CHAPTER 1

PRELIMINARY TOPICS I: LINEAR COORDINATE SYSTEM, REAL NUMBERS, FINITE

AND INFINITE INTERVALS, ABSOLUTE VALUE, INEQUALITIES

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this learning session, the student must have
1. demonstrated the use of the linear coordinate system in graphing and visualizing finite and
infinite intervals,
2. identified a real number if it is a rational or irrational number,
3. demonstrated the properties of the absolute value, and
4. solved inequalities.

1.1 Linear Coordinate System

The linear coordinate system of the number scale, or what we termed as the real number line, is a
graphical representation of real numbers by the points on a straight line. To each number corresponds to
one and only one point, and conversely.

-∞ …-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3… +∞
Figure 1.1 The Linear Coordinate System (Real Number Line)

1.2 Real Numbers

Before we begin to study functions, we need some basic preliminary concepts to facilitate the
understanding of the definition of functions.

Real numbers consist of the rational numbers and irrational numbers.

Rational numbers are the positive and negative integers, zero, the common fractions, terminating
decimals, and the repeating non-terminating decimals.

Irrational numbers on the other hand are non-terminating non-repeating decimal.

Examples 1.1
Identify if the following numbers are rational or irrational.
1. -5 - this is a negative integer so it is a Rational number
2. - this is a positive common fraction, so it is a rational number,
3. 9.12 - this is a terminating decimal so it is a Rational number
4. 2.123123123… - this is a repeating non-terminating decimal so it is a Rational number
5. 0.33333…. - this is also a repeating non-terminating decimal so it is a Rational number

Examples 1.2
6. 2.1247602947593028… - this is a non-terminating and non-repeating decimal so it is an
Irrational number
7. - the value of the pi is 3.14159… which is actually a non-terminating and non-repeating
decimal, therefore it is an Irrational number
8. e - this number which is approximately 2.7182… is also a non-terminating and non-repeating
decimal, hence, Irrational

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 1

 9. √ - the decimal equivalent of this radical is a non-terminating and non-repeating decimal,
hence, Irrational

Activity 1.1: (6 minutes)

Identify if the number is Rational or Irrational.
1. -100 6. 3.18796309…
2. 1.151515… 7. 0.75
3. 0 8. 5/6
4. √ 9. √
5. 10. -2e

1.3 Inequalities, Finite and Infinite Intervals

For finite intervals, let a and b be two real numbers such that it satisfies the inequality a < b. The set of all
number between a and b is called the open interval from a to b and is written as a < x < b in inequality
notation or (a,b) in interval notation. The points a and b are called the endpoints of the interval.

An open interval does not contain its endpoints whereas a closed interval contains it, that is a ≤ x ≤ b or
[a, b]. To summarize, we have

Table 1.1 Summary of Finite Interval Notations

Inequality Interval Notation Description

a≤x≤b [ a, b ] Closed interval, points a and b are included

a<x<b ( a, b ) Open interval, points a and b are excluded

a≤x<b [ a, b ) Half-open interval where point a is included

and b excluded
a<x≤b ( a, b ] Half-open interval where point a is excluded
and b included

Infinite intervals on the other hand are the set of all numbers x satisfying x > a, x < a, x ≥ a, or x ≤ a.
Notations for infinite intervals include (a, +∞), (- ∞, a), [a, +∞), or (- ∞, a]. Summarizing, we have

Table 1.2 Summary of Infinite Interval Notations

Inequality Interval Notation Description

x≥a [ a, +∞ ) Infinite interval to the right, point a included

x>a ( a, +∞ ) Infinite interval to the right, point a excluded

x≤a ( - ∞, a ] Infinite interval to the left, point a included

x<a ( - ∞, a ) Infinite interval to the left, point a excluded

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 2

Examples 1.3
The following intervals are represented on the real number line as follows:
a. ( -4, 1 ], b. [ -2, 3 ], c. -1 ≤ x < 2, d. x ≥ 3

Activity 1.2: (4 minutes)

Draw the following intervals on the real number line. Solve four.
1. [ 4, 9 ] 5. ( -2, 0 ]
2. [ -3, 3 ) 6. x > -2
3. [ -1, + ∞ ) 7. x ≤ -2
4. 8. ( -3, 3 )

1.4 Solving Inequalities

In the definition of the interval a < x < b, the variable x represents any of the real values on the number
line that is between the constants a and b. Thus we say that the variable x represents the set of values or
range of values that is between a and b. Inequalities such as these arise out of inequality equations and the
methods for solving them should be a priority for the student. We have two examples for this.

Example 1.4
Solve:
Solution:

Example 1.5
Solve:
Solution:

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 3

The quadratic equation has the solution x=-2 and x=3. To solve the inequality, we
consider the intervals x<-2 (left side), -2<x<3 ( the middle) and x>3 (right side). For x < -2 , consider x =
-3 which is a value less than -2, we substitute this value and try to see if the inequality holds in
. Hence,

We see that the inequality does not hold true. So x < -2 cannot be the solution. Next we test -2 < x < 3
and let x = 0. We find that giving us , 0 < 6, which is true. We try to test also values
from x > 3 and let x = 4. This gives us simplifying into 16 < 10 which is false. Hence, we
conclude that only -2 < x < 3 is the solution.

Activity 1.3: (6 minutes)

Solve any two of the following inequalities.
1. 3.
2. 4.

1.5 Absolute Value

If a is a real number, then the absolute value of a denoted by | |, is the positive value a. For example
| | and | | .

Theorem 1.1 Properties in Operations with Absolute Value

Let a and b be real numbers and n an integer, then the following properties are true:
Property 1. | | | || |
| |
Property 2. | | | |
Property 3. | | √
Property 4. | | | |

Theorem 1.2 Properties of Inequalities and Absolute Value

Let a and b be real numbers and k a positive number, then the following properties are true:
Property 5 . | | | |
Property 6. | | if and only if
Property 7. | | or
Property 8. (Triangle Inequality) | | | | | |

Example 1.6
Solve: | |
Solution:
| |

Hence,

or .

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 4

Example 1.7
Solve: | | 3
Solution:
| | 3

The solution has two parts, x<-4 and x>2, hence we write, (-∞,-4) U (2,+ ∞).

Examples 1.8
Solve: | | 1
Solution:
| | 1

-1

Remember that the direction of the inequality reverses when you multiply of divide by a negative number.

Hence, the solution is * +.

Examples 1.9
Solve:
Solution:
From Property 3.

√ √
| |

Hence, the solution is [ -2, 2 ].

Activity 1.4: (6 minutes)

Solve any two of the following inequalities.
1. | | 4. | |
2. | | 5. | |
3. 6.

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 5

 CHAPTER 2
PRELIMINARY TOPICS II: THE RECTANGULAR COORDINATE SYSTEM,
EQUATIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this learning session, the student must have
1. identified the rectangular coordinate system and its parts,
2. Determined the parameters of lines, circles, parabolas, ellipse and hyperbolas such as slope,
intercepts, center, radius, vertex, major and minor axes, transverse and conjugate axes, and
3. constructed the graphs of lines, circles, parabolas, ellipse and hyperbolas in the Cartesian
plane.

2.1 Rectangular Coordinate System

The rectangular coordinate system (also called Cartesian coordinate system or Cartesian plane) is
a coordinate system that specifies each point uniquely in a plane by a set of numerical coordinates, which
are the signed distances to the point from two fixed perpendicular oriented lines, measured in the
same unit of length. Each reference line is called a coordinate axis or just axis (x-axis, y-axis) of the
system, and the point where they meet is its origin, at ordered pair (0, 0). The coordinates (x, y) can also
be defined as the positions of the perpendicular projections of the point onto the two axes, expressed as
signed distances from the origin. The plane is divided into 4 quadrants starting on the (+x, +y) quadrant as
the first quadrant and moving into a counterclockwise position.

Figure 2.1 The Rectangular Coordinate System (Cartesian Plane)

showing the point P(3, 2)

2.2 Graphing Equations on the Cartesian Plane

Different types of equations exist as per analytic geometry. Some of them are the lines, circles, parabolas,
hyperbolas, and ellipses.

A. Graphing Equations of Lines

Lines have the formal equation: ax + by +c = 0 where a, b and c are constants.

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 6

Example 2.1
Graph the equation:
Solution:
Computing some points, let us solve for y first: , hence,

x y

0 2
-1 -1
-2 -4

Plotting the points on the Cartesian plane:

Figure 2.2 Graph of

Some standard forms of the equations of lines include:

1. Slope intercept form, , where m is the slope of the line and b is the y-intercept.
2. Two-point form, where and are two points on the line.

3. Point-slope form, where is a point on the line and m is the slope .

4. Intercept form with where a and b are the x- and y- intercepts respectively.

Example 2.2
Find the slope, x- and y-intercept, equation and graph of the line passing through the points P1( -1, 0) and
P2(4, 2).
Solution:
The slope can be found via directly or by the slope intercept form . Hence,

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 7

or from the two-point form we have

which simplifies into . Cross multiplying yields , as the equation of the line.

Comparing this with indicates that . It follows that the y-intercept .

For the x intercept, we set y=0 and solve for x, thus, simplifying gives Hence ,
is the x-intercept. The graph of the line is,

Figure 2.3 Graph of the line passing through the points P1( -1, 0)
and P2(4, 2)

Activity 2.1: (8 minutes)

Solve any two of the problems.
Graph the following:
1.
2.
3. Determine the slope (m), y-intercept and graph .
4. Given a line with slope of 2 (m=2) and a point on the line at (-2, 6), find its equation and graph
the line.

B. Graphing Equations of Circles

The equation of a circle in standard form is

(x-h)2 + (y-k)2 = r2

here the point (h, k) is the center of the circle and r is its radius.

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 8

Example 2.3
Graph the equation defined by

Solution:
We first transform this into standard form, that is find its center (h, k) and radius r.

( )

( )

Hence, the center is at ( ) and the radius is √ . Its graph is,

Figure 2.3 Graph of

Activity 2.2: (8 minutes)

Determine the radius, center and graph of any one of the following circles:
1.
2.

C. Graphing Equations of Parabolas

For the graph of parabolas, four standard equations exist:
1. – parabola opens upward with vertex at
2. – parabola opens downward with vertex at
3. – parabola opens to the right with vertex at
4. – parabola opens to the left with vertex at

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 9

Example 2.4
Graph the equation defined by
1
Solution:
Completing the squares for the x variable yields,

Where V(-2, -5) and the parabola opens up.

Figure 2.4 Graph of 1

Example 2. 5
Graph the equation defined by

Solution:
We complete the squares for the variable y,

Here, V(1, -1) and the parabola opens to the right.

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 10

 Figure 2.5 Graph of

Activity 2.3: (6 minutes)

Determine the vertex, opening and graph of the parabola. Solve one.
1.
2.

D. Graphing Equations of Ellipses

For the graph of an ellipse, with major and minor axes 2a and 2b respectively, such that a>b, two
standard equations exist:

1. – with center at and horizontal major axis 2a

2. – with center at and vertical major axis 2a

Example 2.6
Determine the major and minor axes, center and graph the equation defined by

Solution:
Solving the equation into one of the standard equations by completing squares, gives us,

From the graph we see that, 2b=4 as the minor axis, 2a=8 as the major axis and the coordinates (1,-2) as
the center.

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 11

 Figure 2.6 Graph of

Activity 2.4: (8 minutes)

Determine the center, length of the major and minor axes and graph the following ellipses.
1.
2.

E. Graphing Equations of Hyperbolas

For the graph of hyperbolas, with transverse and conjugate axes of 2a and 2b respectively, such that a>b,
two standard equations exist:

1. – with center at and horizontal transverse axis 2a

2. – with center at and vertical transverse axis 2a

Example 2.7
Find the center, length of transverse and conjugate axis and graph of the equation defined by

Solution:
Completing the squares yields,

We find that the center of the hyperbola is at (0, 0). The horizontal transverse axis is 2a=4 and the
conjugate axis is 2b= 8.

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 12

 Figure 2.7 Graph of

Activity 2.5: (8 minutes)

Determine the center, length of the transverse and conjugate axes and graph of the following.
1. 9
2.

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 13

 CHAPTER 3
FUNCTIONS

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this learning session, the student must have
1. identified a function,
2. constructed graphs of functions,
3. evaluated values of functions and composite functions,
4. solved mathematical operations on functions
5. evaluated composite functions and determined their domain,
6. identified the type of the given function, and
7. determined if a function is even or odd.

3.1 Functions
A variable y is said to be a function of another variable x if there is a given rule which associates with
each value of x in its range one value of y. We can consider a function as a set of ordered pairs.

A function can be thought of as a correspondence from a set x of real numbers to a set y of real numbers
where y is unique for a specific value of x.

Activity 3.1: (4 minutes)

Give 8 ordered pairs of the following functions. Solve any one of the problems.
1.
2. { | √ }
3. { | √ }
4.

The set of all permissible real numbers for x is the domain of the function and the set y of all
corresponding real values is called the range.

Example 3.1
Find the domain and range of the function, .
Solution:
Based from the graph, we see that or . Also for the range, we find

Figure 3.1 Graph of

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 14

Example 3.2
Find the domain and range of the function, √ .
Solution:
For y to be real and valid, x – 2 ≥ 0 or x ≥ 2. Hence, we find and the resulting range of y
is This can be verified in the graph.

Figure 3.2 Graph of √

Example 3.3
Find the domain and range of the function, √ .
Solution:
For y to be real and valid, x2 – 9 ≥ 0 or x2 ≥ 9, or | | simplifying into Hence,
and the resulting range is

Figure 3.3 Graph of √

Activity 3.2: (6 minutes)

Graph and determine the domain and range of the following functions. Solve any two of the problems.
1.
2. √
3. √
4.

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 15

3.2 Determination of a Function by the Vertical Line Test (VLT)
One way to determine if a given graph is a function or not is by the vertical line test. A curve in the xy-
plane is the graph of a function if it can be intersected by any vertical line in at most one point. This is the
same as to defining a function that is an ordered pair with no two ordered pairs has the same first number.

Example 3.4
Determine by the VLT if √ is a function.
Solution:
From the graph we see that any vertical line will touch the graph at only one point. Hence, it is a function.

Figure 3.4 Graph of √

Example 3.5
Determine by the VLT if is a function.
Solution:
Note from the graph that the vertical line crossed the graph at two points. Hence, it is not a function.

Figure 3.5 Graph of

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 16

Activity 3.3: (6 minutes)
Graph and determine by VLT if the given equation is a function or not. Solve any two of the problems.
1. 4.
2. √ 5.
3. 6.

3.3 Evaluation of Functions

For y = f(x), f(a) is the value of y or f(x) when x = a.

Example 3.6
Given the function: √ , evaluate
a. f(0) b. f(3) c. f(-3) d. f(t)
Solution:
a. √
b. √ √ √
c. √ √ √
d. √

Activity 3.4: (6 minutes)

Evaluate the following functions. Solve any two of the problems.
1.
a. f(0) b. f(1) c. f(-2) d. f(√ )
2. g
a. g(0) b. g(-1) c. g(1) d. g(2)
3.
a. r(0) b. r( ) c. r( ) d. r( )

3.4 Operations on Functions

When we add, subtract, multiply or divide functions, a new function is formed with new set of domains
and ranges. The following theorems govern operations on functions.

Let f and g be two functions.

i.
ii.
iii.

Example 3.7
Given the function: √ where and √ where , find
following and their resulting domains.
a. f + g b. f - g c. f ∙ g d. f / g
Solution:
a. √ √ where
b. √ √ where
c. √ √ √ where
√
d. √ where , since it is not possible for the denominator
√
to be zero

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 17

Activity 3.5: (8 minutes)
For each of the following problems, determine the resulting function and find its domain considering the
operations: a. f + g, b. f – g, c. f ∙ g, d. f / g
1. , √
2. ,

3.5 Composite Functions

Let one function be f(x) and another function be g(x)
i. The composite of f with g, denoted by f ⸰ g, is defined by (f ⸰ g)(x)=f(g(x)) and the domain of f ⸰ g
is the set of all values in x in the domain g such that g(x) is in the domain f.
ii. The composite of g with f, denoted by g ⸰ f, is defined by (g ⸰ f)(x)=g(f(x)) .

Example 3.8
For the functions √ and , find a. f ⸰ g and b. g ⸰ f and their resulting domains.
Solutions:
a. (f ⸰ g)(x)=f(g(x))=f(2x-3)=√ and the resulting domain is { | }
b. (g ⸰ f)(x)=g(f(x))=g(√ )=2√ and the resulting domain is

Example 3.9
For the functions √ and , find a. f ⸰ g and b. g ⸰ g and their resulting domains.
Solutions:
a. (f ⸰ g)(x)=f(g(x))=f(x2-1)=√ and the resulting domain is { | } { || | }
{ | }
b. (g ⸰ g)(x)=g(g(x))=g(x2 - 1) = (x2 - 1)2 - 1= x4 - 2x2 and the resulting domain is .

Activity 3.6: (6 minutes)

Solve the required composite function and determine the resulting domain. a. f ⸰ g, b. g ⸰ f, c. f ⸰ f,
d. g ⸰ g
1. √ ,
2. , 7

3.6 Types of Functions

Functions may be classified as linear, polynomial, rational, algebraic and transcendental.

A. Linear Functions
Defined by y = mx+b are obviously representing lines.

Ex. a. y=5
b. y=2x+1

B. Polynomial Functions
Defined by where , ,…, are real numbers and n is
a non-negative integer. The function is a polynomial function of degree n.

Ex. a. , polynomial function of degree 5

b. , polynomial function of degree 3 (cubic function)

C. Rational Functions
A function that is expressed as a quotient of two polynomials.

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 18

Ex. a.

b.

D. Algebraic Functions
Formed by a finite number of algebraic operations in the identity function, constant function and
polynomial function.
Ex. a.
√
b.

E. Transcendental Functions
These are the trigonometric, logarithmic and exponential functions.

Ex. a.
b.
c. √

Activity 3.7: (2 minutes)

1. 5.
2. 6.
3. 7.
4. 8.

3.7 Even and Odd Functions

A function is even or odd based from the following criteria:
i. A function f is an even function if for every x in the domain of f, . Here the
function is symmetric with respect to the y-axis.
ii. A function f is an even function if for every x in the domain of f, . Here the
function is symmetric with respect to the origin.

Some graphs of even functions are,

Figure 3.6 Graph of , even function Figure 3.7 Graph of , even function

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 19

 Figure 3.8 Graph of a triangular periodic wave, even function

Some of the graphs of odd functions are,

Figure 3.9 Graph of , odd function Figure 3.10 Graph of a rectangular

periodic wave, odd function

Example 3.10
Determine if the function is an even or an odd function.
Solution:
Let, . Here we need to determine f(-x),

Since, , we conclude that the function is an even function.

Example 3.11
Determine if the function is an even or an odd function.
Solution:
Let, . We calculate f(-x),

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 20

Since, , we conclude that the function is an odd function.

Activity 3.8: (12 minutes)

Determine analytically or graphically if the function is even, odd or neither. Solve four.
1. 2
2.
3. 1
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 21

 CHAPTER 4
LIMITS

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this learning session, the student must have
1. determined the limit of a function,
2. proved the existence of a limit using the Ꜫ- δ definition,
3. evaluated limits by direct substitution, and
4. evaluated limits using the different limit theorems.

4.1 Definition of a Limit of a Function

Let f be a function defined on an interval I containing a fixed number „a‟ except possibly „a‟ itself. We
say that

If for any , we can find a number such that if | | then | | .

Example 4.1
Consider the function . We know that x cannot be equal to -1, hence, { }.
But, what is the value of the function f(x) “as x approaches -1” (either coming from the left or from the
right) but not exactly equal to -1. To find this, we assume values of x that are close to -1 and calculate
f(x).

-1.1 -3.1
-1.001 -3.001
-1.000002 -3.000002
… …
-1 -3

… …
-0.9995 -2.9995
-0.99 -2.99
-0.9 -2.9

From the table above, we see that as the value of x approaches -1 from the left or from the right, the value
of f(x) approaches -3. Hence, we write

to mean this table.

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 22

Activity 4.1: (6 minutes)
Determine the limit of the function as x approaches the given value. Solve 1.
1. as x approaches 1

2. as x approaches -1

Example 4.2
Given and , since , find a δ for Ꜫ=0.02 and graph
and
Solution:
| |
| | 0.02
| | 0.02
| | 0.02
| | 0.02
| |

| | 0.01
| |

Hence, . For and , we have the following graph

Figure 4.1 Graph of showing

and

Example 4.3
For the function and find a δ for Ꜫ=0.1 and graph and .
Solution:

| |
| | 0.1

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 23

 | | 0.1
| | 0.1
| | 0.1
| |

| | 0.025
| |

Hence,

Figure 4.2 Graph of showing and

for and Ꜫ=0.1

Activity 4.2: (4 minutes)

Determine a δ for the given Ꜫ . Solve one.
1. at a=1, Ꜫ=0.01.
2. as a=-1, Ꜫ=0.02.

Example 4.4
Use the Ꜫ- δ definition of the limit to prove the existence of the limit for:

Solution:
To prove the existence of the limit, we need to find that for every Ꜫ there is a corresponding δ , that is, we
need an equation relating δ to Ꜫ .

| |
| |
| |
| |

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 24

 | |
| |

| |
| |
Hence, .

Activity 4.3: (6 minutes)

Prove the existence of the limit. Solve two.
1.
2.
3.
4.

4.2 Limit Theorems

A. Limit of a Linear Function
Let m and b be any constant and a linear function.

Corollaries:
i. Limit of Constant:
ii. Limit of a Single Variable:
iii. Limit of a Power of a Single Variable:

Example 4.5
Let and
1.
2.
3.
4.

B. Limit of a Sum or Difference of a Function

Let f(x) and g(x) be any two functions. Let and .

( )

Example 4.6
Let and

1.

2.

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 25

C. Limit of a Constant Multiple of a Function
Let c be any constant and f(x) be any function. Let .

D. Limit of a Product of Functions

Let f(x) and g(x) be any two functions. Let and .

( )

Example 4.7
Let and .

1.

2.

E. Limit of Powers and Radicals

Let f(x) be any function. Let .
i.
ii.
iii. √ √
iv. √ √
v.
vi.

Example 4.8
1. √ √ √
2. [ ]
3. [ ]

F. Limit of a Quotient
Let f(x) and g(x) be any two functions. Let and .

Example 4.9
Direct substitution:
1.

2. √ √

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 26

Example 4.10
Factoring the denominator or numerator
1.

√
2. √ √ √ √ √

Example 4.11
Rationalizing the numerator or denominator
√ √ √
1.
√

√ √
√
2.
√ √ √
√ √

√ √

G. Limit of Trigonometric Functions

i. iv.
ii. v.
iii. vi.

Example 4.12
1.
2.

3.

Activity 4.4: (20 minutes)

Evaluate the following limits. Solve ten problems.
1. 9.
2. 10.

√ √
3. ( ) 11.
√
4. 12.
5. 13.
6. √ 14.

7. 15.
8. 16.

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 27

 CHAPTER 5
ONE-SIDED LIMITS, EXISTENCE, INFINITE LIMITS,
AND LIMITS AT INFINITY

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this learning session, the student must have
1. evaluated one-sided limits, infinite limits, limits at infinity, and
2. proved the existence of limits.

5.1 Some Useful Limits

Two fundamental limit theorems that are very useful in evaluating limits are:
i.
ii.

Example 5.1

1. ( )( ) ( )

2. using identities: sin2x=2sinxcosx, we have

( )

or, since the only condition is that the argument of the sin function be the same as the denominator, we
have

3. using identities: sin2x + cos2x = 1,

Activity 5.1: (6 minutes)

Solve two of the following problems.
1. 3.

2. 4.

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 28

5.2 One-sided Limits
Let f be a function defined on an interval containing a, except possibly at a, we say that
i. the limit of f(x) as x approaches a from the right is equal to L and we write:

ii. the limit of f(x) as x approaches a from the left is equal to M and we write:

Example 5.2
For the piecewise-defined function: { , evaluate a. ,
b.
Solution:
a. =0 (see figure)

Figure 5.1 Graph of {

b. =0. In this example, both sides of the limit

approach the same value, but it is not always the case based on the next example

Example 5.3
For the function defined by: { , evaluate a. , b.
Solution:
a. (see figure)
b. +1=2

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 29

 Figure 5.2 Graph of : {

Activity 5.2: (14 minutes)

Graph and evaluate the following limits.
1. { , a. , b.

2. ,√ , a. , b. , c.

d.

5.3 Existence of a Limit

Based from the previous topic, we can test now the uniqueness of a limit leading to its existence.

Theorem 5.1 Uniqueness Theorem

If exist, then this limit is unique. The exists only if

Note that this is a test for the existence of a limit at a single point.

Example 5.4
Let { , determine if the limit exist at x=2.
Solution:
For the limit to exist, we need to show that the left hand and right hand limits are the same.

Since they are the same, the limit exist at x=2.

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 30

Activity 5.3: (4 minutes)
Determine if the limit exist at the indicated point.

1. , at x = - 4 2. , at x = 2

CHALLENGE PROBLEM:
3. | | at x = 5

5.4 Infinite Limits

Theorem 5.2 Definition of Infinite Limits
We say that f(x) increases without bound as x approaches a and denote this by

We also say that f(x) decreases without bound as x approaches a and denote this by

Some cases of this are:

i.

ii. ,

Note that these limits denote that the limit does not exist because of the unbounded nature of the limit.

Example 5.5
Let , determine the right hand and left hand limit as x approaches 1.
Solution:
a. , since r is even by case ii.
b. , by case i.
Graphically speaking, we can observe the unbounded behavior (+∞) of the graph as x approaches 1.

Figure 5.3 Graph of :

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 31

Example 5.6
Let , determine the right hand and left hand limit as x approaches -3.
Solution:
a. , by case i.

b. , since r is odd by case ii.

We can observe the unbounded behavior of the graph as x approaches -3.

Figure 5.4 Graph of :

Activity 5.4: (6 minutes)

Determine the behavior of the function (right hand and left hand limit) on the designated points and graph
them. Solve 2.
1. , as x approaches 1

2. , as x approaches 0
3. , as x approaches 2 and as x approaches -2

5.5 Limits at Infinity

Theorem 5.3 Limits at Infinity
We say that f(x) approaches L as x increases without bound and denote this by

We say that f(x) approaches L as x decreases without bound and denote this by

Let r > 0, some cases of this are:

i.
ii.

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 32

Example 5.7
Techniques in evaluating limits at infinity.
1. , obviously direct substitution fails, the technique is to multiply both
numerator and denominator by the reciprocal of the variable with the highest exponent. Hence,

, note that any number divided by ∞ (or ∞2) is

.
essentially equal to 0. Therefore, as the limit.

√
2. , applying the same technique,

Not all evaluation of limits at infinity results to a value. Sometimes the limit does not exist.

3.

Activity 5.5: (8 minutes)

Evaluate the following limits. Solve two.
1.

2.
√
3.

4. (EE Board Oct. 1994)

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 33

 CHAPTER 6
CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS AND TYPES OF DISCONTINUITY,
THEOREMS ON CONTINUITY

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this learning session, the student must have
1. evaluated the continuity of functions,
2. identified the type of discontinuity, and
3. applied Continuity Theorems to find the interval of continuity of functions.

6.1 Continuity of Functions

The study of the behavior of functions is a significant step in understanding whether a certain operation,
phenomenon or activity. To say that a function is continuous at x=a means that here is no interruption in
the graph of f at a. That is, its graph is unbroken and there are no holes, jumps or gaps.

Theorem 6.1 Continuity at a Point

A function is said to be continuous at x=a if

This denotes that f(a) must be defined, the limit exists at point x=a and the equality hold above.

Example 6.1
Determine if the function is continuous at x=2 given
Solution:
The function is continuous at x=2 because,

,
, and

Example 6.2

Determine if the function is continuous at x=2 and x=-2 for ,√ .

Solution:
i. For x=2, the function is continuous because…
√
√
,
ii. For x=-2, the function is discontinuous because…
√

,
√
(see figure)

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 34

 Figure 6.1 Graph of ,√

Activity 6.1: (8 minutes)

Determine if the function is continuous on the given point. Solve 2.
1. { at x=2

2. at x=1

3. { at x=1

4. , at x=1

6.2 Types of Discontinuities

Three types of discontinuities exist.
1. Removable Discontinuity
If exist, we can make f continuous be redefining,
2. Essential Discontinuity
If does not exist, then it is an essential discontinuity.
3. Jump Discontinuity
A function that has both a left-hand and a right-hand limit as x→a but are not equal has finite
jumps or jump discontinuity at x=a.

Example 6.3
1. has a discontinuity at x=0 since f(0) is undefined at that point. However,

. We can redefine f by

and now f(0) yields f(0)=-1. Hence we have a “removable”

discontinuity.

2. has a discontinuity at x=1 since f(0) is undefined at that point and

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 35

 and which indicates that the limit does not exist. Hence,
we have an essential discontinuity at x=1.

Figure 6.2 Graph of

3. For { , there is a jump discontinuity at x=2 since

Which causes the graph to “jump” at that point.

Figure 6.2 Graph of

Activity 6.2: (6 minutes)

Determine the type of discontinuity present at the given point. Solve 3.
1. at x=-1

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 36

2. at x=2

3. { at x=1

4. { at x=1

6.3 Theorems on Continuity

Theorem 6.2 Continuity of Some types of Functions
i. Let f, g be continuous at a, then
a. f+g, f-g and f ∙g are continuous at a
b. is continuous at a if and only if g(a) ≠ 0
ii. A polynomial function is continuous at every real number.
iii. A rational function is continuous at every real number a except when D(a)=0
iv. If g is continuous at a and f is continuous at g(a) then
f ◦g is continuous at a.

Example 6.4
The function is a rational function. Since for the denominator
, then f is continuous only on all real numbers except 3 and 1.

Example 6.5
Consider the function √ and . For ( ) √ . Since f is continuous at all
non-negative numbers and g, a polynomial function, is continuous for all real number a, then ( ) is
continuous only when x-1≥0 or only x≥1 only.

Activity 6.3: (4 minutes)

Solve one.
1. ,g √ , determine at which values of x is f, g, f-g, f/g, and g(f(x)) continuous.
2. , determine at which values of x is f, g, f+g, f/g, g/f , g(f(x)), and
f(g(x)) continuous.

Theorem 6.3 Continuity at an Interval

i. A function f is continuous on an open interval (a, b) if f is continuous at every number in the
interval.
ii. f is continuous on [a, b) if it is continuous on (a, b) and
iii. f is continuous on (a, b] if it is continuous on (a, b) and
iv. f is continuous on [a, b] if it is continuous on (a, b) and and

Example 6.7
For , is the function continuous on (0, 6)?
Answer:
The function is discontinuous at the points where the denominator becomes zero, hence at x =1, -1.
Therefore, we surmise that the function is only continuous at (-∞, -1), (-1, 1) and (1, +∞). So, at (0, 6) the
function is not continuous.

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 37

 Figure 6.3 Graph of

Example 6.8
For the function , determine the intervals for which it is continuous.
√
Solution.
The denominator cannot be zero or negative, so we solve,

| |

Hence, the function is only continuous at (-1, 1). This can be seen on the next graph.

Figure 6.3 Graph of

√

Activity 6.4: (4 minutes)

Determine at which interval/s is the function continuous. Solve two.
1.

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 38

2.
√
3. √
4.

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 39

 CHAPTER 7
THE DERIVATIVE

Learning Outcome
At the end of this learning session, the student must have
1. evaluated the derivative of functions using the delta notation.

7.1 Definition of the Derivative of a Function

The derivative of a function can be defined as follows. Let f be a function defined on an interval I
containing xo and let ∆x be an arbitrary change in the value of x, that is, x1= xo + ∆x. The derivative of f at
xo defined by f „(xo) or or y’, is

if the limit exist. In this case, we say that f is differentiable at xo.

Example 7.1
Find the derivative of .
Solution:
We use the alternative formula

Here, . Substituting,

Example 7.2
Find the derivative of √ .
Solution:
Here, √ . Substituting,
√ √

√ √ √ √
√ √

√ √

√ √

The goal is to eliminate the ∆x in the denominator by algebraic means, hence,

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 40

 √ √
√ √ √

Example 7.3
Find the derivative of at x=2.
Solution:
We find that, , so,

[ ] [ ]

at x=2,

Activity 7.1: (20 minutes)

Find the derivative of the following functions. Solve two.
1.
2. at x=0 (ME Board Apr. 1998)
3.
4. √

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 41

 CHAPTER 8
RULES FOR DIFFERENTIATING FUNCTIONS

Learning Outcome
At the end of this learning session, the student must have
1. evaluated the derivative of functions using the different differentiation rules.

8.1 Differentiation Rules

Theorem 8.1 Derivative of a Constant
Let c be a constant. The derivative of a constant is zero, that is

=0

Theorem 8.2 Power Rule

If a term consists of a power (n) of a function u in the variable x, then its derivative is given by the
formula,

Corollaries:
i.

ii. √ √

Example 8.1
1. =0
2. =0

3.

4.

5. ( )

6. (√ )
√ √

Theorem 8.3 Derivative of a Product of a Constant and Function

Let c and n be constants. Let u be a function differentiable in the variable x.
i.

ii.

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 42

Theorem 8.4 Sum and Difference Rule
Let a and b be constants. Let u and v be functions differentiable in the variable x.

Example 8.2
1.

2. ( )

3. Let , for y’

4. Let , for f’(x)

( )

Activity 8.1: (10 minutes)

Find the derivative of the following functions. Solve 4.
1. 4.
2. 5.

3. 6. √ √

Theorem 8.5 Product Rule

Let u and v be functions differentiable in x.

Example 8.3
1. For ,

2. For its derivative is,

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 43

Activity 8.2: (8 minutes)
Find the derivative of the following functions. Solve 2.
1.
2.
3.
4. ( ) √

Theorem 8.6 Quotient Rule

Let u and v be functions differentiable in the variable x.

( )

Example 8.4
For , its derivative is

Example 8.5
For the function,
√
(√ )
(√ ) (√ )

(√ ) (√ )

Activity 8.3: (8 minutes)

Find the derivative of the following functions. Solve two.
1.

2.

3.

4.

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 44

 CHAPTER 9
CHAIN RULE, IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION AND HIGHER-ORDER DERIVATIVES

Learning Outcome
At the end of this learning session, the student must have
1. evaluated the derivative of functions using the Chain rule, implicit differentiation and higher
order derivatives.

9.1 Chain Rule

Theorem 9.1 Chain Rule
For the composite function, (y ⸰ its derivative is found by the following formula:

⸰ ⸰

Example 9.1
Find the derivative of
Solution:

Example 9.2
For the function, √ , find its derivative.
Solution:

Example 9.3

For the function, ( ) , find its derivative.

Solution:
( ) ( ) ( )( )

( )( )

Activity 9.1: (8 minutes)

Find the derivative of the following functions. Solve two.
1.
2.
3. √
4. ( )

9.2 Implicit Differentiation

If f is defined by an equation of the form y=f(x) then we say that y is explicitly defined as a function of x.
If f is defined by an equation of the form g(x, y)=0 in which y cannot be isolated then y is said to be

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 45

implicitly defined as a function of x. To find , we treat and 1.

Example 9.4
Find the derivative of y with respect to x implicitly:
Solution:

Solving for y’,

Example 9.5
Find y’ in the function implicitly.
Solution:
Note that the first two terms can be considered as product of two functions, hence,

Combining all terms with y’,

Activity 9.2: (8 minutes)

Find the derivative of the following functions. Solve two.
1.
2.
3.
4.

9.3 Higher Order Derivatives

The order of the derivative of a function is the number of times the process of differentiation is
performed to produce the derivative. Let y=f(x) be a function. Its first derivative is,

Its second derivative is,

and its third derivative is,

In general, the nth order derivative of f is denoted by

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 46

Example 9.6
Solve for y(5) in .
Solution:

Example 9.7
Solve for y’’ in .
Solution:
√

√ √
√
√
(√ )
√
√ √

Activity 9.3: (4 minutes)

Find the indicated higher order derivative of the following functions. Solve two.
1.
2.
3. ( )
4. ( )

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 47

 CHAPTER 10
SLOPE, TANGENT LINES AND NORMAL LINES

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this learning session, the student must have
1. solved for the slope of the tangent line of a curve at a point, and
2. solved for the equation of the tangent line and normal line on a point of the curve.

10.1 Slope of the Tangent Line at a Point on the Curve

We can interpret the derivative of a function as the slope of the tangent line at the point. This is so since
as ∆x→0 the secant line recedes and becomes a tangent line at that point. Hence,

Example 10.1
Find the slope of the tangent line to the curve √ at the point (0, 1).
Solution:
The slope of the tangent line is the first derivative of y or y’ at the point (0, 1).

√ √

Example 10.2
Find the slope of the line at (-1, 1) of the curve .
Solution:
Solving for y’ at (-1, 1).
=6

Activity 10.1: (6 minutes)

Solve any one of the following:
1. Find the slope to the ellipse at x=7, √ .
(CE Board May 1996)
2. Find the slope of the curve at the point (1, 0).
(CE Board May 1998)

10.2 Tangent Lines and Normal Lines to Plane Curves

To find the equation of the tangent line (TL) at any point on a plane curve, we only have to find the slope
of the curve, y’, at that point, and substitute for m in the point-slope from of the line through the point (x1,
y1). The point-slope form of the equation of the line is,

The normal line (NL) to the curve at the point (x1, y1) is defined to be the line through that point and
perpendicular to the tangent line there. By elementary analytic geometry,

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 48

Example 10.3
Find the equation and graph of the TL and NL to the curve -1 at x=2.
Solution:
Solving for the slope of the TL at x=2.

To solve for the TL, we use the point-slope form equation, however, we need to solve for y first at x=2,
so: Hence, we now have the point (2, 3). From , we have,

For the NL, we use and the point-slope form to find its equation.

We can visualize the TL and NL as follow:

Figure 10.1 Graph of -1 showing the TL and NL at the point (2, 3)

Example 10.4
Find the equation of the TL and NL to the curve at the point (-1, 1). Graph them.
Solution:
For the TL,

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 49

For the NL,

or, . Graphing the TL, NL at the point (-1, 1) of the function gives:

Figure 10.2 Graph of -1 showing the TL and NL at the point (2, 3)

Activity 10.2: (8 minutes)

Solve any one of the following:
1. Find the equation of the normal curve at the given point: 25 at (4, 3).
(CE Board May 1995)
2. Find the equation of the tangent and normal of the curve at x=1.

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 50

 CHAPTER 11
MAXIMA AND MINIMA, SECOND DERIVATIVE TEST FOR RELATIVE EXTREMA,
POINT OF INFLECTION

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this learning session, the student must have
1. determined the maximum and minimum points of curve using the second derivative test,
2. graphed functions indicating their relative maximum and minimum points, and
3. solved for the point of inflection of a function.

11.1 Definition of Maxima and Minima

Theorem 11.1 Maxima and Minima
At a point where y’=0, if y changes from positive to negative (as x increases), y is maximum; if y’ changes
from negative to positive, y is minimum; if y’ does not change sign, y is neither a maximum nor a
minimum.

Figure 11.1 Illustration of the Maxima and Minima

Example 11.1
Determine the maximum and minimum points of the function .
Solution:
To find the minimum or maximum points of the function, we solve Hence,

Factoring and solving for x,

Substitute x to the original equation, . The points are: (0,0) and ( ). We can verify that
they are the relative extrema using the graph.

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 51

 Figure 11.2 Graph of with calculation of its
maximum and minimum points

Activity 11.2: (8 minutes)

Find the maxima and minima of the following functions. Graph them. Solve any two of the problems.
1.
2.
3. (ECE Board Nov. 2001)
4.

11.2 Second Derivative Test

Theorem 11.2 Second Derivative Test
At a point (x1, y1) where y’=0, if,
i. , that is , then (x1, y1) is a relative minimum
ii. , that is , then (x1, y1) is a relative maximum
iii. , the test fails.

Example 11.2
Consider the previous example of where its critical points are : (0,0) and ( ). We
apply the second derivative test to find for the maxima and minima. From,

At (0,0) , , a relative minimum point.

At ( ), ( ) , a relative maximum point.

Example 11.3
For the function determine its critical points and apply the second derivative test to
find which is the maximum and minimum point.
Solution:

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 52

Hence, our critical point is only (2, 8). By the Second Derivative Test,

At (2, 8), , which indicates that the test fails. Therefore, (2, 8) is neither
maximum nor a minimum point and this can be seen graphically.

Figure 11.2 Graph of

with the point (2, 8)

Activity 11.2: (6 minutes)

Determine the critical points and apply the Second Derivative Test to find the maximum and minimum.
Solve any two of the problems.
1.
2.
3.
4.

11.3 Point of Inflection

A point of inflection (PI) is a point at which the curve changes from concave upward to concave
downward, or vice versa. At the PI, the TL reverses the sense at which it turns.

Theorem 11.3 Point of Inflection

Suppose the function f is differentiable on some open interval containing c, and (c, f(c)) is a point of
inflection of the graph f. Then we say f’’(c)=0.

Example 11.4
For the function defined by , , of the previous examples, find its PI.
Solution:
To find the PI we need to solve f‟‟(x)=0 or Hence,

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 53

At , ( ) ( ) . Thus, the PI is at ( ).

Figure 11.2 Graph of with the inflectional TL

at the point ( )

Activity 11.3: (8 minutes)

Determine the PI of the following functions. Solve any two of the problems.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 54

 CHAPTER 12
CURVE SKETCHING

Learning Outcome
At the end of this learning session, the student must have
1. drawn the curve of a function following the steps for curve sketching.

12.1 Curve Sketching

In constructing graphs of functions, we
1. determine the domain of f,
2. find x- and y-intercepts,
3. test for symmetry with respect to the y-axis and origin,
4. determine the behavior of y for large values of x,
5. locate the maxima and minima,
6. locate the PI and draw the inflectional tangent line, and
7. plot all the points and determine additional points of necessary.

Example 12.1
Sketch the graph of by following the seven steps on curve sketching.
Solution:
1. { }

2. At x=0, y=0, so the y-intercept is at (0,0). For y=0, x=0,1, therefore the x-intercepts are at (0,0) and
(1,0).

3. For symmetry with respect to y-axis, we need to show that f(-x)=f(x) (even function),

so, the function is not symmetric with respect to the y-axis. For symmetry with respect to origin, we
need to show that f(-x)=-f(x) (odd function),

so, the function is not symmetric with respect to the origin.

4. When x is large and (+), y is also large and (+).

When x is large and (-), y is large and (+).

5. . At , the critical points are ( )

and (1,0). At the point ( ), we find which is a minimum.
At (1,0), , the test fails.

6. For the PI, we have

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 55

 So, . Substituting the values of x in , we have the points and
( ).

7. Some additional points are: ( ) and ( ).

Figure 12.1 Sketch of the graph for

Example 11.2
Sketch the graph of by following the seven steps on curve sketching.
Solution:
1. { }

2. At x=0, y=4, (0,4). For y=0, by synthetic division of .

So we have the points (-2,0) and (1,0).

3. f(x)

So the function neither symmetric to the y-axis nor the origin.

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 56

4. When x is large and (+), y is large and (+).
When x is large and (-), y is large and (+).

5. At y‟=0, . Solving for x using synthetic division or using a scientific

calculator, . Thus, the critical points are: ( ) ( ).
6. At , , solving for x by quadratic equation gives us,

Substituting these values in the original equation yields the following points: ( )

7. We graph and try to determine if we need additional points.

Figure 12.2 Sketch of the graph for

Activity 12.1: (20 minutes)

Sketch the graph of the following functions by following the seven steps indicated. Solve one.
1.
2.
CHALLENGE PROBLEM: (Solve one).
3.
4.

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 57

 CHAPTER 13
APPLICATIONS OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA: OPTIMIZATION PROBLEMS

Learning Outcome
At the end of this learning session, the student must have
1. correctly solved problems involving optimization (maximization or minimization) of
variables in a function.

13.1 Steps in Solving Optimization Problems

The steps involved in solving maxima and minima problems are:
1. Identify the constant/s and variables, and identify the variable to be maximized or minimized.
2. Form your equations and figures based on the conditions of the problem.
3. Express the variable in terms of the other variable. There should only be two variables present in
the equation.
4. If the function shall consist of more than one variable, express it in terms of one variable only
using the conditions in the problem.
5. Differentiate, equate to zero, and solve for the unknown quantities.

13.2. Number Problems

Example 13.1
What number exceeds its square by the maximum amount?
Solution:
Let x be the number and y be the difference. We have,

The variable to be maximized is y. Thus we set y’=0,

and solving for x gives: .

Example 13.2
Divide 120 into two parts such that the product of one part and the square of the other is maximum. What
are the numbers? What is the product?
Solution:
Let x and y be the numbers and P the product. Thus the equations are,

To maximize P, we need to express P in terms of one variable only and set P’=0. Let ,

So one of the numbers is 40, and the other number is

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 58

The product is,

Activity 13.1: (8 minutes)

Solve any one of the following problems. (Two for the submitted activity.)
1. If the sum of the two number is 4, find the minimum value of the sum of their cubes.
(ECE Board Apr. 2000)
2. The sum of two positive numbers is 5. What are the numbers if their product is to be largest
possible? (EE Board, Mar. 1998)
3. The sum of two number is 12. Find the bigger number is the product of one by the cube of the other
is to be a maximum.
4. What positive number added to its reciprocal gives the minimum sum?

13.3 Geometry Problems

Example 13.3
A box is to be made of a piece of cardboard 16 by 10 in. by cutting equal squares out of the corners and
turning up the sides. Find the volume of the largest box that can be made in this way.
Solution:
Let x be the side of the square to be cut out of the corners and then we turn-up the sides to form the box.
The volume of the box formed will have the volume equal to,

To maximize the volume (largest box), we set ,

and simplifying gives, . Solving for x by the quadratic formula yields,

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 59

Testing for the largest volume gives us x=2 and

in.3

Example 13.4
Find the area of largest rectangle that can be inscribed in a given circle.
Solution:
Let 2x be the length of the rectangle as shown in the figure, 2y its width, and a the radius of the circle,
where a is considered a constant. The area of the rectangle is given by,

But, , let √ , therefore,

To maximize the area (largest rectangle), we solve .

√
√ √

Cross multiplying and simplifying leads to,

√
Solving for y, √ . The area of the largest rectangle is,

√ √
( )( )

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 60

Activity 13.2: (8 minutes)
Solve any one of the following problems. (Two for the submitted activity).
1. A box is to be constructed from a tin sheet of metal 35 in. on a side by cutting equal squares from
each corner and turning up the sides. What is the volume of the largest box that can be so
constructed.
2. A poster is to contain 300 cm2 of printed matter with margins of 10 cm at the top and bottom and 5
cm. at each side. Find the overall dimensions if the total area of the poster is minimum.
3. An ellipse has the equation 9x2+16y2=144. Compute the maximum area of the rectangle that could be
inscribed in the ellipse.
4. Find the dimensions of the rectangle of maximum area that can be inscribed in the portion of the
parabola x2=8y intercepted by the line y=2.

Example 13.5
Find the dimensions of a right circular cone (altitude and radius) of minimum volume which can be
circumscribed about a sphere of radius 8 in.
Solution:
Refer to the drawn figure.

Let x be the radius of the circular base of the cone, and y+8 be the altitude of the cone (̅̅̅̅ . From
right triangles ABC and AED, by similar triangles, we have
√
Simplifying the equation gives,

The volume of the cone is computed using the formula, , where the radius of its base is r and
its height is h. From the figure we have r=x and h=y+8,

Setting and solving for y gives us,

Solving for y, we find that y=24 in. Therefore the altitude of the cone is y+8=32 in. and its base radius is,

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 61

 √ √ √

13.4 Business Problems

Example 13.6
The total cost of producing x radio sets per day is ( ) and the price per set at which
they may be sold is ( ). a. What should be the daily output to obtain a maximum total profit?
b. Show that the cost of producing a set is a relative minimum.
Solution:
a. Let P be the profit, from which we have, P = (revenue from sales) – (cost of production). Thus,

( ) ( )

Maximizing P, ,

giving, .

b. Let the cost of producing 1 set of radio be C. We need to show that the number of radio sets
produced for a few relative minimum cost is also 10 sets per day. Thus,

At , .

Activity 13.3: (8 minutes)

Solve any one of the following problems. (Two for the submitted activity).
1. A sphere having a radius of 3cm. is cut in the shape of a circular cone of maximum volume. What is
the maximum volume of the cone?
2. Find the dimensions of a right circular cylinder of greatest volume that can be inscribed in a right
circular cone of radius r and altitude h. (ECE Board Nov. 1995)
3. Given the cost equation of a certain product as follows C=50t2-200t+1000 where t is in years. Find
the maximum cost from 1995 to 2002. (CE Board May 1999)
4. An open rectangular tank with square bases is to have a volume of 10 cu. m. The material for its
bottom is to cost 15 cents per square meter and that for the sides is 6 cents per square meter. Find the
most economical dimensions for the tank.

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 62

 CHAPTER 14
DERIVATIVE OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this learning session, the student must have
1. derived the theorems on the derivative of trigonometric functions, and
2. solved problems involving the derivative of the trigonometric functions.

14.1 Differentiation Formulas for Trigonometric Functions

If u is a differentiable function of x, then
i.

ii.

iii.

iv.

v.

vi.

Example 14.1
Derive the formula for the derivative of sin(u).
Solution:
Let f(x)=sin(x), for simplicity. Using the delta definition of the derivative, we have,

We use the trigonometric identity: sin(A+B)=sinAcosB+cosAsinB

But, from the theorem on limits, and . So,

Hence, or if we express f in terms of the differentiable function u and by Chain

Rule,

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 63

Example 14.2
Derive the formula for the derivative of tan(u).
Solution:
Let and ,

* +

Hence, , or if we express f in terms of the differentiable function u and by Chain

Rule,

Activity 14.1: (8 minutes)

Derive the following formulas. Solve one. (Two for the activity).
1.
2.
3.
4.

Example 14.3
Find the first derivative of the following functions.
1.

2.

3.

4.

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 64

5. √
( √ ) √
( √ )[ √ ]( )
√ √

6. [√ ]
[ √ ]

[ √ ]( )
√

7.

8.

9. ( )

( ) ( )* +

( ) ( )

10. ( )
Applying Chain Rule,
( ) ( ) ( )* +
( ) ( )

11. ( )

( )
tan

12. ( )

( ) ( ) * ( ) +( )

( ) ( )

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 65

13. By implicit differentiation, find y’ in
Solution:

Activity 14.2: (10 minutes)

Find the first derivative of the following functions unless otherwise specified. Solve any four. (14 for
activity.)
1.
2. √
3.
4.
5.
6.
7. , find the second derivative
8. √ √
9. ( ) ( )
10. (EE Board Oct. 1997)
11. (CE Board Nov. 1994)
12.
13.
14.
15. ( ) ( )
16. (CE Board Nov. 1995)
17.
18. ( )

19. √ ( )
Find y’ by implicit differentiation.
20.
21.
22.

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 66

 CHAPTER 15
INVERSE FUNCTION THEOREM AND DERIVATIVE OF
INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this learning session, the student must have
1. solved problems using the Inverse Function Theorem, and
2. solved for the derivative of inverse trigonometric functions.

15.1 Inverse of a Function

If f is a one-to-one function that is the set of ordered pairs (x, y), then there is a function f -1, called the
inverse of f, that is the set of ordered pairs (x, y) defined by

x = f -1(y) if and only if y = f (x)

The domain of f -1 is the range of f and the range of f -1 is the domain of f.

Example 15.1
Find the inverse of the given functions and the resulting domain.
1.
Let , then we solve for x to find the inverse.

The domain of the inverse function consists of all the permissible values of y, hence, .

2.
The inverse is √ . The inverse function is valid for all non-negative values of y, hence,
.

3.
By completing the square, we have

√
√

as the inverse function. The domain consists all permissible values of y in the equation, hence,
.

Activity 15.1: (8 minutes)

Find the inverse of the given functions and the resulting domain. Solve two. (Four for the activity).
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 67

6. √

15.2 Inverse Function Theorem

Let f be a function defined by y = f (x) and let its inverse f -1 be defined by then

Example 15.2
Let , verify the Inverse Function Theorem (IFT).
Solution:
To verify the IFT, we have to show that . Let , so

For the inverse function, we have

and its derivative is,

Therefore,
* ( )+ * +

* +

Example 15.3
For the function √ , verify the IFT.
Solution:
Let √ and

√
Also,
√

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 68

Therefore,

Activity 15.2: (8 minutes)

Verify the inverse function theorem for the following functions. Solve two.
1.
2.
3.
4. √

15.3 Differentiation Formulas for the Inverse Trigonometric Functions

If u is a differentiable function of x, then

i.
√

ii.
√

iii.

iv.

v.
√

vi.
√

Example 15.4
Derive the formula for the derivative of .
Solution:
Let , where Also, . We find that, . By IFT,

But by trigonometric identity, √ , therefore

√
and,

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 69

If u is a differentiable function of x, we say,

Example 15.5
Find the derivative of the following functions.
1.

2. (EE Board Apr. 1995)

3. √
√
* +
√ √ √ √

4.

5. ( )
* + * +

( )

6. ( ) √

( )
* + ( ) √
√( )

* + ( )
√
√( )

* + ( ) √
√

( )

7. , find y’ by implicit differentiation.

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 70

Activity 15.3: (8 minutes)
Find the derivative of the following functions. Solve two. (Six for the activity).
1. ( )
2. √
3.
4.
6.
√

7. √
8. √
9.
10. √
11.
12.

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 71

 CHAPTER 16
EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS, LOGARITHMIC DIFFERENTIATION,
HYPERBOLIC AND INVERSE HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this learning session, the student must have
1. solved for the derivative of logarithmic and exponential functions,
2. applied the properties of the logarithmic and exponential functions in finding their
derivatives,
3. applied logarithmic differentiation, and
4. solved for the derivative of hyperbolic and inverse hyperbolic functions.

16.1 Derivative of Exponential Functions

If u is a differentiable function of x, then
i. | | , where a is a constant

ii. , where e = 2.7182…

Example 16.1
1.
| |

2.
| | | |

3.
| |
| |

4. √

√
√ ( )
√ √

5.

6. , by implicit differentiation

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 72

16.2 Properties of Exponential Functions
i. or
ii. or
iii. or
iv. or

Example 16.2
1.

2.

3.

Activity 16.1: (8 minutes)

Find the derivative of the following functions (y’ or f’(x)). Solve four. (Eight for the activity).
1. 7.

2. 8.
3. 9.
4. 10.
5. 11.
6. 12.

16.3 Derivative of Logarithmic Functions

If u is a differentiable function of x, then

i.
| |
, a is a constant

ii.

Example 16.3
1.

| |

2.

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 73

 | |

3.

4.

16.4 Properties of Logarithmic Functions

i. or
ii. or
iii. or
iv. √ or √
v. or
vi.

vii.

Example 16.4
1.

2.

* +

3.

4. √

Activity 16.2: (8 minutes)

Find the derivative of the following functions. Solve four.
1. (EE Board Oct. 1997)
2.
3.

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 74

4. √
5. , find y’’ (ECE Board Nov. 1997, ECE Board Nov. 1999)
6. ( √ ) √
7. { }
8.

16.5 Logarithmic Differentiation

Consider a function of the form where both u and v are functions of x. Recall that .
To differentiate a function of the form , we use logarithmic differentiation. The procedure is,
1. take the natural logarithm of both sides of the equation, ,
2. differentiate implicitly, and
3. solve for y’ and simplify.

Example 16.5
1.

( )
* +
* +

2.
]
]
( )

* +
* +

Example 16.6
Another use of Logarithmic differentiation is facilitating the derivative of nested rational functions. For

example, find the derivative of .

Solution:
Here we use Logarithmic differentiation,

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 75

 * +

( )* +

Activity 16.3: (8 minutes)

Find the derivative of the following functions. Solve two. (Four for the activity).
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

6.
√

16.6 Definition of the Hyperbolic Functions

Let , the hyperbolic sine and hyperbolic cosine functions are defined by,
i.

ii.

Example 16.7
Solve for x in sinh(x) = 2.
Solution:
We apply the definition of the hyperbolic sine function,

sinh(x) = 2

( )

Solving the quadratic equation,

√ √

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 76

16.7 Derivative of Hyperbolic Functions
If u is a differentiable function of x, then
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.

Example 16.8
1.

2.

3. √
√ √ ( ) √ √
√ √

4.

5.

6.

√ √

Activity 16.4: (8 minutes)

Find the derivative (1-4). Solve any two of the following problems. (Four for the activity).
1.
2.
3.
4.
5. , solve for x
6. solve for x

16.8 Derivative of the Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

If u is a differentiable function of x, then
i.
√
ii. ,
√
iii. , | |

iv. , | |

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 77

 v. ,
√
vi.
| |√
,

Example 16.9
1.

2.

√ √
√ √

3.

√ √

4.

√ √

Activity 16.5: (12 minutes)

Find the derivative. Solve two of the following problems.
1. √
2. √
3. ( )
4.

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 78

 CHAPTER 17
RELATED RATES

Learning Outcome
At the end of this learning session, the student must have
1. solved problems involving related rates by using differentiation of functions.

17.1 Related Rates/Time Rates

If a variable x is a function of time t, the time rate of change is given by . To solve problems involving
related rates, we
1. assign symbols to all given quantities and quantities to be determined and as much as possible
make a visual sketch of the problem and label the quantities,
2. write an equation involving the variables whose rates of change either are given or are to be
determined,
3. implicitly differentiate with respect to time, and
4. substitute the given values into the resulting equation and solve for the unknown quantities.

Example 17.1
A group of balloons leaving the ground 60 ft. from an observer rises vertically at a rate of 10 ft. per sec.
How fast are the balloons receding from the observer after 8 sec.
Solution:
Refer to the figure. Let t be the time traversed and the distance travelled by the balloon is 10t. Let s be the
distance of the balloon from the observer and the rate at which the balloon is receding from the observer
will be This is what we are looking for.

By Pythagorean Theorem,
√
√

√ √
At t=8 sec.,

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 79

Hence, the balloon is receding from the observer at 8 ft. per sec.

Example 17.2
Two railroad tracks are perpendicular to each other. At 12 pm., there is a train at each track approaching
the crossing at 50 kph, one being 100 km and the other 150 km away from the crossing. How fast (in kph)
is the distance between the two trains changing at 4:00 pm? (CE Board May 1996).
Solution:
Let A be the first train running at 50 kph and 100 km away from the crossing and B the second train
running at 50 kph and 150 km away from the crossing. Also, let s be the distance between the two at any
time t. At noon, at the instant they start, we have their positions as follows.

At noon, at the instant they start, we have their positions as follows.

After 4 hours or at 4:00 pm., their positions will be

The total distance travelled by both at time t is 50t. But we need their rate of separation given by after 4
hours. Let x and y be the distance travelled by both trains after the crossing respectively. By PT,

But the distance x is given as, 50t-100 and the distance y is 50t-150.

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 80

We solve for at t=4 hours,

At t =4, from ,

√
√
Hence,
kph.

Example 17.3
Water is flowing into a conical reservoir 20 ft. deep and 10 ft. across the top, at the rate of 15 cu. ft/min.
Find how fast the surface is rising when the water is 8 ft. deep.
Solution:
Let h be the height of the level of water in the reservoir. We need to find . From the volume formula for
the cone, we have,

From the figure and by similar triangles,

and the volume becomes,

( )

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 81

Taking derivatives and noting that ft.3/min.

Hence, the rate at which the surface is rising when the water is 8 ft. deep is 1.19 ft./min.

Activity 17.1: (20 min.)

Solve any one of the following problems. (Four for the submitted activity).
1. A balloon is released from the ground 100m from an observer. The balloon rises directly upward at
the rate of 4 meters per second. How fast is the balloon receding from the observer 10 seconds later?
(ECE Board Nov. 1991, ECE Board Nov. 2000)
2. An airplane flying horizontally at an altitude of 1 km., passes directly over an observer. If the
constant speed of the plane is 240 kph, how fast is its distance from the observer increasing 30
seconds later.
3. An LRT train 6m above ground crosses a street at 9 m/s at the instant that a car approaching at a
speed of 4 m/s is 12m up the street. Find the rate of the LRT train and the car separating one second
later. (CE Board Nov. 1984)
4. A car starting at 12:00 nn travels at a speed of 30 kph. Another car starting from the same point at
2:00 pm travels north at 45 kph. Find how fast the two are separating at 4:00 pm. (CE Board Nov.
1996)
5. Car A moves due east at 30 kph at the instant that Car B is moving S 30 degrees E, with a speed of
60 kph. The distance from A to B is 30 km. Find how fast is the distance between them separating
after one hour. (CE Board May 1997)
6. Water is flowing into a conical cistern at the rate of 8 cu. m. per min. If the height of the inverted
cone is 12 m and the radius of the circular opening is 6 m, how fast is the water level rising when the
water is 4 m deep? (EE Board Oct. 1993)
7. Water flows into a cylindrical tank at the rate of 20 cu. m. per sec. How fast is the water surface
rising in the tank if the radius of the tank is 2 m? (CE Board Nov. 1993)
8. A sphere has a volume of cu. m. The rate of change of the volume is cu. m. per min. Find
the rate of change of the surface area of the sphere.

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 82

 CHAPTER 18
INDETERMINATE FORMS AND L’HOPITAL’S RULE

Learning Outcome
At the end of this learning session, the student must have
1. solved problems in indeterminate forms using L‟Hopital‟s Rule.

18.1 L’Hopital’s Rule

For the , such that or ,
then

Which implies that to find the limit, we have to apply successive separate differentiations of the
numerator and denominator until we find a value of the limit.

18.2. Indeterminate Forms and

If both f(x) and g(x) of the , approaches “0” or “∞”, we have what we call an indetermiate
form at x=a, and is undefined at that point. Nevertheless, the limit may exist. It is possible to evaluate
this limit by the application of L‟Hopital‟s Rule.

Note that the symbols and should not be taken literally, since, so taken, have no meaning. In fact,
the term indeterminate form is something of a contradiction, since the function is simply not defined at
that point in question.

Example 18.1
1. For the limit, , direct substitution yields the indeterminate form . We apply
L‟Hopital‟s Rule,

2.
Applying L‟Hopital‟s Rule,

3. , here direct substitution yields the indeterminate form , so we apply L‟Hopital‟s

Rule,

Applying L‟Hopital‟s Rule for the first time still yields an indeterminate form, so we apply

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 83

 L‟Hopital‟s Rule for the second time,

4. , direct substitution yields , hence we apply

L‟Hopital‟s Rule,

Activity 18.1: (8 minutes)

Find the indicated limit. Solve any two of the following problems. (Four for the activity).
1.

2.

3.

4.

18.3 Indeterminate Forms “0∙∞” and “∞ - ∞”

If the takes on the form 0∙∞ or the limit takes on the form ∞ -
∞, it is necessary to transform them into either of the indeterminate forms or and then apply
L‟Hopital‟s Rule.

Example 18.2
1. The limit, is of the form 0∙∞. Let, = which is now
of the indeterminate form . We can now apply L‟Hopital‟s Rule,

2. ( ). This is of the form ∞ - ∞, so we transform to a quotient and apply L‟Hopital‟s

Rule,

( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 84

Activity 18.2: (6 minutes)
Find the indicated limit. Solve any one the following problems. (Two for the activity).
1.
2.

3. ( )

18.4 Indeterminate Forms 00, ∞0 , and 1∞

If the limit, is one of the types 00, ∞0 , or 1∞, we let and take the logarithm
of both sides, that is, . Afterwards we evaluate the limit of,

and apply L‟Hopital‟s Rule.

Example 18.3
1. For the limit, , we let . Thus,

Applying L‟Hopital‟s Rule,

Hence, .

2. Evaluate . Here, we let,

Applying L‟Hopital‟s Rule,

Hence,

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 85

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 86
 CHAPTER 19
PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this learning session, the student must have
1. identified what a parametric equation is,
2. solved for the Cartesian equation of a parametric equation,
3. solved the derivative of parametric functions,
4. sketched the graph of a parametric equation, and
5. solved for the tangent and normal lines on a point of a parametric equation.

19.1 Definition and Graph of a Parametric Equation

If the coordinates (x, y) of a point P on a curvature given as functions x = f(u), y = g(u) of a third variable
or parameter u. The equations x = f(u), y = g(u) are called parametric equations.

Example 19.1
Find the Cartesian equation (x, y) of the curve defined by the following equations,
and sketch its graph.
Solution:
We eliminate the parameter t by re-expressing the equations.

We substitute t in,

( )

which is an equation of a line.

Figure 19.1 Graph of the parametric equation

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 87

Example 19.2
For , find its equivalent Cartesian equation and sketch its graph.
Solution:
We use trigonometric identities for this, that is,

From,

Also,

Substituting, we have

or, 4 which is an equation of a circle with radius 2 and center at (0, 0).

Figure 19.2 Graph of the parametric equation

Example 19.3
Graph the equation .
Solution:
We can use point plotting to find the shape of the graph of the parametric function, that is, we assume
values of t and solve for the x- and y-coordinates given the equations above. Next we plot the coordinates
on the Cartesian plane.

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 88

 Figure 19.3 Graph of the parametric equation
using point plotting

Activity 19.1: (8 minutes)

Find the Cartesian equation and graph of the following functions. Solve any one of the following
problems. (Two for the activity).
1. √
2.
3.
4.

19.2 Derivative of Parametric Equations

Theorem 19.1 Derivative of Parametric Equations
If x and y are both differentiable functions of u,

i.

ii. ( )

Example 19.4
Find the y’ and y’’ of the parametric equation, .
Solution:

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 89

For y’’, ( )
But,
( ) ( )
and

Hence,

Example 19.5
Find the y’ and y’’ of the parametric equation,
Solution:

( )

19.3 Tangents and Normals to Parametric Equations

Example 19.6
To find the equation of the tangent to √ at the point t=4, we use the point slope form,
√
that is first we find the slope (m) of the TL and solve for the point (x1, y1) at t=4.

√ √ √

√
At t=4,
√ √

√ √
From,

as the equation of the TL. For the NL,

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 90

 Figure 19.4 Graph of the parametric equation √
√
with the TL and NL at the point ( )

Activity 19.2: (12 minutes)

Solve for the y’ and y’’ of the following functions (problems 1-2). Solve any one of the following
problems. (For the activity, one from 1-1 and one from 3-4).
1.
2.
3. Find the TL and NL of at t=0.
4. Find the TL and NL of at t=0.5.

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 91

 CHAPTER 20
DIFFERENTIALS

Learning Outcome
At the end of this learning session, the student must have
1. solved problems involving differentials.

20.1 The Differential

Let f be a function, if y=f(x), the differential of y denoted by dy is given by

where x is in the domain of f’ and is an arbitrary increment of x. In words, the differential of any
function is equal to its derivative multiplied by the differential of the independent variable. The
differential of the independent variable is by definition equal to the increment of the variable, but the
differential of the dependent variable is not equal to the increment of the variable. That is but
.

Example 20.1
Find the differential, dy, of the following functions.
1.

2.

3.

Activity 20.1: (8 minutes)

Find the differential, dy, of the following functions. Solve two. (Four for the activity).
1.
2.
3.
4.
5. √
6.

20.2 Approximations by Differentials

Very often we wish to compute, or estimate within safe limits, the change in the value of a function
caused by a small change in the value of the independent variable. If is relatively small when
compared with x, dy is a fairly good approximation of .

Example 20.2
Let and let x change from x=2 to x=2.01. The actual change in y is given by,

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 92

To approximate the change in y, obtained by taking x=2 and is,

Comparing the two values gives the amount of error at 0.0001.

Example 20.3
Find an approximate formula for the area od a narrow circular ring.
Solution:
The area of a circle of radius r is, The area increases by an amount which can be
approximated by,

since r is the independent variable and .

Example 20.4
The radius of a circle is measured and found to be 36 feet with a maximum error of 0.1 in. Find the
approximate error in the computed area.
Solution:
The area of the circle is given by, . The approximate error in the computed area for an error of
0.1 in the radius will be,

Thus, the error in the computed area will be 22.62 square inches.

Activity 20.2: (12 minutes)

Solve any one of the following problems. (Two for the compilation of submitted activities).
1. Let and let x change from x = 1 to x = 1.02. Compute the amount of error in
approximating the change in y.
2. Find the approximate increase by the use of differentials, in the volume of the sphere if the radius
increases from 2 to 2.05. (ECE Board April 2000).
3. Find an approximate formula for the volume of a hollow spherical shell.
4. Find the approximate change in the volume of a cube of side x in. caused by increasing the sides by
1%. (ECE Board Nov. 1997).

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 93

 CHAPTER 21
APPROXIMATION OF ROOTS BY NEWTON’S METHOD

Learning Outcome
At the end of this learning session, the student must have
1. solved for the roots of polynomial equations using Newton‟s method.

21.1 Newton’s Method

Let x = x1 be a fairly close approximation of a root r of the equation y = f(x) = 0 and let f(x1) = y1 ≠ 0. Then
y1 differs from 0 by a small amount. Now if x1 were changed to r, the corresponding change in f(x1)
would be . An approximation of this change in x1 is given by or
. Thus, a second and better approximation of the root r is,

and a third approximation is

and so on.

When x1 is not sufficiently close approximation of a root, it will be found that x2 differs materially from
x1. While at times the process is self-correcting, it will be simpler to make a new first approximation.

Example 21.1
Let us find, to four decimal places, the smaller positive root of the equation by
Newton‟s method.
Solution:
Let

and assume (you can assume any value but the closer the assumed value to the actual root, the
better the approximation).

and,

Next, we use in the same manner and find,

13

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 94

Iterating the process, we find

13

Hence, the desired root is 0.5392. The iteration can be conveniently put into a table as follows:

1 0.5 0.125 -3.25 -0.04

2 0.54 -0.0025 -3.13 0.0008

3 0.5392 -0.00003 -3.13 0.0001

4 0.5392

The graph of is,

Figure 21.1 Graph of where we can see

the smaller positive root close to x=0.5

Example 21.2
Find the other roots of the equation by Newton‟s method.
Solution:
Let

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 95

Assume ,

1 -2.5 -3.625 14.75 -0.2458

2 -2.2542 -0.4377 11.244 -0.0389

3 -2.2153 -0.0105 10.7227 -0.001
4 -2.2143 -0.0002 10.7094 -0.00001
5 -2.2143

Hence, the other root is approximately -2.2143. Assume ,

1 1.5 -0.625 2.75 -0.2273

2 1.7273 -0.2443 4.95 0.0494
3 1.6779 0.0123 4.446 0.0028
4 1.6751 -0.0001 4.4179 0.00002
5 1.6751

Hence, the other root is approximately at 1.6571. Note that the fast convergence of these solutions to the
actual roots depend on how close your assumption of x1 to the actual root.

Activity 21.1: (20 minutes)

Solve any one of the following problems. (Two for the activity).
1. Approximate, to four decimal place, all the roots of using Newton‟s method.
2. Find all real roots of using Newton‟s method.
3. Find the larger positive root of using Newton‟s approximation.
4. Find in inches the radius of a sphere of volume 1/8 cu. ft. Use Newton‟s method to approximate the
value to four decimal place.

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 96

 CHAPTER 22
PARTIAL DERIVATIVES

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this learning session, the student must have
1. evaluated the partial derivatives of functions, and
2. solved for the higher order partial derivatives and total differentials.

22.1 Partial Derivatives

If f is a function of two or more independent variables and all but one of those variables are held fixed,
then the derivative of f with respect to that one remaining independent variable is called partial derivative
of f. For example, if z = f(x, y), then its partial derivative with respect to x is

while its partial derivative with respect to y is

Example 22.1
The hypotenuse of a right triangle is given by the equation √ , with the variables x and y as
the sides of the right triangle. Find the partial derivatives of z.
Solution:
Applying the concept of partial derivatives, for , we take the derivative of the function with respect to x
and treat the other variable (y) as a constant,

√ √

Applying similar procedure for , we have

√ √

Example 22.2
Consider the volume of the cone. Find the partial derivatives of the volume with respect to its parameters.
Solution:
Let the volume of the cone be , with parameters r and h. Then its partial derivative with
respect to r is (treat h as constant),

and its partial derivative with respect to h is (treat r as constant),

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 97

22.2 Total Differential
For the function z = f(x, y), we define the total differential of a function z of two independent variables x
and y by

That is, the total differential is the sum of the partial derivatives each multiplied by its proper differential.
The concept can be extended to more than two variables. For, example, if z = f(x, y, w), then

Example 22.3
Find the total differential of the following functions.
1. For the function
and

, therefore

2. For
,
, and

, therefore

Activity 22.1: (8 minutes)

Find the partial derivatives of the following functions and its total differential.
1.
2.
3. (spherical zone)
4.

22.3 Higher-order Partial Derivatives

Let z = f(x, y). For the second-order partial derivative of z with respect to x and with respect to x again,

( )

which means that we take partial derivatives of the function with respect to x twice. For the second-order
partial derivatives of z with respect to x and then with respect to y,

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 98

 ( )

which denotes that we take first partial derivative of the function with respect to x and then with respect to
y. The other second order partial derivatives are given as follows:

( )

( )

If the partial derivatives are continuous functions, the order of the derivative doesn‟t matter, that is,
. The process could be repeated to find other higher-order partial derivatives.

Example 22.3
For ( ) , find and .
Solution:
1. ( )
( )

2. ( )
( ) ( )

Activity 22.2: (12 minutes)

Find the indicated higher-order partial derivative. Solve any two of the following.
1. For , find all second-order partial derivatives
2. For find

3. In the function √ , find and

4. Let , find and

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 99

 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ayres, F. & Mendelson, E. (2009). Schaum’s Outline of Calculus, 5th Ed. Mc-Graw Hill Co. Inc., USA

Edwards, H. & Penney, D. (2002). Single Variable Claculus, Early Transcendentals, 6 th Ed. Pearson
Education Pte. Ltd., Singapore

Larson, R. & Edwards, B. (2019). Calculus, 11th Ed. Cengage Learning Asia Pte. Ltd., Singapore

Leithold, L. (2001). The Calculus 7. Harper Collins Publishers, New York

Love, C. & Rainville, E. (1981). Differential and Integral Calculus, 6th Ed. MacMillan Publishing Co.
Inc., New York

Spiegel, M. & Wrede, R. (2002). Advanced Calculus, 2nd Ed. Mc-Graw Hill Co. Inc., USA

Steward, J. (2006). Calculus: Concepts and Contexts, 3rd Ed. Thomson Brooks/Cole, Australia

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 100

 APPENDIX A
18 WEEK STUDY SCHEDULE, SYLLABUS AND REQUIREMENTS

Required
Discussed/ Sample Tutorials from
Topics and Assessment Advance
Given/ the net you can download
Requirements: Reading
Submitted on: and view offline:
Assignments:
FIRST GRADING PERIOD TOPICS
1. Preliminary Topics I: Chapter 1 of https://www.youtube.com/results
Linear Coordinate reference book ?search_query=real+number+line,
System Schaum’s https://www.youtube.com/watch?
Outline of v=J-mrAZbOvQ8,
Calculus by https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=7JmTiTXn8Ag&t=5s,
Frank Ayres and
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
Elliott
v=o08Ry0gqeKM
Mendelson, 5th
a. Real Numbers: https://www.youtube.com/watch?
Ed.
System, Rational v=QUGmwPwtbpg&t=22s
and Irrational
Numbers
b. Finite and Infinite https://www.youtube.com/watch?
Intervals (Interval v=-hdn21vvTp4&t=49s,
Notation) https://www.youtube.com/watch?
1ST WEEK v=wihwuOq8LoI&t=24s,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=Ww7xtG2S7IM&t=15s
c. Absolute Value and https://www.youtube.com/watch?
Its Properties v=StTucCpu4QY&t=14s
d. Solving Inequalities https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=6SzLLRDnJYE,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=_gWjLKsFOPE&t=44s,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=a10EuIFcphk,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=iI_2Piwn_og&t=9s,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=3LN0IDooaIE&t=48s
2. Preliminary Topics II: Chapter 2 https://www.youtube.com/watch?
Rectangular Coordinate reference book v=uxvs0yhOts0
System, Equations and
their Graphs
a. Lines Chapter 3 https://www.youtube.com/watch?
reference book v=2UrcUfBizyw,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=UgtMbCI4G_I,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
2ND WEEK
v=nojSLJ9KYvQ
b. Circles Chapter 4 https://www.youtube.com/watch?
reference book v=u_39J-syjB0,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=9XZAUgPv23E
c. Parabolas Chapter 5 https://www.youtube.com/watch?
reference book v=MQtsRYPx3v0,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=nh3_IGxHA5A,

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 101

 d. Ellipses https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=EqLqrX8yJ7k,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=a86uljNQDsI
e. Hyperbolas https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=i6Ns_yetNls,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
COMPILATION OF ACTIVITIES v=Z6cwpsDC_5A,
NO. 1 for TOPICS 1a, 1b, 1c, https://www.youtube.com/watch?
1d, 2a, 2b, 2c 2d and 2e v=aiWyQWWMc0Y
QUIZ 1
SUBMIT: COMPILATION OF SUBMISSION
ACTIVITIES NO. 1 & QUIZ 1 DUE ON THE
3RD WEEK
3. Functions: Definition, Chapter 6 of https://www.youtube.com/watch?
Evaluation and reference book v=kvGsIo1TmsM,
Operations on https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=GY6Q2f2kvY0
Functions, Composite
Functions, Types of
Functions
4. Limits: Definition of a Chapter 7-8 of https://www.youtube.com/watch?
Limit of a Function, reference book v=riXcZT2ICjA ,
Limit Theorems https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=G0ax2x2_Em0,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=-ejyeII0i5c,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=GGQngIp0YGI,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=YRw8udexH4o,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=fOrOeZA-vdY
5. One-sided Limits, https://www.youtube.com/watch?
Existence, Infinite v=ryQ7PYONVcU,
Limits, and Limits at https://www.youtube.com/watch?
Infinity 3RD -4TH WEEK v=TAV1wzIRLn4,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=nOnd3SiYZqM

6. Continuity of Functions, https://www.youtube.com/watch?

Types of Discontinuity, v=Xn4r4eagvnU,
Theorems on Continuity https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=Xn4r4eagvnU&t=7s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=a2Ia_ZlUCaQ,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=NmLljBAg82o,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=xvFqomOpLrs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=joewRl1CTL8,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=WT7oxiiFYt8,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3K
COMPILATION OF ACTIVITIES MqU5j7irw,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jo
NO. 2 for TOPICS 3, 4, 5, AND
ewRl1CTL8&t=13s,
6 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PK
QUIZ 2 2I1wZL3zY

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 102

SUBMIT: COMPILATION OF SUBMISSION
ACTIVITIES NO. 2 AND DUE ON THE
QUIZ 2 5TH WEEK
7. The Derivative: Delta Chapter 9 of https://www.youtube.com/watch?
Notation reference book v=n7Mzn2aqwY8,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=IWpsnR2uRus (note that
sometimes the ∆x is substituted by
“h” in some authors).
8. Rules for Differentiating Chapter 10 of https://www.youtube.com/watch?
Functions reference book v=IvLpN1G1Ncg,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=lEj3dzj2Doc,
5TH WEEK https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=s7rd9YPJrNc
9. Chain Rule, Implicit Chapter 11 of https://www.youtube.com/watch?
Differentiation and reference book v=LGY-DjFsALc,
Higher-order https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=A9CR6XOuQkk
Derivatives

COMPILATION OF ACTIVITIES
NO. 3 for TOPICS 7, 8 AND 9
QUIZ 3
FIRST GRADING EXAM 6th WEEK
SUBMIT: COMPILATION OF SUBMISSION
ACTIVITIES NO. 3, QUIZ 3 DUE ON THE
AND FIRST GRADING EXAM 6TH WEEK
SECOND GRADING PERIOD TOPICS
10. Slope, Tangent Lines Chapter 12 of https://www.youtube.com/watch?
and Normal Lines reference book v=7EFYoQ6H7Tw,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=ANyVpMS3HL4,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=lEF2mmR3CWU,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=fAasUh3NLd4
11. Maximum and Minimum Chapter 14 of https://www.youtube.com/watch?
Values, Second reference book v=V239IIoGVT8,
Derivative Test for https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=3wrXDw5ETh4,
Relative Extrema, Point
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
of Inflection
v=votVWz-wKeI,
7TH -8TH WEEK
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=G5wlKltW7pM,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=OhqNbQi9QPk
12. Curve Sketching Chapter 15 of https://www.youtube.com/watch?
reference book v=G5wlKltW7pM,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=OhqNbQi9QPk,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
COMPILATION OF ACTIVITIES v=Z0tNDfhrOkI,
NO. 4 for TOPICS 10, 11 AND https://www.youtube.com/watch?
12 v=WqRPFvZWF0k,
QUIZ 4 https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=hIgnece9ins

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 103

SUBMIT: COMPILATION OF SUBMISSION
ACTIVITIES NO. 4 AND DUE ON THE
QUIZ 4 9TH WEEK
13. Application of Maxima Applications are https://www.youtube.com/watch?
and Minima: interspersed all v=DdCfufivnjI,
Optimization Problems throughout the https://www.youtube.com/watch?
reference book (or v=tSMuKcN-RKM,
find applications https://www.youtube.com/watch?
of differential v=dam16G6cZ8k,
9TH WEEK calculus in the https://www.youtube.com/watch?
internet) v=mYcBlVm0DPQ,
COMPILATION OF ACTIVITIES https://www.youtube.com/watch?
NO. 5 for TOPIC 13 v=XP7TfcBBvWI,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
QUIZ 5 v=LGN9yMOiU14

SUBMIT: COMPILATION OF SUBMISSION

ACTIVITIES NO. 5 AND DUE ON THE
QUIZ 5 10TH WEEK
14. Derivative of Chapter 17 of https://www.youtube.com/watch?
Trigonometric Functions reference book v=PEqCa0U77mc,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=_niP0JaOgHY,
15. Inverse Function Chapter 18 of https://www.youtube.com/watch?
Theorem and Derivative reference book v=KbYW9FDm-Zk,
of Inverse
Trigonometric Functions
16. Derivative of Parts of Chapters https://www.youtube.com/watch?
Exponential and 25 and 26 of the v=daUlTsnCNRQ,
Logarithmic Functions, reference book https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=Dp9sgIvaKPk,
Logarithmic
Differentiation, 10TH WEEK https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=9z1Dz60mWcQ,
Derivative of Hyperbolic https://www.youtube.com/watch?
and Inverse Hyperbolic v=zmnh448y_ZU,
Functions https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=G1C1Z5aTZSQ,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=5lebRHtmFdc,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=uMXcKY_w3w4,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=nI7XoydmM0M,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=updbp77UVwg
17. Related Rates Chapter 20 of the https://www.youtube.com/watch?
reference book v=I9mVUo-bhM8,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=8dm0UtPyYj8,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=_sbq6yZ9Kt8,
11TH WEEK https://www.youtube.com/watch?
COMPILATION OF ACTIVITIES v=xvbrEfVLQ4k,
NO. 6 for TOPICS 14, 15, 16, https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=r5PTN2TgGwchttps://www.yout
AND 17
ube.com/watch?v=ps-r4nti5Go,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
QUIZ 6 v=Xe6YlrCgkIo
SECOND GRADING EXAM 12TH WEEK

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 104

 SUBMIT COMPILATION OF SUBMISSION
ACTIVITIES NO. 6, QUIZ 6 AND DUE ON THE
SECOND GRADING EXAM 12TH WEEK
FINAL GRADING PERIOD TOPICS
18. Indeterminate Forms Chapter 27 of the https://www.youtube.com/watch?
and L’Hopitals Rule reference book v=PdSzruR5OeE&list=RDCMUC4a-
Gbdw7vOaccHmFo40b9g&start_ra
dio=1&t=38,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
13TH WEEK v=PdSzruR5OeE,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
COMPILATION OF ACTIVITIES NO.
v=Gh48aOvWcxw,
7 for TOPIC 18
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
QUIZ 7 v=CDf_aE5yg3A,
SUBMIT COMPILATION OF SUBMISSION
ACTIVITIES NO. 7 AND QUIZ 7 DUE ON THE
14TH WEEK
19. Parametric Equations Parts of Chapter https://www.youtube.com/watch?
21 of the v=-5e2cULI3H8,
reference book https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=1uN8cBGVpfs
14TH-15TH
20. Differentials WEEK Parts of Chapter https://www.youtube.com/watch?
21 of the v=C5RI5eLzVfo,
reference book https://www.youtube.com/watch?
COMPILATION OF ACTIVITIES NO. v=FIbpibkywmk
8 for TOPICS 19 AND 20
QUIZ 8
SUBMIT COMPILATION OF SUBMISSION
ACTIVITIES NO. 8 AND QUIZ 8 DUE ON THE
16TH WEEK
21. Approximation of Roots Parts of Chapter https://www.youtube.com/watch?
by Newton’s Method 37 of the v=97pe-QlSGqA,
reference book https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=kf2dZWqLnqE,
16TH WEEK https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=iHNa1fhV7IA,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=vcZPjuG8GrM,
22. Partial Derivatives Chapter 48 of the https://www.youtube.com/watch?
reference book v=AXqhWeUEtQU,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=JAf_aSIJryg,
17TH WEEK https://www.youtube.com/watch?
COMPILATION OF ACTIVITIES NO.
9 for TOPICS 21 AND 22 v=WyFalJi6Xiw,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
QUIZ 9 v=kti4dJOo5RE
FINAL EXAM 18TH WEEK
SUBMIT COMPILATION OF SUBMISSION
ACTIVITIES NO. 9, QUIZ 9 AND DUE ON THE
FINAL EXAM 18TH WEEK

GRADING SYSTEM:

The requirements for each grading period shall be a minimum of 70% to obtain a passing
grade.
 Q1  Q2  ...   
RS   30%   OA1  OA2  ... 30%   EX 40%

 Q   
  OA   TEX 

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 105

 RS Grade
0-69%: (65-74)
70-99% (75-99)

where: RS = Raw Score (tentative term grade), Q1, Q2…= quiz scores, OA1, OA2… = outcome based activity,
EX = exam score, TEX =total exam score

The highest percentage rating that may be given in any grading period is 99 and the lowest passing grade is 75.
Any grade lower than 75 is considered “Failed”.
Towards the computation of student’s grades in any subject, the following are done:
1. The student’s actual total score, which refers to the sum of the student’s scores in recitation, problem set,
seat works, quizzes, and grading examination, is determined.
2. The student’s actual score is transmuted using the distribution table based on the highest possible
score.(note: the instructor will show the distribution table to the students)
There are three (3) grading periods (first grading, midterms & finals) for each semester. The cumulative
system of computing grades shall be followed. Grades computed for midterms and finals are considered
tentative. The final midterm grade is calculated by getting 1/3 of the first grading grade plus 2/3 of the
tentative midterm grade and the final grade is computed by getting 1/3 of the midterm grade plus 2/3 of
the tentative final grade.
3. Students are required to present a portfolio (consisting of their quizzes, homeworks, chapter activities,
seatworks, and other requirements) at the end of the semester with a reflection on what they have learned
in the course.
4. The student must present a group presentation (in powerpoint) and submit a group report of their chosen
topic related to Differential Calculus. The report will comprise the following areas but is not limited to them:
history, concepts, application, formulas and appreciation of Calculus.

Differential Calculus for Engineering and the Sciences 106