Manal Abaali

19566
Gutenberg to Google
December 13, 2021
Final Paper
Part I – Motion Picture Photography (Film)
In his essay New Media, Old Media, John Peters dives into how the most fundamental
media, those which were first created to transmit language, sight and sound, have actually been
rearranged with new forms of media on more powerful platforms rather than simply be replaced
by older forms of media. Additionally, he adds that innovations such as motion photography
have rearranged sight and sound entirely, something which can be seen in the works of Peter
Urquhart and Paul Heyer. In their book Communication in History, Urquhart and Heyer skillfully
examine the ways in which motion picture photography has reorganized the functions of older
media and how it was made to adapt as new media forms, specifically the introduction of
television, emerged. They showcased the developments that led to the invention of projected
motion picture photography and how it was gradually followed by the integration of inventions
such as that of light and sound, forever leaving its mark in the world of cinema.
While the notion of photographs constantly shifting and changing on a screen was one
that lasted for centuries, it became a reality in the 1890’s with the works of W. K. L. Dickson, an
employee for Thomas Edison. Dickson was the center of Edison’s work on motion photography
and even created the ‘kinetograph’, the first motion picture camera, and the ‘kinetoscope’, the
first viewing machine, which set the stage for the modern film industry (Czitrom 285). However,
Dickson’s kinetoscope could only handle one client at a time and exhibited black-and-white
motion pictures for about fifteen seconds. Nevertheless, his invention provided several scientists
and inventors a valuable source of knowledge and inspiration. Edison even stated how he was
inspired by the idea of creating “an instrument which should do for the eye what the phonograph
does for the ear” (Czitrom 286). Eventually, Dickson’s invention went from a “tarpaper shack
dubbed the ‘Black Maria’”, which was the first studio constructed specifically for the purpose of
movie-making, to spreading all over America and Europe and paving the way for new inventions
(Czitrom 286). Its speedy success brought immense pressure and competition around the globe to
produce a sustainable motion picture camera and projector, and creators did not disappoint. New
York’s Major Woodville Latham along with his team invented the Latham loop which permitted
the use of longer lengths of film, London’s William Paul created the animatography which
projected motion pictures, and Paris’s Louis Lumiere and Auguste developed the cinematograph
which was an extraordinary combination of projector, camera and developer. These newer forms
of motion picture technology completely rearranged the functions of Dickson’s kinetograph and
kinetoscope. With increasing competitive tensions, scientists and developers felt the need to use
Edison’s name in their inventions. Thomas Armat, the man who invented the Edison Vitascope
which essentially unveiled New York’s first projected motion pictures onto a screen, stated that
“in order to secure the largest profit in the shortest time it is necessary that we attach Mr.
Edison’s name in some prominent capacity” as including his name gives developers “the benefit
of his prestige” (Czitrom 287).

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 The primary functions of older media were continuing to shift and rearrange further with
the technological advancements surrounding the creation and projection of motion pictures, and
this was clearly evident with the rise of nickelodeons. However, prior to the nickelodeon boom,
films were starting to be showcased primarily in “vaudeville performances, traveling shows and
penny arcades” between 1895 and 1905 (Czitrom 287). Audiences felt that films naturally fit into
vaudeville shows, and this was seen with its swift growth and popularity. Although it began as a
novelty that drew audiences as large as tens if not hundreds of thousands, it was soon dimmed
down and replaced by Nickelodeons due to its “triteness and poor quality” (Czitrom 287). The
projection of motion pictures had a strong societal impact as spectators became extremely
invested in spending their leisure time experiencing newer and more inexpensive forms of
quality entertainment. With the mixture of a new audience and a rising class of small, profit-
minded entrepreneurs, store theaters, more commonly known as nickelodeons, were increasing at
a rapid rate. These store theaters proved to be highly successful due to the fact that film
admission tickets were being sold at the low price of a nickel, making it exceedingly affordable
for the middle class to spend their spare time watching a movie. By 1909, the motion pictures
industry had boomed, and with Hollywood replacing New York as the hub of production, the
“star system” was created and even regulated the movie industry in not only America but also the
entire globe (Czitrom 289). Longer lengths of programs and films were beginning to be
presented by 1905, with Dickson’s fifteen second motion pictures being replaced by reels of film
lasting ten to fifteen minutes. This was later replaced by feature pictures around World War I,
setting the stage for renovating motion picture projections from a novelty into a form of art. Film
makers and developers, as well as viewers and spectators, could have never envisioned that the
innovative works of Edison and Dickson, along with inventers that followed them, would turn
into one of the fastest growing sources of entertainment, not to mention the vast opportunities
individuals essentially had to profit off the newly-formed industry. By 1907, about five thousand
nickelodeons had been established with over two million daily admissions, and this value
increased exponentially by 1914, with a staggering 18,000 theaters whose daily admissions
totaled to about $300 million (Czitrom 289-290). Through this, it becomes clear that the
functions of older media were rearranging themselves with the rising technological
advancements seen in motion picture projection throughout the years.
While the technological advancements seen in motion picture projection rearranged the
functions of older media, it was also forced to adapt as newer forms of media began to emerge.
This can be seen in the film The Jazz Singer, which is famously known to be the very first
feature-length motion picture film with harmonized recorded music as well as lip-synchronous
singing and dialogue. All of the scenes requiring sounds were made as “separate little films”
once the relevant silent footage that went along with it had been shot beforehand (Eymen 300).
This method of obtaining sound required the use of a Vitaphone, a sound film system particular
used for feature films. Additionally, scenes requiring sounds were usually shot with multiple
cameras at specific times during the day. With the incorporation of music in The Jazz Singer,
films were given an “effervescent personality projecting itself in words, bursting though the
screen to wrap the audience in an exuberant embrace” (Eymen 302). Moreover, the uniqueness
of the film proved to be the stepping-stone for “an unparalleled industrial and aesthetic
revolution” that changed the film industry forever (Eymen 302). Following The Jazz Singer,
silent films were found at the peak of their success, both aesthetically and commercially. They
were seen as a form of “art impassioned by music” as well as focusing on darkness and lightness
to set the emotions depicted throughout the film. (Eymen 303). American media company

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Variety even reported that, due to the ongoing success of silent films, Warner Bros. had about
eleven theaters that had all the equipment necessary to show films using the Vitaphone.
In addition to the incorporation of light, music and sound, there was a new focus on
visuals without titles that disrupted the actual picture itself. Film writers and directors had signs
that hung over their desks with captions such as “SAY IT WITH PROPS – SAY IT WITH
ACTION”, emphasizing the newly found importance of invoking emotions through visuals
without the use of printed titles (Eymen 304). Actor William Bakewell shares his experiences,
stating how he had to learn his lines even during silent days because it was absolutely crucial to
“register the expression, the thought… because the cutter then could have a clean cut there in
which to inject the subtitle”, stressing on the novel importance of providing the audience with
meaningful motion pictures without titles (Eymen 304). The infusion of sound, particularly
music, aided tremendously as the music assisted the actors in expressing the emotions needed for
a given scene by not only blocking out sounds that may be distracting, such as traffic and
construction noises, but also aiding actors set the mood when getting ready to act scenes that
required heavy emotions. MGM star Anita Page concurs to this as she states, “you moved to the
music and you lived the part. You just did it!” (Eymen 305). With the careful blend of visuals
with sounds and dialogue, projected motion picture films adapted to something that was
essentially more than just a movie. It was instead an experience for the audience and changed not
only how movies were made but also how they were beginning to be perceived, which was
eventually understood as a “universal language” (Eymen 306). The integration of sound in films
changed everything in the industry, and films that also incorporated dialogue literalized every
little moment in each scene, which essentially connected to audience’s senses and emotions and
converted films from subjective to objective.
With the shift to long-length, high quality feature films from Dickson’s short projected
motion picture photography, the notions of projected motion pictures were finally turning into a
reality which brought about the emergence of new forms of media. These new media forms, such
as the introduction of the television, essentially altered the structures of society and consequently
generated societal institutionalization. Although the invention of the television enhanced the
quality of motion pictures and optical media, the occurrence of this institutionalization altered
the invention of projected motion picture photography entirely. Societies institutionalized the
invention of the television by learning new opportunities of communication, and the introduction
of this new machine into homes meant that “family members needed to come to terms with the
presence of a communication medium that might transform older modes of family interaction”
(Spigel 410). Films that were broadcasted on televisions carried with it the promise to bring
‘togetherness’ and ‘harmony’, however, it had to be thoroughly regulated in order for it to
correspond with the gender-based roles and social functions, permitting social and sexual
divisions in the household. Men, for instance, had to be the breadwinner for their families in
order to be seen as the ‘ideal man’. Additionally, failing to get married and have children would
question his “manliness” (Spigel 415). Women, on the other hand, were compelled to “return to
their homes where they could have babies and make color coordinated meals” (Spigel 416).
Moreover, women’s functions were essentially considered to be that of “caretaker, mother, and
sexual partner” and were even encouraged to conserve their energies so that they could take part
in “housekeeping, childrearing, and an active (monogamous) sex life with her husband” (Spigel
416). Through the emergence of television, films were driven to adapt in innovative ways that
consequently modified and added on to societal structures and gender-based stereotypes.

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 From Dickson’s kinetograph and kinescope to nickelodeons and feature films, motion
picture photography not only rearranged the function of older media, but it was also driven to
adapt as new forms of media emerged throughout the course of its time. Through Peter Urquhart
and Paul Heyer’s Communication in History, it can be seen that motion picture photography
completely altered the way sight and sounds were essentially perceived, as well as how it
adapted to new media forms on more powerful platforms, such as the television. Today’s day
and age further showcases the elements that have played a role in the way films have evolved,
such as the inventions Blu-ray discs and IMAX theaters, along with streaming services such as
Hulu and Netflix that can be accessed on not just televisions but also smartphones and tablets,
leaving its mark on the world of cinema. In the words of John Peters, “the word is no longer tied
to the paper it is written on; the image is no longer subject to the slow and sloppy physiology of
human vision; and time itself yields before the media of sound-recording. Modern media since
follow in the threefold zone of word, optical, and acoustic processing”.

Word Count: 2025

References

Czitrom, Daniel. “Early Motion Pictures.” Communication in History: Stone Age Symbols to
Social Media, 7th ed., Routledge, 2018, pp. 285–294.

Eyman, Scott. “Movies Talk.” Communication in History: Stone Age Symbols to Social Media,
7th ed., Routledge, 2018, pp. 299–309.

Spigel, Lynn. “Making Room for TV.” Communication in History: Stone Age Symbols to Social
Media, 7th ed., Routledge, 2018, pp. 409–419.

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Part II – Prompt 2: How have media variously helped to shape experiences of time and
space?
Widespread modifications made in technology and culture throughout the course of time
have aided in creating new modes of understanding and shaping experiences of time and space.
The introduction of the telephone in the nineteenth century contributed to these fundamental
changes and even became one of the first waves of a new telecommunications revolution, right
after the telegraph. With the rising emergence of telephones, long distance communication, or
communication over any distance for that matter, was no longer bound to any sort of means of
transportation, as there was a shift from what was labelled as a ‘transportation’ means of
communication to a ‘transmission’ one. Initially exclusive for business practices, the use of the
telephone meant that messages had the capability to travel quicker compared to messengers. This
breakthrough had and continues to have a significant impact on the way societies have shaped
their experiences of time and space.
Created by Alexander Graham Bell to overcome the restrictions caused by the telegraph,
the telephone was invented based on vocal transmission. In other words, telephones were not
confined to communicating using written documents. Additionally, telephones did not require
any level of skills or knowledge of Morse code, making it simpler for individuals without a
substantial proficiency in literacy to use the device. Among the first telephone users were
notably physicians, as the device allowed them to “hear emergencies quickly and to check in at
their offices when they were away” (Fischer 224). The primary market for telephones, however,
were businessmen, as the device was extremely crucial during a time when trading was at its
peak. No matter where they were located, buyers and sellers were well aware of information
such as current prices as instantly as traders did due to the works of the telephone. Eventually,
individuals from all professions and backgrounds, from lawyers and manufacturers to some
small shopkeepers, embraced and implemented the technology into their daily lives. Although
the New York and New Jersey Telephone Company served about 7322 commercial customers,
only 1442 residences were attended, and most of these homes were usually those of doctors or
business owners (Fischer 224). By the late nineteenth century, the number of telephones
increased exponentially, going from about 60,000 to a staggering 260,000 telephones, with the
largest portion were located specifically in businesses. Telecommunications company AT&T
focused on “providing big-city businesses with high quality service, including long distance
calling, at high prices” (Fischer 226).
While the device was primarily catered to the business elite, telephones certainly assisted
in restructuring an array of business practices. For instance, not only did telephones bring
together various regional facilities of buying and selling under one roof with a cohesive market
system and a unified price, but it also enabled the establishment of standard time zones. In a
sense, the telephone made it possible for individuals to be in two distinct places at similar times,
having a broad impact on societies. Not only did it assist businessmen and other work personnel
in exchanging valuable information in a matter of seconds, but it also gave these individuals a
chance to talk to one another across great distances. It granted people to talk to each other across
long distances without the need to physically be there for one another. Moreover, it allowed them
to discuss their feelings and emotions and even gave them the ability to respond almost
immediately, without much time to reflect on a response, something that the written
communication was not able to offer. Exchanges between two people became concurrent,

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creating a synchronized experience. The emergence of the telephone enabled people, no matter
where they were physically located, to share a familiar sentiment and a supportive alliance.
While the emergence of telephones brought with it the sweeping changes in the way
individuals in societies were communicating, it also carried a shift in the way space was being
understood. With the steady growth of a telephone service, officials were authorizing and
securing permits for telephone poles, which consequently led to the “complaints about the
unsightliness of the wires” (Fischer 223). More inexpensive options for residential areas swiftly
heightened “the annoyance of wire and poles and excite [political pressure to put wires
underground]”, a procedure which is especially common today. (Fischer 225). Additionally,
technological advances such as streetcar power lines and railway tracks created “intolerable
interference on the adjacent telephone lines” (Fischer 219). Moreover, with the growth of the
telephone, there was also the emergence of “distributed communications”, comprising of fibers
of telephone lines and switchboard cables introduced by engineer Paul Baran (Abbate 11). These
switchboards were “concentrated and hierarchical”, as every telephone call first went to a “local
office, then to a regional or national switching office” (Abbate 11). Because each call was linked
to one local office, and a single local office attended an enormous traffic of calls, every
telephone user had the risk of getting disconnected from the network if a local office were to face
any sort of disruption. With the increasing expansion of telephones came an increase in the
congestion of switchboards, as they rapidly grew in size, quantity and even complexity, since it
consisted of hundreds of spaghetti-like cables that were interwoven on the board. Regardless of
this, however, switchboards offered businesses as well as recreational users several features such
as “remote data processing” and “remote control of machines” (Abbate 29). Furthermore, high-
powered telephone lines had the potential to “link major cities in the United Kingdom” (Abbate
29).
The introduction of the telephone and its widespread modifications have fostered
individuals in constructing new methods of understanding and shaping experiences of space and
time. With the rise of telephones came the upswing of structures such as switchboards, telephone
lines and telephone poles that led to criticisms regarding its unpleasantness and complexity.
However, the rise of the telephone also gave individuals the potential to communicate with one
another across large distances, without the need to physically meet one another. Likewise, it
allowed individuals to connect with one another, discuss what they were thinking, and essentially
respond immediately, something which was not previously offered by written modes of
communication. Telephones allowed messages to be sent faster than any messenger, creating a
harmonized experience as well as having a significant impact on the way societies have shaped
their experiences of space and time.

Word Count: 1048

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References

Abbate, Janet. “White Heat and Cold War: The Origins and Meanings of Packet Switching.”
Inventing the Internet, MIT Press, 1999, pp. 7–42.

Fischer, Claude S. “The Telephone Takes Command.” Communication in History: stone Age
Symbols to social Media, 7th ed., Routledge, 2018, pp. 216–226.

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Part II – Prompt 3: How are the meanings of new media determined by users as well as
producers? By uses as well as inventions?
In a world that had previously relied on orality as a means to communicate, the
introduction and collision of print media in the context of Southeast Asia has developed into a
productive yet volatile combination, with its meanings being determined by its consumers as
well as its producers. The emergence of print media brought with it the norms of respectful
speech and literature which led to influence the cultural life of many individuals across India and
Pakistan. Not only did print media represent languages of authority and power amongst
individuals in society, but it also enforced a two-way means of control between readers and
publishers, thus establishing spaces within which the effects of print media could be reassessed
and challenged. In An Uncertain “Coming of the Book”, Anindita Ghosh focuses on print media
in the context of India and how it was “the seat of the first established vernacular press and the
earliest indigenous printing and publishing industry ”, eventually laying the foundations for
Indian nationalism (Ghosh 24). Similarly, in his piece, Shahram Mokhtar analyzes the
relationship between various forms of media, such as the press, with different government
regimes in the context of Pakistan, and how the portrayal of these medias every so often goes
back to political and social agendas.
In her work, Anindita Ghosh goes over and elaborates on the transition to the print world
from the manuscript one in India, and how, through resistance and resilience, the meaning of this
new form of media was determined by both its users and producers. This shift from manuscript
to print happened in a colonized space, one which had a powerful oral culture. Printing
technology in India went back as far as the sixteenth century, with the arrival of the European
missionaries and administrators. British missionary William Carey, for instance, set the stage for
vernacular printing in Bengal, producing and freely distributing thousands of brochures that
expounded Christianity in Bengali, shedding light on how the meanings of print media were
determined by its producers. By the first half of the nineteenth century, however, Bengal saw a
turn to printing and publishing industries that were dominated by the indigenous folk. Bengal’s
first newspaper Samachar Darpan and informative magazine Digdarshan, while having a short
lifespan, completely transformed the world of Indian print. Missionary newspaper Friends of
India even stated that “within the last ten years native works were being printed by the natives
themselves” and were being purchased by the indigenous inhabitants with staggering speed
(Ghosh 27). With this, not only did the rise of print culture promote the development of national
literature, but it also brought with it “powerful forces in forging national identities among the
colonial intelligentsia” (Ghosh 24). In addition, the Bengali language, along with its written
literature, developed into a medium of self-expression, as well as turning into “the object of
intense scrutiny, surveillance, and debate among both the people and their rulers” (Ghosh 24).
Due to this, print media and the Bengali language heavily dictated the norms of what was to be
considered respectful speech and literature, effecting India’s cultural life. This took a hit on the
educated and upper class Bengal and essentially led to an “intense drive to cleanse and
standardize an untidy colloquial”, dictating meaning and what was to be considered ‘authentic’
and ‘respectable’ (Ghosh 25). This took a toll on the language as well, as Bengali was soon seen
as inferior compared to Persian and Sanskrit, which not only received formal patronage but also
influenced creating writing and literature within courtly and elite circles. In Contrast, Bengali
was seen as less influential and was used amongst the low-caste majority as well as clerical and
commercial folk, which is why for the British government, the language needed to be understood

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exclusively for “administrative convenience and for gaining access to crucial information”
(Ghosh 24).
Shehram Mokhtar, in his piece, explores the relationship between print media and the
numerous government regimes that Pakistan has had since securing its independence, and how
these governments as well as the indigenous inhabitants have had an influence in shaping the
meaning of print media. During his rule, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto encouraged and greatly promoted
literature along with other forms of media. Regardless of this, his government also “declared the
minority community of Ahmadis as non-Muslims”, which consequently suppressed the voices of
an entire group of people (Mokhtar 5). During General Zia-ul-Haq’s rule, these matters took a
sharp turn as he used numerous methods of censorship to control the media. With his strict
interpretation of Islamic principles, his government “gagged independent press, censored
dissenting voices, and stifled creative expression” (Mokhtar 6). Additionally, writers and
journalists “faced charges in special courts and in some cases were arrested, tortured, or publicly
flogged” (Mokhtar 6). It becomes evident that these governments, while some more repressive
than others, used various methods to shape the meaning of print media. However, not all
publications were directly under the state’s authority, such as those that were owned and
controlled by the elite and upper class. These publications, as well as the educated literati,
predominantly used the Urdu language as a means to not only reflect “diverse voices based on
the worldviews of their owners and editors”, but to also construct a homogenized culture
(Mokhtar 8). Moreover, the Pakistan Federal Union of Journalists was created to counteract the
suppression and protect the interests of journalism and print media, further proving how its
meaning as well as its importance was determined by both its users and producers.
Through their works, Anindita Ghosh and Shehram Mokhtar demonstrate how the
emergence of print media in the context of Southeast Asia has developed immensely and how its
meanings have been controlled by both its users and producers. Not only did print media
symbolize languages of authority and power amongst native individuals, but it also denoted the
standards of respectful speech and literature, which resulted in impacting the cultural life of
many individuals across India and Pakistan. With its steady development, print media had found
spaces in which its effect could be questioned and resisted, implementing a bilateral means of
power and control between readers as well as publishers.

Word Count: 1027

References
Ghosh, Anindita. “An uncertain” Coming of the Book”: early print cultures in colonial India.”
Book History 6 (2003): 23-55

Mokhtar, Shehram. “Pakistan.” The SAGE International Encyclopedia of Mass Media and
Society, Edited by Debra L. Merskin, 2020.