Problems and Solutions to Smith/Hashemi

Foundations of Materials Science and Engineering 4/e

Chapter 11, Problem 1

Define a ceramic material.

Chapter 11, Solution 1

Ceramic materials are inorganic, nonmetallic materials that consist of metallic and nonmetallic elements bonded
together primarily by ionic and/or covalent bonds.

Chapter 11, Problem 2

What are some properties common to most ceramic materials?

Chapter 11, Solution 2

While the properties of ceramic materials vary greatly, most ceramic materials are hard and brittle with low
toughness and ductility but good electrical and thermal insulating properties. Also, ceramic materials typically have
high melting temperatures and high chemical stability.

Chapter 11, Problem 3

Distinguish between traditional and engineering ceramic materials and give examples of each.

Chapter 11, Solution 3

Traditional ceramic materials are typically made from three components – clay, feldspar and silica – whereas
engineering ceramics consist of pure or nearly pure compounds such as aluminum oxide ( Al2 O3 ), silicon carbide
(SiC), and silicon nitride ( Si3 N 4 ). Examples of traditional ceramics include bricks, tiles and electrical porcelain
while applications of engineering ceramics include silicon carbide parts for high temperature gas turbine engine
components, zirconium dioxide crucibles for melting superalloys, and high performance ball bearing and races made
of titanium and carbon nitride.

Chapter 11, Problem 4

Using Pauling’s equation (Eq. 2.10), compare the percent covalent character of the following compounds: hafnium
carbide, titanium carbide, tantalum carbide, boron carbide, and silicon carbide.

Chapter 11, Solution 4

Recall that Pauling’s equation gives the percent covalent character as:

2
% covalent character = e −0.25 ( X A − X B ) × 100%
Applying this equation, a table can be generated as follows.

Electronegativities % Covalent
Compound (XA –XB)2 -0.25(XA –XB)2
XA XB Character
HfC 1.2 2.5 1.69 -0.4225 65.5
TiC 1.3 2.5 1.44 -0.360 69.8
TaC 1.4 2.5 1.21 -0.3025 73.9
BC 2.0 2.5 0.25 -0.0625 93.9
SiC 1.8 2.5 0.49 -0.1225 88.5

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Chapter 11, Problem 5

What two main factors affect the packing of ions in ionic solids?

Chapter 11, Solution 5

The two main factors which affect the packing of ions in ionic solids are:

1. The relative size of the ions in the ionic solid, assuming the ions are hard spheres with definite radii;
2. The need to balance the electrostatic charges to maintain electrical neutrality within the ionic solid.

Chapter 11, Problem 6

Define (a) coordination number and (b) critical radius ratio for the packing of ions in ionic solids.

Chapter 11, Solution 6

(a) The coordination number is the number of anions that surround a central cation.

(b) The critical radius ratio is the ratio of the radius of the central cation to the radius of the surrounding anions.

Chapter 11, Problem 7

Using Fig. 11.59, calculate the critical radius ratio for octahedral coordination.

Figure 11.59

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Chapter 11, Solution 7

Figure 11.59 (a) Octahedral coordination of six anions (radii = R) around a central cation of radius r. (b)
Horizontal section through center of (a).

From the triangle shown above in Fig. 11.59 (b),

[2(r + R)]2 = ( 2 R )2 + ( 2 R )2
(r + R)2 = 2 R 2
r + R = 2R
r = 2 R − R = 0.414 R
r
= 0.414
R

Chapter 11, Problem 8

Predict the coordination number for (a) BaO and (b) LiF. Ionic radii are Ba2+ = 0.143 nm, O2- = 0.132 nm, Li+ =
0.078 nm, F- = 0.133 nm.

Chapter 11, Solution 8

(a) Using Appendix IV, the radius ratio for BaO is

rcation r (Ba 2+ ) 0.143

= = = 1.08
ranion R(O 2− ) 0.132

This ratio is greater than 0.732 and greater than 1.0. This is an unusual case in which the cation is
larger than the anion because the elements respectively lie in Periods 6 and 2 of the periodic table. But
if we invert this ratio to represent an anion surrounded by cations, we obtain 0.93. BaO should thus
show cubic coordination (CN = 8). The solid is actually octahedral, CN = 6.

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(b) Using Appendix IV, the radius ratio for LiF is

rcation r (Li + ) 0.078

= = = 0.59
ranion R(F − ) 0.133

This ratio is greater than 0.414 and less than 0.732, thus LiF should have an octahedron coordination
number, CN = 6, and it does.

Chapter 11, Problem 9

Calculate the density in grams per cubic centimeter of CsI, which has the CsCl structure. Ionic radii are Cs+ = 0.165
nm and I- = 0.220 nm.

Chapter 11, Solution 9

For the CsCl structure, 3a = 2(r + R) . Thus, the lattice constant measures,

2
a= (0.165 nm + 0.220 nm ) = 0.445 nm = 4.45 ×10−8 cm
3
−
Since the unit cell of CsI contains one Cs+ and one I ion, its mass is

(1Cs + ×132.9 g/mol) + (1I − × 126.9 g/mol)

munit cell = 23
= 4.32 ×10−22 g
6.02 ×10 ions/mol
The density is thus calculated as,

m m 4.32 × 10−22 g
ρ= = 3= −8 3
= 4.90 g/cm 3
V a (4.45 ×10 cm)

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Chapter 11, Problem 10

Calculate the density in grams per cubic centimeter of CsBr, which has the CsCl structure. Ionic radii are Cs+ =
0.165 nm and Br- = 0.196 nm.

Chapter 11, Solution 10

For the CsCl structure, 3a = 2(r + R) . Thus, the lattice constant is,

2
a= (0.165 nm + 0.196 nm ) = 0.417 nm = 4.17 ×10−8 cm
3
−
Since the unit cell of CsI contains one Cs+ and one Br ion, its mass is

(1Cs + ×132.9 g/mol) + (1Br − × 79.90 g/mol)

munit cell = 23
= 3.53 ×10−22 g
6.02 ×10 ions/mol
The density is thus calculated as,

m m 3.53 × 10−22 g
ρ= = 3= −8 3
= 4.87 g/cm 3
V a (4.17 ×10 cm)

Chapter 11, Problem 11

Calculate the linear densities in ions per nanometer in the [110] and [111] directions for (a) NiO and (b) CdO. Ionic
radii are Ni2+ = 0.078 nm, Cd2+= 0.103 nm, and O2- = 0.132 nm.

Chapter 11, Solution 11

Since NiO and CdO have the NaCl crystal structure, a = 2( r + R ).

(a) For NiO in the [110] direction,

a = 2(rNi2+ + RO2 − ) = 2(0.078 nm + 0.132 nm)

= 0.420 nm
Ni 2+

2Ni 2+ 2Ni 2+
ρL = = = 3.37 Ni 2+ /nm
2a 2 (0.420 nm )
[ 110 ]

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If we shift the origin from (0, 0, 0) to (0, ½, 0), we obtain

2O 2− 2O 2−
ρL = = = 3.37 O 2− /nm
2a (
2 0.420 nm )

For the [111] direction, Ni 2+ [ 111 ]

1O 2− 1O 2−
ρL = = = 1.37 O 2− /nm O 2−
3a 3 (0.420 nm )

1Ni 2+ 1Ni 2+
ρL = = = 1.37 Ni 2+ /nm
3a 3 (0.420 nm )

(b) For CdO in the [110] direction,

a = 2(rCd 2+ + RO2− ) = 2(0.103 nm + 0.132 nm) = 0.470 nm

2Cd 2+ 2Cd 2+
ρL = = = 3.01 Cd 2+ /nm
2a 2 (0.470 nm )

Moving the origin from (0, 0, 0) to (0, ½, 0),

2O 2− 2O 2−
ρL = = = 3.01 O 2− /nm
2a 2 ( 0.470 nm )

For the [111] direction,

1O 2− 1O 2−
ρL = = = 1.23 O 2− /nm
3a (
3 0.470 nm )

1Ni 2+ 1Ni 2+
ρL = = = 1.23 Ni 2+ /nm
3a 3 (0.470 nm )

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Chapter 11, Problem 12

Calculate the planar densities in ions per square nanometer on the (111) and (110) planes for (a) CoO and (b) LiCl.
Ionic radii are Co2+ = 0.082 nm, O2- = 0.132 nm, Li+ = 0.078 nm, and Cl- = 0.181 nm.

Chapter 11, Solution 12

First recognize that both CoO and LiCl have the NaCl structure.

2−
(a) For CoO, if we consider the O anions to be located at
the FCC positions of a cubic unit cell, then the (111) plane (111)
contains the equivalent of two anions.

3 × 1 6 anion + 3 × 1 2 anion = 2 anions

The lattice constant is a = 2( r + R ) = 2(0.082 nm + 0.132 nm) = 0.428 nm . The area of the
(111) plane is,

 3 
A(111) = bh = ( 2a )  a  =
1 1 3 2 3
a = (0.428 nm) 2 = 0.159 nm 2
2 2  2  2 2

2−
The planar density for the O anions then becomes,

2(O 2− ions)
ρ planar = 2
= 12.6 O 2- ions/nm 2
0.159 nm

The planar density of the Co2+ cations is the same if we consider them to be located at the FCC
lattice points of the unit cell. Consequently,

ρ planar (CoO ) = 12.6 (Co2+ or O 2- ) ions/nm 2

For the (110) plane, we have two ions contained

within the plane. The area of the plane is,
a

A(110) = bh = ( 2a ) ( a ) =
1 1 2 2 2
a = (0.428 nm) 2
2 2 2 2
= 0.13 nm 2

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The (110) planar densities for CoO are,

2(O 2− ions)
ρ planar = 2
= 15.4 O 2- ions/nm 2
0.13 nm
2(Co 2+ ions)
ρ planar = 2
= 15.4 Co 2+ ions/nm 2
0.13 nm

(b) Similarly, for LiCl, the (111) planar densities are calculated as:

a = 2(r + R) = 2(0.078 nm + 0.181 nm) = 0.518 nm

1 3 2 3
A(111) = bh = a = (0.518 nm)2 = 0.232 nm 2
2 2 2
−
2(Cl ions)
ρ planar = 2
= 8.6 Cl − ions/nm 2
0.232 nm
2(Li + ions)
ρ planar = 2
= 8.6 Li + ions/nm 2
0.232 nm

For the (110) plane,

1 2 2 2
A(110) = bh = a = (0.518 nm) 2 = 0.19 nm 2
2 2 2
2(Cl− ions)
ρ planar = 2
= 10.5 Cl − ions/nm 2
0.19 nm
2(Li + ions)
ρ planar = 2
= 10.5 Li + ions/nm 2
0.19 nm

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Chapter 11, Problem 13

Calculate the density in grams per cubic centimeter of (a) SrO and (b) VO. Ionic radii are V2+ = 0.065 nm, Co2+ =
0.082 nm, and O2- = 0.132 nm.

Chapter 11, Solution 13

Both SrO and VO have the NaCl structure so a = 2( r + R ) and there are four anions and four cations per unit cell.

(a) For SrO,

a = 2(r + R) = 2(0.127 nm + 0.132 nm) = 0.518 nm

(4Sr 2+ × 87.62 g/mol) + (4O 2− × 16.00 g/mol)
munit cell = 23
= 6.89 ×10−22 g
6.02 ×10 ions/mol
The density is thus calculated as,

m m 6.89 ×10−22 g
ρ= = 3= −8 3
= 4.96 g/cm 3
V a (5.18 ×10 cm)

(b) For VO,

a = 2(r + R) = 2(0.065 nm + 0.132 nm) = 0.394 nm

(4V 2+ × 50.94 g/mol) + (4O 2− × 16.00 g/mol)
munit cell = 23
= 4.45 ×10−22 g
6.02 ×10 ions/mol
The density is thus,

m m 4.45 × 10−22 g
ρ= = 3= −8 3
= 7.27 g/cm 3
V a (3.94 ×10 cm)

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Chapter 11, Problem 14

Calculate the ionic packing factor for (a) MnO and (b) SrO. Ionic radii are Mn2+ = 0.091 nm, Sr2+ = 0.127 nm, and
O2- = 0.132 nm.

Chapter 11, Solution 14

Both MnO and SrO have the NaCl structure. Thus there are four anions and four cations per unit cell and the ionic
packing factor is calculated using the equation:

Vol. of ions per unit cell 4 ( 4 3 π r ) + 4 ( 4 3 π R ) 16 3 π (r 3 + R 3 )

3 3
IPF = = =
Vol. of unit cell a3 a3

(a) For MnO, a = 2(0.091 nm + 0.132 nm) = 0.446 nm and the IPF is

16
3 π (r
3
+ R3 ) 16π  (0.091 nm)3 + (0.132 nm)3 
IPF = = = 0.577
a3 3(0.446 nm)3

(b) For SrO, a = 2(0.127 nm + 0.132 nm) = 0.518 nm and the IPF is

16
3 π (r
3
+ R3 ) 16π (0.127 nm)3 + (0.132 nm)3 
IPF = = = 0.524
a3 3(0.518 nm)3

Chapter 11, Problem 15

ZnTe has the zinc blende crystal structure. Calculate the density of ZnTe. Ionic radii are Zn2+ = 0.083 nm and Te2- =
0.211 nm.

Chapter 11, Solution 15

Since ZnTe has the zinc blende crystal structure (ZnS), there are four zinc ions and four tellurium ions per unit cell.
4
Also, the lattice constant is calculated as a = (r + R ) .
3

4 4
a= (r + R) = (0.083 nm + 0.211 nm) = 0.679 nm
3 3
(4Zn 2+ × 65.38 g/mol) + (4Te 2− × 127.6 g/mol)
m unit cell = = 1.28 ×10−21 g
6.02 × 1023 ions/mol
The density is thus calculated as,

m m 1.28 ×10−21 g
ρ= = 3= −8 3
= 4.09 g/cm 3
V a (6.79 ×10 cm)

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Chapter 11, Problem 16

BeO has the zinc blende crystal structure. Calculate the density of BeO. Ionic radii are Be2+ = 0.034 nm and O2- =
0.132 nm.

Chapter 11, Solution 16

Since BeO has the zinc blende crystal structure, there are four zinc ions and four oxygen ions per unit cell. Also, the
4
lattice constant is calculated as a = (r + R ) .
3

4 4
a= (r + R) = (0.034 nm + 0.132 nm) = 0.383 nm
3 3
(4Be 2+ × 9.012 g/mol) + (4O 2− × 16.00 g/mol)
m unit cell = 23
= 1.66 ×10−22 g
6.02 × 10 ions/mol
The density is thus calculated as,

m m 1.66 ×10−22 g
ρ= = 3= −8 3
= 2.95 g/cm 3
V a (3.83 × 10 cm)

Chapter 11, Problem 17

Draw the unit cell for BaF2, which has the fluorite (CaF2) crystal structure. If the Ba2+ ions occupy the FCC lattice
sites, which sites do the F- ions occupy?

Chapter 11, Solution 17

2+ −
The BaF2 unit cell is shown below. With the Ba ions occupying the FCC lattice sites, the F ions occupy the
tetrahedral interstitial sites.

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Chapter 11, Problem 18

Calculate the density in grams per cubic centimeter of ZrO2, which has the CaF2 crystal structure. Ionic radii are Zr4+
= 0.087 nm and O2- = 0.132 nm.

Chapter 11, Solution 18

4+ 2−
Since ZrO2 has the CaF2 crystal structure, there are four Zr ions and eight O ions per unit cell. Also, the
4
lattice constant is calculated as a = (r + R ) .
3

4 4
a= (r + R) = (0.087 nm + 0.132 nm) = 0.506 nm
3 3
(4Zr 2+ × 91.22 g/mol) + (8O 2− × 16.00 g/mol)
m unit cell = 23
= 8.19 ×10−22 g
6.02 ×10 ions/mol
The density is thus calculated as,

m m 8.19 ×10−22 g
ρ= = 3= −8 3
= 6.32 g/cm 3
V a (5.06 ×10 cm)

Chapter 11, Problem 19

What fraction of the octahedral interstitial sites are occupied in the CaF2 structure?

Chapter 11, Solution 19

All eight of the tetrahedral interstitial sites are occupied. However, none of the four octahedral interstitial sites are
occupied; thus the fraction is zero.

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Chapter 11, Problem 20

Calculate the linear density in ions per nanometer in the [111] and [110] directions for CeO2, which has the fluorite
structure. Ionic radii are Ce4+ = 0.102 nm and O2- = 0.132 nm.

Chapter 11, Solution 20

2−
For CeO2 in the [111] direction, there are two O and one O 2−
4+ [111]
Ce along the cube diagonal, which is 3a in length
.
Ce 4+
4 4
a= (r 4+ + RO2− ) = (0.102 nm + 0.132 nm)
3 Ce 3 Ce 4+
= 0.540 nm

1Ce 4+ + 2O 2− 1Ce 4+ + 2O 2−
ρL = =
3a 3 (0.540 nm )
= (1.07Ce4+ + 2.14 O 2− )/nm

For the [110] direction,

Ce 4+
2Ce 4+ 2Ce4+
ρL = = = 2.62 Ce4+ /nm
2a 2 ( 0.540 nm )
[ 110 ]

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Chapter 11, Problem 21

Calculate the planar density in ions per square nanometer in the (111) and (110) planes of ThO2, which has the
fluorite structure. Ionic radii are Th4+ = 0.110 nm and O2- = 0.132 nm.
(111) plane
4+
Chapter 11, Solution 21 Th
4+
If we consider the Th cations to be located at the FCC positions
2−
of a cubic unit cell, and the O anions in the tetrahedral interstitial a
sites, then the (111) plane contains the equivalent of two cations.

3 × 1 6 cation + 3 × 1 2 cation = 2 cations

Th 4+
4 4
The lattice constant is a = (rTh 4+ + RO2− ) = (0.110 nm + 0.132 nm) = 0.559 nm .
3 3
The area of the (111) plane is,

 3 
A(111) = bh = ( 2a )  a  =
1 1 3 2 3
a = (0.559 nm) 2 = 0.270 nm 2
2 2  2  2 2
4+
The planar density for the Th cations on the (111) plane is thus,

2(Th 4+ ions)
ρ planar = 2
= 7.4 Th 4+ ions/nm 2
0.270 nm
For the (110) plane, we have two ions contained within the plane.
The area of the plane is,

A(110) = bh = ( 2a ) ( a ) =
1 1 2 2 2
a = (0.559 nm) 2
2 2 2 2
a
2
= 0.221 nm
The (110) planar densities for ThO are,

2−
Th 4+ O 2−
4(O ions)
ρ planar = = 18.1 O 2− ions/nm 2
0.221 nm 2
2(Th 4+ ions)
ρ planar = 2
= 9.1 Th 4+ ions/nm 2
0.221 nm

ρ planar (ThO2 ) = 18.1 O 2− or 9.1 Th 4+ ions/nm 2

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Chapter 11, Problem 22

Calculate the ionic packing factor for SrF2, which has the fluorite structure. Ionic radii are Sr2+ = 0.127 nm and F- =
0.133 nm.

Chapter 11, Solution 22

Vol. of ions per unit cell (

4
3π ) (4rSr3 2+ ) + (8R )
3
F−
IPF = =
Vol. of unit cell a3

4
where a = (0.127 nm + 0.133 nm) = 0.600 nm . Substituting,
3

4π  4(0.127 nm)3 + 8(0.133 nm)3 

IPF = = 0.524
3(0.600 nm)3
4(O 2− ions)
ρ planar = 2
= 18.1 O 2− ions/nm 2
0.221 nm
2(Th 4+ ions)
ρ planar = 2
= 9.1 Th 4+ ions/nm 2
0.221 nm

ρ planar (ThO2 ) = 18.1 O 2− or 9.1 Th 4+ ions/nm 2

Chapter 11, Problem 23

What is the antifluorite structure? What ionic compounds have this structure? What fraction of the tetrahedral
interstitial sites are occupied by cations?

Chapter 11, Solution 23

The antifluorite structure consists of an FCC unit cell with anions occupying the FCC lattice points and cations
occupying all eight tetrahedral sites. Thus the cation and anion positions of the fluorite structure are reversed.
Examples of compounds having this structure are Li 2 O, Na 2 O, K 2 O, and Mg 2 O. The fraction of the
tetrahedral sites occupied by cations is one (1.0).

Chapter 11, Problem 24

Why are only two-thirds of the octahedral interstitial sites filled by Al3+ ions when the oxygen ions occupy the HCP
lattice sites in Al2O3?

Chapter 11, Solution 24

When the oxygen ions occupy the HCP lattice sites in Al2 O3 , only two-thirds of the octahedral interstitial sites are
3+ 3+ 2−
filled by Al ions in order to maintain electrical neutrality. There can only be two Al ions for every three O
ions.

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Chapter 11, Problem 25

Describe the perovskite structure. What fraction of the octahedral interstitial sites are occupied by the tetravalent
cation?

Chapter 11, Solution 25

2+ 2−
The perovskite structure (CaTiO3) consists of an FCC unit cell with Ca cations in the corners, O anions in the
4+ 4+
face centers, and a Ti cation in the center octahedral interstitial site. The tetravalent cation Ti fills one- fourth
of the octahedral sites.

Chapter 11, Problem 26

Calculate the ionic packing factor for CaTiO3 , which has the perovskite structure. Ionic radii are

Ca 2+ = 0.106 nm, Ti 4+ = 0.064 nm, and O 2 − = 0.132 nm. Assume the lattice constant
a = 2 ( rTi 4+ + rO2− ).

Chapter 11, Solution 26

In the perovskite structure, there are a total of one calcium ion, one titanium ion, and three oxygen atoms. The ionic
packing factor is therefore calculated as,

Vol. of ions per unit cell (

4
3π ) (rCa3 2+ ) + (r ) + (3r )
3
Ti 4 +
3
O2−
IPF = =
Vol. of unit cell a3

where a = 2 r ( Ti 4 + )
+ rO2− = 2(0.064 nm + 0.132 nm) = 0.392 nm . Substituting,

4π (0.106 nm)3 + (0.064 nm)3 + 3(0.132)3 

IPF = = 0.581
3(0.392 nm)3

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Chapter 11, Problem 27

Calculate the density in grams per cubic centimeter of SrSnO3, which has the perovskite structure. Ionic radii are
Sr2+ = 0.127 nm, Sn4+ = 0.074 nm, and O2- = 0.132 nm. Assume a = 2(rSn4+ + rO 2- ).

Chapter 11, Solution 27

For a = 2 r ( Sn 4 + )
+ rO2 − = 2(0.074 nm + 0.132 nm) = 0.412 nm , and a unit cell mass of

(1Sr 2+ × 87.62 g/mol) + (1Sn 4+ ×118.7 g/mol) + (3O 2− × 16.00 g/mol)

m unit cell =
6.02 ×1023 ions/mol
= 4.22 ×10−22 g

The density is thus calculated as,

m m 4.22 ×10−22 g
ρ= = 3= −8 3
= 6.03 g/cm 3
V a (4.12 ×10 cm)

Chapter 11, Problem 28

What is the spinel crystal structure?

Chapter 11, Solution 28

The spinel structure has the general form AB2 O 4 where A represents a metal ion with a +2 valence and B is a
metal cation with a +3 valence. The oxygen ions form an FCC lattice in which the A and B ions occupy the
octahedral and tetrahedral interstitial sites.

Chapter 11, Problem 29

Draw a section of the graphite structure. Why are the layers of graphite able to slide past each other easily?

Chapter 11, Solution 29

The layers of graphite within the graphite structure can
easily slide past each other because the bonds between the
layers are weak secondary bonds, as compared to the
strong covalent bonds between the carbon atoms
constituting the layers.

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Chapter 11, Problem 30

Describe and illustrate the following silicate structures: (a) island, (b) chain, and (c) sheet.

Chapter 11, Solution 30

2+ 2+
(a) Island silicate structures are formed when positive ions, such as Mg and Fe bond with oxygen anions of
the SiO 44− tetrahedra.
4−
(b) Chain or ring structures are produced when two corners of each SiO 4 tetrahedron bond with the corners of
2−
two other tetrahedra. The result is the SiO3 structure.
(c) Sheet silicate structures form when three corners in the same plane of a silicate tetrahedron are bonded to the
2−
corners of three other silicate tetrahedra. The unit chemical formula of this structure is Si 2 O5 .

Chapter 11, Problem 31

Describe the structure of a sheet of kaolinite.

Chapter 11, Solution 31

2−
A sheet of kaolinite consists of a negatively charged silicate sheet ( Si 2 O5 ) bonded to a positively charged sheet of
2+
Al2 (OH )4 . This composite sheet is comprised of small, flat hexagonal plates of parallel sheets bonded by weak
secondary bonds.

Chapter 11, Problem 32

Describe the bonding arrangement in the cristobalite (silica) network structure.

Chapter 11, Solution 32

In the cristobalite silica structure, each silicon atom is bonded to four oxygen atoms and each oxygen atom forms
4−
part of two SiO 4 tetrahedra. The resulting network structure is a common crystalline phase of silica which exists
at high temperatures of 1470 to 1710°C.

Chapter 11, Problem 33

Describe the feldspar network structure.

Chapter 11, Solution 33

4+ 3+
In the feldspar silicate structural network, some of the Si ions are replaced by Al ions. The resulting
negatively charged network is balanced by large cations of the alkali and alkaline earth elements, such as
Na + , K + , and Ca 2+ , which fit into the interstitial sites.

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Chapter 11, Problem 34

What are the basic steps in the processing of ceramic products by the agglomeration of particles?

Chapter 11, Solution 34

The basic steps in the processing of ceramic products by the agglomeration are:

1. material preparation
2. forming or casting
3. thermal treatment by drying and firing to a high enough temperature for the particles to bond.

Chapter 11, Problem 35

What types of ingredients are added to ceramic particles in preparing ceramic raw materials for processing?

Chapter 11, Solution 35

Binders, lubricants and other additives are added to ceramic particles to achieve the desired set of ceramic
properties.

Chapter 11, Problem 36

Describe two methods for preparing ceramic raw materials for processing.

Chapter 11, Solution 36

Ceramic raw materials are prepared by wet processing, dry processing or a combination of wet and dry processing.
In wet processing, the additives are blended with water while in dry processing, the additives are ground dry with
the raw materials.

Chapter 11, Problem 37

Describe the dry-pressing method for producing such ceramic products as technical ceramic compounds and
structural refractories. What are the advantages of dry-pressing ceramic materials?

Chapter 11, Solution 37

In dry pressing, granular ceramic powder, in solution with small amounts of water and/or organic binder, is
simultaneously compacted and shaped in a die. Subsequently, the parts are typically fired to achieve the desired
microstructural properties such as strength. The advantages of dry-pressing ceramic materials are the ability to
rapidly form a wide variety of shapes and the capability to achieve uniformity and close tolerances.

Chapter 11, Problem 38

Describe the isostatic-pressing method for producing ceramic products.

Chapter 11, Solution 38

In the isostatic process, the ceramic powder is loaded into a flexible airtight container that is inside a chamber of
hydraulic fluid. Pressure is then applied to the fluid to compact the powder uniformly. The product, which possesses
the shape of the container, is fired to attain the required microstructure and properties.

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Chapter 11, Problem 39

Describe the four stages in the manufacture of a spark of plug insulator.

Chapter 11, Solution 39

In manufacturing a spark plug insulator, four stages are completed: isostatic pressing, turning the blank, firing to
fuse the powder, and glazing.

Chapter 11, Problem 40

What are the advantages of hot-pressing ceramics materials?

Chapter 11, Solution 40

The advantages of hot-pressing ceramics materials are producing improved mechanical properties and achieving
high densities.

Chapter 11, Problem 41

Describe the steps in the slip-casting process for ceramic products.

Chapter 11, Solution 41

In the slip-casting process, five steps must be completed:

1. A powdered ceramic material and a liquid are prepared as a stable suspension called a slip.
2. The slip is poured into a porous mold which absorbs some of the slip liquid. The remaining slip forms a
semihard layer on the mold surface.
3. For a drain casting process, excess slip is poured out of the cavity once a sufficient wall thickness has formed.
For a solid casting process, casting is continued until the entire mold cavity is filled.
4. The material in the mold is allowed to dry to provide adequate strength for handling and the subsequent removal
of the part from the mold.
5. Finally, the cast part is fired to attain the required microstructure and properties.

Chapter 11, Problem 42

What is the difference between (a) drain and (b) solid slip casting?

Chapter 11, Solution 42

Refer to step (3) in the solution to Problem 11.41.

Chapter 11, Problem 43

What are the advantages of slip casting?

Chapter 11, Solution 43

Advantages of slip casting include the ability to form parts with thin-walls and complex shapes and the low cost
associated with creating developmental parts and short production runs.

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Chapter 11, Problem 44

What types of ceramic products are produced by extrusion? What are the advantages of this process? Limitations?

Chapter 11, Solution 44

Extrusion is used to produce ceramic products which have a uniform cross-section (bricks and tiles) and which are
hollow (sewer pipes). The advantages associated with this process include the ability to efficiently form a single
long shape which is subsequently cut to the desired lengths and the ability to achieve close tolerances. However, the
extrusion process is limited by the need to produce a constant cross-section and by the need to cool the extruded part
by air-blast or water cooling.

Chapter 11, Problem 45

What are the purposes of drying ceramic products before firing?

Chapter 11, Solution 45

Ceramics are dried before firing in order to remove water and organic binders.

Chapter 11, Problem 46

What is the sintering process? What occurs to the ceramic particles during sintering?

Chapter 11, Solution 46

The sintering process is a thermal treatment which causes ceramic particles to bond together by solid-state diffusion.
This diffusion process, driven by high temperatures, occurs between the contacting surfaces of the particles and
allows them to chemically bond. As the process proceeds, the sintered particles increase in size until an equilibrium
grain size is attained. The energy of the surfaces of these grain boundaries is lower than the surface energy
associated with the original individual particles.

Chapter 11, Problem 47

What is the vitrification process? In what type of ceramic materials does vitrification take place?

Chapter 11, Solution 47

In the vitrification process, the glass phase of the ceramic liquefies and fills the material’s pores during firing, and
then solidifies during cooling to form a vitreous or glassy matrix that bonds the particles. This process takes place in
ceramic materials containing a glass phase such as porcelain and structural clay.

Chapter 11, Problem 48

What are the three basic components of traditional ceramics?

Chapter 11, Solution 48

The three basic components of traditional ceramics are clay, silica (flint) and feldspar.

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Chapter 11, Problem 49

What is the approximate composition of kaolin clay?

Chapter 11, Solution 49

The approximate composition of kaolin clay is 45.5 percent SiO 2 , 37.4 percent Al2 O3 ,
13.9 percent H 2 O, 1.68 percent Fe2 O3 , 1.30 percent TiO2 , 0.03 percent MgO, 0.011
percent Na 2 O, 0.004 percent CaO, and 0.005 percent K 2 O.

Chapter 11, Problem 50

What is the role of clay in traditional ceramics?

Chapter 11, Solution 50

In traditional ceramics, clay constitutes the primary component of the ceramic and makes the material workable
prior to firing.

Chapter 11, Problem 51

What is flint? What role does it have in traditional ceramics?

Chapter 11, Solution 51

Flint, also called quartz, is silica (SiO2) and serves as the refractory component of traditional ceramics.

Chapter 11, Problem 52

What is feldspar? What role does it have in traditional ceramics?

Chapter 11, Solution 52

Feldspar is an aluminum silicate crystalline mineral containing potassium, sodium or calcium. Because feldspar
turns into glass upon firing, it is often used in traditional ceramics to bond together the refractory components.

Chapter 11, Problem 53

List some examples of whiteware ceramic products.

Chapter 11, Solution 53

Examples of whiteware ceramic products are bone china, dental porcelain, electrical insulation ware, vitreous tile
and vitreous sanitary ware.

Chapter 11, Problem 54

Why is the term triaxial used to describe some whitewares?

Chapter 11, Solution 54

The term triaxial refers to the fact that the whiteware is composed of three primary materials – clay, feldspar and
flint.

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Chapter 11, Problem 55

Determine the composition of the ternary compound at point y in Fig. 11.34.

Figure 11.34

Chapter 11, Solution 55

At point y, the ternary compound has the composition 27 percent leucite, 36 percent silica, and 37 percent mullite.

Chapter 11, Problem 56

Why are triaxial porcelains not satisfactory for use at high frequencies?

Chapter 11, Solution 56

Triaxial porcelains are not satisfactory insulators for high frequency applications because dielectric losses become
too large.

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Chapter 11, Problem 57

What kinds of ions cause an increase in the conductivity of electrical porcelain?

Chapter 11, Solution 57

Alkali ions cause an increase in the conductivity of electrical porcelain.

Chapter 11, Problem 58

What is the composition of most technical ceramics?

Chapter 11, Solution 58

Most technical ceramics are composed of pure compounds or nearly pure compounds of chiefly oxides, carbides and
nitrides.

Chapter 11, Problem 59

How are pure single-compound technical ceramic particles processed to produce a solid product? Give an example.

Chapter 11, Solution 59

Technical ceramics are typically cold or hot-pressed and then subjected to a process, such as sintering or reaction
bonding, so that bonding can occur. Examples of technical ceramic are silicon nitride, alumina, silicon carbide and
zirconia.

Chapter 11, Problem 60

What causes the lack of plasticity in crystalline ceramics?

Chapter 11, Solution 60

The lack of plasticity in crystalline ceramics is attributed to their ionic and covalent chemical bonds. In covalent
crystals and covalently bonded ceramics, atoms bond through the exchange of electron charge between pairs of
electrons, in a specific and directional manner. Consequently, if the ceramic is sufficiently stressed, electron-pair
bonds undergo irreparable separation, causing the material to experience brittle fracture.

Chapter 11, Problem 61

Explain the plastic deformation mechanism for some single-crystal ionic solids such as NaCl and MgO. What is the
preferred slip system?

Chapter 11, Solution 61

For some single-crystal ionic solids, such as NaCl and MgO, compressive stresses at room temperature cause
considerable plastic deformation prior to fracture because planes of oppositely charged ions can slip relative to each
other. These slip planes, which maintain their attraction through coulombic forces, typically prefer the {110}<110>
slip system for NaCl-type structures.

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Chapter 11, Problem 62

What structural defects are the main cause of failure of polycrystalline ceramic materials?

Chapter 11, Solution 62

Brittle fracture of polycrystalline ceramics is principally caused by one of four structural defects: cracks produced
during surface finishing; voids; inclusions; and large grains produced during processing.

Chapter 11, Problem 63

How do (a) porosity and (b) grain size affect the tensile strength of ceramic materials?

Chapter 11, Solution 63

(a) Pores serve as a source for stress induced crack initiation/propagation and reduce the cross-sectional area
available for load application. Consequently, as the porosity of a ceramic material increases, the material tensile
strength decreases.

(b) For a porosity-free ceramic, the flaw size, and thus the strength, is solely a function of grain size; the finer the
grain size, the smaller the flaws at grain boundaries and the greater the ceramic tensile strength.

Chapter 11, Problem 64

m m 1.28×10−21 g
A reaction-bonded silicon nitride ceramic has a strength of 250 MPa and a fracture toughness of 3.4 ρ=V=a =(6.79×10− cm) =4.09g/cm.
3
3 8 3

What is the largest-sized internal flaw that this material can support without fracturing? (Use Y = 1 in the fracture-
toughness equation.)

Chapter 11, Solution 64

m m 4.45 × 10 − 22 g
ρ = = 3 = −8
= 7.27 g/cm 3
V a (3.94 × 10 cm ) 3

Thus the largest internal flaw is 2a = 2(58.9 O 2 − ) = 117.8 µm .

Chapter 11, Problem 65

The maximum-sized internal flaw in a hot-pressed silicon carbide ceramic is 25 µm. If this material has a fracture
toughness of 3.7 MPa − m , what is the maximum stress that this material can support? (Use Y = π .)

Chapter 11, Solution 65

1  K IC  1  3.7 MPa- m 
σf =  =   = 236 MPa
πa  Y  π (2.5 × 10−5 m)  π 

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Chapter 11, Problem 66

A partially stabilized zirconia advanced ceramic has a strength of 352 MPa and a fracture toughness of 7.5
MPa − m . What is the largest-sized internal flaw (expressed in micrometers) that this material can support?
(Use Y = π .)

Chapter 11, Solution 66

2 2 2
1 K  1  7.5 MPa- m   7.5 MPa- m  −5
a =  IC  =   =  = 4.60 ×10 m = 46.0 µ m
π  Y σ f  π  π (352 MPa)   π (352 MPa) 

Thus the largest internal flaw is 2a = 2(46.0 µ m ) = 92.0 µm .

Chapter 11, Problem 67

A fully stabilized, cubic polycrystalline ZrO 2 sample has a fracture toughness of K IC =3.8 MPa − m when
tested on a four-point bend test.

(a) If the sample fails at a stress of 450 MPa, what is the size of the largest surface flaw? Assume Y = √π .
(b) The same test is performed with a partially stabilized ZrO2 specimen. This material is transformation-toughened
and has a KIC = 12.5 MPa-√m. If this material has the same flaw distribution as the fully stabilized sample, what
stress must be applied to cause failure?

Chapter 11, Solution 67

(a) The largest edge or surface crack is equal to a :

2 2
1  K   3.8 MPa- m  −6
a =  IC  =   = 7.23 × 10 m = 7.23 µm
π  Y σ f   π (450 MPa) 

(b) The stress which will cause failure is:

1  K IC  1  12.5 MPa- m 
σf =  =   = 1480 MPa
π a  π  π  7.23 × 10−6 m 

Chapter 11, Problem 68

What are the two most important industrial abrasives?

Chapter 11, Solution 68

The two most important industrial abrasives are fused alumina (Al2O3) and silicon carbide (SiC).

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Chapter 11, Problem 69

What are important properties for industrial abrasives?

Chapter 11, Solution 69

Properties important to industrial abrasives include: porosity sufficient to allow air or liquid lubricant flow during
grinding, cutting and polishing processes; good heat stability for withstanding high frictional heat generation; and
high hardness for grinding and cutting processes.

Chapter 11, Problem 70

Why do most ceramic materials have low thermal conductivities?

Chapter 11, Solution 70

Most ceramic materials have low thermal conductivities because of their strong ionic-covalent bonding which
restricts the motion of electrons required for both thermal and electrical conduction. Pure metals are excellent
electron carriers and thus serve as important conductors of heat and electricity.

Chapter 11, Problem 71

What are refractories? What are some of their applications?

Chapter 11, Solution 71

Refractories are materials that have good heat resistance. They are used extensively by the metals, chemical, ceramic
and glass industries for applications such as linings for various types of furnaces, kilns, ovens, incinerators and
reactors.

Chapter 11, Problem 72

What are the two main types of ceramic refractory materials?

Chapter 11, Solution 72

The two main types of ceramic refractory materials are acidic refractories and basic refractories.

Chapter 11, Problem 73

Give the composition and several applications for the following refractories: (a) silica, (b) fireclay, and (c) high-
alumina.

Chapter 11, Solution 73

(a) Silica refractories contain 95 to 99 percent SiO2 and are used for chemical reactor linings, glass tank parts,
ceramic kilns and coke ovens.
(b) Fireclays are mixtures of plastic fireclay, flint (silica) clay, and clay grog which give a combined composition
of approximately 51 to 54 percent SiO2 and 37 to 42 percent Al2O3. Their refractory applications include linings
for cement, rotary, and lime kilns, linings for aluminum-melting and blast furnaces, and linings for incinerators.
(c) High-alumina refractories are composed of 45 to 99+ percent Al2O3 and 0 to 50 percent SiO2. These materials
are used in boiler, phosphate, carbon black and spent-acid furnaces, coke kilns, glass-tank refiner walls,
continuous-casting tundish linings, and coal gasification reactor linings.

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Chapter 11, Problem 74

What do most basic refractories consist of? What are some important properties of basic refractories? What is a
main application for these materials?

Chapter 11, Solution 74

Most basic refractories consist of magnesia (MgO), lime (CaO), and chrome ore (Cr2O3). Some of the important
properties associated with these materials are high bulk densities, high melting temperatures, and good resistance to
chemical corrosion by basic slags and oxides. Consequently, these refractories are used mainly for the linings of
basic-oxygen steelmaking furnaces.

Chapter 11, Problem 75

What is the high-temperature reusable-surface insulation that can withstand temperatures as high as 1260°C made
of?

Chapter 11, Solution 75

High-temperature reusable surface insulation (HRSI) is made of a silica-fiber compound and can withstand 1260°C
(2300°F).

Chapter 11, Problem 76

Define a glass.

Chapter 11, Solution 76

While glass is a ceramic material – made from inorganic materials at high temperatures– it differs from other
ceramics in that its constituents are heated to fusion and then cooled in the rigid state without crystallization. Thus
glass is formally defined as an organic product of fusion that has cooled to a rigid condition without crystallization.

Chapter 11, Problem 77

What are some of the properties of glasses that make them indispensable for many engineering designs?

Chapter 11, Solution 77

Glasses are indispensable to many engineering designs because they possess a unique combination of special
properties – transparency, hardness and sufficient strength at room temperature, and excellent corrosion resistance to
most environments.

Chapter 11, Problem 78

How is a glass distinguished from other ceramic materials?

Chapter 11, Solution 78

Unlike all other ceramic materials, glass constituents are heated to fusion and then cooled in the rigid state without
crystallization. As a consequence, glass has an amorphous structure rather than crystalline.

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Chapter 11, Problem 79

How does the specific volume versus temperature plot for a glass differ from that for a crystalline material when
these materials are cooled from the liquid state?

Chapter 11, Solution 79

The plot of specific volume versus temperature for a glass differs from that of a crystalline material in two ways.
First, the glass does not experience a rapid decrease in specific volume at a temperature associated with a melting
point; the glass cooling curve conveys a gradual decrease in specific volume throughout the cooling range. Second,
the glass curve contains a marked decrease in slope at a glass transition temperature which other ceramics do not
possess.

Chapter 11, Problem 80

Define the glass transition temperature.

Chapter 11, Solution 80

The glass transition temperature, Tg , is the temperature at which the two slopes of a glass specific volume versus
temperature curve intersect. Physically, this temperature falls within the narrow temperature range in which a glass
changes from a rubbery, soft plastic state to a rigid, brittle glassy state. Thus, the Tg represents the point at which
the material behaves more like a solid than a liquid.

Chapter 11, Problem 81

Name two glass-forming oxides. What are their fundamental subunits and their shape?

Chapter 11, Solution 81

Silica (SiO2) and boron oxide (B2O3) are two glass-forming oxides. Their fundamental subunits are respectively, the
3−
SiO4-
4 tetrahedron and the BO3 flat triangle.

Chapter 11, Problem 82

How does the silica network of a simple silica glass differ from crystalline (cristobalite) silica?

Chapter 11, Solution 82

In a simple glass, the tetrahedra are joined corner to corner, forming a loose network. In contrast, a crystalline
material, such as cristobalite, has Si-O tetrahedra joined corner to corner in a regular arrangement, producing a
network having a long-range order.

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Chapter 11, Problem 83

3− 4−
How is it possible for BO3 triangles to be converted to BO 4 tetrahedral and still maintain neutrality in some
borosilicate glasses?

Chapter 11, Solution 83

BO33− triangles can be converted to BO 44− tetrahedra by adding alkali and alkaline earth oxides whose cations
provide the necessary elecroneutrality.

Chapter 11, Problem 84

What are glass network modifiers? How do they affect the silica-glass network? Why are they added to silica glass?

Chapter 11, Solution 84

Glass network modifiers are oxides that break up the glass network. Examples include Na2O, K2O, CaO, and MgO.
These oxides affect the silica glass network by breaking the network at the tetrahedra points. As a result, the
tetrahedra have oxygen atoms with an unshared electron while the oxide’s metal cations remain as ions ionically
bonded in the network interstices. Glass modifiers are added to silica glass to facilitate forming and working the
glass by lowering its viscosity.

Chapter 11, Problem 85

What are glass intermediate oxides? How do they affect the silica-glass network? Why are they added to silica
glass?

Chapter 11, Solution 85

Glass intermediate oxides are oxides that cannot form a glass network by themselves but can join an existing one.
These oxides may act as modifiers of the structure as well as become a part of the network chain. In the latter case,
they sometimes leave the network deficient in electrons and alkali cations must be added for electrical neutrality.
The intermediate oxides are added to glass to obtain special properties. For example, large amounts (60 percent) of
lead oxide can be added to produce an ornamental glass of great brilliance.

Chapter 11, Problem 86

What is fused silica glass? What are some of its advantages and disadvantages?

Chapter 11, Solution 86

Fused silica glass is composed of 99.5 percent SiO2 and is the most important single-component glass. Its
advantageous properties include a high spectral transmission and the ability to withstand radiation without
browning. However, it is expensive and difficult to melt and fabricate.

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Problems and Solutions to Smith/Hashemi
Foundations of Materials Science and Engineering 4/e

Chapter 11, Problem 87

What is the basic composition of soda-lime glass? What are some of its advantages and disadvantages? What are
some applications for soda-lime glass?

Chapter 11, Solution 87

Soda-lime glass has a basic composition of 71 to 73 percent SiO2, 12 to 14 percent Na2O, and 10 to 12 percent CaO.
Advantages of soda-lime glass are its low cost and ease of forming due to a low softening point. Disadvantages
include low heat resistance and chemical durability. Some of its applications are windows, containers, electric bulbs,
and pressed and blown ware.

Chapter 11, Problem 88

What is the purpose of (a) MgO and (b) Al2O3 additions to soda-lime glass?

Chapter 11, Solution 88

(c) MgO is added to soda-lime glass in small quantities of 1 to 4 percent to prevent devitrification.
(d) Al2 O3 is added in quantities of 0.5 to 1.5 percent to increase durability.

Chapter 11, Problem 89

Define the following viscosity reference points for glasses: working, softening, annealing, and strain.

Chapter 11, Solution 89

The working point is the temperature which corresponds to a viscosity of 104 poises and which represents the
thermal state at which glass fabrication operations can be performed.

The softening point is the temperature which corresponds to a viscosity of 108 poises and which represents the
thermal state at which glass will flow at an appreciable rate under its own weight.

The annealing point is the temperature which corresponds to a viscosity of 1013 poises and which represents the
thermal state at which internal stresses can be relieved.

The strain point is the temperature which corresponds to a viscosity of 1014.5 poises and which represents the
thermal state below which the glass is rigid and stress relaxation only occurs at a slow rate.

Chapter 11, Problem 90

Distinguish between hard and soft glasses and long and short glasses.

Chapter 11, Solution 90

A hard glass has a high softening point as compared to a soft glass. Long glasses have large temperature differences
between their softening and strain points; they solidify more slowly than a short glass as the temperature decreases.

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Problems and Solutions to Smith/Hashemi
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Chapter 11, Problem 91

14.2
A soda-lime plate glass between 500°C (strain point) and 700°C (softening point) has viscosities between 10
7.5
and 10 P, respectively. Calculate a value for the activation energy in this temperature region.

Chapter 11, Solution 91

First, convert the temperatures to absolute values:

Strain point = Tstp = 500o C + 273 = 773 K

Softening point = Tsp = 700o C + 273 = 973 K
Q / RTstp Q / RTsp
Using Eq. 10.5, η stp = η0 e and ηsp = η0 e . Dividing these equations and substituting the
temperature and viscosity data,

ηstp Q  1 1 
= exp   − 
ηsp  R  Tstp Tsp  
1014.2 P  Q  1 1 
= exp   − 
107.5 P  8.314 J/mol ⋅ K  723 K 923 K  
106.7 = exp (3.605 × 10−5 ) Q 
ln106.7 = (3.605 × 10−5 ) Q
Q = 4.28 ×105 J/mol = 428 kJ/mol

Chapter 11, Problem 92

14.6
A soda-lime glass has a viscosity of 10 P at 560°C. What will be its viscosity at 675°C if the activation energy
for viscous flow is 430 kJ/mol?

Chapter 11, Solution 92

Q / RT1
Let η1 = η0 e and η2 = η0 eQ / RT2 where T1 = 833 K and T2 = 948 K. Then,

η1  Q  1 1 
= exp   −  
η2  R  T1 T2  
1014.6 P  430 ×103 J/mol  1 1 
= exp   − 
η2  8.314 J/mol ⋅ K  833 K 948 K  
1014.6 P
= exp(7.532) = 1866.6
η2
η2 = 2.133 ×1011 P = 1011.329 P ≈ 1011.33 P

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Problems and Solutions to Smith/Hashemi
Foundations of Materials Science and Engineering 4/e

Chapter 11, Problem 93

14.3 9.9
A soda-lime glass has a viscosity of 10 P at 570°C. At what temperature will its viscosity be 10 P if the
activation energy for the process is 430 kJ/mol?

Chapter 11, Solution 93

Q / RT1
Let η1 = η0 e and η2 = η0 eQ / RT2 where T1 = 843 K. Then,

η1  Q  1 1 
= exp   −  
η2  R  T1 T2  
1014.3 P  430 ×103 J/mol  1 1 
= exp   − 
 8.314 J/mol ⋅ K  843 K T2  
9.9
10 P
  1 1 
ln104.4 = 51, 720  − 
  843 K T2  
T2 = (0.0011862 − 0.0001959) −1 = 1009.7 K = 736.7o C

Chapter 11, Problem 94

A borosilicate glass between 600°C (annealing point) and 800°C (softening point) has viscosities of 1012.5 P and
107.4 P, respectively. Calculate a value for the activation energy for viscous flow in this region, assuming the
equation η = η0 eQ / RT is valid.

Chapter 11, Solution 94

ηap Q  1 1 
= exp   −
ηsp R T Tsp  
  ap 
1012.5 P  Q  1 1 
= exp   − 
 8.314 J/mol ⋅ K  873 K 1073 K  
7.4
10 P
105.1 = exp ( 2.568 × 10−5 ) Q 
ln105.1 = ( 2.568 ×10−5 ) Q
Q = 4.573 ×105 J/mol = 457.3 kJ/mol

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Problems and Solutions to Smith/Hashemi
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Chapter 11, Problem 95

Describe the float-glass process for the production of flat-glass products. What is its major advantage?

Chapter 11, Solution 95

In the float-glass process, a ribbon of glass flows out of a melting furnace and into a molten tin bath on which it
floats. As the ribbon moves across the bath, it cools under a chemically controlled atmosphere to prevent oxidation.
Once the glass surfaces are sufficiently hard, the sheet is removed from the float chamber and passed through a lehr
annealing furnace which removes residual stresses. The major advantage of this process over its predecessor, the
rolling process, is that a very flat sheet of glass is produced which does not require costly grinding or polishing.

Chapter 11, Problem 96

What is tempered glass? How is it produced? Why is tempered glass considerably stronger in tension than annealed
glass? What are some applications for tempered glass?

Chapter 11, Solution 96

Tempered glass is a high strength glass due to the compressive stresses developed on its surface during “tempering”.
It is produced by heating the glass close to its softening temperature and then rapidly cooling the glass surface with
air. Because the surfaces are rigid during the cooling of the glass interior, tensile stresses are developed in the
interior while compressive stresses form at the surface. Tempered glass is stronger in tension than annealed glass
because with tempered glass, the applied tensile stress must surpass the surface compressive stress before causing
fracture. This glass is used in applications where safety is paramount, such as automobile windows and safety glass
doors.

Chapter 11, Problem 97

What is chemically strengthened glass? Why is chemically strengthened glass stronger in tension than annealed
glass?

Chapter 11, Solution 97

Chemically strengthened glass is a glass that has been given a chemical treatment to introduce large ions, and thus
compressive stresses, into the glass surface. Like tempered glass, chemically strengthened glass is stronger in
tension than annealed glass due to its residual surface stresses.

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