METHODS OF COAL PROSPECTING

The fundamental objective of coal prospecting is to discover coal resources through a search. In
areas where coal mining has not been previously practiced, the search process should result in
obtaining coal samples that give reasonable evidence of the existence of a coal seam. The term
coal exploration is used to describe these activities. Coal exploration includes activities and
evaluations necessary to gather data for making decisions on such issues as the desirability of
further exploration, the technical feasibility of mining (including favourable and unfavourable
factors), and economic feasibility (including size of mine, coal quality assessment, marketability,
and preparation of mined coal for market requirements).
Surface Geophysics
The technique used in the exploration programme are normally those that give broad scale
information on a large area at relatively low cost.

These include airborne magnetometer investigation, regional gravity surveys and broad scale
seismic studies, used to delineate the sedimentary and structural framework of the area involved.

Together with the result of fields mapping, the data from these techniques can be used to draw up
the most appropriate drilling programme to further test the value of the deposits.

1. Gravity Methods
The irregular distribution of rock masses of different densities in the crust
gives rise to local and regional variation in the earth’s gravitational field.

Areas with an anomalously high gravitational field generally have large masses of relatively
dense material close to the ground surface. A low gravitational field, on the other hand is
commonly associated with an accumulation of less dense material, such as a thick succession of
sedimentary strata. The magnitude and form of the anomaly in each case is a function of the
shape, orientation and depth of the feature concerned, together with contrast in density between
the different materials involved.

2. Magnetic Methods:
The strength of magnetic polarization depends principally on the magnetic

susceptibility of the material concerned, which in turn largely related to the abundance of
specific components such as magnetite or ilmenite, among the mineral present. Most sedimentary
rocks have low magnetic susceptibilities. The susceptibility of crystalline basement rocks tends
to be somewhat higher, while mafic and ultramafic igneous bodies usually exhibit particularly
high susceptibility values.

Magnetic methods are based on mapping out these anomalies, using ground-
based, shipboard or aerial equipment to measure either the total intensity or the vertical
component of the field at point across the study area.
 3. Electrical resistivity :
The resistance of the rock strata to electric currents depends partly on the
minerals involved and partly on the fluids present in the rock’s pore spaces. Under
laboratory conditions, sub-bituminous and bituminous coals are highly resistive. Shales,
limestones and sandstones generally have lower resisitivities, and such contrasts form the
basis for the application of electrical resistivity techniques to coal exploration.
4. Electromagnetic methods :
Electromagnetic methods of geophysical exploration are based on

the production of a time varying electromagnetic fields by an alternating or pulsed electric

current in a suitably laid out the conductor at the ground surface or in the air above. Magnetic
bodies existing below the surface of the earth contribute to the magnetic field of the earth. This
contribution is directly proportional to the same power of the depth of its occurrence. The
magnetic suspectibility is the controlling physical property in this method. By the study of
magnetic anomalies with magnetometers, the anomalus objectives are located.

5. Seismic reflection :
Seismic reflection studies involve the input of shock wave energy into the

ground, reflection of that energy from an appropriate interface and recording of the reflected
waves on suitably located receiver called Geophones.

High Resolution seismic Survey (HRSS) is very useful in detailed coal exploration
specially for mapping of underground geological features like faults, fold, wash-outs, rolls, steep
dips, channel sands, layer of coal seams and others. This is the only method capable of indicating
a subsurface fault throw of the order of a few centimeters at depth of a few hundred meters.

Surface Resistivity and seismic refraction survey are useful for coal seam incrop delineation,
overburden estimation and locating ground water region at a shallow depth. These inexpensive
surveys help in reducing the number of exploratory borehole to be drilled in virgin areas.

Geophysical Logging of Core Bores

The technique of geophysical logging were developed to interpret lithology in non-cored well.
The geophysical logging usually less costly per meters than fully cored holes, a greater number
of them can be drilled for an equivalent total cost.

Gamma – Ray Logging :

The most abundant elements with radioactive isotope are potassium,

which is found in mica, feldspar and some clay minerals.
Strata with major proportions of these minerals, such as shales and felsic volcanic rocks, have
significantly higher levels of natural radioactivity than potassium poor strata, such as quartz
sandstone and coal.

In Gamma ray logging, a sonde containing a sensitive scintillation counter is passed slowly up
the hole, recording the natural radioactivity of the surrounding beds. The apparatus is calibrated
against a standard source prior to use, and is adjusted to take readings integrated over a suitable
‘Time Constant’ interval. If this time constant is too high, the resulting curve is smoothed out too
much to detect small-scale fluctuation, but if it is too low, in relation to the speed of passage of
the sonde, rapid fluctuation in background tend to mask any more meaningful trends.

Coal seams are distinguished by having very low gamma values. Shaley coals give a somewhat
high level of activity, however , and may be indistinguishable on the gamma log alone, from
sandstone or other strata.

Mafic igneous rocks also give low gamma ray values, but potassium rich felsic rocks give a
much stronger.

Black, partly marine shale commonly exhibit very high level of gamma ray activity if small
amount of uranium or thorium are present.

Density Logs:

Density logging is based on the response of the strata around the hole to incident gamma
rays, derived from a well shielded source, such as Caesium 137, incorporated in the Sonde.

Depending on the energy level used, this radiation can have one or more of the following effects
as it encounters the nuclei of the atoms in beds concerned.

a. Photoelectric effect:
At relatively low energy levels, the gamma ray photons are completely
absorbed, causing electrons (beta particles) to be ejected in the process.
b. Compton recoil effect:
At higher energy levels, the gamma rays may be partly back
scattered and processed in a different direction at lower energy. An
electron is also ejected in the process.
c. Pair production effect :
At still higher energy levels, the incident gamma ray is annihilated
and an electron position pair is produced.

Neutron Logging:

Neutron passing through a rock body are slowed or even captured by the atomic
nuclei in their path.
Neutron logging is based on measuring the reduction in energy of these particles in different rock
types, or the gamma radiation emitted from the strata as a result of neutron capture.

The sonde consists of a neutron source, coupled with either a neutron counter (for neutron-
neutron logging) or a gamma ray detector (neutron –gamma logging).

Atomic nuclei of low mass, such as those of hydrogen, produced the greatest energy loss in
bombarding neutron. In slowing them down they also provide more opportunity for neutron
capture by other elements. Most of the hydrogen in sedimentary sequences occurs as water in
pores or as part of the clay minerals and the neutron log is commonly used to identify rock types
on the basis of their porosity.

Resistivity logging:

Focused resistivity logs are designed to direct most of their energy through the
mud cake and as far into the surrounding rocks as possible. They are less affected by the mud
cake or bore fluid, they give more accurate representation of the resistivity of the strata than the
conventional resistivity techniques.