V
R R2 R3 = ohm ( Ω)
R1 current I
Electricity Unit
Unit
P5
1
WORK OUT
1. Which of the following particles is negatively charged?
A Proton B Neutron C Electron D Nucleus
2. A charge of 120 C flows through a circuit in 1 minute. Calculate the amount of current
flowing through the circuit?
A 0.2 A B 2 A C 2.2 A D 120 A
3. The unit of electric current is the

A Volt B Ohm C Ampere D Coulomb
4. Which instrument is used to measure the current flowing in a circuit?
A Analogue Voltmeter B Resistor C Digital Ammeter D Digital Voltmeter

5. A wire has a current of 4 A passing through it. How much charge passes a point in the wire
in 2 minutes?
A 480 C B 8 C C 0.5 C D 240 C
6. Which quantity can be measured in joule/coulomb?
A Charge B Potential difference C Resistance D Current

7. Which of the following is the electrical symbol for a bulb?
A B C D
8. The figure below illustrates a battery, a switch, a bulb and a meter X connected as shown.
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What does the instrument labeled meter X measure?
A The amount of energy stored in the cell
B The resistance of the battery
C The current flowing through the bulb
D The potential difference across the bulb
9. Which of the following describes the electromotive force of a cell?
A The total energy used to drive unit charge round the complete circuit.
B The energy used to drive charges in a circuit.
C The energy used to drive unit charge between two points.

D The rate of flow of charge
10. A battery drives 100 C of charge round a circuit. The energy transferred is 900 J.
What is the electromotive force of the battery?

A 90000 V B 9 V C 0.9 V D 9000V
11. Which quantity has the same units as electromotive force?
A Resistance B Current C Potential difference D Charge
12. The circuit below shows several ammeter readings in a circuit.
Which ammeter is showing a faulty reading?

e.m.f.
13. Which circuit can be used to find the resistance of the bulb?
A. B.
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C. D.
14. When a potential difference of 2 V is applied across a resistor, 10 J of energy is dissipated

as heat. How much charge flows through the resistor?
A 0.2 C B 5 C C 20 C D 200 C
15. What is the current in a 5 Ω resistor when the potential difference between the ends of
the resistor is 2.5 V?
A 2 A B 12.5 A C 0.5 A D 125 A

16. The diagram shows a circuit consisting of three resistors connected in parallel between
points P and Q. What is the effective resistance of the three resistors?
A 110 Ω B 12 Ω C 0.08 Ω D 36.7 Ω
17. What do you understand by a potential difference of 5 V?
A 5 J of energy is needed to drive 1 C of charge round a complete circuit
B 5 J of energy is needed to drive 1 C of charge between 2 given points in circuit
C 1 J of energy is needed to drive 5 C of charge round a complete circuit
D 1 J of energy is needed to drive 5 C of charge between 2 given points in circuit
18. A battery lights all four lamps as shown in the circuit diagram.
Which lamp, if removed, would cause all the lamps to go out?
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19. The diagram shows part of an electric circuit.

What is the effective resistance between X and Y?
A 100 Ω B 200 Ω C 0.02 Ω D 50 Ω
20. What will happen to the effective resistance of three resistors which are arranged either
in series or in parallel with each other?
In series In parallel
A increase increase
B increase decrease
C decrease increase
D decrease decrease
e.m.f. = 3 V
1. Two dry cells are connected in series with each other to make
a battery of e.m.f. 3 V. The battery is then connected to a lamp
as shown. When the circuit is switched on, 12 C of charge
passes through the circuit in 10 seconds.
(a) What do you understand by an e.m.f. of 3 V?
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(b) What amount of energy is transformed into electrical energy?
(c) Calculate the current in the circuit.
2. A battery maintains a current of 1.2 A in the circuit

shown.
(a) Calculate the potential difference across
(i) AB (ii) CD (iii) BC
(b) What is the time taken for a charge of 30 C to flow through the 2 Ω resistor?

(c) What is the electromotive force of the battery?
(d) How would you connect an ammeter to measure the current in the circuit and a
voltmeter to measure the potential difference across AB? Draw a circuit diagram to
show this.
3. The circuit diagram shows a 2 Ω and an 8 Ω resistor connected to a battery of e.m.f. 4 V.

Calculate:
(a) the potential difference across
(i) the 2 Ω resistor,
(ii) the 8 Ω resistor;
(b) the current flowing in
(i) the 2 Ω resistor,
(ii) the 8 Ω resistor;
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(c) The current from the battery
(d) The combined resistance in the circuit.
4. For each of the combinations of resistors below, calculate the effective resistance between
points X and Y.
(a) (b)
EXERCISES
(c) (d)
EXERCISES

OF UNIT
UNIT
5. A 6 Ω resistor and a resistor of unknown resistance R are connected in series with an

END
ammeter and a 4 V battery. The ammeter reads 0.25 A.

END OF
(a) What is the charge flowing through the ammeter in 1 minute?
(b) What is the potential difference across the 6 Ω resistor?
(c) What is the potential difference across the resistor R?
(d) What is the current through the resistor R?
(e) What is the value of the resistance of the resistor R?
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1
6. The figure shows part of a circuit. The current through the 3 Ω resistor is 2 A.
(a) What is the potential difference across the 3 Ω resistor?
(b) What is the potential difference across the 6 Ω resistor?

(c) What is the value of the current I1?
(d) What is the value of the current I?
(e) What is the potential difference across the 4Ω resistor?
(f ) What is the potential difference across XY?
(g) What is the effective resistance between X and Y?
7. The diagram shows identical lamps X and Y connected in series with a battery. The lamps
light with normal brightness.
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(a) Do the lamps X and Y light up with equal brightness?
(b) A third lamp Z is connected across lamp X in the circuit diagram.
(i) What happens to the brightness of lamp Y?
(ii) What happens to the brightness of lamp X?
8. A number of 6 Ω resistors is available to you. Draw diagrams to show how you would
arrange the resistors in order to obtain a total resistance of
3
(a) 18 Ω (b) Ω (c) 14 Ω (d) 6 Ω (e) 4 Ω
GROUP WORK (PROJECT WORK)
The photo on the right shows an outstandingly brilliant scientist called

Nikola Tesla. He has his contribution in the way electricity reaches our
homes and most of the communication devices that we use.
Prepare a short PowerPoint presentation of not more than 10 slides to

show some of his major inventions. You can work in groups of maximum 5
pupils.
WEBLINK (Electric current)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8gvJzrjwjds
WEBLINK (Structure of atom)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lP57gEWcisY
WEBLINK (e.m.f. and potential difference)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v7XQs2sKsKU
194
Blood
Measurement
Circulatory
in Science Unit
System Unit
B1
1
Unit
Blood Circulatory System B1
Learning Outcomes

• State that the human circulatory system consists of the blood, the heart and the blood vessels
• Show an awareness that the heart is a pumping organ distributing blood
throughout the body
• List the four main components of blood as plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells
and platelets
• Outline briefly the function(s) of red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and plasma
• Compare the structure of the different blood vessels: arteries, veins and capillaries
• Relate the functions of different blood vessels to their structures
• Define a pulse and locate a pulse point
• Measure the pulse rate at rest and after exercise
• Investigate the effect of physical activity on the pulse rate
• List examples of cardiovascular diseases such as stroke and heart attack
• Show an awareness of the different factors that contribute to cardiovascular diseases
and their preventive measures
• Interpret data from graphs related to cardiovascular diseases
In Grade 7 and 8, you learnt about different organ systems in living organisms, such as the respiratory
and digestive systems. In this unit, you will learn about the blood circulatory system, which is the
main transport system in the human body. The main functions of the blood circulatory system are
the transport of substances and protection of our body against diseases caused by germs.
Blood Circulatory System

The human blood circulatory system consists of three main components, as shown in Figure 1.
Blood circulatory system
Blood Blood vessels Heart
Figure 1: Main components of human blood

circulatory system
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tinU Blood Circulatory System
Unit
B11
You will now learn about each component of the blood circulatory system.
The Heart
The heart is a very important organ. It pumps blood into blood vessels to all parts of the body.
It is a muscular organ which is approximately the size of a clenched fist.
Let’s start with this simple activity to locate the position of the heart in the human body.
ACTIVITY 1.1 - Locating the position of the heart
By following the instructions and answering the questions below, you will be able to locate the
position of your heart.
1. Observe carefully your teacher who will show the chest region of the body.
2. Place one hand in the middle of your chest.
3. Then move slightly to the left until you feel a movement in your chest. This is the
location of your heart.
1. Describe the type of movement you feel in your chest.

_______________________________________________
________________________________________________
2. Draw the exact location of the heart in Figure 2.

_______________________________________________
________________________________________________
3. Discuss and predict what are represented by the blue and

red structures in Figure 2.
Blue: ___________________________________________
Red: ___________________________________________
Figure 2: Blood circulatory system in human
196
Unit
Blood Circulatory System Unit
B1
1
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• The heart is located in the middle of the chest,slightly leaned to the left.
• The heart pumps blood into blood vessels to all parts of the body.
The Blood
You might have noticed a red fluid coming out of an open wound. This fluid is known as blood.
When blood is observed under a microscope, many different types of cells are seen in a liquid
medium, known as plasma.
Figure 3 shows that blood consists of approximately 55% plasma, 41% red blood cells and
4% of white blood cells and platelets.
Plasma (about 55%)

White blood cells and
platelets (about 4%)
Red blood cells

(about 41%)
Figure 3: Composition of blood
Blood Plasma
Blood plasma is a pale yellowish liquid consisting mainly of water and dissolved substances
such as glucose, salts, gases (e.g. oxygen), proteins and waste substances. These dissolved
substances are transported in the body.
Blood cells and platelets

Blood cells and platelets make up about 45% of the blood. Red blood cells are the most
abundant (41%). There are also white blood cells and fragments of cells known as platelets.
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Unit
B11
Red Blood Cells (RBCs)

Activities 1.2 and 1.3 will allow you to learn about the structure and function of red blood cells.
ACTIVITY 1.2 - Examining blood under a microscope
You will now observe the human blood under a light microscope with the help of your teacher.
Describe your observation of the human blood smear, as seen under the microscope.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
Figure 4(a) shows how human blood appears under the light microscope and 4(b) shows the
enlarged image of a red blood cell.
Red blood Red blood

cells cell
Figure 4 (a) Figure 4 (b)
TEST YOURSELF
1. By referring to Figure 4(b), draw a red blood cell in the space below. Make sure that
your diagram is larger than in Figure 4(b).
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Unit
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1
2. Using a ruler, measure and record the diameter of your drawing across its widest part.
Diameter of a red blood cell in your drawing = ___________________ mm
3. Measure and record the diameter of a red blood cell in Figure 4(b).
Diameter of a red blood cell in Figure 4(b) = ___________________ mm
4. Given that magnification is defined as the number of times that an image appears
bigger than the object, calculate the magnification of your drawing using the formula
given. Show your working.
Diameter of your drawing

Magnification of the drawing of the red blood cell =
Diameter of red blood cell in Figure 4(b)
Magnification of the drawing = ___________________
ACTIVITY 1.3 - E
xploring the structure and main function
of red blood cells (RBCs)
From the previous activity, you have been able to recognise and draw a simple diagram of a red
blood cell. In Activity 1.3, you will learn about the structure and the main function of red blood
cells.
Figure 5 is a labelled diagram of a cross section of a RBC and Figure 6 is a labelled diagram of a
typical animal cell.
Cell membrane
Cytoplasm containing the red pigment haemoglobin
Flattened (concave) shape
Figure 5: Cross section of a red blood cell
Cell membrane
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Figure 6: Cross section of a typical animal cell
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Unit
B11
Observe the diagrams in Figures 5 and 6 to answer the following questions.
(a) Compare a red blood cell and a typical animal cell based on the features given in the
following table. Then fill the table accordingly.
Table 1: Comparison between a RBC and a typical animal cell
Features Typical animal cell Red blood cell
Shape of cell
Nucleus
Haemoglobin
(b) State the features that are common to both cells, based on Table 1.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
(c) The red pigment (haemoglobin), found in RBCs, binds and carries oxygen throughout the
body.
On the basis of what you learnt in activities 1.2 and 1.3, suggest how the structure of a red
blood cell is adapted to its main function of carrying oxygen around the body.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
1. Blood consists of plasma, RBCs, WBCs and platelets.

2. Red blood cells have red pigment haemoglobin, which carries oxygen around the body.
3. RBCs are adapted to carry oxygen as follows:
• The cytoplasm has haemoglobin.
• There is no nucleus in RBCs and thus can accomodate more haemoglobin.
• RBCs have a flattened shape with biconcave sides that gives a large surface area,
allowing oxygen to diffuse rapidly in and out.
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White Blood Cells (WBCs)
There are fewer white blood cells in the blood compared to red blood cells. They are also larger
than red blood cells and have a nucleus.
Figures 7 and 8 show two different types of WBCs.
Figure 7 Figure 8
White blood cells are the major components of the body’s immune system. WBCs protect the body
against diseases by killing germs (very small organisms which cause diseases).
How white blood cells kill germs?

• White blood cells as shown in Figure 7 engulf and digest germs such as bacteria
and viruses which enter the body.
• WBCs as shown in Figure 8 produce antibodies which destroy or help in the
destruction of germs.
DID YOU KNOW…
Antibodies are proteins that can bind to

foreign bodies (e.g bacteria and viruses)
to destroy them.
Platelets
You have studied the different types of blood cells earlier in this unit. Platelets are small cell
fragments found in blood.
In Activity 1.4, you will learn the importance of platelets in the body.
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ACTIVITY 1.4 - Exploring the importance of platelets in the body
Read the extract below and answer the questions which follow.
Ronaldo falls while playing football and injures his knee. Blood
was oozing from his wound as shown in Figure 9. After some
time, he notices that the bleeding has stopped, and a dark red
clot has formed on the surface of the injury.
Figure 9: Ronaldo
Suggest what will happen to Ronaldo if the bleeding is not stopped?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
What happened to Ronaldo can be explained as follows:
1. While playing, he fell on his knees and was injured.

2. The tiny blood vessels of the damaged skin broke open.
3. Blood started oozing from blood vessels causing bleeding.
4. Platelets gathered at the site of injury and formed a blood clot.
5. The blood clot stopped the bleeding.
Importance of blood clotting:
• It prevents excessive blood loss from the body when a blood vessel is damaged or
breaks open.
• It also prevents entry of germs or microbes at the site of the wound.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
1. White blood cells protect the body against foreign bodies such as germs by:
(i) engulfing and digesting the germs.
(ii) producing antibodies that destroy or help to destroy germs.
2. Platelets help in blood clotting that stops blood loss and prevents entry of germs in case
of injury.
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Table 2 summarises the blood components and their respective function(s).
Table 2: Functions of blood components
Blood components Function(s)
• Transports digested food (e.g. glucose), waste

Plasma
substances (e.g. urea) and gases (e.g. CO2)
• Have haemoglobin that transports oxygen

Red blood cells
in the body
• Engulf (or envelop) and digest germs such as bacteria
and viruses
White blood cells
• Produce antibodies which destroy or help in
destruction of germs
Platelets • Help in blood clotting
Blood Vessels
As we have seen earlier, blood is transported to all parts of our body through tube-like structures,
known as blood vessels. There are three types of blood vessels, namely (i) arteries, (ii) veins and
(iii) capillaries.
All blood vessels form a continuous tubular system that transports blood throughout the body.
Figure 10 shows how arteries divide to form tiny vessels known as capillaries which eventually join
to form veins.
from heart to heart
capillaries
artery vein
Figure 10
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Structure of blood vessels
Figures 11, 12 and 13 show sections through an artery, a vein and a capillary respectively.
Outer wall Thin layer of muscle

and elastic fibres
Small lumen
Large lumen
Thick layer of
muscle and
Fairly thin outer wall
elastic fibres
Single layer of cells Single layer of cells

Figure 11: An artery Figure 12: A vein
Very small lumen Wall made of a single layer of cell
Figure 13: A capillary
DICTIONARY CORNER
Lumen: central hole in a blood vessel

where blood flows.
In Activity 1.5 you will differentiate between an artery, a vein and a capillary.
ACTIVITY 1.5 - C
omparing the structure of the artery,
vein and capillary
By referring to Figures 11, 12 and 13, compare and contrast the features of each blood vessels as
shown in Table 3 below. Then fill in the table with appropriate word(s) or phrase, as shown in the
example.
Table 3
Features Artery Vein Capillary
Size of lumen small large very small
Thickness of wall
Number of
distinct layers
of wall
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(i) Write down one feature common to all the blood vessels.
__________________________________________________________________________
(ii) Now complete the Venn diagram to show features that are:
(1) common
(2) different among the three types of blood vessels
Artery
Vein Capillary
Functions of blood vessels
Table 4 summarises the functions of the blood vessels.
Table 4
Type of blood vessel Function
Carries blood:
• away from the heart
Artery
• rich in oxygen*
• under high pressure
Carries blood:
• towards the heart
Veins
• rich in carbon dioxide (less oxygen)*
• under low pressure
• Allows exchange of substances between blood and

cells in adjacent tissues. Food and oxygen move out of
Capillaries
capillaries. Carbon dioxide and other waste products
(for e.g. urea) move into capillaries from cells.
DID YOU KNOW…
*A
ll arteries carry oxygenated blood except the pulmonary artery
and all veins carry deoxygenated blood except, the pulmonary vein.
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Adaptations of the structure of blood vessels to their functions
You have learnt about the different blood vessels, their structure and functions. Now you will relate
the structure of the blood vessels to their respective functions.
Some features of artery related to its functions:

- A small lumen maintains a high pressure of blood so that blood reaches all
parts of the body.
- A thick wall, consisting of muscle and elastic fibres, allows stretching
or recoiling of arteries to maintain blood flow.
- A thick wall accomodates blood with high pressure.
Some features of vein related to its functions:

- The wall is thinner and less muscular than arteries as veins carry blood at low pressure.
- Valves as shown in Figure 14 prevent backflow of blood in veins.
- The large lumen allows blood to flow under low pressure.
- The thin wall allows the vessel to squeeze under the action of adjacent skeletal
muscles so that local pressure is set in veins.
Valves open
allowing blood Valves close to
to move up prevent blood from
flowing backward
Figure 14
Features of a capillary related to its function

- The one-cell thick wall of a capillary allows the exchange of substances between
blood and surrounding cells
- There are small gaps between cells lining a capillary. This allows white blood cells to
squeeze through these gaps from blood and hence move towards infected tissues.
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1
Pulse
At the beginning of this unit, the heart was introduced as the organ of the circulatory system
which pumps blood around the body. When the muscles of the heart contract, blood is pumped
out of the heart into arteries to all organs of the body.
A heart beat occurs every time the muscles of the heart contract.
When blood is pumped into an artery, its wall stretches and relaxes to maintain the flow of blood
under high pressure. The stretching and relaxation of the artery walls is known as a pulse.
Each heart beat gives rise to a pulse.
ACTIVITY 1.6 - L
ocating a pulse
A pulse can be located at a few specific sites in the body.
One is on the wrist, as shown in Figure 15. The pulse is located

by placing two fingers (index and middle fingers) at the base of
Figure 15
the thumb in the region of the wrist. The two fingers are pressed
slightly until a pulse is felt.
Another is at the side of the neck, just under the jaw as shown in
Figure 16. The pulse is located by placing two fingers (index and
middle fingers) under the angle of the jaw using very light pressure.
Figure 16
ACTIVITY 1.7 - C
ounting and comparing the number of pulses
in one minute
You can work in pairs for this experiment.

Materials: Toothpicks, modelling clay and a stopwatch
Procedure:
(a) Press the clay into the shape of a small coin and
place a toothpick gently into the clay as shown in
steps 1 and 2 respectively. Steps 1 & 2
(b) Using the two fingers as shown in Figure 15, find the point where the pulse is strongest
on the wrist.
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(c) Place the clay with the toothpick on the inside of the wrist, as shown in Figure 17.
Step 3
Figure 17
(d) Observe the toothpick as it moves.
(e) Start a stopwatch and count the number of times the toothpick moves in one minute.
Record your observation in Table 5.
(f ) Repeat the above steps a second time and record your observation in the same table.
(g) Record the sinformation obtained by your classmate.
(h) Then calculate the average pulse rate of each one of you.
The number of pulses per minute is known as the pulse rate.
Table 5
Pulse Rate
Average
Student 1st Reading 2nd Reading
Pulse rate
Student 1 ________________ ________________ ________________
Student 2 ________________ ________________ ________________
(i) Compare your pulse rate with that of your friend, discuss and decide whether everyone in
the classroom has the same pulse rate.
__________________________________________________________________________
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WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
1. A pulse is the result of stretching and recoiling

of an artery every time the heart pumps blood
in an artery. DID YOU KNOW…
2. A pulse may be felt at the wrist region or the
neck region. Pulse rate at rest provides information
about the functioning of the heart.
3. The pulse rate is the number of pulses per
minute. Healthy people and those who are
4. The average pulse rate for an individual aged physically fit have relatively low pulse
rate when at rest.
12-16 years ranges between 60-100 times per
minute, when at rest.
Effect of physical exercise on pulse rate
In the previous activity, you have been able to record your pulse rate at rest and in Activity 1.8, you
will learn how physical exercises affect the pulse rate.
ACTIVITY 1.8 - I nvestigating the effect of physical activity

on pulse rate
You are advised to work in pairs for this activity.
Proceed as follows:
1. Record your resting pulse rate in Table 6.
2. Then perform any strenuous exercise for two minutes.
3. Record your pulse rate immediately after the exercise and at two minutes interval up to ten
minutes. Record all the readings in the same table.
Table 6
No. of pulses per minute
At rest
Immediately after exercise
2 minutes after exercise
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TEST YOURSELF
Using the data from Table 6, answer the following questions.
(i) When is the pulse rate highest?

__________________________________________________________________________
(ii) Suggest why the pulse rate increases.

__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
(iii) How long does it take for pulse rate to be restored back to the resting pulse rate?
__________________________________________________________________________
(iv) What happens to your breathing rate during and after exercise ?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
(v) Using the readings from Table 6, draw a bar chart to represent the pulse rate before and
after the exercise for a period of ten minutes
Pulse rate 120
100
80
60
40
20
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time/minutes
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
1. During exercise, both the pulse rate and breathing rate increase.
2. Pulse rate increases during exercise so that blood rich in oxygen
and nutrients are supplied to muscle tissues for respiration.
3. The breathing rate increases during exercise to supply the body with oxygen
and remove carbon dioxide.
4. After exercising, it takes a few minutes for the pulse rate to be restored to normal.
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DID YOU KNOW…
In addition to physical activities pulse rate or heart rate is affected by many other factors such as
age, weight, health condition, anxiety or stress and drugs.
Cardiovascular Diseases
We have discussed earlier in this unit about the components of the blood circulatory system.
Now you will explore some common diseases related to the blood circulatory system.
A person’s lifestyle may affect the proper functioning of both blood vessels and the heart. This
can lead to cardiovascular diseases, which are non-communicable diseases.
Some common examples of cardiovascular diseases are:
• Heart attack
If the artery which supplies blood to heart muscles is blocked as shown in Figure 18 (b),
it will deprive the heart muscles of oxygen and nutrients. This may lead to a heart
attack.

• Stroke
If an artery supplying nutrients and oxygen to the brain is blocked as shown in
Figure 18(b), it may lead to a stroke. This may cause paralysis of parts or the whole
body.
Fatty
deposit
Figure 18 (a): Healthy artery Figure 18 (b): Blocked artery
DID YOU KNOW…
Hypertension
This is a condition when blood pressure increases above
the normal range. It can damage the lining of blood vessels.
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Factors contributing to cardiovascular diseases

In Grade 8, you learnt about some factors that contribute to cardiovascular diseases. The main
causes of cardiovascular diseases and the preventive measures are summarised in Table 8.
Table 8
Cause of Cardiovascular
Explanation Preventive measures
diseases
• S alts cause hypertension

• Reduce salt
1. High intake of salt in diet which damages the lining
in the diet
of blood vessels.
• Reduce saturated
2. Diet with excess • F atty deposits block
fats including
saturated fats the arteries as shown
cholesterol in the
and cholesterol in Figure 18(b).
diet
• Eat healthy diet

3. Obesity • It puts strain on the heart.
• Exercise regularly
• T he heart muscles lose

its tone and becomes
4. Lack of exercise • Exercise regularly
less efficient in pumping
blood.
• N
icotine damages the • Stop cigarette
5. Smoking cigarettes
heart and the arteries. smoking
• I t tends to increase
the blood pressure • A
void the causes
6. Stress
and hence favour blood of stress
clot formation.
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1
ACTIVITY 1.9
Figure 19 shows the number of deaths caused by heart attack in men and women per 100,000
people in a given population.
Number of deaths caused by heart attack
per 100,000 people
Figure 19
Observe the graphs closely and then answer the following questions.
(a) (i) W
hat happens to the number of deaths between 1924 and 1936 in both men and
women?
Men: ________________________________________________________________
Women: _____________________________________________________________
(ii) S uggest two reasons to explain your observation in part (a)(i).

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(b) (i) Which group (men or women) had the highest number of death due to heart attack?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
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(ii) Suggest two reasons to explain your answer in part (b)(i).

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(c)(i) By referring to the chart, identify the number of deaths in men in the year:
1972: _________________________________________________________________
1987: ________________________________________________________________
(ii) U
sing the figures from part (c)(i), calculate the percentage decrease in death from
year 1972 to 1987. Show your working.
(iii) S uggest two reasons for the decrease in death from 1972 to 1987.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(d) Suggest two reasons to explain the difference in the number of deaths between men
and women from year 1984 to year 1996.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
1. Cardiovascular diseases are diseases that affect the proper functioning of the heart and
the blood vessels (mainly arteries).
2. Two examples of cardiovascular diseases are heart attack and stroke.
3. The main factors that contribute to cardiovascular diseases are unhealthy diets, obesity,
lack of exercise, smoking cigarettes and stress.
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Summary of unit
1. The human blood circulatory system consists of the blood, the blood vessels and the heart, where
the heart pumps blood into blood vessels to all parts of the body.
2. Blood is composed of liquid plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets.
• Plasma consisting of water and dissolved substances, is involved in the transport of
substances in the body.
• Red blood cells carry oxygen throughout the body.
• White blood cells protect the body against diseases caused by germs.
• Platelets are small fragments of blood cells that help in blood clotting.
3. The 3 main blood vessels are the artery, capillary and vein.
• Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart, under high pressure.
• V
eins carry deoxygenated blood away from tissues slowly back to the heart,
under low pressure.
• Capillaries allow exchange of materials between blood and adjacent tissues.
4. A pulse, caused by stretching and recoiling of artery wall, may be felt at the wrist or neck
region.
5. Pulse rate, that is the number of pulses per minute, increases during exercise to supply more
nutrients and oxygen to muscles and to remove waste products such as carbon dioxide.
6. Cardiovascular diseases are the diseases of the heart and/ or blood vessels. Common examples
of cardiovascular diseases are heart attack and stroke.
7. Cardiovascular diseases are caused by various factors: diet with high level of salts and fats
including cholesterol, smoking cigarettes, lack of physical activity and stress.
8. The preventive measures against cardiovascular diseases are mainly: choosing a healthy
lifestyle in order to reduce stress, avoid smoking cigarettes, reducing intake of fats/cholesterol
and salt in diet and regular exercise.
215
216
• Unit B1 • Blood Circulatory System
B11
Unit
BLOOD CIRCULATORY
SYSTEM
Cardiovascular diseases
(non-communicable diseases)
• H
igh intake of salts Consists of
and fats in diet
Some causes • Obesity
• Smoking cigarettes
• Lack of exercise
• Reduce fats Blood Blood Vessels Muscular organ Heart

(especially saturated)
Prevention
and salt in diet
consists of such as function
• Regular exercise
Pumps blood
Common • Stroke around the body
examples • Heart attack
Blood cells Plasma Veins Capillaries Arteries
produces
types
consists of
• Deoxygenated
carry blood (except
ater and dissolved
W Heart beat Pulse
Red blood White Platelets pulmonary structure
substances such as
cells blood cells vein) function
nutrients, oxygen etc
• Blood towards felt
function heart • one-cell
With the following • Blood at low thick wall
adaptations pressure • small • B
oth pulse rate • At wrist
functions blood lumen and heart rate • At neck regions
clotting
increase during
exercise
• S
ite of exchange
Disc-shape/ Ingest and • Large lumen between blood
Biconcave sides digest germs structure • Thick wall and adjacent • Small lumen
• Have valves tissues structure
• Thick wall
Produce antibodies to kill or help
Contain in destruction of germs
• oxygenated blood
haemoglobin
carry (except pulmonary artery)
To carry oxygen • blood away from heart
function • blood at high pressure
around body
No nucleus
when mature
Unit
B1
1
1. Match each term in Column A with its function in Column B.

Column A Column B
Blood carry blood away from the heart
Heart pumps blood
Arteries connect arteries and veins
Veins transports materials in the body
Capillaries carry blood back to the heart
2. Read carefully and state whether each statement is true or false.

(a) Blood is a red liquid which flows in blood vessels. ___________________
(b) Blood is made of plasma and cells only. ___________________
(c) Blood plasma represents about 45 % of the blood. ___________________
(d) The solid components of blood comprise red blood cells and platelets only. ___________________

(e) Red blood cells are more numerous than white blood cells in the human blood. __________________
(f) There is a large central nucleus in mature red blood cells. ___________________
(g) Haemoglobin carries oxygen in red blood cells. ___________________
(h) White blood cells recognise germs and kill them. ___________________
(i) Antibodies are produced by red blood cells to kill germs. ___________________
(j) Platelets help in blood clotting. ___________________
3. Fill each blank with the appropriate term given below.

heart, arteries, veins, nutrients, carbon dioxide, capillaries, high, away, pumps
(a) Veins carry blood ___________________ from other organs back to the heart.
(b) Blood flows under ___________________ pressure in arteries.
(c) ___________________ leaves blood in capillaries to enter cells of adjacent tissues.
(d) The ___________________ , blood vessels and blood make up the blood circulatory system.
(e) Blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart are called ___________________ .
(f) The blood flowing in veins is rich in ___________________ .
(g) Blood moves from arteries to veins through tiny blood vessesls known as ___________________ .
(h) Heart ___________________ blood throughout the body.
(i) Arteries branch off to form network of ___________________.
(j) Blood flows away from the heart in ___________________ .
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4. Fill in the blanks by choosing the appropriate term from the list below.
valves, wrist, glucose, cells, ingest, blood clotting, exchange
(a) Food substances such as ___________________ and amino acids are carried in the blood.
(b) White blood cells can ___________________ germs and digest them.
(c) Platelets are important in ___________________.
(d) Capillaries are tiny vessels consisting of a single layer of ___________________________ allowing
___________________ of substances between blood and adjacent tissues.
(e) ___________________ in veins allow blood to flow in one direction only.
(f) A pulse can be felt at the base of the ___________________.
5. Circle the correct answer.
(a) Which of the following is a yellowish solution making about 55 % of blood?

A. Cytoplasm B. Water C. Plasma D. Glucose
(b) Blood leaves the heart under ___________________ through the arteries.
A. Very low pressure B. Low pressure
C. High pressure D. No pressure
(c) The red pigment found in red blood cells is known as ________________ .
A. Haemoglobin B. Chlorophyll C. Antibody D. Iron
(d) Which of the following is involved in the destruction of germs?

A. Red blood cells B. Plasma
C. White blood cells D. Platelets
(e) Which of the following statements is true about the type of blood carried in arteries?
A. Blood rich in oxygen under high pressure
B. Blood rich in carbon dioxide under high pressure
C. Blood rich in oxygen under low pressure
D. Blood rich in carbon dioxide under low pressure
(f ) Which of the following statement is true about the heart?

A. It is a muscular organ pumping blood.
B. It is a hollow organ without any muscle tissue.
C. It is an organ that does not have right and left sides.
D. It is an organ that has no connections with any blood vessels.
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1
(g) Which of the following statements is true about blood vessels?

A. The diameter of the lumen of an artery is bigger than that of a vein.
B. The diameter of the lumen of a vein is bigger than that of an artery.
C. The diameter of capillaries is the largest compared to arteries.
D. The diameter of a lumen of capillary is larger than that of a vein.
(h) Cardiovascular diseases are the result of:

A. Regular exercise B. Diet rich in salts and fats
C. A healthy diet D. Stress-free lifestyle
6. Figure 1(a) is a section through an artery and Figure 1(b) through a vein.

A
D
B

E
C
Figure 1(a) Figure 1(b)
(a) Label the parts A- E.
A _________________________________________________
B _________________________________________________
C _________________________________________________
D _________________________________________________
E _________________________________________________
(b) State two differences in structure between an artery and a vein.

1. _______________________________________________________________________
2. _______________________________________________________________________
(c) State how arteries and veins differ in their functions.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
(d) Explain briefly how the structure of an artery helps in its function.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
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Unit
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(e) Name a structure present in veins but not visible in Figure 1(b).
State one function of the structure.
Structure: __________________________________________________________________
Function: __________________________________________________________________
7. (a) Name one non-communicable disease related to the blood circulatory system.
_______________________________________________________________________

(b) Give two examples of the disease you mentioned in part (a).
1. ______________________________________________________________________
2. _____________________________________________________________________
(c) List two factors that contribute to the disease in part (a).
1. ______________________________________________________________________
2. _____________________________________________________________________
(d) How can you prevent the disease stated in part (a)?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
(e) If an artery supplying the muscles of the heart is partially blocked, how can it affect the
functioning of the heart?
1. ______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
2. _____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
8. (a) Define a pulse.

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

(b) Name two areas where you can locate a pulse in your body.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
220
Unit
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1
(c) How is a pulse related to a heart beat?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
(d) Below are the pulse counts of an individual taken at rest or during exercise.
Condition of individual Pulse count for 15 secs Pulse rate
1. At rest 15
2. During vigorous exercise 27
(i) Complete the table above by calculating the pulse rate of the individual under
each condition.
(ii) Why does the pulse rate increase during exercise?

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(iii) Suggest two other factors that can cause an increase in pulse rate.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
9. Figure 2 shows a sample of blood as seen under the microscope. Observe carefully and
answer the following questions.
Figure 2
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Unit
B11
(a) Which of the cells A, B or C is the red blood cell?

_______________________________________________________________________
(b) Give two reasons to support your answer in part (a).

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
(c) Cells A and B are two different types of white blood cells. State two functions of white
blood cells in our body.
1. ______________________________________________________________________
2. _____________________________________________________________________
(d) Suggest when the number of white blood cells may increase above the normal amount
in the body.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
(e) When there is damage to capillaries, platelets become active to cause blood clotting.
Give two resons why blood clotting is important.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
(f ) On Figure 2, write the letter D to label the plasma.
(g) Name three substances present in plasma.

1. ______________________________________________________________________
2. _____________________________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________________________
(h) Name another component of blood not shown in Figure 2 and state its function.
Blood component: __________________________________________________________
Function: __________________________________________________________________
222
Unit
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1
10. Figure 3 shows part of the circulatory system.
A ________________
B ________________
________________ C
Blood coming
from heart
Blood going to
Figure 3 the heart
(a) Name the structures A, B and C on Figure 3.
(b) How does blood circulation in structure A differ from C?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
(c) (i) State the function of structure B.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

(ii) How is structure B adapted to its function?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(d) How does structure A allow blood to flow in one direction only?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
(e) Explain why the blood in structure C is under high pressure when it leaves the heart.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
223
Unit
B11
224
Food and
Reproduction Unit
Nutrients Unit
B2
1
2
Unit
Reproduction B2
Learning Outcomes

• Define reproduction as the process of producing new individuals of the same kind
or species
• State the importance of reproduction in living things
• Distinguish between the two modes of reproduction: sexual and asexual
• Identify and label the different parts of the male and female reproductive systems in man
• Define sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) as diseases that are spread from one infected
individual to another through sexual contact
• List examples of sexually transmitted diseases such as HIV/AIDS and syphilis
• Interpret data from graphs related to sexually transmitted diseases
In Grade 7, you learnt about a few characteristics of living things. For example, living things
grow, move, feed, respire and excrete. Another characteristic of all living things is the ability to
reproduce.
Each and every organism can live only for a certain period of time. It may ultimately die of old age,
diseases, in accidents or killed for food by other organisms. To ensure the continuity of various
organisms on earth, new organisms must be produced. This process is called reproduction.
The pictures below show examples of the parents and their respective offspring(s) /young(s).
Parent Parent
Offspring
Offspring
Mauritian Kestrel
Giant Panda
225
tinU Reproduction
Unit
B21
Reproduction is the production of new individuals of the same

kind or of the same species.
DICTIONARY CORNER
1. A species is a group of living organisms which can

reproduce among themselves producing fertile offspring(s).
2. Offspring is the young born of living organisms.
Now that you are aware that all organisms reproduce, suggest what may happen if organisms
stop reproducing.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
ACTIVITY 2.1 - Identifying ways of reproducing
Through Activity 2.1, you will learn that organisms reproduce in different ways.
The pictures show different species. Observe and predict how these organisms reproduce.
The first example is done for you.
Dogs reproduce by giving birth.

_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________

_______________________________________________
_

226
Unit
Reproduction Unit
B2
1
Types of Reproduction
The two main types of reproduction by which organisms produce new individuals are:
(a) Asexual reproduction
(b) Sexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction takes place in organisms such as bacteria, fungi (e.g. yeast) and amoeba.
Some plants can also carry out asexual reproduction.
Activities 2.2 and 2.3 will help you explore the process of asexual reproduction.
ACTIVITY 2.2 - Exploring asexual reproduction in Amoeba
Figure 1 represents the process of asexual reproduction in amoeba.
Cytoplasm
Nucleus
Parent cell New organisms

Figure 1
Study Figure 1 carefully and answer the questions below.
(a) State the number of parent cell(s) involved to produce new organisms.
_______________________________________________________________________
(b) Are the new organisms identical to the parent?
_______________________________________________________________________
(c) Are the new organisms identical to each other?
_______________________________________________________________________
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ACTIVITY 2.3 - Observing asexual reproduction in Yeast
Your teacher will show you a slide of living yeast cells under the microscope
Materials needed: Yeast, sugar, microscope, microscope slide, coverslip, dropper,

thermometer.
Procedure used in preparing the slide:

1. Pour 125 cm3 of warm water of approximately 30-35oC into a beaker.
2. Then add 5 g of sugar and 5 g of yeast into the beaker and mix the content.
3. Using a dropper, transfer a drop of the mixture on a clean microscope slide and place
a coverslip over the drop.
4. Observe the mixture under the high power of a microscope.
Figure 2 shows how the yeast cells appear under the high power of a microscope immediately
after preparing the slide.
Figure 3 shows the yeast cells one hour later.
Figure 2 Figure 3

Refer to Figures 2 and 3 to answer the following questions.
(a) Fill the table below with
• The total number of yeast cells, irrespective of difference in size.
• A description of how the yeast cells appear.
Table 1
Figure 2 Figure 3
Number of yeast cells
Description of yeast cells
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(b) Based on the observations recorded in Table 1, describe briefly how yeasts carry out
asexual reproduction.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Watch the Video on asexual reproduction in yeast

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GFEgB_ytDZY
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
1. A single parent is involved in asexual reproduction.

2. There are different types of asexual reproduction, for example:
• A cell of amoeba divides equally to form two new individual cells.
• A yeast cell gives rise to small buds that are eventually separated
from the parent yeast cell, then matured into a new yeast cell.
3. Offsprings produced during asexual reproduction are genetically identical
to parents.
DICTIONARY CORNER
Genetically identical means having

the same genes and hence the same
features.
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Sexual reproduction
Now that you understand the process of asexual reproduction, let us learn about sexual
reproduction.
Figure 4 shows a cat family.
Figure 4
Study Figure 4 carefully and answer the following questions.
(a) How many parents do you see in Figure 4? ____________________________
(b) Are the offsprings identical to each other? ____________________________
(c) Are the offsprings identical to their parents? ____________________________
(d) Suggest the type of reproduction involved in mammals such as cats.

_______________________________________________________________________
Two parents are involved in sexual reproduction and offspring(s) produced

are not identical to the parents nor to each other.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
1. Two parents are involved in sexual reproduction.

2. Offsprings produced during sexual reproduction are not genetically identical
to the parents nor to each other.
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ACTIVITY 2.4 - Comparing sexual and asexual reproduction
Based on what you have learnt earlier in this chapter, complete Table 2 to compare and contrast
between asexual and sexual reproduction.
Table 2
Asexual Sexual
Number of parent(s) involved
Are new organisms formed

identical to each other?
Are new organisms formed
identical to their parents?
Sexual Reproduction in Humans

The two main stages of sexual reproduction in humans are gamete formation and fertilisation.
Gamete formation
Gametes are specialised sex cells produced by the male and female reproductive systems.
Testes are the male reproductive organs which produce the male sex cells. Ovaries are the
female organs in which the female sex cells are produced. The male sex cells are called sperm
and the female sex cells are called egg or ova (singular: ovum).
You will learn about the reproductive systems in Activities 2.5 and 2.6.
Fertilisation
During sexual intercourse, the male gametes are released into the female reproductive tract. A
sperm cell then fuses with an egg/ovum by the process of fertilisation producing a fertilised
egg called a zygote. The zygote then develops into an embryo which eventually develops into
a foetus.
Foetus
Figure 5: Sexual reproduction in humans
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
Sexual reproduction involves the production and fusion of sex cells called gametes.
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The Human Reproductive Systems
In the previous section, you have learnt that in sexual reproduction, gametes are required to form
new individuals. Activities 2.5 and 2.6 will help you identify the organs that are responsible for
the production of gametes and other related organs that form part of the reproductive systems.
The male reproductive system
ACTIVITY 2.5 - Identifying the parts of the male reproductive system
Figure 6 shows the front view of the male reproductive system. The function of each part of the
system is summarised in the same diagram.
Urinary bladder
Seminal vesicle It is a tube that

Sperm duct carries sperms
to the urethra.
Prostrate gland
It is a tube that carries urine
Urethra or semen containing sperms
to the outside of the body.
Penis
Testis It is the organ producing
It is an organ that releases
sperms.
sperms in the vagina of the
female reproductive system
during sexual intercourse. It is a sac-like structure
Scrotum that holds the testis
outside the body.
Figure 6: Font view of the male reproductive system
Study Figure 6 carefully and answer the following questions.
(a) Name the organ that produces the male gametes.

___________________________________________________________________________
(b) Name two other organs that form part of the male reproductive system.
___________________________________________________________________________
DID YOU KNOW…
During sexual intercourse, an adult male releases about 250 million sperms.
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(c) Figure 7 shows the side view of the male reproductive system. Refer to Figure 6 and label
the structures by filling the blank boxes.
Urinary bladder
Figure 7: Side view of the male reproductive system
The female reproductive system
ACTIVITY 2.6 - Identifying the parts of the female reproductive system
Figure 8 shows the front view of the female reproductive system with their relative functions.
It is the place where

ferlilisation occurs.
Oviduct
Ovary It is the place where

Uterus the foetus grows and
It produces eggs. develops.
Cervix It is the place where sperms

It separates the uterus Vagina are released during sexual
from the vagina. intercourse.
It is also the birth canal.
Figure 8: Front view of the female reproductive system
DICTIONARY CORNER Foetus is an unborn baby of a mammal.
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Observe Figure 8 carefully and answer the following questions.
(a) Name the organ that produces the female gametes.

________________________________________________________________________
(b) Name two other organs that form part of the female reproductive system.
________________________________________________________________________
(c) Figure 9 shows the side view of the female reproductive system. Refer to Figure 8 to label
the structures by filling the blank boxes.
Figure 9: Side view of the female reproductive system
DID YOU KNOW…
Girls are born with approximately one million immature egg cells in each ovary,
but very few reach maturity. Each cells is about 20 times larger than a sperm.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Sperm is the male gamete and egg/ovum is the female gamete.

• Male gametes are produced in testes and female gametes in the ovary.
• The male reproductive system consists of testes, sperm duct, seminal vesicles, prostate gland,
urethra and penis.
• The female reproductive system consists of ovary, oviduct, uterus, cervix and vagina.
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Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)
In Grade 8, you learnt about diseases. Some are communicable and others are non-
communicable. Use your knowledge acquired in Grade 8 to answer these questions:
(a) Distinguish between communicable and non-communicable diseases.

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
(b) Give three examples of

(i) Communicable diseases: __________________________________________
(ii) Non-communicable diseases: __________________________________________
(c) Name the germs responsible for causing the diseases mentioned in part (b)(i).
_______________________________________________________________________
Some of the existing communicable diseases are also classified as sexually transmitted diseases
(STDs). These are infectious diseases that are transmitted through sexual contact.
Some examples of STDs are HIV/AIDS, syphilis and gonorrhea.
ACTIVITY 2.6 - Interpreting data on HIV/AIDS
According to UNAIDS, there are approximately 36.9 million people worldwide living with HIV/
AIDS in 2017. The causative agent is a virus termed HIV.
The annual number of cases reported by the Republic of Mauritius Statistics on HIV/AIDS among
Mauritians for the period of 2009 to 2017 is given in Table 3.
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The table gives the number of cases of HIV/AIDS in the age group 15-24 years from 2009 to
2017 with two years interval
Table 3
Year of detection Number of cases of HIV/AIDs in the

age group 15-24
2009 86
2011 59
2013 55
2015 51
2017 80
Study the table carefully and answer the following questions.
(a) Plot the data in Table 3 on the grid provided in Figure 10.
Number
of cases of
HIV/AIDS
90
85
80
75
70
65
60
55
50

2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019
Year of infection
Figure 10
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(b) Describe the trend of HIV/ AIDS cases from the year 2009 to 2017.
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
(c) Table 3 and Figure 10 show that for a particular year, the number of infected cases was
low. It has been reported that this was due to appropriate preventive measures taken at
national level.

(i) State the year that recorded the lowest number of HIV/AIDS cases.
______________________________________________________________________
(i) Suggest two preventive measures that may have contributed to the low number of
infected cases.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
DID YOU KNOW…
HIV/ AIDS can also be transmitted in other

ways such as sharing of infected needles
among drug addicts.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are diseases that are transmitted during sexual contact.
• Some examples of STDs include HIV/ AIDS, syphilis and gonorrhea.
• STDs are caused by microorganisms such as viruses, bacteria and fungi. Syphilis is caused by a
particular type of bacteria while AIDS is caused by a virus called HIV.
• Some preventive measures regarding spread of HIV/ AIDS are:-
a) Use protection, (e.g. condom) during sexual intercourse
b) Avoid multiple sex partners
c) Increase awareness through sex education at school
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Summary of unit
1. Reproduction is the process of producing new individuals of the same kind or species.
2. Reproduction is an essential life process which not only helps in survival but also helps in the
continuity of the species so that it does not become extinct.
3. There are two main types of reproduction: asexual and sexual.
• In asexual reproduction, a single parent is involved in producing genetically identical
offspring(s). There is no fusion of gametes.
• In sexual reproduction, male and female parents are involved in producing genetically
dissimilar offsprings. There is fusion of gametes.
4. The testes and the ovaries are the reproductive organs involved in producing male and female
gametes respectively.
5. Male and female gametes fuse to form a zygote by the process of fertilisation. The zygote
eventually develops into a new individual.
6. Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are diseases that are spread from an infected to a non-
infected individuals through sexual contact. STDs are caused by microorganisms.
7. Some examples of STDs are HIV/AIDS, syphilis and gonorrhea.
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• Unit B2 • Reproduction
REPRODUCTION
two modes
Human Reproductive System Sexually Transmitted Diseases
examples
Asexual Sexual
HIV AIDS
involves involves Male Female Syphilis
Consists of Consists of
Sperms Ovum Gonorrhea
• Two parents (Male gametes) (Female gametes)
• Single parent
of different sexes
• No gamete
• Gamete formation Testes produces Ovary produces
formation
• Fertilization which
• No fertilisation
is the fusion of male
and female gametes Sperm duct Oviduct
Seminal vesicle
Uterus
and Prostate gland
Urethra Cervix
Penis Vagina
1
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1. Sperms are produced in the____________ .

A. Penis
B. Testis
C. Sperm duct
D. Urethra
2. The diagram shows the side view of the female reproductive system.
Which of the following correctly identify the parts of 1, 2, 3 and 4?
1 2 3 4
A Ovary Oviduct Vagina Uterus
B Ovary Oviduct Uterus Vagina
C Oviduct Ovary Uterus Vagina
D Oviduct Ovary Vagina Uterus
3. What is a gamete?
A. A male or a female sex cell
B. A baby
C. The lining of the oviduct
D. The testis
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4. Which of the following is not part of the female reproductive system?

A. Ovary B. Vagina C. Sperm duct D. Uterus
5. The organ which produces the female gametes is the ____________

A. Vagina B. Ovary C. Uterus D. Oviduct
6. The female sex cell is known as the ___________

A. Ovum B. Sperm C. Ovary D. Uterus
7. AIDS is best prevented by ____________

A. Regular exercise
B. Healthy food
C. Safe and responsible sexual behaviour
D. Drinking a lot of water

8. Which statement is true of asexual reproduction?
A. Two types of gametes are produced
B. Two parents are required
C. New organisms are identical to each other
D. New organisms are different from each other
9. The diagram shows spider plantlets.
State the type of reproduction shown by the plant and the number of parents needed.
Types of reproduction Number of parent(s)
A asexual 1
B asexual 2
C sexual 1
D sexual 2
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10. Which of the following example is a sexually transmitted disease?

A. Syphilis
B. Lung cancer
C. Fever
D Diabetes
Section B
1. Figure 1 shows the male reproductive system.
D__________________
__________________A
__________________B E__________________
__________________C F__________________
Figure 1
(a) Label the parts A to F on Figure 1.
(b) Name the structure that produces sperms.

___________________________________________________________________________
2. (a) State two differences between asexual and sexual reproduction.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
(b) Give 2 examples of organisms that reproduce asexually.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. Write down whether the following statements are True or False.
a) Syphilis is an example of sexually transmitted disease. __________________

b) Testes are organs found in the female reproductive system. __________________
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c) Ovary, oviduct, uterus, cervix and vagina form parts of the female reproductive system.
__________________
d) Asexual reproduction involves only one parent. __________________
e) Sperm is a motile cell. __________________
4. Figure 2 shows the female reproductive system. Use the words provided to label the different
parts on the diagram.
cervix ovary vagina uterus oviduct

Figure 2
5. Match column A with the appropriate description in column B.
Column A Column B
Ovary the organs which produce sperms in males
specialised cell for reproduction which can

Asexual reproduction
either be an egg or a sperm
Gamete the organ which produces eggs in females
the formation of a new individuals from a

Sexual reproduction
single organism
formation of new individuals involving parents
Testes
of different sexes
6. Table 1 shows the number of reported cases of sexually transmitted diseases in Mauritius
in the year 2010 and 2016.
Table 1
Year
Sexually transmitted diseases
2010 2016
Syphilis 132 1087
Gonorrhea 5 56
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(a) What is a sexually transmitted disease?

_______________________________________________________________________
(b) Name another example of STDs .

_______________________________________________________________________
(c) Draw a bar chart to represent the number of cases of syphilis and gonorrhea for the year
2010 and 2016.
Number
of cases
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0 Years
2010 2016
(d) Use the data from Table 1 to calculate the increase in the number of syphilis cases from
year 2010 to 2016.
_______________________________________
(e) Suggest one reason for the increase in the number of syphilis cases in the year 2016
among youngsters.
_______________________________________________________________________
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Measurement
Biodiversity Unit
in Science Unit
B3
1
Unit
Biodiversity B3
Learning Outcomes

• Demonstrate simple understanding of biodiversity and its importance
• Use quadrats to estimate and record the number of species in a given ecosystem
• Show an awareness that biodiversity is affected by natural calamities such as cyclones
and droughts
• List and discuss how human activities (deforestation, pollution, degradation of habitat,
invasive alien species) affect biodiversity
• Discuss ways to reduce the effects of human activities on biodiversity
In Grade 7, you learnt that the ecosystem comprises living and non-living things.
The living organisms interact with each other and with their non-living environment. A few
examples of such interactions are (i) animals feeding on plants and other animals, (ii) forests
providing habitats for animals and (iii) plants obtaining carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
for photosynthesis.
In this unit, you will learn about biodiversity and its importance. You will also explore how
human activities affect biodiversity and the different ways to reduce the negative effects.
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Biodiversity
Planet Earth comprises a large variety of living organisms such as plants, animals, bacteria,
protista (e.g. amoeba) and fungi (e.g. mushroom). Mauritius, though a small island, has a diverse
flora and fauna due to its location, age, origin, isolation and varied topography. Below are some
examples of organisms found in Mauritius.
Butterfly Butterfly fish Geckos
Giant Tortoise Macaque Trochetia boutoniana
Activities 3.1 and 3.2 will allow you to understand the meaning of biodiversity.
ACTIVITY 3.1 - Defining biodiversity
Figure 1 shows organisms of different

species found in a quadrat. In Grade 7,
you learnt that quadrats are used to
count and estimate the number of
plants and slow-moving animals in a
habitat. A quadrat is usually a square
made of wire, wood or plastic pipe.

Figure 1: Organisms in a quadrat (not drawn to scale)

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Refer to Figure 1 to answer the following questions.

(a) How many different species can you identify in Figure 1? ___________________________
Recall from Unit 2

A species is a group of living organisms
which can reproduce among themselves
producing fertile offspring(s).
(b) With the help of your teacher, name the different species identified in Figure 1.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
(c) Count the number of each species present in the quadrat and record your answers in
Table 1 below. One has been completed for you.
Table 1: Type and number of organisms in a defined area
Type of organism Species name Number
Flowering plant Dandelion 8
Through Activity 3.1, you have learnt that different types of organisms co-exist in a given area.
In fact, biodiversity refers to the variety of species and their respective numbers found in
a defined area.
Through Activity 3.2, you will learn how quadrats may be used to count the number of organisms
in a defined area.
ACTIVITY 3.2 - Estimating the number of living organisms in a defined

area using a quadrat
The number of organisms present in an ecosystem can be very high and thus difficult to count.
Through Activity 3.2, you will learn to estimate the number of organisms found in a defined
area by a sampling exercise using quadrats.
Materials you will need (per group): Four wooden sticks or plastic pipes, adhesive tape,
metre rule.
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Procedure:
1. Organise yourselves in groups of five.
2. Use the wooden sticks or plastic pipes and the adhesive tape to construct a quadrat of size
1m x 1 m as shown in Figure 2.
Quadrat
Figure 2: Quadrat
3. Use a metre rule to delimit a working area at a selected site with the help of your teacher.
The site can be a forest, the seashore, a riverbank or a garden in your schoolyard.
4. Calculate the area of the selected region.
5. Each group will randomly throw a quadrat in the selected area.
6. Observe, identify and count the number of each type of organism present in the quadrat.
Record the information in the table below.
7. Compare your table with that of the other groups to verify your observations and to calculate
the average number of each type of organism present in the 1 m x 1 m quadrat.
Species Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5 Average
8. Using the answers of step 4 and 7, estimate the number of the different organisms present
in the selected area. Show your working.
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By referring to the table, what can you deduce about the number and types of organisms in
the selected area?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Biodiversity is the variety of species and their respective numbers found in a defined area.
• Quadrats are used to estimate the number of organisms such as plants, algae and slow-
moving organisms like snails and slugs in a defined area.
• It is difficult to count all organisms in an ecosystem as some organisms are present
in very large numbers.
• Biologists use samples to estimate the number of organisms in a habitat.
Importance of Biodiversity
Biodiversity is very important for the well-being of planet Earth. You will now learn how
biodiversity is important to us and to the environment.
1. Provision of resources
Some examples of resources provided by the biodiversity are given below:
• Biodiversity provides food for humans and animals. Some common examples are fruits,
cocoa, nuts, spices, meat and fish.
• A wide variety of plants, animals and fungi are used as medicines. For instance, the leaf
infusion of Ayapana is used for indigestion, diarrhea, and vomiting. Another example is the
Madagascar periwinkle (commonly known as Saponaire), which is used to make anticancer
drug.
Ayapana Madagascar periwinkle

• Other examples of resources derived from biodiversity are oil, fibres, dyes, rubber, timber
and paper.
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2. Ecological Benefits
Biodiversity provides various ecological benefits which maintain the balance of the ecosystem.
A few examples are:
• Plants and algae regulate the composition of oxygen and carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere.
• Roots of plants help to prevent soil erosion.
• Microorganisms in the soil help to decompose dead organisms and waste matter
and this contributes to make the soil fertile.
3. Socio-economic benefits
A few socio-economic benefits of biodiversity are:

• It enhances recreational activities like bird watching,
fishing, trekking etc.
• It provides opportunities for education and research.
• It is used to promote ecotourism.
Factors Affecting Biodiversity
As you have learnt in the previous section, biodiversity is

important for the balance of ecosystems. Unfortunately,
biodiversity of Earth is declining at an alarming rate and may
lead to the extinction of many species. The Dodo is a well-
known example of an extinct bird in Mauritius. The disruption
in biodiversity affects the balance of the whole ecosystem.
The Dodo
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You will now learn how biodiversity is affected by natural causes and human activities.
1. Natural calamities
Natural calamities negatively impact the biodiversity by causing habitat loss and death of
organisms.
List a few examples of natural disasters that may reduce biodiversity.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
DID YOU KNOW…
The extinction of the dinosaur was due to natural causes.

Scientists think it was due to an impact of an asteroid
or a massive volcano.
2. Human activities
Human beings remain one of the major threats to biodiversity on our planet.
In the next section, you will learn about the impact of human activities on biodiversity.
Pre-session task:
Watch the video on:
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/videos/category/
science/why-should-humans-care-about-biodiversity-loss/
It is an introductory video on the effect of humans on the environment.
Impact of Human Activities on Biodiversity

Some human activities that negatively affect biodiversity are:
• Deforestation
• Pollution
• Overexploitation of resources
• Introduction of invasive alien species
DID YOU KNOW…
Between the years 1900 to 2019, the world

population has increased from 1.5 to 7.7
billion.
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You will now explore how each of these human activities affect biodiversity.
1. Deforestation
Observe Figure 3 carefully and answer the following questions.
Figure 3
(a) Write one word to describe the above human activity. __________________
(b) List three reasons why people clear forests.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
(c) Forests support at least two-thirds of the world’s biodiversity. Many of the world’s
organisms are in danger of extinction due to the clearing of forests. Two of these
endangered animals are shown in Figure 4.
Panda Asiatic lion

Figure 4: Endangered animals
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(i) Name three other organisms which are threatened by the clearing of forests.
___________________________________________________________________________
(ii) Explain how clearing of forests affects the population of the panda and the asiatic lion.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Deforestation is the clearing of large areas of forests.

• The causes of deforestation are:
1. Cutting trees for timber and paper industry
2. Converting forests into agricultural lands: grazing and cultivating lands.
3. For urban development: accommodating infrastructures such as roads, houses,
industries and dams.
• Deforestation causes loss of biodiversity because of several reasons. When forests are
cleared on a large scale, animals lose their food supply and natural habitats and they are
forced to move elsewhere or die.
2. Pollution
Another harmful human activity that affects biodiversity is pollution.
Pollution occurs when harmful substances are released into the environment. These substances
are called pollutants. There are different types of pollution namely air, water, soil/land, noise
and heat. Figure 5 shows some examples of pollution. Observe Figure 5 carefully and write
down the type of pollution below each picture.
(a)______________________ (b) _____________________ (c) ____________________

Figure 5
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You will learn more about the effects of pollution on biodiversity in the following activities.
Air Pollution
Air pollution occurs when harmful gases, dust and smoke are released into the atmosphere.
Let us explore some effects of air pollution on biodiversity.
ACTIVITY 3.5 - Observing the effects of air pollution on biodiversity
Figure 6 shows a few causes of air pollution. Observe Figure 6 and answer the following
questions.
Figure 6
(a) Identify the two causes of air pollution.

___________________________________________________________________________
(b) Write down 3 examples of air pollutants in Table 4.

___________________________________________________________________________
(c) Describe how each of the pollutant you named in (b) can negatively affect biodiversity.
Write your answers in Table 4.
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Table 4
Air pollutant Effect on Biodiversity
1.
2.
3.
One harmful effect of air pollution is global warming where the average temperature of the
globe is increasing. Excessive release of greenhouse gases (e.g carbon dioxide, methane) in the
atmosphere causes global warming. This results in climate change which impacts negatively
on biodiversity.
(d) Explain two ways in which global warming affect biodiversity.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Burning of fossil fuels, in power plants, factories and vehicles release pollutants causing air
pollution.
• Sulfur dioxide affects the respiratory system of animals and humans.
• Release of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides (e.g. NO2) in the atmosphere lead to formation
of acid rain, which affects aquatic and forests ecosystems.
• Melting of ice caps and glaciers is posing a threat to many animals such as polar bears.
Forests damaged by acid rain Polar bears threatened by melting ice caps
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Water Pollution
Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans, and groundwater)
by pollutants released by human activities.
ACTIVITY 3.6 - Exploring some effects of water pollution

on biodiversity
Figure 7 shows a few examples of water pollution. Observe the pictures carefully. Identify the
pollutant(s) and the possible effects on biodiversity. Write your answers in the space provided.
Examples of water pollution Pollutant(s) Possible effects on biodiversity
Picture 1
Picture 2
Picture 3
Picture 4
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WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• The release of sewage and other water effluents into water

bodies destroy marine life.
• Release of sewage and drainage of chemical fertilisers from
adjacent agricultural land cause an increase in growth and
reproduction of algae in water bodies. This leads to a decrease
in oxygen concentration in the water, which is termed
eutrophication. This leads to death of aquatic organisms.
• Fishes, sea turtles and sea birds die by suffocation with
plastic bags.
• Oil spills from ships harm organisms like sea birds, fish, corals and mangroves.
DID YOU KNOW… FIND OUT
Marine litter harms over 600 marine species. Search and find out the effect of soil
pollution on biodiversity.
3. Overexploitation of natural resources

Overexploitation refers to the overuse of natural resources from the environment. This
represents a major threat to biodiversity. Activity 3.7 will allow you to identify the causes and
effects of overexploitation on biodiversity.
ACTIVITY 3.7 - Causes and effects of overexploitation

of organisms
Figure 7 shows some pictures of organisms that are overexploited by humans.
1. Match each organism with the correct reason for its exploitation.
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Examples of organisms Reason for overexploitation
Harvested for food and threatened

by overfishing
Elephant
Hunted for their tusks which are used

to produce ivory
Blue-throated macaw
Largely overhunted for their fur
Tuna
An endangered bird that

is captured for the pet trade
Leopard
Figure 7: Some overexploited organisms
2. Name another organism that is overexploited by man. ______________________

3. What is the consequence of overexploitation on biodiversity?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
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4. Invasive Alien Species

DICTIONARY CORNER
Invasive alien species are non-native
organisms which have been introduced Native species: a species that occurs
naturally in a place.
unnaturally from one ecosystem to another.
ACTIVITY 3.8 - Effects of invasive alien species on biodiversity
Below is an extract of a report on Pink Pigeon, which is an endemic bird in Mauritius. Read it
carefully and answer the questions that follow.
“The Pink Pigeon feeds on flowers, leaves and fruits of native trees. The bird was
once widely distributed across Mauritius. By the 19th century, its population started
to decrease. The main factors in the decline of the Pink Pigeon are the destruction
of native forests (primarily for sugar cane cultivation), hunting and the introduction
of predators such as rats, mongoose, monkeys and cats. Pink Pigeons are also
negatively affected by the degradation of the remaining forest due to introduced
plant species, primarily Chinese Guava and the privet. These plants invade and
choke the forest, preventing the regeneration of native plants. By the mid-1970s,
the numbers had declined to 20 birds in the forest of Black River Gorges. Only 12
Pink Pigeons remained in 1986 as their eggs were eaten by rats.”

Source: Mauritian Wildlife Foundation
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1. The Pink Pigeon is endemic to Mauritius. What does this statement mean?
___________________________________________________________________________
2. What happened to the number of Pink Pigeons from the 1950s to 1986?
___________________________________________________________________________
3. Name the invasive organisms that caused a decline in the population of the Pink Pigeon.
Animals: __________________________________________________________________
Plants: __________________________________________________________________
4. Explain how the following invasive species affected the survival of Pink Pigeons.
Rats:
___________________________________________________________________________
Chinese Guava:
___________________________________________________________________________
5. Give one reason why these invasive species should be removed from an ecosystem.
___________________________________________________________________________
We now have over 470 wild Pink Pigeons in Black River Gorges National Park following an
extensive conservation program.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
Invasive alien species reproduce rapidly, out-competing native species for food, water and
space, and is one of the main causes of biodiversity loss.
• Invasive plants (e.g. Chinese Guava) compete directly

with native plants for water, sunlight, nutrients, and
space. They reproduce rapidly preventing native
plants from growing. Moreover, the drop in native
plants imply less habitats for other native organisms.
• The decline in number of native species in an
ecosystem may affect the food chains and food webs.
• Invasive animals such as feral cats prey on small
animals and birds while rats eat eggs of birds.
• They can spread diseases to native species.
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Conservation of Biodiversity
You have learnt how biodiversity is important to us and to the environment. You have also
learnt about the threats to biodiversity. The activities which follow will allow you to understand
measures to protect our biodiversity.
Conservation of biodiversity is the protection and preservation

of the variety of species and their ecosystems.
ACTIVITY 3.9 - Ways to conserve biodiversity
Read the extract below and answer the following questions.
The Echo Parakeet is an endemic bird of Mauritius, which was referred to as the
‘world rarest parrot’. In 1986, the population of Echo Parakeet was estimated to be
only 10. Figure 8 is a bar chart showing the estimated number of Echo Parakeet from
1986 to 2016 in Mauritius.
Estimated Number of Echo Parakeet

800
700
Number of Echo Parakeet
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1986 2000 2009 2012 2016
Year
Figure 8
1. Using Figure 8, write down the number of Echo Parakeet in 2016. _____________________
2. Calculate the percentage increase of the number of Echo Parakeet from year 1986 to 2016.

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3. Suggest reasons to explain how conservation measures led to the increase in the number
of Echo Parakeet, as shown in Figure 8.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
Conservation measures
Some conservation measures to protect endangered organisms are described below.
(a) Setting up of nature reserves

Forests are converted into National Parks to protect the habitat and the organisms therein.
Similarly, an area of sea can be converted to a Marine Park.
Give an example of each of the following, in the Republic of Mauritius:
National Park: ___________________________________________________

Marine Park: ___________________________________________________
(b) Sustainable use of resources

• Resources should be used without compromising the ability of future generations
to meet their own needs. For example:
- Deforestation and overexploitation should be stopped.
- Trees that are cut should be replaced by new seedlings.
- Fishing should be limited to specific period.
(c) Captive breeding

Animals are bred in captivity in controlled environments such as zoos. The animals are protected
from predators and are provided with food and shelter. When their number is increased, they
are then released in their natural habitats.
(d) Botanical gardens

Endangered plants can be propagated and maintained in Botanical Gardens.
(e) Controlling invasive species

Invasive alien plants and animals are removed and controlled in protected areas. For instance,
the number of rats was controlled to protect the eggs of endemic birds such as the Echo
Parakeet and Kestrel.
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(f) Enforcing legislations

Legislations are enforced to ensure the protection of biodiversity. For instance, laws discourage
the illegal trade of endangered organisms and their products such as tigers’ skin and elephants’
tusks.
(g) Reducing pollution

To conserve ecosystems and biodiversity, it is crucial to reduce all forms of pollution (water, air,
soil, noise).
Some ways of reducing pollution are:
• Using green renewable energy instead of fossil fuels
• Use the 4Rs principle of waste management (Refuse, Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle)
• Ban the use of non-biodegradable plastic bags
(h) Public education

The public in general should be sensitised about the reasons to conserve biodiversity through
media, posters, campaigns etc.
FIND OUT
Find out some international organisations,

which carry out conservation work
ACTIVITY 3.10: B
E CREATIVE- PROJECT WORK
You are required to work in groups of 5 to prepare a poster which highlights the effects of
plastic pollution on biodiversity and ways of reducing its use.
Use your poster to sensitise other students in your school.
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Summary of unit
1. Biodiversity is the wide variety and number of organisms found in a defined area.
2. Quadrats are used to estimate the number of plants and slow-moving animals
in a habitat.
3. Biodiversity has a variety of important functions such as (i) the provision of resources
such as food, medicines and raw materials for industries (ii) maintaining the balance
of ecosystems and (iii) providing services such as recreation, research and ecotourism.
4. Biodiversity can be affected by natural calamities (e.g. cyclones, drought, and floods)
and human activities such as deforestation, pollution and overexploitation of natural
resources.
5. Deforestation is the clearing of large areas of forests.
6. Pollution is the release of any substance or pollutant which affects the environment.
7. Air pollution leads to acid rain, global warming, depletion of ozone layer, and a drop
in biodiversity.
8. Global warming causes melting of ice caps thus affecting animals such as polar bears.
9. Water pollution through the release of sewage, excess use of fertilisers, release
of chemicals from factories and oil spills kill many aquatic organisms.
10. Overexploitation (overfishing and overhunting) leads to extinction of species.
11. Invasive alien species introduced unnaturally from one ecosystem compete with
native species for resources leading to a decline in the number of native species
in an ecosystem.
12. Conservation of biodiversity is the protection and preservation of the variety of species
and their ecosystems.
13. Conservation of biodiversity is carried out through education, setting up of nature
reserves, enforcing laws, sustainable use of resources, controlling alien invasive species
and adopting the 4Rs (refuse, reuse, reduce and recycle) concept.
Recommended Web Links:

• http://www.mauritian-wildlife.org/application/
• https://www.wwf.org.uk
• https://www.iucnredlist.org
• http://www.ecofriendlykids.co.uk/biodiversitynature.html
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0nH3SDhcqXo
• https://kids.nationalgeographic.com/explore/science/declincing-biodiversity/
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• Unit B3 • Biodiversity
BIODIVERSITY defined as
The number of different types

Sampling techniques can be estimated by of organisms and their abundance
in a unit of environment.
using
threatened by
Quadrats
Conservative measures
provides
Natural factors Human factors
examples include such as
Introduction of Public education

Cyclones
invasive species
Ecological Socio-economic
Resources
benefits benefits Over exploitation Reducing pollution
Earthquakes
of resources
such as
Setting up Nature
Volcanic
pollution such as Reserves
Food eruption
Enforcing
Air legislation
Timber Deforestation
Industrial resources Water 4 R’s principles

such as fibres leads to
medicinal Soil
drugs
Global warming
Biodiversity
1
B3
Unit
Unit
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Section A: Multiple choice questions
1. The variety of organisms on Earth is known as ______________________

A.
Biodiversity B. Ecosystem
C.
Habitat D. Population
2. Which of the following is not a resource obtained from biodiversity?

A. Food B. Fibres C. Medicines D. Plastic
3. Which of the following organism cannot be counted using the quadrat technique?
A. Butterfly B. Slug C. Snail D Trochetia
4. One example of human activity that affects biodiversity is

A. Cyclone B. Deforestation C. Flood D. Volcanic eruptions
5. The diagram below represents a human activity.
How does this activity contribute to global warming?

A. There will be less carbon dioxide absorbed.  
B. There will be less oxygen absorbed.  
C. There will be less shade from trees.  
D. The soil will become dry.
6. Which activity will more likely lead to the extinction of species?

A.
Conservation B. Pollution
C. Captive breeding D. Setting up of nature reserves
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7. Which of the following causes a decrease in oxygen in a lake leading to death

of aquatic organisms?
A. Dyes entering from a factory  
B. Fertilisers entering from farmland  
C. Mercury entering from a factory  
D. Pesticides entering from farmland
8. Which of the following correctly shows the possible effects of deforestation?
Decrease in atmospheric
Loss of soil Flooding carbon dioxide
A ü ü û
B ü û ü
C û ü û

D û û ü
9. Which of the following is not an invasive alien plant?
A. Chinese Guava B. Ebony C. Liane Cerf D. Privet
10. ___________________ is the process of converting waste into reusable material.

A. Deforestation B. Eutrophication C. Pollution D. Recycling
Section B
1. Fill in the blanks with the words provided below.
Tambalacoque, ice caps, extinct, sewage, germs, invasive, Sulfur dioxide, equilibrium
(a) An example of water pollutant that harms marine organisms such as fishes is
__________________________________ .
(b) Global warming causes melting of __________________________________ .

(c) Diarrhea in humans is caused by drinking water that has _____________ in it.
(d) ________________________ species reproduce quickly and out-compete native
organisms.
(e) One example of an endemic plant in Mauritius is ________________.
(f ) One gas that is responsible for acid rain is __________________________.
(g) Biodiversity helps to maintain the _____________________ of ecosystems.
(h) If conservative measures are not taken, endangered organisms may become
____________________ .
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2. State whether the following statements are true or false.
(a) Carbon monoxide causes acid rain. ________________

(b) Biodiversity maintains the stability of ecosystems. ________________
(c) Enforcing laws helps to conserve biodiversity. ________________
(d) An example of air pollutant is plastic. ________________
(e) Deforestation can lead to global warming. ________________
(f ) Fertilisers and pesticides harm aquatic life. ________________
3. Match the human activity with their correct effect on biodiversity.
Human Activity Effect on Biodiversity
Destruction of forests Competition with native species

Burning of fossil fuels Death of fishes due to suffocation
Introduction of invasive species Loss of habitats of many organisms

Dumping of plastic bags in seas Leads to acid rain which destroys forests
4. Tick the human activities which help conserve biodiversity.
Human Activity Tick ü
Burning of forests
Using non-biodegradable plastic
Removing invasive alien plants from native forests
Dumping wastes in rivers
Discouraging illegal trade of endangered
organisms and their products
Breeding animals in captivity
Using excessive pesticides
Setting up of nature reserves
5. (a) List four items that can be recycled.

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(b) Using examples, explain how recycling is beneficial to biodiversity.

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
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6. Figure 1 shows the forest status around the world in 2013.

Observe the figure carefully and answer the questions that follow.
World Forest Status 2013
Declining Forests
Stable Forests

Growing forests
Source: UN FAO (2016)
Figure 1
(a) List two reasons why people clear forest.

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(b) Identify two countries where the area under forests are declining.
___________________________________________________________________
(c) Explain how deforestation can affect biodiversity.

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(d) (i) How does deforestation lead to global warming?

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(ii) State two negative effects of global warming on biodiversity.

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
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7. Mauritius has a rich biodiversity with many endemic species.

One endemic bird of our island is the Mauritius Kestrel. It is
the only remaining bird of prey in Mauritius.
Its current population is only 400 individuals. It lives in forests

and feeds on insects, geckos and small birds. Figure 2 shows
a picture of the Mauritius Kestrel.
Figure 2
(a) What is meant by the term biodiversity?

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(b) Give two human activities, which have caused the population of the Mauritius Kestrel
to decline.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(c) (i) Describe how a captive breeding programme helped to conserve Mauritius
Kestrels in the wild.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(ii) Other than captive breeding, state two methods, of conserving endangered

organisms.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
8. Victor, a student of Grade 9 lives near the rocky shore of Albion and wants to explore the
biodiversity of this particular ecosystem. He decides to use quadrats to find the different
types of organisms and their respective numbers. He randomly lays out five quadrats in a
defined area. The following organisms are identified in the rocky shore ecosystem.
Limpets Sea urchin Sea snails

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Figure 3 shows the area where the five quadrats were placed.
Quadrat 1
Quadrat 2
Quadrat 3
Key:
Sea snail
Sea urchin

Quadrat 4 Quadrat 5 Limpet
Figure 3: Quadrat sampling on a rocky shore
(a) Suggest why the student used five quadrats for his sampling rather than one.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(b) (i) Count the number of limpets, sea urchins and sea snails in each quadrat
and record in the Table 1 below.
Table 1
Type of Number of organisms in each quadrat

organisms Quadrat 1 Quadrat 2 Quadrat 3 Quadrat 4 Quadrat 5 Mean
Limpet
Sea snail
Sea urchin
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(c) (i) Using the information in Table 1, construct a bar chart of the mean number of
each organism per quadrat.
Mean number
of organism
per
quadrat
0
Organisms
(ii) State a relevant conclusion about the mean number of limpets, sea snails and sea
urchins on the rocky shore.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(d) Give one way the student can improve his investigation to get a better estimation of the
number of limpets, sea snails and sea urchins on the rocky shore.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
9. Figure 4 shows a town and surrounding countryside. Refer to Figure 4 to answer the
questions that follow.
prevailing wind
Sewage pipe
Woodland
Town
Factory River X
Crop
plants
Figure 4
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(a) State the term which describes the effects of the human activities shown in Figure 4.
______________________________________________________________________
(b) (i) Name two gases released into the air by the factory.
___________________________________________________________________
(ii) Complete Table 2 by describing the harmful effect of the gases mentioned in part
(b)(i) above.
Table 2
Gases released from factory Effect on Biodiversity
1.
2.

(c) A researcher investigated the effect of human activities on aquatic biodiversity and
found that there were very few plants and fishes in the river at point X.

(i) State two pollutants that caused a decrease in the number of plants and fishes
in the river water.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

(ii) Explain how the pollutants you named in (c) (i) caused a decrease in the aquatic
biodiversity.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(d) Suggest one conservative measure that can be taken to restore the aquatic biodiversity
in the river.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
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10. Read the following extract on zoos and answer the questions that follow.
Zoos
A visit to a zoo gives you a chance to see animals from
around the world. However, some people believe that
zoos are not good for the animals.
Zoos do more than taking care of and displaying

animals. They are also part of conservation projects
and are preserving and breeding animals whose
populations are threatened.
Critics of zoos think that conservation efforts and

protecting ecosystems where the animals actually live would be

a better solution than keeping animals in captivity.
(a) Based on your own research, describe TWO types of conservation efforts in zoos.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
(b) What are some of the advantages of having animals in zoos?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
(c) Explain some of the concerns people have about keeping animals in zoos.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
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Measurement
NutritionininScience Unit
Plants Unit
B4
1
Unit
Nutrition in Plants B4
Learning Outcomes

• State that photosynthesis is the process by which green plants manufacture their food
• Write down the word equation for photosynthesis
• Describe briefly how a leaf is adapted for photosynthesis
• Examine the cross section of a root, a stem and a leaf as seen under the light microscope
• Identify and label the xylem and phloem tissues: transverse sections of a root
and a stem
• Identify and label the different tissues in a leaf
• Define diffusion as the movement of molecules or particles from a region of high
concentration to a region of low concentration
• List the factors that are essential for photosynthesis to take place
• Conduct simple laboratory experiments to show the importance of these factors
for photosynthesis
In Grade 7, you have studied the different characteristics of living organisms. One of them is
nutrition. You learnt that animals obtain their food by feeding on other organisms while plants
can make their own food by a process known as photosynthesis.
In this unit, you will learn more about photosynthesis.
The Process of Photosynthesis

Figure 1 represents the process
of photosynthesis.
Figure 1: Photosynthesis
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If you observe Figure 1 carefully, you will see that the plant exposed to sunlight is taking carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere and water from the soil.
During photosynthesis, light energy from the sun is mainly trapped by pigments known as
chlorophyll. The light is used to convert carbon dioxide and water into food and oxygen.
Based on Figure 1, complete the word equation below to represent the process of photosynthesis.
sunlight
Carbon dioxide + ________________ Glucose + ________________
chlorophyll
Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants make their food using carbon
dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll. Oxygen is also produced
in the process.
Adaptations of a Leaf for Photosynthesis

Site for photosynthesis
The main site for photosynthesis in plants is the leaf. Through Activities 4.1 to 4.3, you will
explore how leaves are adapted for the process of photosynthesis.
Adaptation 1: Surface area
ACTIVITY 4.1 - Investigating how surface area of leaf is an adaptation

for photosynthesis
In this activity, you will learn that leaves are adapted for photosynthesis by providing a large
suface area.
Figure 2 shows the different parts of a strawberry plant.
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1
D
B
Figure 2
Observe Figure 2 carefully and answer the following questions:
(a) Name parts A, B, C and D
A _____________________________________
B _____________________________________
C _____________________________________
D _____________________________________
(b) Calculate the approximate surface area of parts A and C, enclosed within the yellow
boxes in Figure 2.
Approximate Surface Area of part A Approximate Surface Area of part B
The total surface area exposed to light may be estimated by

multiplying the exposed area of a leaf by the number of leaves present
in the plant.
(c) State which part of the strawberry plant has the largest surface area exposed to light.
________________________________________________________________________
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B4
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Leaves have a large surface area to maximise the absorption of light.

• Thus, leaves are adapted for the process of photosynthesis.
Adaptation 2: Network of Veins in a Leaf

Cells in leaves need water in order to carry out photosynthesis. Water is absorbed from the soil
by roots and transported through stem to the leaves.
Through Activity 4.2, you will observe the network of veins which transport water.
ACTIVITY 4.2 - Observing the network of veins in a leaf
Materials needed:
• Leaves, beaker, sodium carbonate, forceps, paper towel, bunsen burner and brush.
In this activity, you will remove the soft tissues of the leaf in order to observe the veins. This
activity can be carried out as follows:
(a) Collect a variety of fresh leaves from your school compound or your garden.
(b) Place the leaves you want to use into a beaker.
(c) Add 500 cm3 of water to the beaker, followed by 30 cm3 of sodium carbonate.
(d) Boil the content for about 30 minutes or until the leaves soften.
(e) Remove the leaves from the solution using a pair of forceps.
(f ) Set the leaves onto a paper towel and gently brush the leaf pulp away.
(g) Rinse the leaves in fresh water and allow it to dry.
You will obtain the skeleton of a leaf as shown in Figure 3. It shows the network of veins present
in a leaf.
A:
B:
C:
D:
Figure 3
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Unit
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Using the following, label parts A,B, C and D.

Midrib, leaf apex, leaf margin and network of veins
The midrib is the central large vein which subdivides into tiny veins that run through the leaf.
The veins consist of xylem and phloem. Xylem vessels carry water and minerals from the roots
through the stem to the leaves of the plant. Water leaves the veins and enters the cells that
are carrying out photosynthesis. Phloem tubes carry food, in the form of sugar (sucrose), from
leaves to all parts of the plants.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Another adaptation of leaves for photosynthesis is the presence of network of small veins
which transport water to the cells of leaves which carry out photosynthesis.
Adaptation 3: Presence of stomata (singular– stoma)

After learning how a leaf is adapted to receive sunlight and water, you will now learn how the
leaf obtain carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
Through Activitie 4.3 you will learn about the presence of pores (stomata) in a leaf.
ACTIVITY 4.3 - Identifying the presence of pores in a leaf
Materials needed:
• Freshly plucked dicot leaf, beaker, Bunsen burner, tripods, water, pair of forceps.
Procedure:
(a) Heat a beaker containing water on a Bunsen flame until

boiling.
(b) Remove the beaker from the flame and immediately dip
a freshly plucked leaf into the hot water using a pair of
forceps, as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4
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B4
(a) Observe the leaf carefully and write down your observations.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
(b) Based on your observation, suggest how a leaf obtain CO2 from the atmosphere
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
These pores can open and close. They open in the presence of light, that is during the day, to
allow gas exchange. Carbon dioxide molecules enter the leaf through the pores and are used
by leaf cells carryng out photesynthesis. They produced glucose and oxygen by the process of
photosynthesis. During the process oxygen and glucose are provided. Excess oxygen moves
out of the leaves through the same stomata.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Small air bubbles are formed on the surface of the leaf when placed in hot water. This
shows that leaves have small pores.
• As air moves out of small pores, small bubbles are formed on the surface of the leaf.
• Carbon dioxide moves from the atmosphere into the leaves through small pores called stomata.
• So far, you have learnt that leaves are adapted for the process of photosynthesis as follows:
- Leaves have a large surface area to maximise absorption of light.
- Leaves have a midrib and network of veins comprising xylem which carry water
to photosynthetic cells.
- Leaves have stomata for gaseous exchange, especially allowing carbon dioxide
to move into leaves during the day.
- Leaves have chlorophyll which trap light.
Now that you learnt about the ways that leaves are adapted for photosynthesis, lets explore
how plants obtain the raw materials of photosynthesis.
How do plants obtain the raw materials for photosynthesis?

You may recall that plants require carbon dioxide and water for photosynthesis. To understand
how plants obtain the raw materials, you will first explore the structure of root, stem and leaves
of a plant.
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Figure 5 below shows the transverse section of the root, stem and leaves.
Upper epidermis
Leaf Palisade mesophyll tissue
Xylem Spongy mesophyll tissue

Phloem
Lower epidermis
Stem Xylem
Phloem
Xylem
Phloem
Root
Epidermis
Figure 5: Transverse sections of leaf, stem and root
DID YOU KNOW…
• A tissue is a group of cells.

• Palisade and spongy mesophyll tissues have cells
speciallised for the process of photosyhthesis.
Your teacher will show you the cross section of a root, stem and
leaves, as seen under the microscope.
Now that you have learnt about the structure of different parts of the plants, let’s explore how
photosysthetic cells of leaves obtain CO2 and H2O.
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B4
Movement of carbon dioxide into the leaf
Through Activity 4.4, you will learn how CO2 enters a leaf.
ACTIVITY 4.4: Understanding how carbon dioxide enters the leaf
Observe Figure 6 and answer the following questions. Cuticle
Upper epidermis
Palisade
mesophyll tissue
Xylem
Phloem
Spongy
mesophyll tissue
Air space
Lower epidermis
Stoma
represents a carbon dioxide molecule
Figure 6: Detailed structure of cross section of a leaf
1. Name the part through which carbon dioxide enters the leaf during the day.
____________________
2. On Figure 6,
(a) Using letter X, indicate a region of high carbon dioxide concentration, and
(b) Using letter Y, indicate a region of low carbon dioxide concentration
raw an arrow on Figure 6 to show how diffusion of carbon dioxide takes place
(c) D
in the leaf.
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In fact, CO2 diffuses from the immediate environment into the leaf by the process of diffusion.
Diffusion
Diffusion is the movement of particles or molecules from a
region of high concentration to a region of low concentration.
Figure 7 represents the spread of molecules from a region
of higher to lower concentration.
Diffusion
High Low
Concentration Concentration
Figure 7
Movement of water from the soil into the plant
Figure 8 shows the movement of water from the soil into the roots, up the stem and the
leaves of a plant.
water travels up the stem

through xylem
water absorbed
by roots
Figure 8: Pathway of water in a plant
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Carbon dioxide enters the leaves by diffusion through the stomata.
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B4
Factors essential for photosynthesis

Carbon dioxide, light and chlorophyll are some of the factors that are essential for photosynthesis
to take place. Before investigating the importance of these factors, let’s learn how we test if a
plant has carried out photosynthesis.
Testing the presence of starch in a leaf
As you learnt earlier, glucose is produced in the leaves during photosynthesis. Excess glucose is
converted into starch for storage. Thus, the presence of starch in a leaf shows that photosynthesis
has taken place.
ACTIVITY 4.5 - Testing the presence of starch in a leaf
Materials needed:
• Soft green leaves (such as balsam leaves), iodine solution, dropper, ethanol, boiling tube,
beaker, glass rod, forceps, water, white tile, bunsen burner
Procedure:
1. Place a freshly plucked leaf, which has been exposed to

sunlight, into boiling water in a beaker as shown in Fig 10.
Leave it for about one minute.
Why do we leave the leaf in boiling water for one minute?
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
2. Using forceps, remove the leaf and put it

in a boiling tube.
Figure 10
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3. Add enough ethanol to cover the leaf in the boiling tube as shown in Figure 11. The Bunsen
burner flame should be put off.
Let the leaf stand in the water bath for approximately 3 minutes
Safety precautions:
Alcohol is very flammable, so it should not Hot water
be heated directly over a Bunsen flame.
Alcohol
(a) Observe and record the colour of the leaf. Leaf

Wire
_____________________________ gauze
(b) What is the colour of the ethanol? Tripod
_____________________________
Figure 11
(c) Suggest why the leaf was placed in alcohol?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
4. Remove the leaf from ethanol.
Is the leaf brittle or soft to touch? _____________________________
5. Wash the leaf in warm water to remove the ethanol and to soften it.
6. Spread out the leaf on a white tile and cover it with iodine solution as shown in Figure 13.
(a) What do you observe?
_______________________________________________________________________
white tile
(b) What can you conclude from your observation?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
Figure 13
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Glucose produced during photosynthesis is converted to starch for storage.

• The blue black colour indicates presence of starch in a leaf.
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Now lets investigate through activities 4.6 to 4.8, how CO2, light and chlorophyll are essential
for photosynthesis.
ACTIVITY 4.6 - I nvestigating the importance of light

for photosynthesis
Materials needed:
• potted plants, beaker of water at 800C – 1000C, dropper, forceps, iodine solution,
2
ethanol, black hood and lamp.
Cover with
black hood
Plant A Plant B
Figure 14
Note: Plant A is the control experiment as it has all the conditions needed for photosynthesis
and is used for comparison.
Procedure:
1. Destarch the two potted plants by placing them in complete darkness (under a black
hood) for approximately 48 hours.
2. Remove the potted plant A from darkness and expose it to sunlight for 2 hours.
Keep the second potted plant B in darkness, as shown in Figure 14.
3. Collect a leaf from each plant.
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4. Test the leaves for the presence of starch as described in Activity 4.5.
(a) Record your observations for both leaves in Table 1.

Table 1
Leaf Observations
(b) What can you conclude from this investigation?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
ACTIVITY 4.7 - Investigating the importance of carbon dioxide

for photosynthesis
Materials needed:
Retort stand, conical flask fitted with a rubber bung, 1 potted plant (geranium or balsam), 2
boiling tubes, glass marker pen, beaker of water at 80oC – 100oC, 2 petridishes, dropper, forceps
or glass rod, iodine solution, ethanol, potassium hydroxide solution.
Sunlight
Twig (of a plant)
A B
Potassium Hydroxide
water
Figure 15
Procedure:
1. A potted plant is destarched for 48 hours.
2. Leaf A, still attached to the plant, is inserted in a conical flask containing

potassium hydroxide.
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3. Leaf B is enclosed within another conical flask containing water as shown in Figure 15.
4. The plant is left in sunlight for 2 hours
5. Then leaves A and B are removed from the plant and tested for the presence of starch as
described in Activity 4.5.
Safety precautions:
Safety Precaution: Care should be taken when handling
potassium hydroxide as it is corrosive.
After carrying out the starch test on both leaves A and B, the results are shown below.
Leaf A Leaf B
(a) State the purpose of potassium hydroxide in the conical flask A.
_______________________________________________________________________
(b) State the role of leaf B in this investigation.
_______________________________________________________________________
(c) Name one factor, which is absent in the conical flask A.
_______________________________________________________________________
(d) Name the factors present in the conical flask B which are needed for photosynthesis.
_______________________________________________________________________
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(e) Why does leaf B become blue black after testing for the presence of starch?
_______________________________________________________________________
(f) What can you conclude from this experiment?
_______________________________________________________________________
ACTIVITY 4.8 - Investigating the importance of chlorophyll

for photosynthesis
Materials needed:
• A variegated potted plant, boiling tube, glass marker pen, beaker of water at 800C – 1000C,
petridish, dropper, forceps or glass rod, iodine solution, ethanol.
Note: A variegated leaf is one which has patches of green (where chlorophyll is present) and
white or yellow parts (where green chlorophyll is absent).

Variegated leaf
A variegated plant
Procedure:
1. Place the variegated plant in darkness for 48 hours to destarch it.
2. Remove the potted plant from darkness and expose it to sunlight for 2 hours.
3. Pluck a leaf from the plant and draw the leaf to show the distribution of the green
and non-green parts.
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4. Test the leaf for the presence of starch as described in Activity 4.5.
(a) Draw the leaf after iodine solution has been added to show the parts that have become
blue-black.
(b) What can you conclude from your observation?

_______________________________________________________________________
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
For photosynthesis to occur:

• Leaves must be exposed to sunlight.
• Plants need carbon dioxide.
• Chlorophyll must be present in leaf cells.
FIND OUT
Recommended Website links
1. https://www.bbc.com/bitesize/guides/zyk8msg/revision/1
2. https://www.bbc.com/bitesize/guides/z9pjrwx/revision/8
3. https://www.activewild.com/what-is-photosynthesis-for-kids/
4. https://photosynthesiseducation.com/photosynthesis-for-kids/
5. http://people.eku.edu/ritchisong/378_diffusion.htm
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Summary of unit
• The process by which green plants make their food is called photosynthesis.
• Light, chlorophyll, water and carbon dioxide are the factors needed for photosynthesis
to take place.
• Glucose and oxygen are the products of photosynthesis.
• The word equation for photosynthesis is:

Light
Carbon dioxide + Water Glucose + Oxygen
Chlorophyll
• Large surface area, network of veins, presence of chlorophyll and presence of stomata
are adaptations of leaves for photosynthesis.
• Vascular bundle consisting of xylem and phloem are present in leaf, stem and root as shown
below.
Leaf Stem Root
Xylem Phloem
Xylem
Xylem
Phloem
Phloem
- xylem transports water from the roots up the stem and the leaves.
- phloem transports food from the leaves to all parts of the plants during the day.
• Carbon dioxide enters the leaf through stomata by diffusion from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration.
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Unit
• Unit B4 • Nutrition in Plants
Carbon dioxide + water Light Food + Oxygen

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Chorophyll
Nutrition in Plants
Main site for

Raw materials Products
Photosynthesis
• Upper and lower epidermis

Leaf consists of Oxygen Glucose (Food)
• Palisade mesophyll layer Water Carbon dioxide
• Spongy mesophyll layer
• Vascular bundles Converted to stored as
moves through
moves into Excess moves out
Adaptations Sucrose Starch
of leaf via
Stomata test
Roots
Stomata Transported
has has has has Use iodine
through
solution
phloem
into leaves
Vascular bundles Large surface Then transported
Chlorophyll Stomata by diffusion
(veins) area in xylem gives
consists of Iodine remains

Blue black colour
function function function To leaves brown/yellow colour
(starch present)
(starch absent)
Traps light Allow exchange Xylem Phloem Traps maximum

energy of gases sunlight
Transports water Carries food

and minerals (sucrose)
Unit
B4
1
Section A: Multiple choice Questions

Circle the correct answer.
1. The process by which green plants produce glucose is known as _________________ .
A. Respiration B. Reproduction C. Photosynthesis D. Excretion
2. The pigment responsible for absorption of light in plants is called _________________ .
A. Chlorophyll B. Stoma C. Xylem D. Phloem
3. The diagram below shows gas exchange in a plant exposed to sunlight.
Sunlight

gas A
gas B
Identify gas A and gas B.
Gas A Gas B
A. Oxygen Carbon dioxide
B. Carbon dioxide Oxygen
C. Water vapour Carbon dioxide
D. Water vapour Oxygen
4. Which option correctly gives the raw materials and the by-product of the process
of photosynthesis?
raw materials by-product
A. Carbon dioxide and chlorophyll Oxygen
B. Carbon dioxide and water Oxygen
C. Oxygen and chlorophyll Carbon dioxide
D. Oxygen and water Carbon dioxide
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5. Which one is an adaptation of leaf for photosynthesis?
A. It has chlorophyll B. It is very thick
C. It has tiny hairs D. It has a small surface area
6. How does oxygen move out of the leaf?

A. Evaporation B. Transpiration C. Respiration D. Diffusion
7. Glucose produced during photosynthesis is converted into _______________ for storage.
A. Protein B. Genes C. Starch D. Cellulose
8.
A student carries out an experiment
to find out which gas is released during Sunlight
photosynthesis. He sets up the apparatus

using an aquatic plant as shown Gas
in the diagram.
Which gas is collected in the inverted

test-tube? Pond water
A. Carbon monoxide B. Hydrogen
C. Oxygen D. Sulfur dioxide
Aquatic plant
9. The diagram shows a transverse section through a plant organ.
Q shows the part that is stained red when the stem is placed
in water containing a red dye. What is found at Q?
A. Guard cells B. Palisade cells C. Phloem D. Xylem
10. ____________________ contains the green pigment chlorophyll.
A. Chloroplast B. Vacuole C. Nucleus D. Cell wall
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Section B
1. Fill in the blanks by choosing the appropriate answer from the list below.
diffusion membrane iodine variegated surface area
(a) A leaf is tested for starch using _________________ solution.
(b) A
________________ leaf has green regions where there is chlorophyll and white or
yellow regions where chlorophyll is absent.
(c) Carbon dioxide enters a leaf by the process of ____________________ .
(d) The leaves have large _________________ to trap light.
2. Match each feature of the leaf in Column A with the description in Column B.
COLUMN A COLUMN B

Large surface area Carry water and food
Chlorophyll Main photosynthetic cells in leaf
Veins Trap maximum sunlight
Stomata Pigment absorbing light energy
Palisade cells Openings in leaf allowing movement of gases
3. State whether the following is true or false.
(a) The reactants of photosynthesis are glucose and oxygen. ________________
(b) Photosynthesis occurs in the nucleus of plant cells. ________________
(c ) Photosynthesis uses sunlight to make sugar. ________________
(d) A variegated leaf has unequal distribution of chlorophyll. ________________
(e) Potassium hydroxide is used to absorb carbon dioxide from the air. ________________
(f ) Xylem vessels carry food from leaves to all parts of plant. ________________
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4. Answer the following questions.
(a) List the essential factors for photosynthesis to take place.
1_______________ 2_______________ 3 _______________ 4_________________
(b) State the function of chlorophyll.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
(c ) What are the final products of photosynthesis?
1. _____________________________________________________________________
2. _____________________________________________________________________
(d) Write down a word equation to represent the process of photosynthesis.
_______________________________________________________________________
(f ) State the function of stomata?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
(g) How is water transported from the roots to the leaves?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
(h) State one importance of the carbohydrate formed by photosynthesis to the plant.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
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5. The diagram shows a section through a small part of a leaf lamina.
A………………...
B………………..
C………………..
D………………..
F………………
E………………..
G…………….

(a) Label the parts A-G
(b) Which one of the structures labelled A to G on the diagram:

(i) is the main site for photosynthesis?
_____________________________________________________________________
(ii) allows the entry of carbon dioxide into the leaf?

_____________________________________________________________________
(c) How is the leaf lamina adapted to:

(i) receive and trap sunlight? ______________________________________________
(ii) obtain carbon dioxide? ________________________________________________
(d) Using arrows, show the movement of carbon dioxide on the diagram.
(e) Water is needed for photosynthesis in the leaf. Describe how water is carried from the
soil to the leaf.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
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(f ) One of the products of photosynthesis is sugar. In which tissue is sugar transported?

_______________________________________________________________________
(g) When water is scarce, the stomata in leaves are closed. How is photosynthesis affected?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
6. The diagram below illustrates the different steps (A, B, C and D) carried out when testing a
leaf for the presence of starch.
A B C D
ethanol
Iodine solution
white tile
water
bunsen burner
(a) Describe the different steps A, B, C and D.

A …………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
B …………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
C …………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
D …………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
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(b) Why are the steps A and B carried out?

Step A: ________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Step B: ________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
(c) State the appearance of the leaf after step B.

______________________________________________________________________
(d) What happens to the leaf after step C?

______________________________________________________________________
(e) What would you observe after step D if starch is present in the leaf?
______________________________________________________________________
7. The leaf below has been treated to show that sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis.
Sunlight
Green leaf
Black paper
(a) The leaf was left in darkness for 48 hours before placing the black paper strips
on the surfaces of the leaf. Explain why?
______________________________________________________________________
(b) Name the process that took place when keeping the leaf in darkness.
______________________________________________________________________
(c ) After exposing the leaf to sunlight for a few hours, the leaf is removed and tested
for starch. Draw the leaf in the box below to show your observation.
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(d) What can you conclude?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
8. A student carried out an experiment to investigate if plants need light to manufacture glucose
which is then stored as starch.
The diagram shows what the student did.
Plant removed from cupboard

and aluminium foil placed on
one of the leaves
Chlorophyll
Variegated potted Aluminium foil
plant placed in dark
No Chlorophyll
cupboard for 2 days
Stage 1
Stage 2
Plant kept
Leaf after testing for starch in sunlight
for 6 hours
A Stage 3
B Foil removed
and leaf tested
C for starch
Stage 4
Stage 5
(a) Why was the potted plant kept in a dark cupboard for 2 days?
______________________________________________________________________
(b) Why did the student cover part of the leaf with aluminium foil?
______________________________________________________________________
(c) Stage 5 shows three areas on the leaf: A, B and C.

(i) Write down the colours these areas would be stained after testing for starch
A ____________________ B _____________________ C ______________________
(ii) What can you conclude from your observations above?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
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9. An investigation was carried out to find the conditions essential for photosynthesis. Three
plants of similar size and of the same species were placed in a dark cupboard for 48 hours.
A leaf from each plant was removed and tested for starch.
The plants were then watered and placed in the apparatus shown below.
Each glass container was illuminated for a few hours.
Sunlight
aluminium foil
glass
container
potassium potassium
water
hydroxide hydroxide
A B C
(a) When the leaves from the plants were tested for starch at the start of the investigation
all gave a yellow-brown colour with iodine.
Explain why.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
(b) Why is potassium hydroxide used?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
(c) What factor(s) necessary for photosynthesis were absent in:

(i) vessel B?
____________________________________________________________________
(ii) vessel C?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
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(d) After leaving the plants for few hours in sunlight, leaves from plants A, B and C were
removed and tested for starch with iodine solution.
(i) Write down the observations you would obtain for the following leaves:
Leaf A _______________________
Leaf B _______________________
Leaf C _______________________
(ii) Account for your observations in part (d) (i)
Leaf A
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
Leaf B
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
Leaf C
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
10. Lisa investigates how light intensity affects photosynthesis in a piece of pondweed. She
sets up the following apparatus.
boiling tube clamped in possition

lamp
water
pondweed weighted with paper clip
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 cm
meter rule
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Lisa counts how many bubbles are given off from the pondweed in one minute. She then
changes the light intensity by varying the distance of the plant from the lamp and repeats her
measurement.
The results are shown in Table 1.

Table 1
Distance from lamp (cm) Number of bubbles evolved in one minute

10 101
20 100
30 99
40 95
50 85
60 105
70 62
80 50
90 34
(a) Name the gas which bubbles off from the pondweed?
_______________________________________________________________________
(b) Using Table 1 state the distance, in cm, at which the light intensity is
(i) Lowest
_____________________________________________________________________
(ii) Highest
_____________________________________________________________________
(c) (i) One result does not fit the pattern. Circle this result on Table 1.
_____________________________________________________________________
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(ii) Use the grid to draw a line graph of the results. Do not plot the result, that you have
encircled in Table 1.
Distance from lamp (cm)
(d) (i) Use your graph to describe what happens to the number of bubbles released when
the distance of pondweed from the lamp decreases.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(ii) What can you deduce about the effect of the light intensity on photosynthesis in
pondweed?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
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Atmosphere and Environment around us Unit
Unit
C1
1
Unit
Atmosphere and Environment
around us C1
Learning Outcomes
• Recall the composition of air in the Earth’s atmosphere

• Explain photosynthesis as a process of transforming light energy into chemical energy
• Describe respiration as the process of breaking down food in the presence of oxygen to
form carbon dioxide and water to release energy
• Describe combustion as the process of burning fuel in oxygen
• Explain the different steps in the carbon cycle
• Discuss the importance of photosynthesis and respiration in maintaining the
composition of air
• Define the term greenhouse gas and identify carbon dioxide and methane as greenhouse
gases
• Identify greenhouse gases as gases which retain heat energy in the atmosphere
• Recognise that increase in the absorption of heat energy by the atmosphere is
responsible for global warming
• Use data to correlate the increase in global temperatures to an increased amount of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
• Identify the causes of global warming
• Identify the effects of global warming
• Relate global warming to climate change
• Discuss measures to combat climate change
• Identify carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen, sulfur dioxide, CFCs and smoke as air
pollutants
• State the sources and effects of some air pollutants
• Explain the causes and effects of acid rain
• Discuss measures to prevent air pollution
• Explain the causes and effects of water pollution
• Show understanding of eutrophication and its harmful effects
• Discuss measures to prevent water pollution
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Unit Atmosphere and environment around us
C1
Composition of Air
The Earth is surrounded by a layer of air called its atmosphere. Air is a mixture of gases and is
important for living things. The two main gases present in air are nitrogen and oxygen. Other
gases present in smaller amounts are carbon dioxide and the inert gases. The three main inert
gases are, namely, argon, helium and neon. The amount of water vapour varies from day to day
and place to place.
Table 1 shows the approximate composition of gases present in a sample of clean air.
Table 1
Gases Percentage (%)

Nitrogen 78
Oxygen 21
Carbon dioxide 0.04
Inert gases (mainly argon) 0.96
Water vapour Variable
DID YOU KNOW…
The air above a desert is very dry and contains less water vapour compared to the air above
seawater which contains a large amount of water vapour. Hence, humidity level is lower in
desert regions than in seawater regions.
Desert Seawater
Photosynthesis
Living things need energy to move, grow and reproduce. The use of chemical energy is a
fundamental characteristic of living things. The chemical energy needed comes from food.
Unlike animals, plants make their own food by the process of photosynthesis. Photosynthesis
occurs in the leaves of plants which act as food factories. The leaves have a green pigment
called chlorophyll that helps to capture light energy from the sun.
In the following activity, you will investigate the energy transformation that occurs during
photosynthesis.
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ACTIVITY 1.1–:Investigating the energy transformation that occurs

during photosynthesis
Observe Figure 1 and Figure 2 which describe the process of photosynthesis and answer the
Sunlight
Oxygen
Carbon dioxide Light

Glucose in
leaves Carbon Chlorophyll
dioxide
Water Water
Oxygen
Figure 1 Figure 2
1. (a) (i) Which gas is absorbed by plants during photosynthesis?
(ii) Which other substance is needed by plants during photosynthesis?
(b) (i) Which gas is released by plants during photosynthesis?
(ii) Which other substance is produced during photosynthesis?
2. During photosynthesis, an energy conversion occurs. Fill in the boxes below to describe
this energy conversion.
converts into
energy energy
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3. During photosynthesis, plants use carbon dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight and
chlorophyll to make their own food (glucose). Oxygen gas is released during the process.

Complete the word equation by filling the boxes below for the process of photosynthesis.

Word Equation:
+ water
glucose +
Respiration
All living organisms carry out respiration. Respiration is a biochemical process during which
organisms obtain energy. During respiration, food (glucose) is broken down in the presence of
oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water. Energy is also released during this process.
TEST YOURSELF 1.1
Write down the word equation for the process of respiration.
Combustion
Combustion is a chemical reaction between a fuel and oxygen. When fuels burn in sufficient
amount of oxygen, the products formed are carbon dioxide and water. This process is called
complete combustion.
However, when fuel burns in insufficient amount of oxygen, the products formed are carbon
monoxide and water. This process is called incomplete combustion.
DID YOU KNOW…
Most fuels contain atoms of carbon and hydrogen.
TEST YOURSELF 1.2
Complete the word equation for the complete combustion of fuel.
Fuel + oxygen + water
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Complete the word equation for the incomplete combustion of fuel.
Fuel + oxygen + water
The Carbon Cycle

The Earth’s atmosphere contains approximately 0.04% by volume of carbon dioxide. However,
this small percentage represents many billions tonnes of the gas. Carbon dioxide is continuously
being removed from and returned to the atmosphere by different chemical processes. This two-
way movement of carbon dioxide is called the carbon cycle. Hence, the carbon cycle maintains
the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere almost constant. In the following activity, you will
appreciate the importance of photosynthesis and respiration in maintaining the composition
of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
ACTIVITY 1.2 – Exploring how carbon cycle maintains the level of

carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
The composition of carbon dioxide in our environment is maintained by different processes.
Sunlight Combustion
Carbon dioxide of fuels from
factories
Plant
Photosynthesis
respiration
Animal
respiration
Photosynthesis Carbon dioxide Respiration
Combustion
Figure 3: The Carbon Cycle
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Observe Figure 3 carefully and answer the questions that follow.
1. Which three processes are being represented in Figure 3?
2. Which two processes are natural?
3. Which processes release carbon dioxide in the air?
4. Which process absorbs carbon dioxide from the air?
5. Study the map below and fill in the boxes with the appropriate word(s).
Carbon dioxide
releases
is absorbed
during
Respiration Combustion
6. Explain how respiration and photosynthesis help in maintaining the composition of

carbon dioxide present in air.
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WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Carbon dioxide, water, (sun)light and chlorophyll are needed for photosynthesis to take place.
• Carbon dioxide is produced mainly during respiration and combustion.
• The carbon cycle maintains the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere almost
constant.
• Carbon cycle involves three main processes, namely, respiration, photosynthesis and
combustion.
• The amount of carbon dioxide absorbed during photosynthesis is roughly equal to the
amount of carbon dioxide released during respiration.
Greenhouse Gases
Greenhouse gases are heat-trapping gases. They keep the Earth’s surface warm and livable.
Overall, greenhouse gases are beneficial. Without naturally occurring greenhouse gases, our
planet would be too cold and non-livable.
DID YOU KNOW…
Without naturally occurring greenhouse gases, Earth’s average temperature would be

approximately -18°C instead of the much warmer 15°C.
When solar radiation reaches the Earth’s surface, heat energy is trapped by the greenhouse
gases. This effect is called the greenhouse effect because the Earth’s atmosphere acts like a
greenhouse that traps heat. The main greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide and methane.
In the following activity, you will identify greenhouse gases as gases which retain heat energy
in the atmosphere.
A greenhouse traps the Sun’s
energy inside and keeps the
plants warm.
Figure 4: Greenhouse trapping the Sun’s energy
FIND OUT
Identify other greenhouse gases which are emitted in significant quantities by human activities.
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ACTIVITY 1.3 – Identifying greenhouse gases as gases which retain

heat energy in the atmosphere
Consequently,
this warm the Earth’s surface
and the lower atmosphere.
Figure 5
Observe Figure 5 carefully and answer the questions that follow.
1. What do you understand by the term ‘atmosphere’?
2. Briefly describe what happens to the solar radiation as it passes through the Earth’s surface.
3. (i) Which gas molecules are responsible for the absorption of the radiation from the sun?
(ii) How are these gas molecules beneficial to our planet?
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WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• The Earth is surrounded by a layer of air called its atmosphere.

• Some of the radiation from the Sun is absorbed by the Earth’s surface.
• Some of the radiation is absorbed and re-emitted by atmospheric greenhouse gases.
• The greenhouse gases retain heat energy in the atmosphere. This effect is called the
greenhouse effect.
Global Warming
You learnt that when the Sun’s radiation is reflected by the Earth and the atmosphere, some of
it passes through the atmosphere. The rest is absorbed and re-radiated by greenhouse gases.
Gases such as carbon dioxide and methane trap heat energy in the atmosphere keeping the
Earth warm enough to sustain life.
However, an increase of such gases will retain excess heat energy in the atmosphere resulting in
an increase of average global temperature. This phenomenon is called global warming. Global
warming can be defined as the increase of the Earth’s average temperature due to the presence
of increasing amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
Step 5 :
Step 4 : Human activities
Some of this such as burning
heat is trapped fossil fuels,
by greenhouse agriculture and
gases in the land clearing
atmosphere, are increasing the
keeping the amount of
Step 3 :
Earth warm greenhouse Step 6 :
Step 1 : Heat radiates
enough to gases released This is trapping
Solar radiation from Earth
sustain life. into the extra heat and
reaches the towards space.
atmosphere. causing
Earth’s
atmosphere - the Earth’s
some of this temperature
is reflected to rise.
back into
space.
Step 2 :
The rest of the Sun’s energy is
absorbed by the land and the
oceans, heating the Earth.
One of the important heat-trapping gases is carbon dioxide (CO2) which is released in the
atmosphere mainly during the burning of fossil fuels. As the atmosphere is overloaded with
carbon dioxide, excess heat is trapped.
In the following activity, you will use data to understand the relationship between an increase
in the amount of carbon dioxide and an increase in global temperature.
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ACTIVITY 1.4 – Using data to correlate the increase in global

temperatures to increased amount of carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere
The table below shows the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere throughout the years
from 1800 to 2000.
Year 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

Amount of carbon dioxide/ ppm 100 150 200 230 450
The graph below shows the rise in Earth’s temperature throughout the years from 1800 to 2000.
1. Study the table and the graph above and answer the questions that follow.
(a) Calculate the increase in the amount of carbon dioxide from the year:
(i) 1800 to 1850.
(ii) 1850 to 1900.
(b) Calculate the rise in the Earth’s temperature from the year.
(i) 1800 to 1850.
(ii) 1850 to 1900.
(c) (i) As from which year did the Earth’s temperature start to increase drastically?
(ii) What has happened to the amount of carbon dioxide as from this particular year?
(e) Draw a conclusion on the correlation between the increase in the amount of carbon
dioxide and the rise in the Earth’s temperature.
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Causes of Global Warming

It has become clear that human activities have caused most of the past century's warming by
releasing heat-trapping gases. It is important to understand the causes of global warming so
that we can fight for the survival of our planet. In the following activity, you will investigate
the causes of global warming (or the sources of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and
methane).
ACTIVITY 1.5 – Investigating the causes of global warming
1. The pictures below illustrate the natural and man-made causes of global warming. Observe
carefully the pictures below and fill in the blanks with the appropriate words or phrases
from the list.
cattle breeding, pollution from vehicles, landfills, deforestation, decay of

vegetation and animals, burning of fossil fuels
Causes of
Global Warming
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2. From the list of identified causes of global warming, deduce any two which are consequences
of human activities.
3. Identify the activities which cause the release of methane.
4. Identify the activities which cause the release of carbon dioxide.
5. How do these activities contribute to global warming?
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Global warming is defined as the increase of the Earth’s average temperature due to
the presence of increasing amounts of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
• Examples of greenhouse gase are carbon dioxide and methane.
• Methane is released by cattle breeding and the decay of vegetation and animals.
• Carbon dioxide is released by burning of fossil fuels from power plant and from exhaust
pipes of vehicles.
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Global Warming and Climate Change

“Climate change” and “global warming” are terms which are often used interchangeably but have
distinct meanings. Global warming focuses on the increase of the Earth’s average temperature
due to increasing amounts of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Climate change focuses
on the changes (shifts) in the weather patterns over time caused by increasing amounts of
greenhouse gases and other pollutants. Some of these changes include abnormal increase in
temperature, melting of glaciers, flooding, rising of sea levels, increase in frequency and intensity of
cyclones.
In the following activity, you will explore the harmful effects (consequences) of global warming
as related to impacts of climate change.
ACTIVITY 1.6 – Exploring the harmful effects of global warming as

related to climate change
Global warming also leads to a drastic shift in the weather patterns over time. This activity
consists of two parts (Part A and Part B) and illustrates the overlapping harmful effects of global
warming and impacts of climate change.
Part A: Some of the possible consequences of global warming have been identified below. Observe
the pictures below carefully and appropriately fill in the blanks with the given words or phrases.
heat waves, coral bleaching, melting of glaciers, extra water vapour leads to flooding, rising
of sea levels, more violent rainfall and cyclones, increasing evaporation leads to drought
Effects
of Global
Warming
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Part B:
Read the following article carefully and answer the questions that follow.
PARADISE IS GETTING ROCKY
Mauritius has long been praised for the beauty of its sandy beaches.
Rising sea levels are posing a threat by changing the appearance of
parts of the shoreline. A US writer has quoted: “Paradise is getting
rocky. Global warming is the culprit”. An increase in greenhouse
gases from human activities has caused an increase in the average
temperature which has contributed in a disbalance in our climate
over time.
According to a recent report by the Government of Mauritius to

the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change,
erosion has decreased the width of some beaches over the past few
years. Sea levels have increased at an average rate of 5.6mm a year.
Alongside with the deterioration of the coral reefs, this is causing a
danger to our marine ecosystem.
The island is situated in the Indian Ocean’s tropical cyclone belt and
may suffer more intense and frequent cyclones as temperatures rise.
It may face more frequent and severe flash flooding. Flash floods in
2013 resulted in 11 people losing their lives.
The risk to Mauritius’ native plants and wildlife is another aspect of

the threat. With its thousands of acres of rolling hills and thick green
forests, the Black River Gorges national park which is home to some
of the rarest species in Mauritius is at risk.
1. It is stated that “Paradise is becoming rocky”. What is provoking such a change in the island?
2. Explain how global warming and climate change are related.
3. How are the beaches and marine ecosystem being affected by changes in weather patterns
over time?
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4. Identify two other consequences of climate change in Mauritius.
5. Suggest two measures that could be taken to reduce the impact of climatic change.
Combating Climate Change

An increase in the amount of greenhouse gases and other pollutants has led to climate change.
The hazards associated with climate change are real and cannot be neglected. It is important
for human beings to take appropriate measures to combat climate change. Most of these
measures aim at reducing the amount of greenhouse gases released in the air.
ACTIVITY 1.7 – Discussing measures to combat climate change
The following pictures illustrate some measures to combat climate change. Study the pictures
carefully and describe each measure with its appropriate description.
You may choose from the following descriptions:
• Avoid burning of fossil fuels thus reducing the amount of carbon dioxide released in air.
• Save electrical energy by using economic bulbs.
• Plant trees which will absorb more of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
• Recycling of plastic wastes.
• Use alternate sources of energy, like solar energy and wind energy.
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Preventive measures Description
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WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Global warming is associated with an increase in the Earth’s average temperature.

• Climate change is associated with an abnormal shift in the planet’s weather patterns
over time.
• The consequences (harmful effects) of global warming are:
- coral bleaching
- melting of glaciers
- flooding
- rising of sea levels
- more frequent cyclones
- increase in prevalence of droughts
- species extinction
• Some measures to combat climate change include:
- burning of less fossil fuels to reduce emission of carbon dioxide

- saving electrical energy by using economic bulbs
- planting trees which will absorb more of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
- recycling of plastic wastes
- using alternate sources of energy, like solar energy and wind energy
Air Pollution
Air pollution refers to the contamination of the air that modifies the natural characteristics
of the atmosphere. It occurs when harmful gases, dust and smoke enter the atmosphere. Air
pollution leads to diseases, allergies and may even cause death. It affects living and non-living
things and occurs indoors as well outdoors.
Substances or materials which are responsible for the contamination of air are called air
pollutants. Pollutants emitted into the atmosphere can be of natural origin or man-made.
In this unit, you will learn about the sources and effects of the following air pollutants:
• carbon monoxide
• sulfur dioxide
• oxides of nitrogen
• smoke
• chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
You will also learn how to reduce air pollution.
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DID YOU KNOW…
Air pollution kills an estimated 7 million people worldwide every year. World Health Organization
(WHO) data shows that 9 out of 10 people breathe air containing high levels of air pollutants.
Carbon Monoxide
Carbon monoxide is produced during the incomplete combustion of carbon-containing
compounds like fossil fuels, wood and charcoal. However, when these substances are burned
in sufficient amount of oxygen, carbon dioxide is formed as one of the products. This reaction
is called complete combustion.
Carbon + sufficient oxygen carbon dioxide (CO2)

Carbon + insufficient oxygen carbon monoxide (CO)
In the following activity, you will identify the potential sources of carbon monoxide.
ACTIVITY 1.8 – Identifying the potential sources of carbon monoxide
The following pictures show some sources of carbon monoxide. Study the pictures carefully
and describe each source.
• Operating portable generators (burning kerosene) in a closed room
• Using charcoal grills in a closed garage
• Operating gas water heaters in an enclosed bathroom with no proper ventilation
• Internal combustion engines of vehicles
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Sources of carbon monoxide Description
You have learnt about the sources of carbon monoxide. In the following activity, you will identify
the effects of carbon monoxide.
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ACTIVITY 1.9 – Identifying the effects of carbon monoxide
Read the article below and answer the questions that follow.
Carbon monoxide has harmful effects as it binds to haemoglobin in the blood and disrupts
the oxygen flow in the body. The most common symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning
include headache, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, loss of consciousness and even death. Being
a colourless, odourless and tasteless gas, the presence of carbon monoxide in air cannot be
detected. Thus, the gas is sometimes referred to as a “silent killer”.
Questions
1. Why is carbon monoxide a poisonous gas?
2. Why is carbon monoxide referred to as a ‘silent killer’?
3. Describe the symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning.
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WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Carbon monoxide is formed by the incomplete combustion of carbon-containing fuel

in a limited supply of oxygen.
• Sources of carbon monoxide include:
- Operating portable generators (burning kerosene) in a closed room.

- Using charcoal grills in a closed garage.
- Operating gas water heaters in an enclosed bathroom with no proper ventilation.
- Internal combustion engines of vehicles.
• Carbon monoxide is poisonous as it reduces oxygen transport by haemoglobin in the

blood.
• Symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning include headaches, vomiting, loss of
consciousness and death.
Sulfur Dioxide
You have learnt about the sources and effects of carbon monoxide. In the following activity,
you will learn about the sources and effects of sulfur dioxide.
ACTIVITY 1.10 – Identifying the sources and effects of sulfur dioxide
Read the article below and answer the questions that follow.
Sulfur dioxide
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is a colourless gas with a sharp, irritating smell. It is mostly produced by
the burning of fossil fuels. Fossil fuels contain sulfur which, on combustion, combines with
oxygen to form sulfur dioxide.
Thus, sulfur dioxide is released in air from chimneys of factories burning fossil fuels (for
example from coal-fired power stations) and exhaust pipes of motor vehicles.
Naturally, sulfur dioxide is released into the atmosphere during volcanic eruptions.
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Gases from factories Volcanic eruptions
Effects of sulfur dioxide on the environment
Sulfur dioxide reacts with water vapour and oxygen in the air to form sulfuric acid. The
sulfuric acid dissolves in clouds, causing rain water to become acidic. This phenomenon is
known as acid rain.
Effects of sulfur dioxide on health
Sulfur dioxide affects the respiratory system and causes coughing and aggravates conditions
such as asthma and bronchitis. It can also irritate the eyes and the skin as it dissolves in
moisture to form acid.
Questions
1. State two sources of sulfur dioxide which result from human activities.
2. State one natural source of sulfur dioxide.
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3. Write the word equation for the formation of sulfur dioxide from combustion of fossil fuels.
4. Write the word equation for the formation of sulfuric acid as acid rain.
5. Describe the main effect of sulfur dioxide on the environment.
6. Describe the effects of sulfur dioxide on human health.
DID YOU KNOW…
Normal rain is slightly acidic, with a pH between 5.4 and 5.6, while acid rain generally has pH
between 4.2 and 4.4
Oxides of Nitrogen
You have learnt about the sources and effects of carbon monoxide and sulfur dioxide. In the
following activity, you will identify the sources and effects of oxides of nitrogen.
ACTIVITY 1.11 – Identifying the sources and effects of oxides of

nitrogen
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Oxides of nitrogen
Oxides of nitrogen come mostly from internal combustion engines of vehicles where oxygen
and nitrogen from the air react at high temperatures prevailing in the engines. The two
most common and hazardous oxides of nitrogen are nitrogen monoxide (NO) and nitrogen
dioxide (NO2).
Oxides of nitrogen are also formed during lightning. The very high temperature in the
vicinity of a lightning bolt causes oxygen and nitrogen in the air to react and form oxides of
nitrogen.
Exhaust gases from vehicles Lightning
Effects of oxides of nitrogen
Oxides of nitrogen react with water vapour and oxygen in the air to form nitric acid, thus
causing acid rain. Oxides of nitrogen also have detrimental effects on human health. They
damage the lungs and cause respiratory problems. They also irritate the eyes and the skin.
Questions
1. Describe one source of oxides of nitrogen which results from human activities.
2. Describe one natural source of oxides of nitrogen.

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3. Write a word equation for the formation of nitrogen monoxide and nitrogen dioxide in the
atmosphere.

4. Write a word equation for the formation of nitric acid as acid rain.
5. Describe the effect of oxides of nitrogen on the environment.
6. Describe the effects of oxides of nitrogen on human health.
You have learnt that sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen cause acid rain. In the next activity,
you will learn more about acid rain.
Acid Rain
Acid rain is formed when acidic gases like sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen are present
in the atmosphere. These gases react with water vapour and oxygen in the air to form acids
which cause rain water to become more acidic.
In the following activity, you will identify the effects of acid rain on the environment.
Acid Rain Formation
Acid Rain
Oxides of Nitrogen
Sulfur dioxide
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ACTIVITY 1.12 – Identifying the effects of acid rain on the environment
The pictures below show the effects of acid rain on the environment. Study the pictures carefully
and describe each effect.
• Acid rain erodes limestone buildings, statues and monuments.
• Acid rain corrodes steel structures like cars, bridges, railways and iron roofs.
• Acid rain makes water in lakes and rivers more acidic thus killing fish and other aquatic
organisms.
• Acid rain renders soil acidic and kills plant.
Effects of acid rain Description
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TEST YOURSELF 1.3
Complete the chart which illustrates the effects of oxides of nitrogen and sulfur dioxide on the
environment.
corrodes
cause breathing
problems and irritation
of the eyes and the skin erodes
and
cause acid rain
makes lakes acidic and
makes soil acidic and
Smoke
Smoke is an unwanted by-product of fires. It consists of tiny suspended solid particles which is
mainly composed of carbon (soot) and ash. Smoke also contains poisonous gases like carbon
monoxide and acidic gases like sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen.
In the following activity, you will identify the sources and effects of smoke. This activity consists
of two parts - Part A and Part B.
ACTIVITY 1.13 – Part A – Identifying the sources of smoke
The pictures 1 to 6 show some sources of smoke. Study the pictures carefully and describe
the sources of smoke.
• Chimneys of factories
• Burning of garbage
• Burning of cigarette
• Exhaust pipes of vehicles
• Barbecue grills
• Spreading fire
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6 2
Sources
of smoke
5 3
Sources of smoke
Picture 1:
Picture 2:
Picture 3:
Picture 4:
Picture 5:
Picture 6:
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ACTIVITY 1.13 – Part B – Identifying the effects of inhaling smoke
Read the article carefully and answer the questions that follow.
Smoke inhalation commonly happens when a person gets trapped in a contained area, such
as a kitchen or home, near a fire.
Smoke-filled areas have reduced oxygen content leaving the person with less oxygen to
breathe, thus causing suffocation. Also, during fire and explosions, a large amount of carbon
monoxide is produced. Carbon monoxide poisoning causes headache, loss of consciousness
and is the leading cause of death in smoke inhalation.
Since smoke also contains acidic gases like sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen, inhaling
smoke irritates the lungs and damages the respiratory tract which may lead to respiratory
failure. These acidic compounds also injure the skin and the eyes.
The symptoms of smoke inhalation include cough, shortness of breath, headache, eye
damage, skin burns, soot in the nose and throat and chest pain.
Questions
1. Why does smoke inhalation cause suffocation?

2. Which gas present in smoke is the leading cause of death in smoke inhalation?

3. Which gases, present in smoke, cause damage to the lungs, skin and eyes?

4. State 3 symptoms of inhaling smoke.

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DID YOU KNOW…
According to the Burn Institute of the United States, more than half of fire-related deaths result
from smoke inhalation rather than burns.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Smoke is released by exhaust pipes of vehicles, chimneys of factories, fires, burning

garbage, barbecue grills, burning charcoal and burning cigarettes.
• Smoke consists of tiny carbon particles (soot) and ash.
• Reduced oxygen content in smoke causes suffocation.
• Smoke contains carbon monoxide which leads to headaches, loss of consciousness
and death.
• Smoke contains acidic gases like sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen which cause
irritation of the eyes, skin burns and damage of the lungs.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were developed in the 1930s and they became the product of
choice for many manufacturers since they are not toxic and not flammable. However, they were
found to be harmful to the environment.
In the following activity, you will learn about the sources of CFCs and their effects on the
environment.
ACTIVITY 1.14 – Identifying the sources and effects of CFCs on the

environment
CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) are compounds which are made up of carbon, fluorine and
chlorine. They were used as coolants in refrigerators and air conditioners, as propellants for
aerosol cans (sprays) and as cleaning agents since they remove grease and dirt.
The Earth’s atmosphere is surrounded by a layer of ozone which absorbs ultraviolet (UV) rays
from the sun preventing them from entering the atmosphere. Ultraviolet rays are harmful.
They cause skin diseases, skin cancers and eye diseases like cataracts.
CFCs break down in the upper atmosphere to form chlorine atoms which react with ozone.
Thus, the ozone layer is depleted resulting in holes in the ozone layer. Consequently, harmful
ultraviolet rays enter the atmosphere and there is an increased risk of having skin cancers
and eye diseases.
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2
CFCs are broken down by
the Sun’s ultraviolet rays. sunbeams 3
The ozone layer is depleted. Harmful ultraviolet
rays reaching the
Earth increases.
1 the ozone layer

CFCs are emitted and harmful
reach the ozone layer. ultraviolet
rays
CFCs
CFCs have a lifetime of 20 to 100 years in the atmosphere, meaning its harmful effects can be
felt for decades. When it was found that CFCs were having incredible detrimental effects on
the planet’s protective ozone layer, the Montreal Protocol put an end to the widespread use
of CFCs in 1989.
Questions
1. Name the elements present in CFCs.
2. State the uses of CFCs.
3. What is the purpose of the ozone layer around the Earth’s atmosphere?
4. What is the effect of CFCs on the ozone layer?
5. Describe the consequences of the ozone depletion.
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DID YOU KNOW… FIND OUT
Ultraviolet rays are also harmful to plants Find out which substances are being used as
and marine ecosystems. substitutes for CFCs.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• CFCs were used as coolants in refrigerators and air-conditioners, as propellants in sprays

and as cleaning agents.
• The Earth’s atmosphere is surrounded by an ozone layer which absorbs harmful
ultraviolet rays from the sun.
• CFCs deplete the ozone layer. Harmful UV rays from the sun enter the atmosphere and
increase the risk of skin cancers and eye diseases.
Measures to Prevent Air Pollution

Air pollution has a direct effect on human health as it contributes to irritation of the skin and
the eyes, lung damage and even death. Moreover, ecosystems are impacted by air pollution,
thereby adversely affecting vegetation and animals. Air pollution is leading to the destruction of
our planet and it is, therefore, imperative to find solutions to reduce the emission of pollutants
in the atmosphere.
In the following section, you will learn about some measures to prevent air pollution.
1. Sulfur dioxide from the waste gases of factories can be removed by passing the waste
gases through powdered calcium carbonate (limestone).
Calcium carbonate + sulfur dioxide + oxygen calcium sulfate + carbon dioxide
Limestone
Limestone spray
Flue gas free from sulfur dioxide
Flue gas containing sulfur dioxide
Calcium sulfate
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2. Catalytic converters are devices which are found in exhaust systems of cars. They convert
harmful gases into less harmful ones. Carbon monoxide is converted into carbon dioxide
and oxides of nitrogen are converted into nitrogen.
3. People should be encouraged to use public mode of transportation and to make use of
carpooling in order to reduce the amount of fossil fuel burnt.
Public transport Carpooling
4. The use of clean energy sources like solar, wind and tidal energy should be encouraged.

Solar panels
Solar energy
Wind energy
Tidal energy
5. CFCs should be replaced by other substances which do not deplete the ozone layer.
6. Burning waste at home should be avoided as it produces a lot of smoke and toxic gases.
7. Regular servicing of vehicles should be done to prevent emission of large amounts of
smoke.
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DID YOU KNOW…
We usually think of air pollution as being outdoors, but the air in the house or office could
also be polluted. Sources of indoor pollution include mold and pollen, dust, tobacco smoke,
chemicals in cleaning products and carbon monoxide.
TEST YOURSELF 1.4
Match the following air pollutants with their appropriate descriptions.
Carbon monoxide Deplete the ozone layer and their use should
be banned
Sulfur dioxide Contains soot particles and harmful gases
Oxides of nitrogen Formed by the incomplete combustion of carbon

containing fuels
CFCs Can be removed by catalytic converters
Smoke Released by chimneys of factories and volcanoes
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Oxides of nitrogen can be removed from car exhaust gases by using catalytic converters
which convert them into nitrogen.
• Carbon monoxide can be converted to carbon dioxide by using catalytic converters in
vehicles.
• Sulfur dioxide can be removed from waste gases of factories by passing the waste gases
through powdered calcium carbonate.
• Gas water heaters and generators should be operated in a ventilated area so that there
is enough of oxygen for complete combustion.
• CFCs are being replaced by less harmful substances which do not deplete the ozone
layer.

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Water Pollution
Water pollution occurs when harmful substances are discharged directly or indirectly into lakes,
streams, rivers and oceans. Water pollution is mainly caused by human factors. In the following
activity, you will learn about the causes of water pollution.
ACTIVITY 1.16 – Identifying the causes of water pollution
The picture below shows some sources of water pollution. Study the picture carefully and
identify some causes of water pollution.
Causes of water pollution:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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You have identified some sources of water pollution. You will now learn the effects of these
water pollutants.
1. Sewage from households, offices and industries
Sewage contains harmful viruses and bacteria which may kill fish and other aquatic
organisms. These viruses and bacteria can also cause serious illnesses to humans who drink
contaminated water.
Untreated sewage dumping in rivers
2. Fertilisers from agriculture
Excess fertilisers from fields are washed into nearby lakes and rivers during heavy rainfall.
The nutrients in the fertilisers cause rapid growth of algae in water. The algal bloom covers
the surface of water. This prevents sunlight from reaching aquatic plants. When the plants
die and decompose, the oxygen in the water is depleted. Consequently, fish and other
aquatic organisms die. This phenomenon is known as eutrophication.
excess aquatic plants decrease

rapid growth algae covers sunlight other aquatic
fertilisers are die and amount of
of algae surface of cannot enter organisms
washed in decompose oxygen
water water die
rivers and in water
lakes
Blocked
sunlight
Fertiliser
Runoff
Leaching Fish suffocate
Algae
Plant dies
Eutrophication in a lake
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3. Industrial wastes
Industrial wastes may contain metals like lead and mercury which are poisonous to humans
and animals. Industrial waste also includes detergents, pesticides, acids, dyes which are
harmful to aquatic life.
Dyes being dumped in rivers

4. Oil spillage from ships
Oil spillage occurs during shipwrecks. The oil spreads in the sea and affects marine life. For
instance, the oil gets stuck on the feathers of seabirds causing them to lose their ability to
fly. It also causes death of fish.
Seabird coated in oil Oil spill
5. Garbage dumping
Plastic is one of the most common materials found in garbage. Plastic is light and floats
easily so it can travel long distances across the oceans.

Dumping of garbage in rivers Plastic objects carried far away from the shore
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The most visible and disturbing impacts of plastics are the ingestion, suffocation and
entanglement of hundreds of marine species.
Death of turtle trapped in plastic Seal trapped in discarded fishing net
DID YOU KNOW…
Most plastics are non-biodegradable (they do not break down naturally in the environment)
and hence plastic objects stay for very long periods of time in the sea. For example, a plastic
bottle can survive an estimated 450 years in the ocean and plastic fishing lines and nets can last
up to 600 years.
Measures to Prevent Water Pollution

1. Litter should be properly disposed in bins. They should never be thrown in places like the
beaches, riversides and water bodies.
2. Sewage and industrial wastes should be treated to remove harmful substances before
being dumped in water bodies.
3. Farmers should be made aware that using excessive amounts of fertilisers does not in-
crease crop yield but pollutes the environment.
TEST YOURSELF 1.5
1. Describe why sewage from households causes water pollution.
2. Name four pollutants present in industrial wastes which are harmful to aquatic life.
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3. Excessive use of fertilisers from agriculture may cause eutrophication. Describe what is
meant by the term ‘eutrophication’.
4. Describe two effects of oil spillage.
5. Describe how plastic objects are harmful to aquatic animals.
6. Describe two measures to prevent water pollution.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Water pollution is caused by:

- Sewage containing harmful viruses and bacteria which kill fish and cause serious
illness to humans,
- Fertilisers from agriculture which may cause eutrophication,
- Industrial waste containing toxic metals, detergents, pesticides, acids and dyes,
- Oil spills from shipwrecks which cause damages to marine life,
- Dumping plastic containers and plastic bags into rivers and the sea.
• Water pollution can be prevented by:
- treating sewage and industrial wastes before dumping,
- using the right amount of fertilisers,
- disposing litter in bins.
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Summary of unit
• Air is a mixture of gases.
• The carbon cycle maintains the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere almost
constant. It involves three main processes: respiration, photosynthesis and combustion.
• Carbon dioxide is released during respiration and combustion and it is absorbed

during photosynthesis.
• Greenhouse gases are heat-trapping gases.
• The greenhouse gases keep our planet warm. But, an increasing amount of these gases
causes an increase in the Earth’s average temperature. This is called global warming.
• Examples of greenhouse gases are:
– Carbon dioxide: released by the burning of fossil fuels from power plants and from
exhaust pipes of vehicles
– Methane: released from landfills, cattle breeding and the decay of vegetation and
animals
• Climate change is mostly associated with an abnormal shift in the planet’s weather
patterns over time.
• Some consequences of global warming include:
– droughts: lack of rain during a long period
– coral bleaching: corals die due to the warming up of water in the lagoons
– melting of ice caps: the rise in temperature causes the ice in cold regions to melt
– rise in sea level: the melting of ice caps increases the amount of water in the oceans
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• Some measures to combat climate change include:
– burning of less fossil fuels which will otherwise release carbon dioxide gases,
– saving electrical energy by using economic bulbs,
– planting trees which will absorb more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere,
– recycling of plastic wastes,
– using alternate sources of energy, like solar energy, wind energy and hydro-electricity.
Sources of water pollution Effects
Sewage from households, offices Sewage contains harmful viruses and bacteria that
and industries may kill fish and cause serious illness to humans.
Fertilisers from agriculture It causes eutrophication.
Industrial wastes (toxic metals, They are toxic and kill aquatic life.
detergents, pesticides, acids,
dyes)
Oil spillage from ships The oil spreads in the sea and affects marine life.
Garbage dumping It contains plastic which causes death of fish

and other aquatic organisms.
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• Air pollution refers to the contamination of the air by harmful gases, dust and smoke
which causes harm to living and non-living things in the environment.
Air pollutants Sources Effects Reduction
Oxides of • Internal combustion • Reacts with water • Fit motor vehicles

nitrogen engines of vehicles vapour and oxygen with catalytic
• Lightning to from nitric acid converters
resulting in acid rain
• Causes eye and
skin irritation and
breathing problems
Sulfur dioxide • Volcanic eruptions • Reacts with water • Sulfur dioxide

• Burning of fossil vapour and oxygen from waste gases
fuels in vehicles, to form sulfuric acid of factories can be
factories and resulting in acid rain removed by passing
coal-fired power • Causes eye and the waste gases
stations skin irritation and through powdered
breathing problems calcium carbonate.
Carbon • Incomplete burning • Poisonous as it • Use of catalytic

monoxide of carbon-containing reduces oxygen converters in
fuels transport by vehicles
haemoglobin in • Operate gas
the body causing water heaters and
headaches, loss generators in a well
of consciousness, ventilated area
vomiting and death
CFCs • Coolants in • They deplete the • Replace CFCs by less

refrigerators and ozone layer. harmful substances
air-conditioners Harmful UV rays which do not
• Propellants in sprays from the sun enter deplete the ozone
• Cleaning agents the atmosphere and layer
increases the risk of
skin cancer and eye
cataract
Smoke • Exhaust pipes of • Damage to the • Avoid burning waste

vehicles, chimneys of lungs, skin and eyes, at home
factories and fires suffocation and • Servicing of vehicles
death should be done
regularly
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• Unit 1 • The Atmosphere and Environment around us
Carbon dioxide
is an example of in excess causes is released during is absorbed during
Global
Greenhouse Gases Respiration Combustion Photosynthesis
is caused by Warming
Climate can be
change releases
released by Oxygen
has the Complete Incomplete
following consequences
Natural Human
Activities Activities
include
Droughts Coral Melting of
ice caps Rise in
bleaching
include sea level
Decay of
Digestive vegetaion
process of and animals
some
animals
Cattle Deforestation
breeding Burning of
fossil fuels
Atmosphere and Environment around us
Pollution
from vehicles
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Unit
Unit
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• Unit 1 • Atmosphere and environment
C1
Unit
Air Pollution
is caused by is caused by is caused by is caused by is caused by
Sulphur Oxides Carbon CFCs

cause Smoke
Dioxide of Nitrogen Monoxide
depletes used as
causes
is released by
Atmosphere and environment around us
can be is formed is formed in is formed during can be reduced is formed causes Ozone
is formed during Eye Irration
reduced by during by during Respiratory Layer
burning of Problems
Volcanic Aerosol Solvents
Headache,
Reacting Eruptions Lightning Propellants Coolants
Engines of Vomitting
with Fossil Using
Vehicles and Death in
Limestone Fuels Catalytic Chimney
Fires Exhaust
Converters Pipes of
Factories
Air Conditioner Refrigerators
Incomplete
Combustion
of
Acid Rain Eye Irration
Respiratory
Problems Carbon using
Fuels
• Unit 1 • Atmosphere and environment
Water Pollution
is caused by
Industrial Plastic Containers Fertilisers

Oil Spills Sewage
Wastes and Bags may result in
contain
affect cause harm to causes

Eutrophication
contains
Toxic Dyes Pesticides Detergents Acids
Metals
Kill
Kill
Sea birds Bacteria and
Beaches Diseases
viruses
Fish
Fish and
other aquatic
animals
Atmosphere and Environment around us
1
C1
Unit
Unit
349
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Multiple choice questions. Circle the correct answer.
1. Which gas is mostly present in the Earth’s atmosphere?
A Nitrogen B Carbon dioxide C Argon D Oxygen
2. What are the products of photosynthesis?
A Carbon dioxide and Oxygen B Carbon dioxide and Water
C Glucose and Water D Glucose and Oxygen
3. Which pollutant is mostly produced by bacterial decay of vegetable matter?
A Carbon monoxide B Methane C Ozone D Sulfur dioxide

4. What term is given to the condition whereby the Earth’s average temperature increases?
A Ozone depletion B Respiration
C Global warming D Combustion

5. Which of the following substances is a fossil fuel?
A Wood B Charcoal C Petrol D Palm oil
6. Which gas can be removed from the exhaust gases of a petrol-powered car by its catalytic
converter?
A Sulfur dioxide B Carbon dioxide C Oxygen D Oxides of nitrogen
7. Oxides of nitrogen and carbon dioxide are gases which affect the atmosphere and the
environment. How do these gases affect the environment?
Oxides of nitrogen Carbon dioxide

A Depletion of ozone layer Global warming
B Depletion of ozone layer Acid rain
C Global warming Depletion of ozone layer
D Acid rain Global warming
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8. Which of the following is a cause of eutrophication in lakes and rivers?
A Increase in the amount of dissolved fertiliser
B Increase in the amount of dissolved oxygen
C Decrease in the amount of dissolved mineral salts
D Decrease in the number of bacteria
9. Which gas, present in pond water, decreases during eutrophication?
A Carbon dioxide B Methane C Nitrogen D Oxygen
10. The following stages happen during eutrophication.
1: Increase in growth of algae

2: Prevent sunlight from reaching plants
3: Death of aquatic plants
4: Decrease in dissolved oxygen
Write the correct order.
A 1 2 3 4
B 1 2 4 3
C 2 1 3 4
D 2 1 4 3
1. The pie chart represents the percentage composition of different gases in dry air.
GAS Y
GAS Z 21%
0.04% carbon dioxide

78% nitrogen
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(a) Name gas Y.
(b) Gas Z is the third most abundant gas. Suggest the identity of the gas.
(c) Give one source of carbon dioxide.
2. The carbon cycle regulates the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
(a) (i) State two processes which release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
(ii) Name one process which removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
(b) Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas.
(i) What do you understand by the term ‘greenhouse gas’?
(ii) Name another greenhouse gas and give a natural source of this gas.
3. Graph 1 shows how the average temperature at the Earth’s surface may have changed
over the last 150 thousand years.
Graph 2 shows how the percentage of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere may have
changed over the last 150 thousand years.
Graph 1
Average temperature
at the Earth’s surface / ºC
Time/thousands of years ago

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Graph 2
Percentage of
carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere
Time/thousands of years ago
Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas. Scientists believe that an increase in the greenhouse
gases result in global warming.

(a) Explain how graphs 1 and 2 support this statement.
(b) Describe two consequences of global warming.
4. Sulfur dioxide is an air pollutant which is formed during the combustion of coal in a power
station. It combines with moisture and oxygen present in the air and forms acid rain.
(a) State another source of sulfur dioxide which results from human activities.
(b) State one natural source of sulfur dioxide.
(c) Name the acid formed when sulfur dioxide reacts with oxygen and water.
(d) Write a word equation for the formation of this acid.
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(e) Describe two environmental effects of acid rain.
(f ) Describe the effect of sulfur dioxide on human health.
5. Butane is a carbon containing compound and is the main component of cooking gas. It
is used as a fuel for gas water heaters. If these are faulty, incomplete combustion of the
butane occurs.
(a) Which gas is produced during the incomplete combustion of butane?
(b) State another source of the gas you named in part (a).
(c) Describe the effect of this gas.
6. The table shows the % composition of air on the planet Mars.
Gas % Composition
Carbon dioxide 95.3
Nitrogen 1.7
Argon 1.6
Oxygen 0.2
Other gases 1.2
(a) How does the atmosphere on Mars differ from the atmosphere on Earth?
(b) Scientists predicted the surface temperature on Mars by calculating its distance from
the Sun. The measured surface temperature is slighlty higher than the predicted value.
Suggest which gas present in the atmosphere on Mars will cause its surface temperature
to increase.
(c) The Mars atmosphere contains small amounts of methane. Scientists think this may be
evidence of life. Methane on Earth is a greenhouse gas. List two sources of Methane on
Earth.
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Mixtures andMeasurement
Separation Techniques Unit
in Science Unit
C2
1
Unit
Mixtures and Separation Techniques C2
Learning Outcomes

• Identify mixtures and list the components present in some mixtures
• Investigate how mixtures can be separated into their respective components
by the following techniques: f iltration, sublimation, crystallisation, simple distillation
and paper chromatography
• Show and explain how these separation techniques are carried out
• Explain the principles involved in the separation techniques covered
Mixtures are common in our everyday life. In previous grades, you learnt about mixtures and
their properties. Based on the differences in physical properties, the components of a mixture
can be separated using different separation techniques. These techniques are termed physical
methods of separation.
Some of these methods which you have studied in Grade 8 include magnetic separation,
f iltration, decantation and evaporation. In this unit, you will recall f iltration and explore other
separation techniques such as crystallisation, sublimation, simple distillation and paper
chromatography.
DICTIONARY CORNER
Physical properties include size, boiling point,

and solubility.
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Mixtures
Solutions and suspensions are examples of mixtures. A mixture is a substance that consists of
two or more components that are physically (or not chemically) combined together. Mixtures
exist in varying proportions and the constituents can be separated by physical methods.
ACTIVITY 2.1 - Identifying components of mixtures
Observe the pictures in Table 1 which illustrate some mixtures and list the components present
in each mixture.
Table 1: Components of mixtures
Mixture Components present Mixture Components present
Sugar solution Mixture of

sodium chloride and
ammonium chloride
Air Copper (II) carbonate

suspension in water
Copper (II) sulfate

solution Green ink
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Separation of Mixtures
Mixtures are separated to obtain or to identify the components present. For example, at home
we carry out different separation processes such as straining of tea leaves, sieving of flour,
sorting of grains or decanting of water from boiled rice. In salt pans, common salt is separated
from seawater by evaporation.
In the following sections, you will investigate these separation techniques: f

iltration,
crystallisation, sublimation, simple distillation and paper chromatography.
Filtration
Components of some mixtures are separated using a filter to trap solid particles. This is possible
when the size of these solid particles is larger than the pores of the filter used. This separation
technique is called f iltration. For example, solid dust particles get trapped into the filter of the
vacuum cleaner or air conditioner since the size of the dust particles is larger than the size of
the pores of the filter as shown in Figure 1. In laboratories, f iltration is usually used to separate
a mixture of an insoluble solid from a liquid.

Large solid dust particles
are trapped by the filter
filter
Pores of the filter
Small particles
of air pass through
the filter
Figure 1: Filter of a vacuum cleaner or air conditioner
ACTIVITY 2.2 - Separating a mixture of copper (II) carbonate and water

by f iltration
In this activity, you will work in groups and test the following hypotheses:
Hypothesis I: A filter is necessary for f iltration.
Hypothesis II: A filter is not necessary for f iltration.
DICTIONARY CORNER
A hypothesis is an explanation made on the basis

of limited evidence and used as the starting point
for further investigations.
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Materials needed:
• One 250ml beaker containing 200 ml of a mixture of copper (II) carbonate and water, two
empty beakers, two filter funnels, filter paper, glass rod, two retort stands, two conical flasks
Procedure:
You will carry out two experiments I and II to test for the hypotheses with the provided 200 ml
mixture of copper (II) carbonate and water.
1. bserve the well-stirred mixture of copper (II) carbonate and water and describe its
O
appearance.

_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
2. Stir and divide the 200 ml mixture of copper (II) carbonate and water into approximately
two equal portions of 100 ml in two separate beakers for Experiment I and II.
3. Observe carefully and set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 2 to conduct Experiment I
which is performed without a filter.
Stir and pour the 100 ml mixture of copper (II) carbonate and water over the funnel using
a glass rod.
(a) Observe the content of the conical flask.
Is it clear or cloudy?
_____________________________________________
(b) Did the components of the mixture separate?

Justify your answer.
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
Figure 2: Experiment I is
performed without a filter
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4. Observe carefully and set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 3 to conduct Experiment
II which is performed with a filter. The filter used is a filter paper. The filter paper is folded
and placed inside a funnel.
Stir and pour the 100 ml mixture of copper (II) carbonate and water over the funnel using
a glass rod.
Diagram illustrating Experiment II
Figure 3: Experiment II is
performed with a filter paper
(a) Draw a labelled diagram in the empty box above to illustrate Experiment II.
(b) Observe the liquid inside the conical flask.

Is it clear or cloudy?
________________________________________________
(c) Did the components of the mixture separate?

________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
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(d) (i) How do we call the liquid which passes through the filter paper?
___________________________________________________________________
(ii) What is the name of this colourless liquid?
__________________________________________________________________
(e) (i) O
bserve the solid on the filter paper inside the filter
funnel. State its colour.
_____________________________________________

(ii) H
ow do we call the solid substance which remains on
the filter paper?
_____________________________________________

(iii) What is the name of this green solid substance? _____________________________
5. (a) (i) Which hypothesis I or II is correct? Write down the correct hypothesis.
___________________________________________________________________
(ii) Justify your answer.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(b) Explain why separation by f iltration process is possible when a filter paper is used?
_____________________________________________________________________
6. Suggest why the mixture of copper (II) carbonate and water can be separated by f iltration
whereas a salt solution cannot.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
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DID YOU KNOW…
Other materials such as gravels,

sand and pebbles may also be used
as filters to trap undissolved solid
particles. They are used in filter beds
during water treatment process.
Sand and gravel filters in filter beds
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• A filter is necessary for f iltration.

• Filtration involves the separation of an insoluble solid from the liquid.
• During f iltration, the liquid which passes through the filter paper is called a filtrate.
• During f iltration, the solid which remains on the filter paper is called a residue.
• The pores in a filter paper allow water and dissolved substances to pass through
but not large undissolved solid particles.
Sublimation
Sublimation is a technique used by chemists to separate a mixture of two solids, one of which
sublimes.
ACTIVITY 2.3 - Separating a mixture of two solids by sublimation
The activity consists of two parts: Part A and Part B.
Part A: Defining the term ‘sublimation’
Mothballs are pesticides intended to kill clothes moths and other fabric pests. When some
mothballs were kept in a warm place for two weeks, Jason, Zariah, Reeya and Alyan observed
that the mothballs decreased in size. They were curious to understand what had happened to
the mothballs and why they decreased in size. Study their conversation in Figure 4 and answer
the questions that follow.
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OOH.. Hmm…. I don’t think

The mothballs have so because there is no
become smaller! liquid present. Do you
Did they melt? think the mothballs
evaporated?
mothballs
after two weeks
Jason
Zariah
Mothballs are SOLIDS! Oh, I remember
They have not melted and from my chemistry class
do not evaporate. They must that this change of state
have sublimed. from solid to gas is called
sublimation.
Reeya
Alyan
Figure 4
1. (a) Why did Zariah say that the mothballs have not melted?
_____________________________________________________________________
(b) Who has correctly described what has happened to the mothballs? Justify your
answer.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. From the conversation, deduce a definition for sublimation.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
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Examples of other solids that sublime are given below:
Ammonium chloride Iodine Dry ice or solid carbon dioxide
Part B: S
eparating a mixture of ammonium chloride and sodium chloride by sublimation
In this activity, you will work in groups and carry out an experiment to separate a mixture of
ammonium chloride and sodium chloride.
Materials needed:
• Evaporating dish, glass funnel, cotton wool, Bunsen burner, tripod, pipe clay triangle, a
mixture of ammonium chloride and sodium chloride
Procedure:
1. Place the mixture of ammonium chloride and sodium chloride in an evaporating dish.
2. Place the inverted glass funnel on the evaporating dish.
3. Close the narrow end of the funnel with cotton wool as shown in Figure 5.
4. Heat the evaporating dish using a Bunsen burner.
5. Observe carefully what happen within the first few seconds of heating and write down
your observation.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

A B
After few seconds
Figure 5: At the start of the experiment
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6. Suggest a reason why a cotton wool is used to close the narrow end of the funnel.
_________________________________________________________________________
7. What do you observe on the inner surface of the glass funnel, after the vapour has cooled
down?
_________________________________________________________________________
8. The mixture of the two solids separate out. Suggest a reason for this statement.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
9. Name the process involved in this separation technique.
_________________________________________________________________________
10. (a) T he solid formed on the inner surface of the funnel is called the sublimate. Identify the
sublimate from the mixture.
______________________________________________________________________
(b) Name the solid left in the evaporating dish?
______________________________________________________________________
11. Explain why the separation of these two solids is possible by this separation technique.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
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TEST YOURSELF 2.1
1. The diagram below shows the sublimation process to separate a mixture of sodium
chloride and ammonium chloride. Label the diagram by filling in the empty boxes.
Mixture of sodium chloride

and ammonium chloride
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Sublimation is the process whereby a solid changes directly into gas without
passing through the liquid state (without melting).
• Some examples of substances which sublime are ammonium chloride, iodine
and solid carbon dioxide (dry ice).
• A cotton wool is plugged to close the narrow end of the funnel. This prevents
the vapour to escape.
• On cooling, the ammonium chloride vapour changes back to solid directly.
• The solid formed on the inner surface of the funnel is called the sublimate.
• Sublimation is used to separate a mixture of solids if one of the solids sublimes.
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Crystallisation
In Mauritius, common salt can be obtained by evaporating seawater in salt pans, as shown in
Figure 6. Heat from the sun slowly evaporates the water, leaving behind the solid salt.
Figure 6: Salt pans at Tamarin
In school laboratories, common salt can be obtained quickly by strongly heating a sample
of seawater in an evaporating dish, using a Bunsen burner. When all the water is evaporated,
the salt is left in the evaporation dish. This method is called evaporation to dryness. Hence,
evaporation to dryness is a method that can be used to separate a soluble solid from a liquid.
However, this method cannot always be used as some solids decompose when heated strongly.
For example, when a sugar solution is strongly heated until all the water has evaporated; the
sugar decomposes into black carbon. This is a major disadvantage of evaporation to dryness
as white sugar crystals will not be obtained this way. The appropriate technique used to obtain
sugar crystals from sugar solution is the crystallisation method.
Strong heating
of sugar solution
Sugar solution Sugar decomposes to carbon
Crystallisation is a method of obtaining crystals of a dissolved solid (solute) from a solution.

When the solution is heated, evaporation occurs. Heating is stopped at the stage when a hot
saturated solution is formed. When the resulting solution is allowed to cool, crystals are formed.
Generally, when temperature decreases, the solubility of salt decreases. This is why the crystals
start to appear on cooling.
DICTIONARY CORNER
• Decomposition is the break down

of a substance into simpler substances.
FIND OUT • Solubility is the amount of a substance
that dissolves in a given amount of solvent
Why are crystals formed when a at a given temperature.
saturated solution is cooled? • A saturated solution is one in which no
more solute can be dissolved.
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ACTIVITY 2.4 - Separating a mixture of copper (II) sulfate and water

by crystallisation
In this activity, you will work in groups and carry out an experiment to separate a mixture of
copper (II) sulfate and water.
Materials needed:
• Half-filled beaker of water, evaporating dish, copper (II) sulfate solution, glass rod, Bunsen
burner, tripod, wire gauze, filter papers
Procedure:
1. Pour the provided copper (II) sulfate solution in an evaporating dish. Place the evaporating
dish on a beaker of water to which heat is applied as shown in Figure 7.
2. (a) Draw a labelled diagram in the empty box below to illustrate the experiment.
Diagram illustrating the crystallisation process
Figure 7: Crystallisation as
a separation technique
(b) S tate two laboratory safety precautions that should be taken while carrying out this
experiment.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
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3. Heating is stopped when most of the water has evaporated to form a hot saturated
solution. The following steps can be used to test for the saturation point:
(a) D
ip a glass rod into the solution, remove it and allow the solution on the glass rod to
cool as shown in Figure 8 and Figure 9.
Figure 8 Figure 9
(b) I f small crystals appear on the glass rod when the solution cools as shown in Figure 9,
saturation point has been reached. Stop heating at this point.
4. Allow the hot saturated solution to cool in the evaporating dish. Observe carefully and
write down your observation.
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
5. Use a spatula to remove the crystals from the solution.
6. Dry the crystals in between sheets of filter paper, as shown

in Figure 10. Describe the appearance of the crystals.
____________________________________________________
Figure 10
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
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7. If the hot saturated solution is allowed to stand overnight as shown in Figure 11, what can
you notice about the size of the crystals?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Stand overnight
Solution cools overnight Crystals formation on next day
Figure 11
DID YOU KNOW…
Salts that contain water of

crystallisation are called hydrated
salts. Salts that do not contain
water of crystallisation are called
anhydrous salts. When hydrated
copper (II) sulfate is heated to
dryness, anhydrous copper (II) sulfate will be obtained. Hydrated copper (II) sulfate is blue in
colour whereas anhydrous copper (II) sulfate is a white powder.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Crystallisation is a method of obtaining crystals of a soluble solid (solute)

from its solution.
• During crystallisation, the solution is heated until it becomes saturated.
• When the hot saturated solution is allowed to cool, crystals are formed.
• The crystals formed are then dried either between sheets of filter paper
or in direct sunlight.
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Simple distillation
Many products which we use in our daily life are obtained by distillation. There are different
types of distillation. However in this Unit, you will study only simple distillation.
Simple distillation is usually used to separate the solvent from DICTIONARY CORNER
a solution. During the process, the mixture is heated. At the
boiling point of the solvent, the liquid changes into a gas. The Crude oil:
gas enters the condenser and cools down into the liquid form. A type of fossil fuel
The pure liquid which is collected is called the distillate. In which has been formed
the following activity, you will study simple distillation as a naturally the decay of
separation technique. dead plants and animals
over million of years.
DID YOU KNOW…
One application of distillation in Mauritius is

in the making of rhum from sugarcane juice.
The distillery tour is located at Rhumerie de
Chamarel.
ACTIVITY 2.5 - Separating the solvent from a mixture of copper (II) sulfate solution
Materials needed:
• Retort stands, Bunsen burner, thermometer, distillation flask, mixture of copper (II) sulfate
solution, boiling chips, condenser, rubber tubing, conical flask, rubber bung, wooden block,
and wire gauge.
1. Your teacher will set up the apparatus for simple distillation, as shown in Figure 12. During
the demonstration, your teacher will discuss the principle of distillation and the necessary
safety precautions to be taken while carrying out the experiment.
Figure 12: Simple distillation

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2. Observe the simple distillation process once the burner is turned on and answer the
(a) O
bserve carefully what happens inside the distillation flask few minutes after the
burner is turned on. Describe your observation.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(b) Is there any increase in temperature inside the flask as the vapour rises?
_____________________________________________________________________
(c) Observe carefully the vapour as it flows through the condenser. Describe your observation.
_____________________________________________________________________
(d) (i) R
ecord the temperature at which the first few drops of the liquid falls into
the conical flask (receiving flask).
_____________________________________________________________________
(ii) The liquid obtained in the receiving flask is called the distillate. Identify the distillate.
_____________________________________________________________________
(iii) Observe
the temperature until the liquid flows into the conical flask (receiving flask).
Write down your observation.
_____________________________________________________________________
(e) When all the water has boiled off, what is left in the distillation flask?
_______________________________________________________________________
3. The diagram below illustrates the apparatus used for the simple distillation of copper (II)
sulfate solution. Label the diagram.
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4. Observe the set-up of the apparatus as shown in Figure12 and answer the questions that follow.
(a) B
oiling chips (anti-bumping granules) are added to the copper (II) sulfate solution.
Suggest why.
_______________________________________________________________________
(b) T he bulb of the thermometer is placed at the side-arm of the distillation flask. Suggest
why.
_______________________________________________________________________
(c) The condenser slopes downwards. Suggest why.
_______________________________________________________________________
(d) Why does water enter at the bottom of the condenser and leave from the top?
_______________________________________________________________________
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Simple distillation is used to separate a solvent from a solution. It involves the

processes of boiling and condensation.
• During distillation of copper (II) sulfate, the solution boils. Steam rises and enters
the condenser. In the condenser, the gas condenses and changes back into pure
water (the distillate).
• The following precautions should be taken when carrying out simple distillation:
- Anti-bumping granules are added to the mixture to smoothen boiling.
- The bulb of the thermometer should be placed at the side-arm of the flask.
It should not be dipped into the solution.
- The condenser slopes downwards so that the pure solvent formed can run
into the receiver.
- The condenser consists of two tubes. Cold water passes through the outer
tube. Water enters at the bottom of the condenser and leaves from the top.
This ensures proper condensation of the gas inside the condenser.
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Paper Chromatography
Sometimes you can see different colours spreading out on a paper as the ink gets soaked
up in water. We make use of this principle in a process called chromatography. The name
‘chromatography’ comes from two Greek words meaning ‘colour image’.
Chromatography is a method of separating and identifying mixtures. There are different types
of chromatography. However, in this Unit, you will study only paper chromatography. The
following activity will help you to understand paper chromatography.
ACTIVITY 2.6 - Separating a mixture by paper chromatography and interpreting

a chromatogram
This activity consists of 2 parts - Part A and Part B.
Part A: Separating a mixture of green dye by paper chromatography
Materials needed:
• Chromatography paper, pencil, adhesive tape, capillary tube, green dye, beaker containing
small volume of water
1. Use a pencil to draw a line which is about 2cm from the end of the chromatography paper,
as shown in Figure 13 and Figure 14. This line is called the base line or start line.
Base line or
start line
Figure 13 Figure 14
2. Put a tiny spot of the green dye mixture on the baseline with the help of a capillary tube
as shown in Figure 15. Allow the spot to dry. Repeat by dripping the green dye two or
three times on the same spot.
Capillary tube
Chromatography paper
Green dye spot
Figure 15
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3. Hold the chromatography paper with the help of a pencil on top of a beaker containing a
small volume of water as shown in Figure 16. Ensure that the green dye spot is above the
level of water. Water is acting as the solvent.
Figure 16
4.
Observe carefully as water travels up the paper. Remove the
chromatography paper when the solvent almost reaches the top
of the paper. As the solvent moves up the paper, the different
components are separated.
5. Allow the paper to dry.The chromatography paper with the separated components
is called a chromatogram, as shown in Figure 17.
Figure 17: Chromatogram
6. (a) Observe Figure 17 carefully and answer the questions that follow.
(i) How many components are present in the green dye? State the colours of the
different dyes.
______________________________________________________________________
(ii) Which dye travels a greater distance?
______________________________________________________________________
(iii) Would separation have been possible if the dye components travelled the same
distance? Suggest why.
______________________________________________________________________
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(b) Separation by chromatography is possible due to the difference in solubility of the

various components in the solvent. The more soluble the component is in the solvent,
the further it travels.
(i) Which dye component is, therefore, more soluble in the solvent?
_____________________________________________________________________
(ii) Which dye component is, therefore, less soluble in the solvent?
_____________________________________________________________________
(c) Suggest what would happen if the green dye was insoluble in the solvent used.
_______________________________________________________________________
7. The same experiment is repeated but each time a modification is made. Observe the
pictures carefully and suggest a reason why each of these modifications is inappropriate.
(i) A pen is used to draw the baseline (start line) instead of a pencil.
Result obtained
Pen line
Reason: _________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
(ii) The spot placed on the startline is much bigger in size than in the original experiment.
Result obtained
Reason: _________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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(iii) The green dye spot is placed below the solvent level.
Result Obtained
Reason: ________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
(iv) The chromatography paper is removed well before the solvent has reached the top of
the paper.
Result obtained
Reason: _________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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TEST YOURSELF 2.2
The diagram below demonstrates an experiment to identify the different components present
in a food colouring containing a mixture of dyes. The solvent used in the experiment is alcohol.
Blue dye
Yellow dye
Red dye
(i) How many dyes are present in this food colouring?

______________________________________________________________________
(ii) Which dye is most soluble in the solvent? Justify your answer.
______________________________________________________________________
(iii) State two precautions to be taken while performing paper chromatography.

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
(iii) Suggest why it is better to use a longer chromatography paper than a shorter one.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
(iv) In this experiment, the gas jar was covered with a lid. Suggest why.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
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Part B: Interpreting a chromatogram
Figure 18 shows a chromatogram and the components of a food dye X as well as four pure dyes
A, B, C and D known to be prohibited.
Start line
Figure 18
Instructions: You are to identify whether the sample food dye X contains any of the prohibited dyes.
• Trace horizontal lines on the same level of each of the separated component of dye X.
One example is shown in Figure 18.
• If the traced line crosses the centre of two or more dyes on the same level, it means
that these dyes have travelled the same distance, thus they are identical.
Analyse the chromatogram and answer the questions that follow.
1. How many dyes are present in sample X?
_________________________________________________________________________
2. Which other prohibited dye is present in sample X?
_________________________________________________________________________
3. Dyes A, B, C, and D are pure dyes. What can you conclude about a pure substance on a
chromatogram?
_________________________________________________________________________
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Unit
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1
TEST YOURSELF 2.3
Chromatography is used to separate a mixture of coloured dyes. Three different mixtures, X, Y

and Z, were spotted onto a piece of chromatography paper. Two pure dyes, Q and R, were also
spotted onto the same piece of paper.
(i) The diagram below shows the results obtained from the chromatography experiment.
Label the diagram by filling in the empty boxes.
Figure 19

(ii) S tate the name of a piece of apparatus that could be used to place the dyes onto
the paper.
______________________________________________________________________
(iii) Why should the base line be drawn in pencil and not in ink?
______________________________________________________________________
(iv) Suggest why dyes Q and R are considered as pure dyes.
______________________________________________________________________
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(v) Which mixture does not contain dye R?
______________________________________________________________________
(vi) Which mixture contains both dye Q and dye R?
______________________________________________________________________
(vi) Which mixture, X, Y or Z, has the greatest number of dyes which have been separated?
______________________________________________________________________
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Chromatography is a method of separating or identifying mixtures consisting

of several solutes (components) dissolved in a solvent.
• The difference in solubility allows the different pigments in the dye to be separated.
• The more soluble a component is in the solvent, the further the distance it travels.
• A few precautions to be taken while performing paper chromatography include:
- A pencil should be used to draw the baseline and not with a pen because
the ink might dissolve in the solvent and interfere with the chromatogram,
- It should be ensured that the spot placed on the baseline is above the solvent
level before the start of the experiment. Otherwise, the mixture in the spot
would dissolve in the solvent,
- The spot to be separated should be small to prevent the overlapping
of components on the chromatogram,
- The solvent should travel to a maximum distance to enable a better
separation of the different components present in the sample.
380
Unit
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1
Summary of unit
• Filtration involves the separation of insoluble solid from a liquid.

• A filter is necessary for f iltration.
• The liquid which passes through the filter paper during f iltration is called the filtrate.
• The solid which remains on the filter paper during f iltration is called the residue.
• Filtration is possible only when the size of the particles of the residue is larger than the
pores in the filter.
Sublimation is the process whereby a solid changes directly into the gaseous state without
•
passing through the liquid state.
• Some examples of substances which sublime include ammonium chloride, iodine, solid
carbon dioxide (dry ice).
• The solid formed on the inner surface of the funnel is called the sublimate.
• Sublimation is possible to separate a mixture of solids where one of the solids sublimes.
Crystallisation is a method of obtaining crystals of a solid (solute) from a solution.
•
• During crystallisation, the solution is heated on a water bath until it becomes a hot
saturated solution.
• The hot saturated solution is cooled down, and crystals are formed.
• The crystals formed are then dried either in between sheets of filter paper or in direct sunlight.
• Simple distillation is used to separate a solvent from a solution.
• It involves the processes of boiling and condensation.
• The solution is heated to boiling and the solvent evaporates.
• In the condenser, the gas changes to the liquid state which is collected as distillate.
• A thermometer is used to measure the boiling point of the substance that is being distilled.
Paper chromatography is a method of separating mixtures consisting of several solutes
•
(components) dissolved in a solvent.
• It is usually used to separate coloured components such as dyes, inks and pigments
such as chlorophyll.
• The difference in solubility allows the different pigments in the dye to be separated.
• The more soluble a component is in the solvent, the further the distance it travels.
• The chromatogram of a pure substance contains a single spot.
381
• Unit C2 • Mixtures and Separation Techniques
382
C2
Unit
Separation Techniques
include
f iltration sublimation simple distillation
separates
separates insoluble separates separates mixtures can separate
solids from a mixture of consisting of mixtures of
Mixtures and Separation Techniques
solvent
copper(II) sulfate
and water
from paper chromatography
liquids dry ice
solids
solution
separate mixtures
iodine consisting of
where one of them crystallisation
can separate
mixtures of solutes
ammonium separates soluble can separate
sublimes chloride solids from mixtures of
dissolved in a
sugar and water

sand and water solution
can separate solvent
copper(II) sulfate mixtures of
and water
chalk and water consists of
kitchen salt ink and water
and water
big dust particles and air
food colourings
solute and water
solvent chlorophyll pigments

Unit
C2
1
Multiple Choice Questions. Circle the correct answer.

1. Which of the following is a mixture?
A. Oxygen B. Sea water
C. Sodium chloride D. Solid iodine
2. Which separation method, involved in water treatment, is used to remove insoluble solid
particles such as leaves, big rocks from muddy water?
A. Filtration B. Crystallisation C. Sublimation D. Chromatography
3. The liquid which passes through the filter paper during f iltration is called a ____________
A. Residue B. Funnel C. Filtrate D. Filter
4. The technique of paper chromatography depends on the ________________________

A. Difference in colour of the mixtures B. Difference in solubilities of the mixtures
to be separated in the solvent
C. Size of filter paper used D. Difference in solubilities of the mixtures

to be separated in the solute
5. Which method can be used to separate sugar crystals from sugar solution?
A. Crystallisation B. Distillation C. Filtration D. Use of a separating funnel
6. In a coffee machine, the ground coffee is filtered from the coffee solution
by using a ______________________
A. Condenser B. Funnel
C. Filter D. Chromatography paper
7. What is the most appropriate separation method of obtaining pure water from ink?
A. Chromatography B. Distillation C. Filtration D. Crystallisation
8. Why boiling chips are added to the mixture in a distillation process?
A. To increase the boiling point of the mixture
B. To ensure smooth boiling of the mixture
C. To decrease the boiling point of the mixture
D. To maintain the boiling point of the mixture constant
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9. F igure 20 illustrates the separation of two solids, namely iodine and carbon.
Name this separation method.
A. Filtration B. Crystallisation C Evaporation D. Sublimation
Figure 20
10. W
hen a component is insoluble in a solvent, it will not be carried up the
chromatography paper. In the chromatogram below, which mixture
contains an insoluble food colouring?
A. P B. Q C. R D. S
1. A list of separation techniques is given below.
f iltration distillation crystallisation chromatography sublimation
From this list, choose the most suitable technique to obtain the component from the
following mixtures.
(a) Water from a solution of magnesium sulfate (soluble salt). ______________________
(b) P
otassium chloride crystals (soluble salt) from potassium chloride solution. _________
(c) Silver chloride (insoluble salt) from a mixture of silver chloride and water. ___________
(d) Dry ice from a mixture of dry ice and sodium chloride. _____________________
(e) Pigments of chlorophyll from a leaf. ______________________
2. State whether each of the following statements is TRUE or FALSE
A mixture consists of two or more substances that are chemically

(a)
joined together.
(b) A solution is said to be saturated when no more solute can dissolve in it.
In sublimation, the solid deposited on the inner surface of the funnel
(c)
is called the residue.
(d) Crystallisation can be used to obtain crystals of a solute from a solution.
(e) Filtration can be performed without a filter.
(f) Distillation can be used to separate pure water from copper (II)sulfate.
384
Unit
C2
1
3. Choose the correct word from those given in between brackets and fill in the blanks.
During the distillation of the copper (II) sulfate solution, the solution is heated. ____________
(Steam, Water) rises and enters the condenser. The vapour then ________________ (boils,
condenses) and changes back into pure water. At the end of the experiment, pure water is
collected as the ________________ (distillate, filtrate) in the beaker.
4. When preparing a chromatogram, the following instructions are given. Suggest a reason
for each instruction. Write the answers in your copybook.
(a) The spot placed on the baseline is above the solvent at the start of the experiment.
(b) At the end of the experiment, the solvent front should reach the top of the paper.
(c) The spot placed on the starting line should be small.

(d) The container should be closed with a lid.
5. (a) Crystals of zinc sulfate can be obtained by the method of crystallisation. The flow chart
illustrates the different steps involve in the crystallisation process. Fill in the empty
boxes to describe the steps 1 and 4.
Step1: Step 2: Step 3: Step 4

Allow the Filter to obtain
solution to cool. crystals of the
Zinc sulfate zinc sulfate.
crystals is
formed.
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C2
(b) The diagram below illustrates step 1. Label the diagram by filling the empty boxes.
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
Step 1
(c) For convenience, the hot saturated solution is transfered in a beaker and the solution
is allowed to cool. The diagram illustrates step 3. Label the diagram by filling the
empty boxes.
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________ ____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
Step 3
386
Unit
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1
(d) (i) Give one method which can be used to dry the zinc sulfate crystals.
_______________________________________________________________________
(ii) Suggest another method which can be used to dry the zinc sulfate crystals.
_______________________________________________________________________
(iii) Predict which drying method will produce larger crystals.

_______________________________________________________________________
6. Complete the table correctly by matching the labels A – F in the diagram with words/
phrases in the table.

Bunsen burner
Cold water in
Condenser
Beaker
Thermometer
Round-bottom flask
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7. Describe how the following mixtures can be separated. In each, give a description of the
procedure used and explain why this method is suitable to obtain:
(a) An insoluble lead (II) sulfate from a mixture of lead (II)sulfate and water.
Procedure: _____________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Explanation: ____________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
(b) Magnesium sulfate crystals from a mixture of magnesium sulfate solution.
Procedure: _____________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Explanation: ____________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
(c) Ammonium chloride from a mixture of ammonium chloride, sand and sodium chloride.
Procedure: _____________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Explanation: ____________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
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Unit
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1
8. Answer these questions in your copy book.
(a) D
raw a labelled diagram of the apparatus you would use to separate pure water
from seawater.
(b) Give one advantage of using simple distillation to make large amounts of drinking
water from sea water.
(c) G
ive one disadvantage of using simple distillation to make large amounts of drinking
water.
9. The diagrams show the apparatus a student uses to separate a mixture of kitchen salt and
sand. She adds the mixture in a half-filled beaker of water and then carries out the three
stages shown.

stage 1 stage 2 stage 3
(a) At which stage, 1, 2 or 3, is the sand collected? Justify your answer.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
(b) At which stage, 1, 2 or 3, is the kitchen salt collected? Justify your answer.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
(c) What happens to the water in stage 3? Explain your answer.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
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10. A student investigates whether some food colourings present in some candies are safe
for consumption. She produces a chromatogram using the safe colourings red (SR),
blue (SB) and green (SG) and food colourings red (FR), blue (FB) and green (FG).
The diagram shows the chromatogram obtained.
Start line
Figure 24
(a) How many dyes are present in the safe colourings red (SR)?
_______________________________________________________________________
(b) Which food colourings are pure? Justify your answer.
_______________________________________________________________________
(c) (i) What can you conclude about the solubility of any two dyes which have travelled
the same distance up the chromatography paper?
_______________________________________________________________________
(ii) C
omplete the table by placing a tick () next to the two food colourings that are
safe to use.
Food colouring Safe to use
FR
FB
FG
390
Unit
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1
11. The diagram shows the process of simple distillation of copper (II) sulfate solution
Copper (II) sulfate

solutIon

Distillate
(a) Write the name of the equipment labelled A, B and C.
A _____________________________________________________________________
B _____________________________________________________________________
C _____________________________________________________________________
(b) (i) Which piece of equipment is missing from the diagram?
_____________________________________________________________________
(ii) C
omplete the missing part of the diagram and label on the diagram the position of
‘water in’ and ‘water out’.
(c) What do you understand by the term condensation?
_______________________________________________________________________
(d) What is the purpose of the running water in the condenser?
_______________________________________________________________________
(e) Name another mixture that can be separated by this separation technique.
_______________________________________________________________________
391
C2
392
Measurement
Language of Chemistry Unit
in Science Unit
C3
1
Unit
Language of Chemistry C3
Learning Outcomes

• Recall symbols and valencies of some elements
• Recall formulae and valencies of the following radicals: hydroxide, carbonate, sulfate,
ammonium and nitrate
• Work out the formulae of compounds
• Identify reactants and products in chemical reactions
• Recognise that chemical reactions involve rearrangement of atoms
• Convert word equations to chemical equations
• Write balanced chemical equations
In Grade 8, you learnt that the language of chemistry is a distinct language which chemists use
to communicate. For example, you learnt that a symbol is a short-hand way of representing an
element and formulae are used to represent molecules, compounds and radicals.
In this Unit, you will learn more about the language of chemistry. We will first recall what you
learnt about the language of chemistry in Grade 8.
Symbols and Valencies of Elements
In lower grades, you learnt that elements are arranged in the Periodic Table. Figure 1 shows a
simplified version of the Periodic Table.
H He
Hydrogen
Helium
Li Be B C N O F Ne
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Cadmium
Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Cesium Barium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Fl Lv
Francium Radium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Flerovium Livermorium
Figure 1: Simplified version of the Periodic Table

393
Unit Language of Chemistry
C3
According to the language of chemistry, an element is represented by a symbol which usually

consists of one or two letters. In Grade 8, you learnt that an element has a combining power
which is called its valency. Table 1 shows a list of some elements and their respective symbol
and valency(ies).
Table 1: Symbols and valencies of some elements
Name of element Symbol Valency

Argon Ar 0
Helium He 0
Neon Ne 0
Bromine Br 1
Chlorine Cl 1
Iodine I 1
Fluorine F 1
Hydrogen H 1
Potassium K 1
Sodium Na 1
Silver Ag 1
Calcium Ca 2
Magnesium Mg 2
Barium Ba 2
Oxygen O 2
Zinc Zn 2
Aluminium Al 3
Nitrogen N 3
Copper Cu 1 or 2
Mercury Hg 1 or 2
Gold Au 1 or 3
Iron Fe 2 or 3
Carbon C 2 or 4
Lead Pb 2 or 4
Tin Sn 2 or 4
Sulfur S 2, 4 or 6
Phosphorus P 3 or 5
394
Unit
C3
1
FIND OUT
TEST YOURSELF 3.1
Using a mnemonic generator app,
find an appropriate phrase or
sentence to recall the name of
1. What do you understand by the following terms: elements having valency 1 and
valency 2.
(i) ‘symbol of an element’?
____________________________________________________________________
(ii) ‘valency of an element’?
____________________________________________________________________
2. Some elements in Table 1 have valency 0.
(i) Why do these elements have valency 0?
____________________________________________________________________
(ii) How are elements having valency 0 called?
____________________________________________________________________
3. Some elements exhibit more than one valency. Name one metal and one non-metal
which have more than one valency.
________________________________________________________________________
In Grade 8, you learnt about diatomic elements. For example, oxygen is a diatomic element
and a molecule of oxygen consists of two oxygen atoms chemically joined together.

An atom of oxygen A molecule of oxygen
Let us recall about diatomic elements.
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C3
Diatomic Elements
Diatomic elements are a special class of elements as their basic unit is a molecule consisting of
two atoms chemically joined together. Some non-metals are diatomic elements. Table 2 shows
the names and respective formulae of some diatomic elements.
Table 2: Diatomic elements
A mnemonic to help you
Element Formula of the molecule
remember the diatomic elements
Hydrogen H2
Nitrogen N2 Hydrogen Have
Nitrogen No
Fluorine F2
Fluorine Fear
Oxygen O2 Oxygen Of
Iodine I2 Iodine Ice
Chlorine Cold
Chlorine Cl2
Bromine Beverages
Bromine Br2

Remember that metals and other non-metals that you will encounter in Grade 9 are not diatomic.
TEST YOURSELF 3.2
The following table shows some elements and their respective formula. Complete the table by
placing in the 3rd column, either a “” if the formula is correct or a “” if the formula is incorrect.
An example has been done for you.
Formula of the molecule

Element “” or “”
of the element
Sodium Na2 
Magnesium Mg
Chlorine Cl
Carbon C2
Hydrogen H2
Aluminium Al
Nitrogen N
Bromine Br2
Sulfur S2
Zinc Zn2
Iodine I2
Phosphorus P2
Oxygen O
396
Unit
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1
Formulae of Compounds
You will recall that a compound is formed when two or more elements chemically combine
together. According to the language of chemistry, a compound is represented by a formula.
In Grade 8, you learnt how to work out the formula of compounds using the ‘swap valency’
method. Let us recall how the formula of a compound can be worked out.
Working out the formula of a compound
The following steps describe how the formula of the compound, sodium oxide, can be worked out.
Identify the constituent elements

Step 1 Sodium Oxygen
of the compound
Write the symbols of the different
Step 2 Na O
elements
Step 3 Write the valency of the elements 1 2
Swap the valencies of the

Step 4 2 1
elements
Reduce the valencies to obtain the
Step 5 2 1
simplest ratio (if necessary)
Write the formula of the
Step 6 Na2O1
compound
Step 7 Disregard ‘1’ in the formula Na2O
You will recall from Grade 8 that the subscript next to the symbol in a formula represents the
number of atoms of that particular element.
Na2O Element
Na
Number of atoms
2
O 1
Subscript ‘2’: two Na atoms No subscript: one O atom

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C3
As you may have noticed in the previous example, the term ‘oxide’ refers to oxygen which has
combined with another element. Table 3 shows the terms used to represent other non-metals
in compounds. They are the 2nd part of the name of a compound, for example, sodium bromide,
calcium chloride and potassium iodide.
Table 3: Terms used to represent non-metals in compounds
Term Element which has combined

Bromide Bromine
Chloride Chlorine
Fluoride Fluorine
Hydride Hydrogen
Iodide Iodine
Nitride Nitrogen
Sulfide Sulfur
You will recall from Grade 8 that the names of compounds sometimes contain a roman number
in brackets. This applies to compounds having elements which exhibit more than one valency.
The roman number refers to the valency of the element used in the compound. For example, in
iron (II) chloride, the valency of iron is 2 and in iron (III) chloride, the valency of iron is 3.
TEST YOURSELF 3.3
1.
Use the information given in Table 1 to work out the formula of each of the following
compounds.
(a) Potassium chloride (b) S odium sulfide (Hint: In sulfide,

the valency of sulfur is 2)
_______________________
_______________________
(c) Sodium fluoride (d) Phosphorus (III) oxide
_______________________ _______________________
(e) Calcium oxide (f ) Lead (IV) oxide
_______________________ _______________________
(g) Magnesium nitride (h) Copper (II) chloride
_______________________ _______________________
(i) Zinc iodide (j) Iron (II) bromide
_______________________ _______________________
398
Unit
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1
2. (a) Name the following compounds:
(i) KCl: _______________________ (iv) ZnI2: _______________________
(ii) MgBr2: _______________________ (v) FeCl3: _______________________
(iii) FeO: _______________________ (vi) PbCl2: _______________________
(b) C
ount the number of atoms of each element in the formulae given in part (a). Write
the answers in your copybook.
DID YOU KNOW…
Sometimes compounds are named based on the number of oxygen atoms present in the molecule.
For example, in CO, there is one oxygen atom, therefore the name is carbon monoxide.
In CO2, the subscript 2 means that there are 2 oxygen atoms, therefore the name is carbon dioxide.
Radicals
A radical is a group of atoms chemically combined together and it behaves as a single unit. A
radical is represented by a formula and it has a valency. Table 4 shows the formulae and the
respective valency of some radicals.
Table 4: Formulae and valencies of radicals
Radical Formula Valency

Hydroxide OH 1
Ammonium NH4 1
Nitrate NO3 1
Carbonate CO3 2
Sulfate SO4 2
Formulae of compounds involving radicals
In the previous section, you have learnt about the formulae of compounds made up of two
elements. Some compounds consist of more than two different elements. Very often, such
compounds contain radicals. The formulae of compounds containing radicals can also be
worked out by the ‘swap valency’ method.
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C3
Working out the formula of copper (II) nitrate
Element Radical
Identify the constituent element

Step 1 Copper Nitrate
and radical:
Write the symbol of the element
Step 2 Cu NO3
and the formula of the radical:
Write the valency of the element
Step 3 2 1
and the radical:
Swap the valencies of the element
Step 4 1 2
and the radical in the compound:
Reduce the valencies to obtain
Step 5 1 2
the simplest ratio (if necessary):
Step 6 Write the formula of the compound: Cu1(NO3)2
Step 7 Disregard ‘1’ in the formula: Cu(NO3)2
In the above formula, the NO3 radical is placed between brackets with a subscript ‘2’ outside the
brackets since there are two units of NO3 in the formula.
Cu(NO3)2
Number of Cu atoms = 1 Number of NO3 radicals = 2
Number of N atoms Number of O atoms

in NO3 = 1 in NO3 = 3
Element Total number of atoms in the formula Cu(NO3)2

Cu 1
N 1x2=2
O 3x2=6
DICTIONARY CORNER
Swap: Tha act of exchanging one thing

for another
400
Unit
C3
1
TEST YOURSELF 3.4
1. Work out the formula of each of the following compounds.
(a) ammonium nitrate (b) iron (III) hydroxide
_______________________ _______________________
(c) calcium sulfate (d) potassium carbonate
_______________________ _______________________
(e) sodium sulfate (f ) ammonium sulfate
_______________________ _______________________
2. (a) Name the following compounds:
(i) K2CO3: _______________________ (iv) ZnSO4: _______________________
(ii) Mg(NO3)2: _______________________ (v) NH4NO3 : _______________________
(iii) Fe2(SO4)3: _______________________ (vi) NH4Cl: _______________________
(b) C
ount the number of atoms of each element in the formulae given in part (a). Write
your answers in your copybook.
Chemical Reactions and Word Equations

You will recall from Grade 8 that a chemical reaction is a process during which one or more
new substances are formed. The starting substances in a chemical reaction are called the
reactants and the new substances formed are called the products. In other words, reactants
are converted into products during a chemical reaction.
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C3
A chemical reaction can be represented by a word equation. In a word equation, the reactants
and the products are separated by an arrow. The reactants are placed on the left side of the
arrow and the products are placed on the right side of the arrow. The head of the arrow points
towards the product side of the equation, as illustrated below.
reactants products
An example of a chemical reaction is the burning of carbon in air (oxygen) to form carbon
dioxide as shown in the picture below.
Burning carbon in air
(i) Identify the reactants and product of this reaction.
Reactants: _____________________________ and _____________________________
Product: ________________________________________________________________
(ii) Write a word equation for this reaction.
________________________________________________________________________
Another example of a chemical reaction occurs when iron filings and sulfur powder are heated
together. Iron combines with sulfur on heating to form iron (II) sulfide.
Ì
iron filings and sulfur powder
sulfur powder iron filings iron (II) sulfide
heated together
402
Unit
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1
(i) Identify the reactants and product of this reaction.
Reactants: _____________________________ and _____________________________
Product: ________________________________________________________________
(ii) Write a word equation for this reaction.
________________________________________________________________________
TEST YOURSELF 3.5
Write word equations to represent the following chemical reactions.
(a) Sulfur powder reacts with oxygen to form sulfur dioxide.
________________________________________________________________________
(b) Zinc oxide is formed when zinc reacts with oxygen.
________________________________________________________________________
(c) Iron reacts with chlorine to form iron (III) chloride.
________________________________________________________________________
(d) Magnesium reacts with hydrochloric acid to form magnesium chloride and hydrogen.
________________________________________________________________________
(e) Sodium hydroxide reacts with sulfuric acid to form sodium sulfate and water.
________________________________________________________________________
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C3
(f ) Hydrogen burns in oxygen to form water.
________________________________________________________________________
(g) Butane burns in air to form carbon dioxide and water.
________________________________________________________________________
In Grade 8, you learnt that the smallest indivisible part of an element is called an atom. You
will recall that an element is made up of one kind of atom and the atoms of one element are
different from the atoms of another element. A compound is made up of two or more kinds of
atoms. In the next section, you will understand that chemical reactions involve a rearrangement
of atoms.
Rearrangement of Atoms in a Chemical Reaction

In a chemical reaction, reactants usually combine together to form new substances called
products. Have you ever thought what happens to the atoms as the reactants combine to form
products?
According to the law of conservation of mass, mass can neither be created nor destroyed in a
chemical reaction. Thus, in a chemical reaction, the total mass of products is equal to the total
mass of reactants.
Total mass Total mass

of reactants of products
DID YOU KNOW…
The law of conservation of mass was popularised by the French

scientist Antoine Lavoisier in 1789. Lavoisier carried out a number of
experiments and showed that the overall mass remained constant
during chemical reactions.
Antoine Lavoisier
(1743-1794)
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Unit
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1
Let us consider the reaction between carbon and oxygen to form carbon dioxide.
carbon + oxygen  carbon dioxide
A carbon atom can be represented as
Oxygen is a diatomic element having formula O2. A molecule of oxygen can be represented as
Carbon dioxide has formula CO2. A molecule of carbon dioxide can be represented as
Note: Generally the central atom in a molecule is the one that occurs the least number
of times in the formula.
Let us see what happens to the atoms of carbon and oxygen as they combine to form carbon
dioxide.
+ 
Reactant side (LHS) Product side (RHS)

• T he two oxygen atoms are
joined chemically together
(diatomic molecule). • T he carbon atom is joined
to the two oxygen atoms.
• T he carbon atom is not joined
to oxygen atoms.
From the above example, we have seen that the carbon atom and the oxygen atoms are present
on both the reactant side and the product side. There has been a rearrangement of the atoms
of carbon and oxygen to form the new substance carbon dioxide.
In a chemical reaction, the atoms of the reactants are rearranged to form products.
Every atom present at the start of the reaction is present at the end of the reaction.
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C3
Chemical Equations
Just like chemical reactions can be represented by word equations, they can also be represented
by chemical equations.
A chemical equation is a symbolic representation of a chemical reaction in the form of symbols

and formulae. Just like in a word equation, the reactants are placed on the left side of an arrow
and the products are placed on the right side of an arrow.
Every atom present at the start of the reaction should be present at the end of the reaction.
It is important that chemical equations are balanced. In a balanced chemical equation,
the number of atoms of each element on the reactant side is equal to the number of atoms
on the product side.
Let us now find out how to write a chemical equation.
Balancing Chemical Equations Using Visual Diagrams
Reaction: Carbon burns in oxygen to form carbon dioxide.

The word equation for the reaction is
To obtain the chemical equation, we use symbols and formulae to represent the substances
in the word equation. The chemical equation for the reaction is
C + O2  CO2
Let us check whether the above chemical equation is balanced.
We will use particle diagrams to count the number of atoms.
C + O2  CO2
+ 
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Count the number of atoms of carbon and oxygen on the reactant side and on the product
side. Write your answers in the table below.

Number of C atoms
Number of O atoms
• T here is one carbon atom on the reactant side and one carbon atom on the product
side. Thus the number of carbon atoms is balanced.
• The number of oxygen atoms is also balanced since there are 2 oxygen atoms
on each side of the equation.
• C + O2  CO2 is, therefore, a balanced chemical equation.
ACTIVITY 3.1 – Balancing chemical equations using particle diagrams
Answer the following questions which will guide you to balance a chemical equation.
Reaction 1: Hydrogen reacts with chlorine to form hydrogen chloride.
(i) Write the word equation for the above reaction.
_____________________________________________________________________
(ii) The reactants and products in the word equation can be represented by the following
symbols and formulae:
H2 + Cl2  HCl
(iii) Representing the substances by particle diagrams:
+ 
(iv) Count the number of atoms on each side of the equation and write your answers in
the table below.

Number of H atoms
Number of Cl atoms
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(v) After completing the table, you will notice that:
• T here are two hydrogen atoms on the reactant side whereas there is only one
hydrogen atom on the product side.
• There are two chlorine atoms on the reactant side while there is one chlorine
atom on the product side.
(vi) Thus, the equation is not balanced.
To balance the equation, we increase the number of hydrogen and chlorine atoms on
the product side.
+ 

(vii) Count the number of atoms on each side of the equation and write your answers in
the table below.

Number of H atoms
Number of Cl atoms
(viii) After completing the table, you will notice that:
• there are two hydrogen atoms on both sides of the reaction.

• there are two chlorine atoms on both sides of the reaction.
Thus, every atom present at the start of the reaction is present at the end of the
reaction. The balanced chemical equation is:
H2 + Cl2  2 HCl
The coefficient ‘2’ is added in front of HCl to show that there are two molecules of HCl on the
right-hand side of the equation.
When balancing equations, you must never modify the formula of a substance.
You must always add coefficients to balance the number of atoms.
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Reaction 2: Hydrogen reacts with oxygen to form water.
(i) Write the word equation for the above reaction.
_____________________________________________________________________
(ii) Convert the word equation into a chemical equation by representing the reactants
and products by symbols and formulae.
_____________________________________________________________________
Representing the substances in the equation by particle diagrams:
+ 
(iii) Count the number of atoms of each element on the reactant side and on the product
side. Write your answers in the table below.
Reactant side Product side

(left-hand side) (right-hand side)
Number of H atoms
Number of O atoms
(iv) You will see the number of oxygen atoms is not balanced in the equation. Add one
water molecule on the product side to increase the number of oxygen atoms. Draw
the particle diagrams in the space below.
(v) Count the atoms of each element on the reactant side and on the product side. Write
your answers in the table below.

Number of H atoms
Number of O atoms
(vi) By adding one water molecule on the product side, the number of oxygen atoms
is balanced. But the number of hydrogen atoms is no longer balanced. Add one
hydrogen molecule on the reactant side to increase the number of hydrogen atoms.
Draw the particle diagrams in the space below.
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(vii) Count the atoms of each element on the reactant side and on the product side. Write

Number of H atoms
Number of O atoms
(viii) Referring to the table in part (viii), state whether the chemical equation is balanced.
_____________________________________________________________________
(ix) Referring to your answer in part (vii), write down the balanced chemical equation.
_____________________________________________________________________
Using particle diagrams, you have been able to count and adjust the number of atoms on the
reactant side and on the product side in order to obtain a balanced chemical equation. In Activity
3.2, next section, you will learn how to balance a chemical equation using a different method.
ACTIVITY 3.2 – Writing balanced chemical equations using balancing scales
Answer the following questions which will guide you to balance a chemical equation.
Reaction: Magnesium burns in oxygen to form magnesium oxide.
(i) Write the word equation for the bove reaction.
_____________________________________________________________________
(ii) Convert the word equation into a chemical equation by representing the reactants
and products by symbols and formulae.
_____________________________________________________________________

Number
1 1
of Mg atoms Mg
Number
2 1
of O atoms O
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The number of magnesium atoms is balanced whereas the number of oxygen atoms is not
balanced.
To increase the number of oxygen atoms on the product side, we must add one MgO unit on
the product side. Thus, we add the coefficient 2 in front of MgO in the chemical equation.
Mg + O2  2 MgO
(iii) Count the atoms of each element on the reactant side and on the product side. Write

Number
of Mg atoms Mg
Number
O
of O atoms
The number of oxygen atoms is now balanced but the number of magnesium atoms is not
balanced. To balance the number of oxygen atoms, we must add one magnesium atom on the
reactant side. Thus, we placed the coefficient 2 in front of Mg in the chemical equation.
2 Mg + O2  2 MgO
(iv) Count the atoms of each element on the reactant side and on the product side. Write

Number
of Mg atoms Mg
Number
O
of O atoms
The equation is now balanced. The balanced chemical equation is:
2 Mg + O2  2 MgO
Visual representations of the atoms involved in a chemical reaction have helped to understand
the concept of balancing equation. In the next section, you will learn how to balance equations
without the use of visuals.
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Balancing Chemical Equations Without Using Visual Diagrams

Reaction 1: Adding sodium oxide to water produces sodium hydroxide.
Sodium oxide + water  sodium hydroxide
Na2O + H2O  NaOH

Number of Na atoms 2 1
Number of O atoms 2 1
Number of H atoms 2 1
The number of sodium, hydrogen and oxygen atoms on the right side must be increased to 2
in the above equation. This can be done by adding a coefficient ‘2’ in front of NaOH.
Remember that you cannot change the subscripts in the formulae while balancing
equations.
Na2O + H2O  2 NaOH
By adding a coefficient ‘2’ in front of NaOH, it means that there are 2 units of NaOH. Therefore,
there are 2 atoms of sodium, 2 atoms of oxygen and 2 atoms of hydrogen.

Number of Na atoms 2 1 2
Number of O atoms 2 1 2
Number of H atoms 2 1 2
The balanced chemical equation is:
Na2O + H2O  2 NaOH
Reaction 2: Chlorine reacts with sodium bromide to form bromine and sodium chloride.
Chlorine + sodium bromide  bromine + sodium chloride
Cl2 + NaBr  Br2 + NaCl

Number of Cl atoms 2 1
Number of Na atoms 1 1
Number of Br atoms 1 2
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The number of chlorine atoms can be balanced by placing a coefficient ‘2’ in front of NaCl on
the product side.
Cl2 + NaBr  Br2 + 2 NaCl

Number of Cl atoms 2 1 2
Number of Br atoms 1 2
By doing so, the number of Cl atoms is balanced but the number of Na and Br atoms is no
longer balanced. They can be balanced by placing the coefficient ‘2’ in front of NaBr on the
reactant side.
Cl2 + 2 NaBr  Br2 + 2 NaCl

Number of Cl atoms 2 2
Number of Br atoms 1 2 2
Now the equation is balanced. The balanced chemical equation is:
Cl2 + 2 NaBr  Br2 + 2 NaCl
ACTIVITY 3.3 – Writing a balanced chemical equation without the use

of visual diagrams
Answer the following questions which will guide you to write a balanced chemical equation
for a reaction.
Reaction: Magnesium oxide reacts with hydrochloric acid to form magnesium chloride
and water.
(i) Write a word equation for the reaction.
_____________________________________________________________________
(ii) Write the ‘unbalanced chemical equation’ for the reaction.
_____________________________________________________________________
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(iii) Count the atoms of each element on the reactant side and on the product side. Write your
answers in the table below.

Number of Mg atoms
Number of O atoms
Number of H atoms
Number of Cl atoms
(iv) After completing the table in part (iii), you have noticed that the equation is not balanced.
Add coefficients in front of the formulae in the chemical equation you wrote in part (ii) to
balance the number of atoms.
Count the number of atoms of each element on the reactant side and on the product side.
Adjust the number of atoms in the table in part (iii) accordingly.
(v) If the equation is balanced, write down the balanced chemical equation. If not, keep on
changing the coefficients until the equation is balanced. Adjust the number of atoms in
the table in part (iii) accordingly.
_________________________________________________________________________
TEST YOURSELF 3.6
Balance the following chemical equations.
(a) Ca(OH) + 2
HCl  CaCl +
2
H2O

Number of Ca atoms
Number of O atoms
Number of H atoms
Number of Cl atoms
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(b) P + O 2
 P O 2 5

Number of P atoms
Number of O atoms
(c) CuCO +
3
HCl  CuCl 2
+ CO + 2
H O 2

Number of Cu atoms
Number of C atoms
Number of O atoms
Number of H atoms
Number of Cl atoms
(d) Al + HCl  H 2
+ AlCl3

Number of Al atoms
Number of H atoms
Number of Cl atoms

(e) Mg + Fe2O3  MgO + Fe

Number of Mg atoms
Number of Fe atoms
Number of O atoms
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Balancing equations involving radicals

Reaction 1: Copper reacts with silver nitrate to form copper (II) nitrate and silver.
Copper + silver nitrate  copper (II) nitrate + silver
Cu + AgNO3  Cu(NO3)2 + Ag
In the above equation, the radical NO3 appears on both sides of the equation. In such cases,
the radical is counted as one unit, instead of counting the N and O separately.

Cu 1 1
Ag 1 1
NO3 1 2
The number of Cu atoms and Ag atoms is balanced whereas the number of NO3 radical is not
balanced. It can be balanced by adding the coefficient “2” in front of AgNO3.
Cu + 2 AgNO3  Cu(NO3)2 + Ag

Cu 1 1
Ag 1 2 1
NO3 1 2 2
By doing so, the number of NO3 radical is balanced but the number of Ag atoms is no longer
balanced. The number of Ag atoms can be balanced by adding the coefficient “2” in front of Ag
on the product side.
Cu + 2 AgNO3  Cu(NO3)2 + 2 Ag

Cu 1 1
Ag 2 12
NO3 2 2
The equation is now balanced. The balanced equation is:
Cu + 2 AgNO3  Cu(NO3)2 + 2 Ag
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TEST YOURSELF 3.7
Balance the following equations.

(a) H2SO4 + KOH  K2SO4 + H2O

H
SO4
K
O
(b) Al(NO3)3 + NaOH  Al(OH)3 + NaNO3

Al
NO3
Na
O
H
(c) ZnSO4 + Na2CO3  ZnCO3 + Na2SO4

Zn
SO4
Na
CO3
(d) Pb(NO3)2 + KI  PbI2 + KNO3

Pb
NO3
K
I
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Summary of unit
• A symbol is a short-hand way to represent an element.
• A formula is a short-hand way to represent a molecule or a compound.
• The valency of an element is its combining power.
• A diatomic molecule consists of 2 atoms chemically joined together.
• A radical is a group of atoms chemically combined together, having a valency.
• In a chemical reaction, the starting substances are called the reactants and the new substances
formed are called the products.
• In a chemical reaction, the atoms of the reactants are rearranged to form products.
• A chemical reaction may be represented by a word equation or by a chemical equation.
• In a chemical reaction, the total mass of products is same as the total mass of reactants.
• Every atom present at the start of the reaction is present at the end of the reaction. Thus,
a chemical equation must always be balanced.
• While balancing a chemical equation, atoms must NEVER BE REMOVED from the equation.
Atoms must ALWAYS BE ADDED to balance chemical equations.
ONLY the value of the coefficient in front of an element or compound can be changed while
•
balancing a chemical equation. The symbols and formulae must NEVER be changed.
• Radicals can be balanced as whole units. For instance, SO4 can be considered as one unit
instead of counting the number of oxygen and sulfur atoms separately.
•
Let us summarise the steps involved while writing a chemical equation:
- Step 1: Write the word equation for the reaction.
- Step 2: Work out the formulae of the compounds.
- Step 3: Write the chemical equation by using the formulae to represent
the compounds in the word equation.
- Step 4: Count the atoms of each element on the reactant side and on the product side
to check if the equation is balanced.
- Step 5: Add coefficients to balance the number of atoms.
- Step 6: Count the atoms to conclude if every atom present at the start of the reaction is still
present at the end of the reaction. If not, keep on adjusting the coefficients until the
equation is balanced.
418
• Unit C3 • Language of Chemistry
total mass remains Chemical Reaction involves
rearrangement
Constant
of atoms
is represented by has a
New substances
Chemical equation Word equation Starting substances
formed
must always be
are the are the
is a
balanced representation
of a reaction reactants products
that is
every atom present using are placed on are placed on

at the start must
be present at the end
formulae
and
and left side right side
number of atoms of each element
on right side must be equal to
number of atoms on left side symbols of the of the
equation
Language of Chemistry
1
C3
Unit
Unit
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Multiple Choice Questions. Circle the correct answer.
1. What does the Roman number (III) indicate in iron (III) sulfate?
A. The number of iron atoms in the formula
B. The number of sulfate radicals in the formula
C. The valency of iron in iron (III) sulfate
D. The valency of sulfate iron (III) sulfate
2. Which of the following is the correct formula for aluminium sulfate?
A. AlSO4 B. Al(SO4)3 C. Al2SO4 D. Al2(SO4)3

3. What is the valency of copper, Cu, in the compound having formula CuCl2?
A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4
4. What is the valency of iron, Fe, in the compound having formula Fe2O3?
B. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4
5. What is the correct name for the compound having formula Fe(NO3)3?
A. Iron (II) nitrate C. Iron (III) nitrate
B. Iron (II) nitride D. Iron (III) nitride
6. Which of the following is true about the atoms involved in a chemical reaction?
A. The total mass of the atoms involved in a chemical reaction always changes
as the atoms are rearranged into new molecules.
B. The total mass of the atoms involved in a chemical reaction will stay the same
no matter how the atoms are rearranged.
C. The total mass of the atoms involved in a chemical reaction will increase
if a new compound is formed during the reaction.
D. The total mass of the atoms involved in a chemical reaction will decrease
if two molecules combine to form one single compound.
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7. The given equation represents the reaction of sodium metal with water.
Sodium + Water  Sodium hydroxide + Hydrogen
Which of the following chemical equations represents a balanced chemical equation for
the given word equation?
A. 2Na + H2O  2NaOH + H2 B. Na + 2H2O  NaOH +2H2
C. 2Na + H2O  2NaOH + 2H2 D. 2Na + 2H2O  2NaOH + H2
8. Identify the chemical equation which represents a balanced equation for the reaction of
barium chloride with sodium sulfate to produce barium sulfate and sodium chloride.
A. BaCl2 + Na2SO4  BaSO4 + 2NaCl B. BaCl2 + Na2SO4 2BaSO4 + 2NaCl
C. 2BaCl2 + Na2SO4 2BaSO4 + NaCl D. BaCl2 + Na2SO4  BaSO4 + NaCl

9. W
hich of the following is the correct balanced chemical equation for the reaction of
nitrogen with hydrogen to produce ammonia gas? The formula of ammonia is NH3.
A. N2 + H2  2NH3 B. 2N2 + H2  2NH3
C. N2 + 3H2 2NH3 D. 2N2 + H2  2NH3
10. Which of the following is the correct chemical equation that represents the formation of
magnesium nitride, Mg3N2, by heating magnesium with nitrogen?
A. Mg3N2  Mg + N2 B. Mg + N2 Mg3N2
C. 3Mg + N2  Mg3N2 D. Mg3N2  3Mg + N2
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STRUCTURED QUESTIONS.
1. Work out the formulae of the following compounds:
(a) Magnesium fluoride (b) Sodium oxide (c) Aluminium chloride

(d) Copper (II) iodide (e) Potassium bromide (f) Iron (II) oxide
(g) Iron (III) oxide (h) Tin (II) chloride (i) Hydrogen sulfide
(j) Phosphorus (V) chloride (k) Gold (III) chloride (l) Mercury (II) chloride
2. Work out the formulae of the following compounds:
(a) Ammonium chloride (b) Sodium hydroxide (c) Copper (II) nitrate
(d) Tin (II) sulfate (e) Magnesium hydroxide (f) Aluminium sulfate
(g) Sodium carbonate (h) Iron (II) carbonate (i) Potassium sulfate
3. Name the compounds having the following formulae:
(a) Na2SO4 (b) SnCl2 (c) CaCO3 (d) PbI2 (e) Cu(OH)2
4. Count the number of atoms of each element in the following formulae:
(a) ZnCl2 (b) H2SO4 (c) MgCO3 (d) Al2(SO4)3 (e) NH4NO3 (f ) Cu(OH)2
5. Balance the following equations:
(a) AgCl  Ag + Cl2 (h) Fe2O3 + Al  Al2O3 + Fe
(b) Zn + O2  ZnO (i) CuSO4 + NaOH  Cu(OH)2 + Na2SO4
(c) Na + O2  Na2O (j) KOH + H2SO4  K2SO4 + H2O
(d) K2O + H2O  KOH (k) Ca(OH)2 + HCl  CaCl2 + H2O
(e) CaO + H2O  Ca(OH)2 (l) NH3 + H2SO4  (NH4)2SO4
(f) MgO + Al  Mg + Al2O3 (m) BaCl2 + Na2SO4  BaSO4 + NaCl
(g) Na + H2O  NaOH + H2 (n) FeCl2 + Cl2  FeCl3
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6. Write balanced chemical equations for the following reactions:
(a) Iron reacts with chlorine to form iron (III) chloride
(b) Iron burns in oxygen to form iron (II) oxide
(c) Calcium hydroxide reacts with hydrochloric acid to form calcium chloride and water
(d) S odium hydroxide reacts with copper (II) sulfate to form copper (II) hydroxide and
sodium sulfate
(e) B
arium nitrate reacts with potassium sulfate to form barium sulfate and potassium
nitrate.
(f) A
mmonium sulfate reacts with sodium hydroxide to form sodium sulfate, ammonia
and water.
(g) Methane (CH4) burns in oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water.

(Hint: In this combustion reaction, you will notice that there are only the elements carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen involved. In such equations, balance the number of carbon
atoms first, followed by number of hydrogen atoms and finally balance the number
of oxygen atoms).
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Metals and Reactivity Series Unit
Unit
C4
1
Unit
Metals and Reactivity Series C4
Learning Outcomes
• Compare and describe the reaction of copper, iron and magnesium with oxygen in air
• Compare and describe the reaction of calcium, copper, magnesium and sodium with water
• Compare and describe the reaction of copper and magnesium with steam
• Compare and describe the reaction of copper, iron, magnesium and zinc with dilute
hydrochloric acid
• Identify the product(s) formed during these reactions
• Write balanced chemical equation for these reactions
• Infer through experiments that different metals differ in their reactivity
• Demonstrate understanding of the reactivity series of metals
• Use the reactivity series of metals to investigate and explain the reactions of metals with
air, water and dilute acids
• Use the reactivity series of metals to investigate and explain the displacement reactions
• Use the reactivity series of metals to predict the products of displacement reactions
Metals have an important role in our daily life. In Physics, you learn about the conductivity of
metals and in Biology, you study the importance of metals as minerals in the body. In this Unit,
you will investigate the chemical properties of different metals and classify them in order of
their chemical reactivity.
DICTIONARY CORNER
hemical property is a characteristic of a substance

C
that can be observed during a chemical reaction.
hemical reactivity is a measure of how readily a
C
substance undergoes a chemical reaction.
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Unit Metals and Reactivity Series
C4
Metals
In previous grades, you learnt about classification of elements in the Periodic Table. Elements
on the left-hand side of the red zigzag line in the Periodic Table (Figure 1) are metals and those
on the right-hand side of the line are non-metals.
H
Hydrogen
He
Helium
Li Be B
Boron
C N
Nitrogen
O
Oxygen
F
Fluorine
Ne
Neon
Lithium Beryllium Carbon
Na Mg Al Si
Silicon
P S
Sulfur
Cl
Chlorine
Ar
Argon
Sodium Magnesium Aluminum Phosphorus
K
Potassium
Ca
Calcium
Sc
Scandium
Ti
Titanium
V
Vanadium
Cr
Chromium
Mn
Manganese
Fe
Iron
Co
Cobalt
Ni
Nickel
Cu
Copper
Zn Ga Ge As
Arsenic
Se
Selenium
Br
Bromine
Kr
Krypton
Zinc Gallium Germanium
Rb
Rubidium
Sr
Strontium
Y
Yttrium
Zr
Zirconium
Nb Mo
Niobium
Tc
Molybdenum Technetium
Ru
Ruthenium
Rh
Rhodium
Pd
Palladium
Ag Cd In
Indum
Sn Sb
Antimony
Te
Tellerium
I
Iodine
Xe
Silver Cadmium Tin Xenon
Cs Ba La
Lanthanum
Hf
Hafnium
Ta
Tantalum
W
Tungsten
Re
Rhenium
Os
Osmium
Ir
Iridium
Pt
Platinum
Au
Gold
Hg Tl
Thallium
Pb
Lead
Bi
Bismuth
Po
Polonium
At
Astatine
Rn
Radon
Cesium Barium Mercury
Fr
Francium
Ra
Radium
Ac
Actinium
Figure 1: Simplified version of the Periodic Table
TEST YOURSELF 4.1
Complete the Table below by writing the name, symbol and valency(ies) of each metal where
appropriate.
Metal Symbol Valency(ies)
Sodium
Mg
Calcium
Fe
Copper
Zn
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DID YOU KNOW…
Few metals such as gold or silver can be found uncombined in nature. These metals are easier
to obtain than other metals that exist as compounds in rocks. For example, iron mainly exists as
iron (III) oxide and is present in the ore haematite. Such metals tend to react with oxygen, water
and acids to form compounds.
Iron ore (haematite) Gold ore
Reaction of Metals
You learnt in Grade 8 that many metals react with dilute acids to form a salt and hydrogen.
However, these metals differ in the ease with which they react. Some metals tend to be more
reactive than others. In the following activities, you will compare and describe the ease with
which some metals react with oxygen, with water or steam, and with dilute acids.
Reaction of Metals with Oxygen

Many metals react with oxygen in air to form a metal oxide.
metal + oxygen metal oxide
However, the chemical reactivity of the metals differs. In the following activity, you will
investigate the reaction of copper, iron and magnesium with oxygen when heated in air.
ACTIVITY 4.1 – Investigating the reaction of metals with oxygen
This activity will be carried out by your teacher. Observe carefully and record your observation
in Table 1.
Materials needed:
• Clean copper wire, iron wool, magnesium ribbon, a pair of tongs, a watch glass, safety
goggles and a Bunsen burner.
Procedure: PRECAUTION:
Avoid looking at
1. Hold a piece of copper wire with a pair of tongs. any flame directly.
2. Observe the metal carefully.
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3. Place the copper wire in the blue flame of a Bunsen burner and observe carefully.
4. Transfer the hot metal to a watch glass and observe the product formed.
5. Record your observation for steps 2, 3 and 4 in Table 1.
6. Repeat the experiment with iron wool and magnesium ribbon.
Table 1: Observation for the reaction of some metals with oxygen
Metal Appearance of metal Observation for the Appearance of

reaction of metal with product
oxygen
Copper wire
Iron wool
Magnesium
ribbon

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7. After completing Table 1, answer the questions that follow.
(a) Based on how readily the three metals undergo chemical reactions with oxygen, state
which metal is
(i) most reactive:
least reactive:
(b) (i) What class of compound is formed when a metal reacts with oxygen?
(ii) Match the product formed from each of the following reactions.
Reaction Product
Magnesium reacts with oxygen • • Copper (II) oxide
Iron reacts with oxygen • • Magnesium oxide
Copper reacts with oxygen • • Iron (III) oxide
DID YOU KNOW…
When iron is heated in air, the product formed can be iron (II) oxide (FeO), iron (III) oxide (Fe2O3)
or a mixture of both (FeO.Fe2O3 or Fe3O4).
(c) Write the word equation and balanced chemical equation for the following reactions.
(i) Copper reacts with oxygen
Word equation: +

Chemical equation:
(ii) Iron reacts with oxygen
Word equation: +
Chemical equation:
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(iii) Magnesium reacts with oxygen

Word equation: +
Chemical equation:
d) Arrange the metals copper, iron and magnesium in decreasing order of their reactivity.
, and
Most reactive least reactive
From this activity, you can conclude that the ease with which metals react with oxygen to
form a metal oxide differs. Reactive metals such as magnesium, burn readily with a flame. Less
reactive ones such as copper do not burn or glow but react with oxygen.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Many metals react with oxygen in air to form a metal oxide.

• Copper, iron and magnesium show different reactivity with oxygen in air.
• Magnesium burns readily in air with a white flame to produce a white ash of
magnesium oxide.
• Hot iron glows red when heated in air. It gives off yellow sparks and forms
iron (III) oxide.
• Copper does not burn or glow when heated. On strong heating, it reacts slowly with
oxygen to form black copper (II) oxide.
• The reactivity of copper, iron and magnesium in decreasing order is as follows:
magnesium, iron and copper.
Reaction of Metals with Water
In the previous experiment, you investigated the reaction of metals with oxygen. Now you are
going to study the reaction of metals with water.
Some metals react with water to form a metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
metal + water metal hydroxide + hydrogen
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In Activity 4.2, you will investigate the reaction of calcium, copper, magnesium and sodium
with (cold) water.
This activity consists of two parts – Part A and Part B.
ACTIVITY 4.2 – Part A – Investigating the reaction of sodium with

water
Sodium reacts with water to form a colourless solution of sodium hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
Observe the figures below carefully and answer the questions that follow.
1. Figure 2 shows pieces of sodium metal. Describe the

physical appearance of the sodium metal.
Figure 2: Sodium metal
2. A piece of sodium metal was placed in a trough containing

water. Describe the reaction as shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3: Sodium with water
3. Suggest a reason why this experiment should not be performed in the school lab.
4. Write the word equation and the balanced chemical equation for the reaction of sodium
with water.
Word equation:
Chemical equation:
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5. Sodium is stored in paraffin oil as shown in Figure 4.

Suggest a reason why.
Figure 4
ACTIVITY 4.2 – Part B – Investigating the reaction of calcium, copper

and magnesium with water
You will work in groups of four in this activity. Observe carefully and record your observation in
Table 2.
Safety:
Materials needed: Wear lab gloves
and lab coat.
• One 500 ml beaker, funnel, boiling tube, water, pieces of calcium
turnings, copper wire (4 cm length) and magnesium ribbon (4 cm length)
Procedure:
1. Fill the 500 ml beaker with water to four fifths its capacity.
2. Fill a boiling tube with water.
3. Add few pieces of calcium turnings in the beaker of water.
4. Cover the metal with a funnel.

Figure 5: Experiment setting
5. Invert the boiling tube filled with water over the funnel as shown in
Figure 5.
6. Observe the reaction. Record your observation in Table 2.
7. Repeat the experiment with a piece of copper wire and clean pieces of magnesium ribbon.
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Table 2: Observation for the reaction of some metals with water
Metal Reaction of metal with water Describe your observation
gas
Calcium water
bubble of gas
calcium
tube filled
with water.
Copper water
copper
gas
Magnesium
water
bubble of gas
magnesium
8. After completing Table 2, answer the questions that follows.
(a) Based on how readily the metals undergo chemical reaction with water, state which
metal is
(i) most reactive:
least reactive:
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(b) (i) What products are formed when a metal reacts with water?
(ii) Match the products formed (if any) from the following reactions:
Reaction Products
Calcium with water . . No reaction
Copper with water . . Magnesium hydroxide and hydrogen
Magnesium with water . . Calcium hydroxide and hydrogen
(c) Write the word equation and balanced chemical equation for each of the following
reactions.
(i) Calcium reacts with water

Word equation:

Chemical equation:
(ii) Magnesium reacts with water
Word equation:
Chemical equation:
FIND OUT
When a drop of phenolphthalein is added to a beaker containing calcium and water, investigate
why the colour of the solution changes from colourless to pink.
(d) The level of water in the boiling tube falls as hydrogen gas is produced. The gas is collected.
Describe what is observed when a burning splinter is applied to the gas.
as
H 2g
POP
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9. After completing Part A and Part B, arrange the metals calcium, copper, magnesium and
sodium in decreasing order of their reactivity.
, , and
Most reactive least reactive
Reaction of Metals with Steam
From Activity 4.2, you learnt that sodium is more reactive than calcium. Magnesium reacts very
slowly and copper shows no reaction with water. In Activity 4.3, you will investigate the reaction
of copper and magnesium with steam.
ACTIVITY 4.3 – Investigating the reaction of copper and magnesium

with steam
A piece of magnesium ribbon is placed in a boiling tube containing a piece of cotton wool
soaked in water. The boiling tube is heated as shown in Figure 6. Observe Figure 6 carefully and
answer the questions that follow.
Figure 6: Magnesium with steam
1. (i) Name the liquid present in the soaked cotton wool.
(ii) What happens to this liquid when the boiling tube is heated?
2. What happens to the magnesium ribbon when the boiling tube is heated?
3. After some time, the magnesium ribbon burns. What can you infer from this statement?
4. During the reaction, a white ash is formed. Suggest the name of this product.
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5. A gas is produced during the reaction and it can ignite in air. Name the gas.
6. Write the word equation and the balanced chemical equation for the above reaction.
Word equation:
Chemical equation:
7. When the experiment is repeated with copper, there is no reaction. Which metal is more
reactive, copper or magnesium?
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Some metals react with water to form a metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
• Calcium, copper, magnesium and sodium show different reactivity with water and
steam.
• Sodium reacts violently with water to form sodium hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
• To prevent sodium from coming in contact with air or moisture, the metal is safely kept
under paraffin oil.
• Calcium reacts readily with water to form calcium hydroxide and many bubbles of
hydrogen gas.
• Magnesium reacts slowly with water to form magnesium hydroxide and few bubbles of
hydrogen gas. However, hot magnesium reacts violently with steam to form
magnesium oxide and hydrogen.
• Copper shows no reaction with water and steam.
• The reactivity of calcium, copper, magnesium and sodium in decreasing order is as
follows: sodium, calcium, magnesium and copper.
Reaction of Metals with Dilute Acids

In Grade 8, you have identified hydrochloric acid, nitric acid and sulfuric acid in your Chemistry
laboratory. You also learnt about some chemical properties of acids, such as the reactions of
acids with metals to produce a salt and hydrogen gas.
In the previous activities, you learnt about the reactions of metals with oxygen, with water and
with steam. In Activity 4.4, you will investigate the reactions of copper, iron, magnesium and
zinc with dilute hydrochloric acid.
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ACTIVITY 4.4 – Investigating the reaction of copper, iron,

magnesium and zinc with dilute hydrochloric acid
Read the information given in the textbox carefully and observe the reactions of some metals
with dilute hydrochloric acid.
When some metals react with dilute hydrochloric acid, hydrogen gas is formed as
one of the products. It can be observed as bubbles. In general, the more reactive the
metal, the more bubbles will be observed at the initial stage of reaction.
metal + hydrochloric acid metal chloride + hydrogen
1. Four different metals are placed separately in a test-tube containing dilute hydrochloric
acid as shown in Table 3. Observe the pictures carefully and complete Table 3.
Table 3: Observation for the reaction of some metals with dilute hydrochloric acid
Copper Iron Magnesium Zinc
Reaction of
metal with dilute
hydrochloric acid
Amount
of bubbles
produced
Describe the
reaction

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2. After completing Table 3, answer the questions that follow.
(a) The amount of bubbles of gas produced indicates how readily the metals react with
dilute hydrochloric acid. State which metal is
(i) most reactive:
least reactive:
(b) What are the products formed when a metal reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid?
(c) Match the products formed (if any) from the following reactions.
Reactions Products
Copper and dilute hydrochloric acid • • Zinc chloride and hydrogen
Iron and dilute hydrochloric acid • • Magnesium chloride and hydrogen
Magnesium and dilute hydrochloric acid • • No reaction
Zinc and dilute hydrochloric acid • • Iron (II) chloride and hydrogen
(d) Write the word equation and the balanced chemical equation for each of the following
reactions.
(i) Reaction of iron and dilute hydrochloric acid
Word equation:
Chemical equation:
(ii) Reaction of magnesium and dilute hydrochloric acid
Word equation:
Chemical equation:
(iii) Reaction of zinc and dilute hydrochloric acid
Word equation:
Chemical equation:
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(e) Arrange the four metals, copper, iron, magnesium and zinc in decreasing order of their
reactivity.
, , and

Most reactive Least reactive
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Some metals react with dilute hydrochloric acid to form a metal chloride and hydrogen
gas.
• Copper, iron, magnesium and zinc show different reactivity with dilute hydrochloric
acid.
• Copper shows no reaction with dilute acids.
• Iron reacts slowly with dilute hydrochloric acid to form a pale green solution of
iron (II) chloride and few bubbles of hydrogen gas.
• Magnesium reacts very fast with dilute hydrochloric acid to form a colourless solution
of magnesium chloride and lots of bubbles of hydrogen gas.
• Zinc reacts moderately fast with dilute hydrochloric acid to form a colourless solution
of zinc chloride and many bubbles of hydrogen gas.
• The reactivity of copper, iron, magnesium and zinc in decreasing order is as follows:
magnesium, zinc, iron and copper.
Reactivity Series
From previous activities, we can conclude that the ease of the reactions of the metals with
oxygen, water, steam, and dilute hydrochloric acid differ. Hence, metals can be arranged in a
particular order with respect to their reactivity. This arrangement is referred to as the reactivity
series. In Activity 4.5, you will list metals in this particular order.
ACTIVITY 4.5 – Constructing the reactivity series
We have studied the chemical reactions of some metals with oxygen, water, steam and dilute
hydrochloric acid. The chemical reactivity of metals differ as summarised below.
(a) Reaction of some metals with oxygen in air
• Copper does not burn or glow

• Hot iron glows and may produce sparks
• Magnesium burns with a bright white flame
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Rearrange the metals, copper, iron and magnesium in a particular order with the most reactive
metal at the top in Table 4(a).
Table 4(a): Reactivity series of copper, iron and magnesium
Metals
Increasing reactivity
(b) Reaction of some metals with water and/or steam
• Calcium reacts readily in water

• Copper shows no reaction in water and steam
• Magnesium reacts very slowly with water but violently with steam
• Sodium reacts violently with water
Rearrange the metals, calcium, copper, magnesium and sodium in a particular order with the
most reactive metal at the top in Table 4(b).
Table 4(b): Reactivity series of calcium, copper, magnesium and sodium
Metals
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(c) Reaction of some metals with dilute acids
• Copper shows no reaction with dilute acids

• Iron reacts slowly with dilute acids
• Magnesium reacts very rapidly with dilute acids
• Zinc reacts rapidly with dilute acids.
Rearrange the metals, copper, iron, magnesium and zinc in a particular order with the most
reactive metal at the top in Table 4(c).
Table 4(c): Reactivity series of copper, iron, magnesium and zinc
Metals
Metals can be placed in order of their chemical reactivity with oxygen, water, steam, and dilute
acids. Use Table 4(a), 4(b) and 4(c) to arrange the following metals namely: calcium, copper,
iron, magnesium, sodium and zinc in a particular order with the most reactive metal at the
top in Table 4(d).
Table 4(d): Reactivity series of calcium, copper, iron, magnesium, sodium and zinc
Metals
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Use the mnemonic to write the missing metals to complete Table 5: “Please Send Charlie’s
Monkeys And Zebras In Lead Cages Securely Guarded” .
Table 5: The reactivity series
Reactivity series of metals
(Please) POTASSIUM
(Send)
(Charlie’s)
(Monkey)
(And) ALUMINIUM
(Zebras)
(In)
(Lead) LEAD
(Cages)
(Securely) SILVER
(Guarded) GOLD
TEST YOURSELF 4.2
1. Given that the metal tin (Sn) is more reactive than lead but less reactive than iron, put a
hashtag (#) to show its position in Table 5.
2. What do you understand by the term ‘reactivity series’?
ACTIVITY 4.6 – Explaining the reactions of metals
Depending on their position in the reactivity series, metals have different ease of reaction with
oxygen, water, steam and dilute acids. Hydrochloric acid is used to represent dilute acids.
Table 6 shows the trend of the reactivity of the metals.
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Table 6: Summary on the reaction of metals with oxygen, water, steam and dilute hydrochloric acid
Metals in
Reaction Reaction
order of Reaction Reaction with dilute
with with
reactivity with steam hydrochloric acid
oxygen water
series
Potassium
Sodium
Calcium
Magnesium
y
t
*Aluminium is covered
i
with a thin layer of

v
aluminium oxide that *The protective

Aluminium aluminium oxide layer
i
prevents the metal from prevents reaction of the

t
reacting. When this metal with acid.

oxide layer is removed,
c
the reaction will occur.

a
r e
Zinc
n g
Iron
i
s
a
c r e
*The reaction stops

Lead after some time due to
formation of insoluble
lead (II) chloride (see in
n
unit 5).
I
Copper
Silver
Gold
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Analyse Table 6 and attempt the questions that follow.
1. List the metals that react with steam but not with water.
2. Name a metal that shows no reaction with oxygen, water, steam and dilute acids.
3. Name a metal that reacts slowly with water but vigorously with steam.
4. Name three metals that do not react with dilute acids.
5. Which of the following metal will react more readily with dilute hydrochloric acid, calcium
or zinc? Justify your answer.
6. Given that dilute sulfuric acid is used, which metal will react more readily, magnesium or
iron? Justify your answer.
7. Given that dilute nitric acid is used, which metal will react more readily, lead or copper?
8. Why does aluminium show poor reactivity with dilute acids?
9. When lead reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid, identify the salt that prevents the reaction
to reach completion.
10. Suggest a reason why silver jewelry tarnish with time.
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WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Metals higher in the reactivity series are more reactive than those lower in the series.
• Copper, silver and gold do not react with dilute acids.
• A reactivity series is a list of metals arranged in order of their reactivity.
Displacement of Metals
From what you have learnt, chemical reactivity of metals differs. Metals can be listed in order of
their reactivity with the most reactive metal at the top and the least reactive one at the bottom.
In the next activity, you will further consolidate the understanding of the reactivity series of
metals based on a type of reaction called displacement reaction.
Metals higher in the reactivity series tend to form compounds more readily than those lower in
the reactivity series. Some metals being more reactive can displace other less reactive metals
from their salt solution.
ACTIVITY 4.7 – Understanding Displacement Reactions
In this activity, you will work in groups and you will test the following two hypotheses.
Hypothesis I: A more reactive metal displaces a less reactive metal.
Hypothesis II: A less reactive metal displaces a more reactive metal.
Materials needed:
• A boiling tube, beaker, copper (II) sulfate solution, zinc sulfate solution, copper strip and zinc
strip
Procedure:
1. Half-fill the boiling tube with copper (II) sulfate solution.

2. Add a piece of zinc metal to the boiling tube as shown in Figure 7. Allow to stand for some
time and answer the questions that follow.
Reactants Products
Figure 7: Zinc in copper (II) sulfate solution
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(a) Note the colour change of the solution during the reaction.
From to
(b) What happens to the zinc strip?
(c) (i) State the colour of the deposited solid at end of the reaction?
(ii) Suggest the name of the metal.
(d) Suggest the name of the colourless solution formed.
(e) Has a reaction taken place? If yes, write a word equation and a balanced chemical
equation for this reaction.
3. Repeat the experiment placing a copper strip in a half-filled beaker of zinc sulfate solution
as shown in Figure 8.
Figure 8: Copper in zinc sulfate solution
4. Observe carefully and answer the questions that follow.
Has a reaction taken place? Justify your answer.
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5. Which of these two metals, zinc or copper, is more reactive?
6. (i) Referring to the above experiments and observations, state which Hypothesis I
or Hypothesis II is correct? Write down the correct hypothesis.
7. The reaction between zinc and copper (II) sulfate solution is a type of reaction called
displacement reaction. What do you understand by the term ‘displacement reaction’?
TEST YOURSELF 4.3
A piece of copper coil is placed in a petri dish containing a solution of silver nitrate as shown in
Figure 9. After few days, some changes are observed.
after few days
Figure 9: Copper coil in silver nitrate solution
1. Observe carefully what happens after few days and write down your observation.
2. Identify the products formed when copper reacts with silver nitrate solution.
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3. Write the word equation and balanced chemical equation for the reaction.
4. If copper metal is added to zinc nitrate solution, predict whether there will be a reaction or
not? Justify your answer.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• A displacement reaction takes place when a more reactive metal displaces a less
reactive metal from its salt solution.
• For example, zinc displaces copper from copper (II) sulfate whereas copper cannot
displace zinc from zinc sulfate solution.
DID YOU KNOW…
Displacement reaction also involves displacing a metal from its oxide.
ACTIVITY 4.8 – Using the reactivity series of metals to predict the

products of displacement reactions
In this activity, students are requested to work in groups and predict the products formed
during displacement reactions.
Materials needed:
• Four test-tubes, copper strip, copper (II) sulfate solution, magnesium ribbon, magnesium
chloride solution, iron filings, iron (II) sulfate solution, zinc granules and zinc nitrate solution
Procedure:
1. Half-fill each test-tube by adding the four solutions separately.
2. Place a copper strip into each test-tube and allow to stand for few minutes. Predict what will
happen in Table 7(a) and note your observation from the experiment in Table 7(b).
3. Repeat the experiment with magnesium ribbon, iron filings and zinc granules using the
provided salt solutions.
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Table 7(a): Prediction on displacement reactions

Copper (II) sulfate Magnesium Iron (II) sulfate Zinc nitrate
chloride
Copper
Magnesium
Iron
Zinc
Table 7(b): Observation on displacement reactions

Copper (II) sulfate Magnesium chloride Iron (II) sulfate Zinc nitrate
Copper
Magnesium
Iron
Zinc
4. Referring to Table 7(a) and Table 7(b), discuss with your group members and teacher if your
predictions were same as those of your observations.
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WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
According to the reactivity series:

• The more reactive metal can displace the less reactive metal from its salt solution. For
example:
- Magnesium displaces zinc from zinc sulfate solution. The solution remains colourless
and leaves a grey deposit of zinc.
- Magnesium displaces iron from iron (II) sulfate solution. The solution changes colour
from pale green to colourless and a grey deposit of iron is formed.
- Magnesium displaces copper from copper (II) sulfate solution. The solution changes
colour from blue to colourless and a pink deposit of copper is formed.
- Zinc displaces iron from iron (II) sulfate solution. The solution changes colour from
pale green to colourless and a grey deposit of iron is formed.
- Zinc displaces copper from copper (II) sulfate solution. The solution changes colour
from blue to colourless and a (pink) brown deposit of copper is formed.
- Iron displaces copper from copper (II) sulfate solution. The solution changes colour
from blue to pale green and a (pink) brown deposit of copper is formed.
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Summary of unit
• A chemical property is a characteristic of a substance that may be observed when it
participates in a chemical reaction.
• Chemical reactivity is a measure of how readily a substance undergoes a chemical

reaction.
• Most metals react with oxygen to form a metal oxide.
• Many metals react differently with water to form a metal hydroxide and hydrogen.
• Some metals react with steam to form a metal oxide and hydrogen.
• Many metals react with dilute acids to form a salt and hydrogen.
• Different metals differ in the ease with which they react.
• A reactivity series is a list of metals arranged in order of their reactivity.
• The reactivity series of metals helps to predict the ease of the reactions of metals with
air, with water, with steam and with dilute acids.
• The reactivity series of metals helps to explain the displacement reactions.
• A displacement reaction takes place when a more reactive metal displaces a less
reactive metal from its salt solution (i.e. AB + C AC + B ).
• Reactivity series of metals helps to predict the products of displacement reactions.
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• Unit 4 • Metals and Reactivity Series

Unit
Magnesium - burns forming

with bright flame Magnesium oxide
Metals
Oxygen for Iron (III) oxide
Iron - glows red forming
example
differ in their for example undergo Copper - does not burn

forming Copper (II) oxide
or glow
react
Chemical reactivity • Potassium Chemical reaction with
• Sodium
Metals and Reactivity Series
• Calcium Sodium - reacts Sodium hydroxide

summarised in • Magnesium forming
violently and hydrogen
• Aluminium
• Zinc
Reactivity • Iron for Calcium hydroxide
Water Calcium - reacts readily forming
Series • Lead example and hydrogen
• Copper
• Silver Magnesium hydroxide
Magnesium - reacts
• Gold forming and hydrogen
slowly
used to used to
explain predict
for Magnesium - reacts Magnesium oxide

Steam forming and hydrogen
Products of example violently
Displacement
displacement
reactions
reactions
Magnesium - reacts Magnesium chloride

forming
very fast and hydrogen
Dilute for Zinc - reacts Zinc chloride

Hydrochloric forming
example moderately fast and hydrogen
Acid
Iron - reacts slowly forming Iron (II) chloride

and hydrogen
Unit
C4
1
1. Which of the following metals produces a white flame on burning in air?
A Copper B Iron C Magnesium D Silver
2. Which of the following metals does not burn or glow when reacts with oxygen in air?
A Copper B Sodium C Magnesium D Iron
3. Which of the following gases is produced when calcium reacts with water?
A Carbon dioxide B Hydrogen C Oxygen D Nitrogen

4. Which of the following chemical equations is correct when potassium reacts with water?
A 2K + H2O KOH + H2 C 2K + 2H2O 2KOH + H2
B K + 2H2O KOH + 2H2 D K + H2O KOH + H2
5. Which of the following compounds is formed when magnesium reacts with steam?
A Magnesium hydroxide C Magnesium chloride
B Magnesium nitrate D Magnesium oxide
6. Which of the following metals does not react with dilute nitric acid?
A Calcium B Iron C Copper D Zinc
7. Which of the following metals produces most bubbles of hydrogen gas when placed in
hydrochloric acid?
A Calcium B Iron C Lead D Zinc
8. Four metals, iron, zinc, copper and magnesium were placed in hydrochloric acid of equal
volume at room temperature as shown in the diagrams below.
Iron Zinc Copper Magnesium
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Place the metals in order of reactivity with the most reactive metal first:
A Copper, iron, magnesium, zinc
B Magnesium, zinc, iron, copper
C Copper, iron, zinc, magnesium
D Magnesium, iron, zinc, copper
9. Which of the following chemical equations correctly represents the reaction of
silver nitrate with copper metal?
A CuNO3 + Ag Cu + AgNO3
B Cu + 2AgNO3 Cu(NO3)2 + 2Ag
C Cu + AgNO3 CuNO3 + Cu
D Cu + Ag(NO3) 2 Cu(NO3)2 + Ag
10. Which of the following combinations will result in a displacement reaction?
A Copper and zinc nitrate C Zinc and magnesium nitrate
B Magnesium and copper (II) sulfate D Aluminium and calcium chloride
1. (a) A student has four metals A, B, C and D. Each metal is placed in separate solutions of
their nitrate. The results were:
A displaces D
B displaces A
B displaces D
C displaces A, B and D
Place the metals in decreasing order of reactivity;
, , and
Most reactive Least reactive
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(b) Describe how the reactivity series is helpful to deduce the reactivity of metals.
2. Define the following terms:
(a) Chemical property
(b) Chemical reactivity

(c) Reactivity series
(d) Displacement reaction
3. A student carried out some experiments to investigate the reactivity of three different
metals A, B and C.
Metal With cold water With hot water With steam

A slow reaction rapid reaction very vigorous reaction
B vigorous reaction experiment not attempted experiment not attempted
C no reaction no reaction no reaction
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Use the table to deduce the order of the reactivity of the three metals.
most reactive
least reactive
4. Describe what you would observe when:
(a) An iron nail is placed in a test-tube containing copper (II) sulfate solution.
(b) A piece of magnesium ribbon is added to a test-tube containing iron (II) sulfate solution.
(c) A piece of copper wire is heated in air.
(d) A piece of sodium is added to a trough containing water.
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5. A student investigates the order of reactivity of four metals by placing samples of each
metal into solutions of the metal nitrates as below.
metal
metal
nitrate
A results table is shown in which ‘yes’ indicates that a reaction took place and ‘no’ indicates
there was no reaction.
Metal Copper (II) nitrate Tin (II) nitrate Magnesium nitrate Zinc nitrate

solution solution solution solution
Copper no no no
Tin yes no no
Magnesium yes yes yes
Zinc yes yes no
(a) Describe what the student observe when zinc is placed into copper (II) nitrate solution.
(b) Use the above table to deduce the order of reactivity of the four metals, putting the
most reactive one at the top.
most reactive:
least reactive:
(c) Explain how the results support this order of reactivity.
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6. A student prepared a solution of magnesium chloride by reacting magnesium metal with

dilute hydrochloric acid. The gas produced was collected.
(a) Write a word equation and a balanced chemical equation for this reaction.
Word equation:
Balanced equation:
(b) Describe a test for the gas.
Test:
Observation:
(c) (i) Sodium chloride however, cannot be prepared by this method. Suggest a reason
why?
(ii) Describe how is sodium metal preserved.
(d) Besides reaction of metals with dilute acids, state two other chemical properties of
metals.

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Unit
Salts Unit
Measurement in Science
C5
1
Unit
Salts C5
Learning Outcomes

• Recall acids and bases
• Recall indicators and pH scale
• Predict the salts that would be obtained from different acids
• Define neutralisation reaction
• Apply the importance of neutralisation in cases of indigestion and insect stings, in
agriculture and in the prevention of acid rain
• Identify soluble and insoluble salts
• State the applications of salts in everyday life
In Grade 8, you learnt about acids, bases and salts. An important chemical reaction involving
acids and bases is the neutralisation reaction. In this Unit, you will recall the classification of
substances as acids or bases and the salts obtained from neutralisation reactions. This will
enable you to appreciate the importance of neutralisation reaction and the applications of salts
in everyday life.
Acids and Bases

You learnt in Grade 8 that hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid and nitric acid are examples of strong
acid. Ethanoic acid is a weak acid. They are all compounds containing hydrogen combined with
another element or radical. Table 1 shows the names and formulae of common acids, their
formula and name of the other element/radical present and the name of salt formed from the
acids.
Table 1: Common acids
Acid Formula Formula of the other Name of the Name of salt

element/radical other element/ formed
radical
Hydrochloric acid HCl Cl chlorine chloride
Nitric acid HNO3 NO3 nitrate nitrate
Sulfuric acid H2SO4 SO4 sulfate sulfate
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C5
You also learnt in Grade 8 that a base is a metal oxide or metal hydroxide. Not all bases are
soluble in water. For example, copper (II) oxide is not soluble in water. When a base is soluble in
water, the solution formed is an alkali. Potassium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide are examples
of strong alkali. Examples of weak alkalis are calcium hydroxide and ammonium hydroxide (or
aqueous ammonia). They are all compounds containing the hydroxide radical (OH) combined
with another element or radical. Table 2 shows the names and formulae of alkalis and their
element/radical present.
Table 2: Common alkalis
Alkali Formula Formula of Name of other

other element/ element/radical
radical
Potassium hydroxide KOH K Potassium
Sodium hydroxide NaOH Na Sodium
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 Ca Calcium
Ammonium hydroxide NH4OH NH4 Ammonium

(aqueous ammonia)
TEST YOURSELF 5.1
1. Complete Table 3 by writing the name of the acids used to produce the following salts.
Table 3
Salt Acid
Magnesium nitrate
Calcium chloride
Zinc sulfate
2. ‘All alkalis are bases, but all bases are not alkalis. Justify this statement.
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1
Indicators and pH Scale

You learnt in Grade 8 that many substances can be classified as being acidic, neutral or basic by
using indicators or by finding the pH value.
Indicators are substances that have different colours in acidic and in alkaline solutions. Common
indicators used in the laboratory are litmus, phenolphthalein and methyl orange. Table 4 shows
the colours of three indicators in acidic and alkaline solutions.
Table 4: Colour of common indicators
Indicator Colour in acids Colour in alkalis
Phenolphthalein
colourless pink
Methyl orange
red
yellow
Litmus
red blue
DID YOU KNOW…
Phenolphthalein solution is toxic as defined by the Occupational Safety and Health

Administration (OSHA) Laboratory Standard and must be handled with care.
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A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution is known as pH. The pH scale is a set of
numbers used to indicate whether a solution is acidic, neutral, or alkaline. The pH scale is often
said to range from 1 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral. A pH less than 7 is acidic. A pH greater than 7 is
alkaline. Figure 1 shows the pH scale of different solutions.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Strong Acid Weak Acid Weak Alkali Strong Alkali
pH NEUTRAL
Figure 1: pH scale
DID YOU KNOW…
The pH inside human cells (6.8) and the pH of blood (7.4) are both very close to neutral.
TEST YOURSELF 5.2
Suggest the approximate pH value of the following solutions in Table 5 and state their colour
when the following indicators are added.
Table 5: pH value and colour of solution when indicator is added
Substances pH value Litmus Phenolphthalein
Sulfuric acid
Ammonium hydroxide
Ethanoic acid
Sodium hydroxide
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Salts Unit
Unit
C5
1
Neutralisation Reaction
You learnt in Grade 8 that a solution can be acidic or alkaline. However, when a right quantity
or volume of an alkali is added to an acid or vice versa, the resulting solution becomes neutral,
that is, the solution is neither acidic nor alkaline in nature. This reaction is called ‘neutralisation
reaction’. In Acitivity 5.1, you will recall the definition of neutralisation reaction.
ACTIVITY 5.1 – Defining neutralisation reaction
Analyse the information below and answer the questions that follow:
An example of a neutralisation reaction is when hydrochloric acid reacts with sodium

hydroxide. The salt formed is sodium chloride. Another product is water.
Word equation: hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide sodium chloride + water
Chemical equation: HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O
1. a) Identify the reactants and products for the above chemical reaction.

Reactants:
Products:
2. You are provided with a list of compounds below.
Sodium chloride hydrochloric acid sodium hydroxide water

From the list, identify the following:
(a) Acid -
(b) Base -
(c) Salt -
(d) Neutral solution - in
3. Write the general equation for a neutralisation reaction.

General equation:
4. What do you understand by the term ‘neutralisation reaction’?

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Unit Salts
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TEST YOURSELF 5.3
Table 6 lists some word equations. Study the word equations carefully and
identify which of these are examples of neutralisation reaction by placing a check
( ) or a cross ( ) in Table 6 where it is appropriate. In your copybook, provide an explanation
of your choice.
Table 6: Identifying neutralisation reaction
Chemical reactions Neutralisation

Reaction
magnesium + hydrochloric acid magnesium chloride + hydrogen
magnesium oxide + hydrochloric acid magnesium chloride + water
sulfur + oxygen sulfur dioxide
hydrogen + oxygen water
potassium hydroxide +sulfuric acid potassium sulfate + water
zinc oxide + nitric acid zinc nitrate + water
Salts obtained from Neutralisation Reaction

Salts play important roles in our daily lives. A salt is a compound that can be obtained from the
neutralisation reaction of an acid with a base. In the following activity, you will predict the salts
formed from different acids and bases during neutralisation reaction.
ACTIVITY 5.2 – Predicting the salts formed from neutralisation

reaction
In this activity, you will predict the salt formed from neutralisation reaction. The name of the
salt formed has two parts. The first part comes from the base and the second part from the acid.
Table 7 lists the reactants and products of neutralisation reaction. Analyse the given general
equation for neutralisation reaction and complete Table 7 by filling the missing compound(s)
correctly. The first one has already been done for you.
General equation for neutralisation reaction:
ACID + BASE SALT + WATER

i.e ACID + METAL OXIDE SALT + WATER
or ACID + METAL HYDROXIDE SALT + WATER
464
Salts Unit
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1
Table 7: Neutralisation reactions
Reactants
Products
Acid Base
Hydrochloric acid Sodium oxide Sodium chloride and water
Calcium hydroxide Calcium sulfate and water
Ammonium hydroxide Ammonium nitrate and
Sulfuric acid Potassium hydroxide and water
Sulfuric acid Ammonium sulfate and
Nitric acid or Calcium nitrate and water
Hydrochloric acid Zinc oxide and
Ammonium hydroxide Ammonium chloride and water
or Sodium sulfate and
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Neutralisation is the reaction between an acid and a base to form a salt and water.
• The acid and the base used enable us to predict the salt formed.
465
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Importance of Neutralisation Reaction

Neutralisation reaction is an important chemical reaction because of its daily life applications
in various fields such as health, agriculture and industries. In this activity, you will apply your
understanding to explain the importance of neutralisation in cases of indigestion and insect
stings, in agriculture and in prevention of acid rain.
ACTIVITY 5.3 – Appreciating the importance of neutralisation reaction
Read each scenario and information sheet to answer the questions that follow.
Scenario 1: Treatment of indigestion
Gastric juice contains hydrochloric acid and

is released by the wall of the stomach during
digestion of food. Overeating and stress can
produce excess acid in the stomach which
may cause a pain commonly known as
indigestion.
Information sheet
Medication
enters
stomach In order to treat indigestion, antacids are used
Acid stomach as medicines. One example of antacids is milk
contents
of magnesia which contains magnesium
hydroxide.
(a) What substance causes indigestion in the stomach?

(b) What is the active ingredient in antacids?

(c) What type of reaction occurs during the treatment of indigestion? Justify your answer.

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Salts Unit
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1
(d) Write the word equation and balanced chemical equation for this reaction.
Word equation:
Chemical equation:
Scenario 2: Treatment of insect stings
Bee and wasp stings are common and painful.

They are usually no more serious than this, but
the venom released may develop into severe
allergic reactions if not treated.
Information sheet
Bee sting can be neutralised using baking

soda (sodium hydrogen carbonate, NaHCO3)
which is also a base.
Wasp sting can be neutralised using vinegar

(ethanoic acid) which is a weak acid.
(a) Are the constituents of bee and wasp venom the same?

(b) Is bee venom acidic or basic?


(c) Is wasp venom acidic or basic?

467
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Scenario 3: Treatment of soil
Most plants grow best when the soil is neutral

or slightly acidic. These plants will not grow
NO2
SO2
H2SO4
HNO3
H2O
Trees killed
if the soil is too acidic. Soil tends to be more
by acid
rain acidic due to the use of excess fertilisers or
due to acid rain.
Information sheet
When the soil is too acidic, it can be treated

with bases such as calcium oxide (quicklime)
or calcium hydroxide (slaked lime). This
process is called ‘liming’ the soil.
However, if excess lime is added, the soil

becomes alkaline and unsuitable for plant
growth.
(a) Why is it important to control the acidity or alkalinity of soil?

(b) What is the effect of adding excess fertiliser to soil.

(c) Name the process which reduces the acidity of soil.

(d) What do you understand by the term ‘liming’?

(e) State a precaution that needs to be taken during ‘liming’ process.

468
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Scenario 4: Treatment of acidic gases
Sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen react

with oxygen and moisture in the atmosphere
to form sulfuric acid and nitric acid. This leads
to acid rain.
Information sheet
Sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen are

acidic gases. Thus, calcium oxide or calcium
hydroxide can be used to reduce the emission
of these acidic gases into the atmosphere.
(a) Identify a major source of sulfur dioxide.

(b) Why must acidic gases be treated before they are released into the atmosphere?

(c) (i) List two substances that can be used to reduce emissions of acidic gases?

(ii) Why these two substances can be used to reduce the emission of acidic gases?
WHAT
WHAT I HAVE
I HAVE LEARNT
LEARNT
• Neutralisation reaction has important applications in our daily life. For example:
- To treat indigestion in the stomach, the excess of acid can be neutralised by a weak
base such as magnesium hydroxide present in antacids
- Bee sting is acidic and can be neutralised by a base such as baking soda
- Wasp sting is alkaline and can be neutralised by lemon or vinegar as it contains
a weak acid
- Acidity in soil is reduced by adding lime (calcium oxide) or slaked lime (calcium
hydroxide)
- Acid rain is caused by acidic gases that can be neutralised with a base
469
Unit Salts
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Solubility of Salts
Some salts dissolve in water and others do not. For example, sodium chloride dissolves in
water to form a clear solution whereas lead (II) chloride does not dissolve in water and forms a
suspension. In Grade 8, you learnt how to distinguish between solution and suspension.
To dissolve is to allow a solute to mix in a solvent to form a solution. The ability of a solute to
dissolve in a solvent is called its solubility. In the following activity, you will predict the solubility
of salts in water at room temperature using Figure 2.
SALTS
Soluble salts Insoluble salts
All nitrates
Lead (II) chloride

All chlorides Except
Silver chloride
All sulfates Except

Barium sulfate
Calcium sulfate
Lead (II) sulfate
All potassium salts Except All carbonates

All sodium salts
All ammonium salts
Figure 2: The solubilities of salts in water
470
Salts Unit
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1
ACTIVITY 5.4 – Classifying salts as soluble and insoluble
Table 8 lists some common laboratory salts. Study the solubility rules in Figure 2 to classify
which of the following salts are soluble or insoluble in water by placing a check ( ) in the table
where it is appropriate.
Table 8: Soluble and insoluble salts
Salt Soluble in water Insoluble in water
Calcium nitrate
Silver chloride
Potassium carbonate
Ammonium chloride
Lead (II) sulfate
Iron (II) carbonate
Copper (II) sulfate
Calcium sulfate
WHAT
WHAT II HAVE
HAVE LEARNT
LEARNT
• A soluble salt can dissolve completely in water to form a clear solution.

• An insoluble salt does not dissolve in water.
• Solubility rules can be used to identify soluble and insoluble salts.
471
Unit Salts
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Uses of Salts
Historically, salt was an expensive but essential commodity. This explains the importance of
salt in the development of human civilisation. Nowadays, salts have many commercial uses as
shown in Table 9.
Table 9: Uses of Salts
Uses Salts
For enhancement of taste Sodium chloride
As fertilisers Ammonium sulfate

Potassium nitrate
As laxatives Magnesium sulfate

Sodium sulfate
In baking Sodium bicarbonate

(Sodium hydrogen carbonate)
For making glass Sodium carbonate
In plaster of Paris Calcium sulfate
DICTIONARY CORNER
A laxative is a substance that eases

evacuation of the bowels.
DID YOU KNOW…
Chemical fertilisers are compounds containing high concentration of nutrients required for
plant growth. Apart from the three main constituent elements, carbon, oxygen and hydrogen,
plants require substantial quantity of nutrients. These nutrients are classified as primary
nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium) , secondary nutrients (calcium, magnesium
and sulfur), and micronutrients (chlorine, zinc, iron and copper).
472
Salts Unit
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1
TEST YOURSELF 5.4
Match each picture in column A with the appropriate item in column B.
A B
• • Calcium sulfate
• • Sodium bicarbonate
• • Magnesium sulfate
• • Sodium chloride
• • Ammonium sulfate
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Salts have various applications. For example:
- for enhancement of taste (sodium chloride)

- as fertilisers (ammonium sulfate and potassium nitrate)
- as laxatives (magnesium sulfate and sodium sulfate)
- in baking (sodium bicarbonate)
- for making glass (sodium carbonate)
- in plaster of Paris (calcium sulfate)
473
Unit Salts
C5
Summary of unit
• A neutralisation reaction is the reaction between an acid and a base to form a salt and
water.
• The salt formed depends on the type of the acid and base used.
• Neutralisation reactions have important applications such as:
- To treat indigestion Ø excess of acid is neutralised by a weak base such as

magnesium hydroxide that is present in antacids
- Bee sting is acidic Øit can be neutralised by a base such as baking soda (sodium
hydrogen carbonate)
- Wasp sting is alkaline Ø it can be neutralised by vinegar as it contains ethanoic acid
- The emission of sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen can be reduced by the
reaction of these gases with a base
• A soluble salt dissolves completely in water to form a clear solution whereas an

insoluble salt forms a suspension.
• Solubility rules can be used to identify the solubility of salts in water at room
temperature.
• Salts have various applications:
- for enhancement of taste (sodium chloride)
- as fertilisers (ammonium sulfate and potassium nitrate)
- as laxatives (magnesium sulfate and sodium sulfate)
- in baking (sodium bicarbonate)
- for making glass (sodium carbonate)
- in plaster of Paris (calcium sulfate)
474
• Unit 5 • Salts
SALTS
can be have many

can be produced by
Neutralisation
Reaction
Soluble Insoluble
Uses
Most chlorides All nitrates Most sulfates Lead chloride Barium sulfate
Most carbonates
Silver chloride Calcium sulfate
All potassium salts Lead (II) sulfate
has many All sodium salts
All ammonium salts
Applications For example
For example
Enhancement of Manufacture of Laxative

Fertilisers Baking Plaster of Paris
glass (magnesium sulfate
(ammonium sulfate or taste (sodium bicarbonate) (calcium sulfate)
(sodium cabonate)
Treats indigestion potassium sulfate) (sodium chloride) or sodium sulfate)
Treats insect stings Treats acidic soil Treats acidic gases
Salts
1
C5
Unit
Unit
475
Unit Salts
C5
1. What are the products of neutralisation reaction?
A A metal hydroxide and water C A salt and hydrogen
B A salt and water D A metal oxide and carbon dioxide
2. Which of the following equations is a neutralisation reaction?
A Ca + 2H2O Ca(OH)2 + H2 B 2Mg + O2 2MgO
C NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O D NH4Cl + NaOH NaCl + H2O + NH3
3. Which compound dissolves in water to form a blue solution?

A Copper (II) carbonate C Lead (II) sulfate
B Copper (II) sulfate D Lead (II) carbonate
4. Which compound dissolves in water to form a clear solution?
A Calcium carbonate C Iron (II) carbonate
B Copper (II) carbonate D Sodium carbonate
5. Which acid is used to prepare magnesium nitrate in the laboratory?
A Hydrochloric acid C Nitric acid
B Sulfuric acid D Ethanoic acid
6. Which base is appropriate to prepare ammonium chloride solution?
A Sodium hydroxide C Calcium hydroxide
B Ammonium hydroxide D Zinc oxide
7. Which compound can be used to treat wasp sting?
A Vinegar B Water C Kitchen salt D Baking soda
8. Which statement is true about the ‘liming’ of soil?
A Decrease acidity of soil B The soil is too alkaline
C Fertiliser is added to the soil D Increase acidity of the soil
476
Salts Unit
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1
9. Which word describes a metal oxide or metal hydroxide?
A Acid B Base C Element D Atom
10. An unknown gas, X is escaping from a pipe in a chemical plant. A chemist tests this gas and
concludes that it is acidic. Which of the following gases could be X?
A Oxygen B Nitrogen C Hydrogen D Sulfur dioxide
1. (a) Write the chemical name of baking soda.


(b) Write the chemical formula of baking soda.

(c) State a physical property of baking soda.

(d) State a chemical property of baking soda.

(e) State two uses of baking soda.
2. Many salts are useful and find their application in daily life. Fill in the blanks with the name
of the appropriate salts.
(a) is used as a laxative.
(b) is used to enhance taste.
(c) is used as fertilisers.
(d) is used in the manufacture of glass.
(e) is used in plaster of Paris.
477
Unit Salts
C5
3. (a) You are provided with a list of salts below. Complete the table below by classifying the
salts as soluble or insoluble in water.
sodium carbonate calcium carbonate lead (II) chloride lead (II) nitrate
copper (II) carbonate copper (II) chloride silver chloride zinc sulfate
barium sulfate lithium nitrate ammonium sulfate
Soluble salt Insoluble salt

(b) Describe an experiment, with labelled diagram(s) to investigate whether calcium

sulfate is soluble or insoluble in water at room temperature.
478
Salts Unit
Unit
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1
4. When lead is added to hydrochloric acid, the reaction stops after some time.
dilute hydrochloric
acid
layer of lead (II) chloride
lead surrounding lead
(a) Suggest a reason why?
(b) Suggest what happens when lead is added to sulfuric acid.

5. You are provided with a list of of compound below.
zinc chloride copper (II) sulfate lead (II) chloride copper (II) carbonate
hydrochloric acid sodium hydroxide zinc oxide

From the list, identify the following:
(a) An acid -

(b) An alkali -

(c) An insoluble base -
(d) A white salt soluble in water -

(e) A white insoluble salt -
(f ) A coloured insoluble salt -
479
Unit Salts
C5
6. Ammonium sulfate is a soluble salt. It can be prepared by neutralisation reaction.
(a) What do you understand by the term ‘neutralisation reaction’?

(b) Write a word equation and a balanced chemical equation for this reaction.
Word equation:
Chemical equation:
(c) Describe what you will observe when ammonium sulfate is formed.
(d) State one use of ammonium sulfate.
7. The sting of an ant contains a weak acid. Name a chemical substance that can be used
to treat ant bites. Explain your answer.
480

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SCIENCE

Ministry of Education, Tertiary Education,

MAURITIUS INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION

Karuna Baguant - Educator

The Science textbook panel wishes to thank:

© Mauritius Institute of Education - 2021

I am equally thankful to the Ministry of Education, Human Resources, Tertiary

The textbook is conceptualised in such a way that it includes a number of

Additionally, the activities seek to develop in students the necessary skills,

The textbook includes important features that support effective assessment.

It is sincerely hoped that the textbook helps motivate learners, stimulates

Dr (Mrs) Sarojiny Saddul-Hauzaree

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• State the SI units of length, mass, volume, time and temperature

Diagram Physical quantity Symbol of quantity SI unit Symbol of unit

volume time newton temperature area kelvin

density speed electric current length joule

Length is the distance between any two points.

How long is the pencil?

Read the scale at the ends of the pencil.

The SI unit of length is the metre. The symbol is m.

Other units of length are:

Convert the following:

Some words used to describe length are:

Circumference, Radius and Diameter

Identify the circumference.

Instruments used to measure length are:

ACTIVITY 1.1 – Recalling the instruments used to measure length

Match the instrument’s name in Table 2 to its picture.

Instrument name Picture

Reading the Scale of the Ruler

Determining the smallest division on the ruler

ACTIVITY 1.2 – Measuring the length of various items

Quantity to be measured Instrument used Length recorded / unit

Length of physics book

Height of your chair

Length of your classroom

A. Diameter of a coin using a single coin

3. Diameter of coin = X2 – X1.

B. Diameter of a coin using ten coins

3. Diameter of ten coins = X2 – X1

1. The figure below shows a mobile phone.

X a. Use a half-metre rule to measure the width X and length Y on

b. The diagram shown is drawn one-half of its full size.

Length = ________ cm Width = ________ cm

The Vernier Calliper

The vernier calliper has two scales:

• A fixed scale (the main scale)

The vernier calliper is used to measure linear length such as:

• Internal and external diameters

Other parts of the vernier calliper are the:

Function of the inside jaws

The inside jaws are used

Function of the external jaws

The external jaws are used to measure

Function of the tail

The tail is used to measure the depth

Reading the vernier calliper

Step 1: Reading the main scale

Length = cm Width = cm