Preface

Welcome to the exciting journey of learning GD&T!

This is the youngest kid on the blocks of mechanical engineers. It is growing, it
is maturing, it is shaping itself. It is changing the mechanical industry. It is
improving quality, increasing efficiency, and reducing cost. It is darling of
fortune companies. And it is the future.
For many years, dimensional tolerancing has been the only tool for designers
to communicate tolerances and, still, we (mechanical engineers) have come
so far. With the ability to communicate functional requirements through GD&T,
we are set to go much beyond. Now we have got a common language for
world-wide communication. As a designer we can use geometric tolerancing to
ask for intended functionalities and manufacturer will make sure to meet them.
It’s a win-win situation for the designer as well as manufacturers. This is the
reason it has become so popular across the world.
This book is intended to simplify and widespread the concepts of GD&T The
approach used in this book is to make a solid foundation for mechanical
engineers on which any castle can be built, maybe establishing yourself as
GD&T expert, clearing GD&T certification exam, implementing GD&T
practices, communicate in GD&T language with outside organization or even
teaching GD&T.
This book starts the journey with the origin of GD&T during WWII period when
manufacturing production was tat peak. Further, it establishes the foundation
of GD&T by defining its work, purpose and intended output.
Since GD&T is applied on top of dimensional tolerances, so dimensioning and
its rules are also covered as part of making a solid foundation. Fundamentals
of tolerances, fits, deviations, allowances, hole basis and shaft basis system,
and related engineering concepts are covered such that the learner does not
need to look around to cover the basics. The mechanical feature, feature of
size, feature material condition, tolerance with and without material condition
are covered in detail. The concept of datum, datum feature, datum simulator,
datum target, etc. are discussed with help of multiple figures. After getting
through all these fundamentals, this book introduces you to GD&T language,
that is to write in feature control frame.
Once the foundation is prepared then you are taken to core fourteen GD&T
tolerances, around which entire domain of GD&T is established. Additionally,
this book has covered fourteen modifiers, which author believes his readers
should know to stay ahead, This is a bonus to the reader.
Sincere efforts have been taken to make GD&T simple and interesting to learn.
To achieve the desired level of detail, more than 175 color pictures are
included in this book. Numerous real-life examples are given. Design steps are
shown. Many times you are asked questions which are challenging but you
would be able to answer as you go along the book. It is possible because the
approach it was taken with no-prior-experience student mindset.
To make this book self-sufficient to answer all your question around GD&T and
little beyond also, the author has included many helpful topics in the appendix,
for example, determining dimensional tolerances using ISO-286, determining
Tolerance using IT Grades, determining fundamental deviation, tolerance
class, most widely used tolerance class combinations, etc.
You will find answers to many questions you may have in your mind which are
not only about GD&T but also around GD&T. Once you get answered then
your thirst increases and you march ahead. This is the intention of the book.
To make you familiar with GD&T concepts and ignite fire in you to establish
yourself as GD&T!

 
About the author
Ashok Kumar is basically a mechanical engineer. He was All India Rank 1 in
mechanical engineering during his studies, he is M. Tech. from IIT Mumbai,
India. Mr. Kumar has international work experience in the USA, UK, Europe,
UAE and the India. He has played various roles ranging from highly technical
to managerial to leadership positions. He is running his own business with
global client base. He has shared his wide management experiences through
another book on management and the book is a bestselling book on Amazon
in the USA, UK, Germany, France and the India.
 
This book is intended to simplify and widespread the concepts of GD&T. Mr.
Kumar considers it as revolutionary development for manufacturing industry to
increase quality, efficiency and reduce cost. It is the need of the industry.
Therefore, he invites all mechanical engineers to join this revolutionary
development and participate in it.
 
  

CONTENTS
 
1Birth of GD&T
2Defining GD&T
3Dimensioning
4Tolerances
5Fundamentals of features
6Datum
7GD&T language
8GD&T Tolerances - “FORM”
9GD&T Tolerances – “PROFILE”
10 GD&T Tolerances – “ORIENTATION”
11 GD&T Tolerances – “LOCATION”
12 GD&T Tolerances – “RUNOUT”
13 Multiple feature control Tolerances
14 Boundary and Envelope
15 Important 14 modifiers in GD&T
16 Industrial Examples
Appendices
ADetermining dimensional tolerances using ISO-286
A1 Determining tolerance using IT grades
A2 Determining fundamental deviation
A3 Tolerance class
A4 Most widely used tolerance class combinations
Question Bank
Q1 Fundamental based questions
Q2 Design calculation based questions
Answers
Concluding notes
 
1 BIRTH OF GD&T
 
  
It was World War II and the place was Great Britain. Everyone was
working hard to fulfil all the requirements of their country.
Manufacturing industry was also on its toes with the expectation of
maximum production with minimum defects. There came a design
for a 5 mm radius hole to be made on a plate. Location of the centre
of the hole was (10, 5) with an acceptable positional tolerance of 1
mm. It was drawn in the coordinate system as shown below:
 

 
Figure 1.1 – Design of a hole with positional tolerance
 
The manufacturer converted above drawing into a manufacturing
drawing to keep the centre in a grey shaded area represented by
four corners (11,4), (11,6), (9,6), and (9,4) as shown below, in figure
1.2, as per conventions of coordinate system dimensioning and
tolerancing.
 
 Figure 1.2 –Manufacturing interpretation of tolerance
 
When manufactured parts arrived then many parts, whose centre of
the hole was near corners of the shaded area, were rejected
because the centre of such holes was more than 1 mm away from
the ideal position at (10,5). The designer intended the green circular
area, as shown in figure 1.3, as an acceptable area for the positions
of the centre of the hole.
 

Figure 1.3 – Designer interpretation of tolerance zone

 
This gave rise to conflict between manufacturer and designer. The
area of conflict lied between grey square area and green circle are
as shown below, in figure 1.4, by red hatched area.
 Figure 1.4 – Area of conflict
 
Neither did the designer agree to accept those parts falling in the
area of conflict, as it would not meet the functional requirement of
the part, nor did the manufacturer agree to accept the rejection, as it
was compliant to the tolerances provided in the drawing.
 
Since it was war period where time was a crucial factor, this conflict
pulled the attention of many people, including Stanley Parker, who
came up with an idea of providing geometric positional tolerance
which will be represented by the circular area around the ideal
position.
 
This is how “Geometric Dimensioning & Tolerancing” (GD&T)
took birth in the 1950s.
 
In addition to positional tolerance, there were few more issues
identified, for example, tolerance in straightness, circularity, flatness,
etc., which were all combined together to give it a shape of today’s
GD&T, as defined in ASME Y14.5-2009, which is the output of
international collaboration.
 
 
2 DEFINING GD&T
 
GD&T stands for Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing.
 
DEFINITION
GD&T is mechanical engineering language to communicate
functional requirement.
Purpose of the book is to learn this language.
 
EXPLANATION OF ABOVE DEFINITION
 
Let’s consider the example given in the previous chapter. The hole is
to be put on tip of a rifle. There will be a pointer to be placed in the
hole using which soldier will fire at aim. If the position of the hole is
displaced, then the aim will be incorrect. As a result, the functional
requirement of the rifle will not be met. Here the rifle’s functional
requirement determines the functional requirement of the hole.
 
Let me give you another example of a functional requirement.
Suppose you are designing fuel injection nozzle for a diesel engine.
You want the nozzle to be fixed at a particular position and angle
such that injected fuel get properly mixed with air before combustion
starts. You may provide positional and angular tolerances such that
fuel is still mixed properly with air before combustion to make sure
the desired functionality is achieved.
 
Need yet another example of functional requirement? Look at figure
2.1 in which a bracket is shown on the left side with the requirement
of holes on it.
 
  
Figure 2.1 – Design of a bracket with holes
 
It needs to rest on the resting platform as shown on the right side in
Figure 2.1 which has four guiding pins fixed to it. When the bracket is
placed on the resting platform, it must fit properly. It is a functional
requirement. Tolerances on pins and holes can be given only until
this functionality is met.
 
There can be numerous such examples of functional requirements.
The core concept remains the same, that is, within provided
tolerance, the part or assembly should be functional as designed.
 
Before we dive deep in to GD&T, it is better to quickly glance through
our concepts of dimensioning and tolerancing in the next two
chapters.
 
3 DIMENSIONING
 
Traditionally, we have a comprehensive set of conventions for
dimensioning. We provide tolerances with the help of “±”, e.g., 10±1,
as we saw in the case discussed in chapter 1. Let us look at different
types of dimensioning.
 
§    Linear dimensioning    §
 
There are 5 types of linear dimensioning:
 

 
Look at figure 3.1, given below, which shows all five types of linear
dimensioning.
 

 
 Figure 3.1 – Types of linear dimensioning
 
§    Circular, Spherical, and Square dimensioning    §
 
Below are the symbols used for these dimensioning.
 

 
Refer to figure 3.2 for examples of these dimensions.
 
  
Figure 3.2 – Circular, spherical and square dimensioning
 
§    Arc dimensioning    §
 

 
Figure 3.3 – Arc dimensioning
 
§    Chamfer, and countersunk dimensioning    §
 
  
Figure 3.4 – Chamfer and countersunk dimensioning
 
 
§    Depth and alternative countersunk  §
 

 
Figure 3.5 – Depth and alternative countersunk
 
§    Taper dimensioning    §
 
 
Figure 3.6 – Taper dimensioning
 
§    Counterbore and spotface   §
 
The counterbore is a stepped hole with a uniform diameter. Spotface
(SF) is the facing of a certain part, especially for cast or forged items.
It is generally done around the hole and looks more like a sallow
counterbore

 
Figure 3.7 – Counterbore and spotface
§    Basic dimension    §
 
A basic dimension is a theoretically ideal dimension, without any
tolerance. Designs are based on basic dimensions and tolerances
are provided on top of it. These are usually mentioned in a rectangle
as you can find in Figure 2.1 given in chapter 2.
 
§    Reference dimension    §
 
These are the dimensions provided for information purpose only, not
for the manufacturing process. Generally, these are not provided
with tolerance but if tolerance is needed for information purpose then
they can be included. Before the use of CAD software, it was
represented with notation REF as “1500 mm REF” however in CAD
software it is generally represented with parenthesis as “(1500 mm)”,
as shown in figure 3.8, given below.
 
 Figure 3.8 – Reference dimensioning
 
A reference dimension is generally driven by other values on
drawing and does not govern production or inspection operations.
 
3.1 BASIC DIMENSIONING RULES
 
Let us look at basic dimensioning rules followed across the world, as
given below:
Each dimension should be associated with a tolerance
(except for reference, max/min).
Measuring dimension from drawing or assumption of a
distance or size is not permitted.
Provide only the necessary dimensions to complete the
definition.
Usage of reference dimension (one with a reference to
another dimension) should be minimized.
Especially for mating parts (hole and Shaft), dimensions
should lead to only one interpretation.
Manufacturing method (like drilled, punched) should not be
given, the only dimension is to be provided. (Except when
processing, quality, or environmental information is essential
then specify on drawing or in a separate document)
Wires, cables, sheets, rods, etc., which are made in gage or
with code numbers, to be mentioned with diameter/thickness.
Gage or code numbers can be put in parentheses next to
dimension.
All dimensions and tolerances are assumed at 20°C (68°F),
else need to be mentioned.
All dimensions and tolerances are assumed at free state
condition (no stress).
 All tolerances apply to the full length, depth, and width of the
feature unless mentioned.
 
In the next chapter, we will look at different aspects of tolerances,
different terms associated with it and different cases of tolerance
considerations.
 
You will come across many terms, for example, limit, allowance,
tolerance, deviation, etc. which sound similar to each other but they
all have a different meaning in engineering terms. I am sure you
would enjoy it.
So why wait? Let’s keep rolling!
 
4 Tolerances
 
Let’s start with a basic question for you.
 
WHY WE NEED TOLERANCE?
 
Any manufacturing facility will have some inaccuracy when
compared with intended dimensions. These inaccuracies may be in
microns (1/1000 mm), but even that can be dangerous. Considering
this limitation, Designers make designs with some allowed
inaccuracies, called tolerance. Tolerance is given with the following
considerations:
 
1. It is possible to manufacture part or component within given
limits
2. The component will be able to function as intended
3. Assemblies are able to fit and work as per design

In the next section, we will learn about the fundamentals of

tolerances and different terms associated with it.
 
4.1 FUNDAMENTALS OF TOLERANCES
 
Let us look at a shaft and try to understand the different fundamental terms of
tolerancing
 

Figure 4.1 – Fundamentals terms used in tolerancing

 
Basic/Nominal Size (Standard/ideal size)
It is the standard or ideal size of a part, as shown by the leftmost
shaft in figure 4.1. We apply deviation and tolerance with
reference to the basic/nominal size. These are usually
mentioned in a rectangle as you can find in figure 2.1 given in
chapter 2.
Limits (Upper and Lower limits of a dimension)
These are maximum and minimum dimensions of an acceptable
manufactured part. These limits are shown by two red lines in
figure 4.1.
Tolerance (Permissible variation in dimension)
It represents the margin of variation, which is called tolerance
zone. It is the difference between upper and lower limits, as
shown in figure 4.1. It is decided based on the allowed
inaccuracies without causing any functional trouble.
Unilateral Tolerance:
 The dimension may vary only in one direction. Second and third
shafts show unilateral tolerances.
Bilateral Tolerance:
The dimension of the part may vary in any direction as shown by
the rightmost picture in figure 4.1.

 
Figure 4.2 – Analysis of actual shaft tolerance
 
Actual Size:
It is the dimension of the actual part after manufacturing. We can find two
examples in figure 4.2.
Deviation
It is the difference between actual size and basic size.
Upper Deviation: Difference between the maximum actual size and the
corresponding basic size. It is first case (left grey shaft), in which the
actual size is slightly bigger than basic size which causes upper deviation
only (lower deviation is zero).
Lower Deviation: Difference between the minimum actual size and the
corresponding basic size. It is the second case (right grey shaft), in which
the actual size is slightly smaller than basic size which causes lower
deviation only (upper deviation is zero)
 
 WHAT IS RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
TOLERANCE AND DEVIATION?
 
1. “Tolerance is the ‘allowed limits’ of deviations, of a dimension,
from its basic/nominal value”.
2. “Tolerance is unintentional/unwanted but allowed deviation”.
 
 
4.2 FITS AND DEVIATIONS
 
In the previous section, we saw tolerance of an independent part or
component. In this section, we will learn about the tolerances of
mating parts, means two interacting parts. Consider a case of piston
and cylinder in which we want loose fitting between them. We would
define tolerances of piston and cylinders in such a manner that for
the entire range of combined tolerances, there remains a gap
between them such that loose-fitting is achieved and motion is
possible.
 
In order to better understand the concepts of interacting parts, we
will study typical concepts of fits. Fits are studied as a mating
mechanism between a shaft and a hole. There are three types of fits
as shown in figure 4.3:
 
 
Figure 4.3 – Types of fits
 
There are three types of fits:
1. Clearance Fit: When the shaft is always smaller than the hole. It is
used for free rotation.
2. Interference Fit: When rotation or relative motion is not allowed. In
this fit, the shaft is always larger than the hole.
3. Transition Fit: Depending on actual sizes, it can lead either to
clearance or interference fit.
 
 
DESIGN OF CLEARANCE FIT
 
 
 Figure 4.4 – Design of clearance fit with tolerance
 
Take some time, look at Figure 4.4, given above, and then read
below statements carefully:
You always have a Line 0 (zero) at the basic size.
Depending on the type of fit needed, you will define gap or
overlap.
For the above clearance fit case, we will define minimum
gaps between hole and shaft with reference to line 0. These
are shown by yellow strips in figure 4.4. These are called
"fundamental deviations (FD).
FD gives you the minimum size of the hole and maximum
size of the shaft to ensure the minimum desired gap between
them for clearance fit.
FD for hole gives you lower deviation and FD for shaft gives
you upper deviation.
Now adding tolerances. Red strip is tolerance given to hole. It
allows you to make the hole bigger than the minimum
permissible size. Green strip is tolerance given to shaft. It
allows you to make it smaller than maximum permissible size.
Tolerance of hole decides upper deviation (UD) of the hole
which is the sum of FD and tolerance.
Tolerance of shaft decides lower deviation (LD) of the shaft
which is again the sum of FD and tolerance.
  
QUESTION TIME !
 
Question: Why fundamental deviation is given such a name? Does
it define any fundamental property of fit?
 
Answer: Yes, it defines the type of fit. The fundamental deviation is
an intentional deviation from the basic size to achieve the intended
functionality. For example, the hole will be made bigger and shaft will
make smaller to create a gap between hole and shaft for a clearance
fit.
 
Question: Find out correct statements for clearance fits:
A. For holes, UD = LD + Tolerance
B. For holes, UD = FD + Tolerance
C. For shafts, LD = UD + Tolerance
D. For shafts, LD = FD + Tolerance
 
Answer: If you find all statements to be correct then you are good to
proceed, else you must revise the content up to this point and clarify
the doubt before proceeding further.
 
Question: What are a basic shaft and basic hole? (Hint: the answer
can be derived based on terms defined earlier.)
 
Answer: These are shafts and holes having zero fundamental
deviations, that is their sizes are the same as the basic size of the fit.
Obviously, the basic hole will have zero lower deviation and basic
shaft will have zero upper deviation.
 
UNDERSTANDING ALLOWANCE
 
The allowance is minimum intended/planned gap between
mating parts. It is decided on the basis of:
1. Type of fit needed
 2. Tolerance needed due to manufacturing limitation.
 
Consider a case of 10 mm basic size clearance fit. It is known that in
reality, the grinding operation that produces the final diameter may
introduce a certain small-but-unavoidable amount of random error.
Therefore, the engineer specifies a tolerance of ±0.01 mm ("plus-or-
minus" 0.01 mm) such that actual shaft would be available between
9.99 to 10.01 mm. If we apply the same logic for the hole then actual
hole size may also be expected between 9.99 to 10.01. Some shafts
will fit in some holes when their diameter is smaller than the diameter
of a hole, but others will not fit. In order to ensure clearance fit for all
parts, the designer will have to increase the size of the hole or
reduce the size of the shaft. Designer keeps the size of shaft same
and increases the size of the hole to 10.03 mm with a tolerance of
±0.01 mm. In this case, hole dimension will vary between 10.02 mm
to 10.04 mm. With this design, the minimum gap between smallest
hole (10.02 mm) and largest shaft (10.01 mm) will be 10.02-10.01 =
0.01 mm.
 
Let’s take it one step ahead. The designer wants the minimum gap
to be 0.02 mm for consideration of vibration in the machine, he will
do the reserve calculation and increase the hole size to
10.04±0.01 mm which will result in a minimum intended gap of 0.02
mm.
 
The intended minimum gap is called ALLOWANCE.
 
In Figure 4.5, given below, you can see allowance highlighted on the
right side.
 
  
Figure 4.5 – Allowance in a clearance fit
 
SYSTEM OF FITS
(HOLE BASIS AND SHAFT BASIS
SYSTEMS)
 
 
Did you notice one important aspect in the above example? The
designer kept the shaft dimension unchanged and increased hole
dimension. They had two more solutions:
1. Keep hole dimensions unchanged and reduce shaft
dimension to design for 0.02 mm allowance.
2. Increase hole dimension and reduce shaft dimension to
achieve 0.02 mm allowance.
 
In order to control the cost of operations, generally, we keep
dimension of one component as fixed and manipulate dimension of
another component.
If we keep the dimension of the hole as fixed, then it is known
as Hole Basis System. Here the minimum hole diameter is
kept the same as the desired basic size of the assembly.
 If we keep the dimension of the shaft as fixed then it is known
as Shaft Basis System, in which the maximum diameter of
the shaft is kept at a desired basic size of the assembly.
 
Look at Figures 4.6 and 4.7, given below, for a visual explanation.
 

 
Figure 4.6 – Illustration of hole basis system
 
 

 
Figure 4.7 – Illustration of shaft basis system
 
SELECTION OF HOLE BASIS AND SHAFT
BASIS SYSTEM
 
Question: Which is a preferred system, hole basis and shaft basis,
why?
 
Answer: Hole Basis System is preferred over Shaft Basis System. 
This is primarily due to the following two reasons:
1. Holes are made from available drill bits which comes in pre-
defined incremental sizes. Therefore, we choose a hole of
available drill bit size and then plan shaft size as per
functional need.
2. It is easier to change the shape of the shaft by machining on
a lathe. It is a single operation process. On the other hand,
creating a hole of arbitrary size will be a two-step process,
the first drill with nearest smaller size drill bit and then bore
on a lathe to the desired size.
 
Therefore, usually, the Hole Basis System is used across the world.
 
※ ※
 Your thought bite  
There may be a functional need to choose Shaft Basis System. Can you think
of any such case?
 
Hint: Think about the turbine propeller shaft, which is a critical component.
 
EXTENSION OF SYSTEM OF FITS
 
The system of fits is described with the help of a hole and shaft
combination but it is not limited to only holes and shafts. The
concept of hole and shaft is generic in nature. Hole and shafts
are used to designate all the external shape (for shafts) and internal
shape (for holes), not necessarily cylindrical. Therefore, it extends to
all curved types of fits.
 
Example 1: Piston and cylinder in an engine.
 

 
Figure 4.8 – Sample of piston and cylinder of a bike
 
In this example, you consider piston as the shaft and cylinder as the hole.
Definitely, you need clearance system of fit. Right?
 
※ ※
 Your thought bite  
There are two prominent types of motion between hole and shaft for clearance
fit case. Can you guess what are those?
 
Hint: Translational and rotational.
 
Example 2: Crankshaft and connecting rod
 
 Figure 4.9 – Sample of connecting rod and crankshaft
 
In this example, the internal surface of the connecting rod is treated as a hole
and the upper surface of crankshaft bearing is considered as the shaft.
 
Example 2: Hole and shaft in a gear assembly
 

Figure 4.10 – Hole and shaft profiles in gear assembly

 
Here you can see the outer surface of addendum (highlighted with green color)
behaves as a shaft and outer surface of dedendum (highlighted with red color)
behaves as a hole.
 
※  Your thought bite   ※
Can you identify hole and shaft profiles in camshaft assembly?
 
 
4.3 ANGULAR TOLERANCES
 
For angular dimensions, we may provide some angular tolerances to
accommodate manufacturing limitations to produce parts with ideal
angles. It is shown below in figure 4.11 where angle may vary by 1
degree on either side.
 

 
Figure 4.11 – Illustration of angular tolerance
 
Here the deviations are in terms of angle, not in length. This is a
major difference between linear tolerance and angular tolerance.
 

 
In this chapter, we learnt about:
Why we need tolerance
Basic/Nominal size
Upper and lower limits
Tolerance - unilateral and bilateral
Upper and lower deviations
Types of fits - clearance, transition, and interference
fundamental deviation
Allowance
 Systems of fits - hole basis and shaft basis
Extension of the system of fits
angular tolerance
 
If any topic is unclear, then read it again before proceeding.


5 FUNDAMENTALS OF FEATURES
 
 
GD&T is applied to any FEATURE to provide details of geometric
tolerances. Before we understand geometric tolerance, let’s first
understand the meaning of a feature.
 
5.1 WHAT IS A FEATURE?
 
In mechanical engineering drawing or CAD, the feature is used for
cuts, protrusions, rounds, fillets, etc. In fact, it represents almost all
physical portion (curved or flat) of a part. It may include different
types of holes, counterbore, countersink, counter drill, taper hole,
step bore, slots, chamfer, pockets, bosses, and grooves. Look at
figure 5.1 for a sample part with few features.

Figure 5.1 – Part with multiple features

 
There are nine features in the above diagram. Can you identify
them? Let me count for you. 4 sides + 1 fillet + 1 chamfer + 1
cylindrical hole + 1 top surface + 1 bottom surface = 9 features.
 
Look at figure 5.2 given below to be familiar with a few real-life
samples of features. There are uncountable types of features and
you can also create your own based on your design needs.
 

Figure 5.2 – Real life feature samples

 
Let us add a few more features on the same plate as shown in figure
5.3 below. I want to measure the dimension of all features by using
either external jaws or internal jaws of Vernier calliper by “firmly”
positioning them on “opposite points” of a feature. I can measure
feature A, C, the long and short axis of D, upper & lower gaps of E,
and thickness of the plate. I cannot measure the dimension of B, F,
and G, because they do not have mutually opposite resting place
for both arms of jaws.
 

Figure 5.3 – Examples of features to identify FOS

 
 
5.2 WHAT IS FEATURE OF SIZE?
 
In the above example, there are few features dimensions of which
can be measured by means of two opposite physical points, are a
special type of features, called Feature of Size (FOS). These are
very useful features because you identify their point of centre (for
circular profile), the central axis (for cylindrical holes), central plane
(for parallel surfaces) and use them as a reference for any purpose.
So you can say, FOS is a special feature which generates a point of
reference with help of two opposed physical points available on
them.
 
To summarize, we can say, FOS is
any circular, cylindrical, spherical, or parallel set of surface
with available two opposed physical points
with given tolerance dimension.
All three conditions are mandatory to derive point, axis or plane of
reference, so these are requirements of FOS.
 
The feature of size dimensions is of two types: an internal feature
of size and external feature of the size dimension. In the above
drawing, the centre hole is an internal feature of size dimension and
the thickness of the plate is an external feature of size dimensions. 

 
ASME 14.5-2009 defines same FOS as a regular feature of size
as:
“One cylindrical or spherical surface, a circular element, and a set of
two opposed parallel elements or opposed parallel surfaces, each of
which is associated with a directly toleranced dimension”
 
There is another type of FOS which is called Irregular Feature of
Sizes. Below are definitions as given in ASME Y14.5-2009.
 
1.3.32.2 Irregular Feature of Size: the two types of irregular
features of size are as follows:
 a)  a directly toleranced feature or collection of features that may
contain or be contained by an actual mating envelope that is
a sphere, cylinder, or pair of parallel planes
b)  a directly toleranced feature or collection of features that may
contain or be contained by an actual mating envelope other
than a sphere, cylinder, or pair of parallel planes
 
In simple terms, irregular FOS are those FOS which can be
hypothetically enclosed by any other shape to derive reference point,
axis or plane based on enclosing shape. Type (a) are those irregular
FOS which can be hypothetically enclosed in a sphere, cylinder, or
pair of parallel plains. Type (b) are those enclosed by other than
sphere, cylinder, or pair of parallel plains.
 
Refer to Figure 5.4 for type (a) irregular feature of sizes. It shows the
derived reference plane of reference obtained from a hypothetical
enclosure for irregular FOS.
 

Figure 5.4 – Type (a) Irregular feature of size

 
Refer to Figure 5.5 for type (b) irregular feature of sizes. It shows
derived axis, planes and hypothetical cylinder reference obtained for
irregular FOS.
 
  
Figure 5.5 – Type (b) Irregular feature of size
 
Non-feature of size: These are features with dimensions but do not
qualify as FOS. In our example, chamfer, fillet, etc. fall into this
category.

 
A feature is any shape, face, cuts, protrusions, rounds, fillets,
etc. to create any part shape in mechanical industry.
Regular Feature of size (FOS) is any circular, cylindrical, or
parallel set of surfaces with dimension and tolerance and
having two opposite point physically available on feature to
measure, manufacture and establish the point, axis or plane
references.
An irregular feature of size is not having shapes given above.
If it can be hypothetically enclosed in any regular shape
(sphere, cylinder, set of parallel planes) then it is called type
(a), but it is enclosed by other hypothetical shapes then type
(b) irregular feature of sizes.
Non-features of sizes are those feature which has dimensions
and tolerances but cannot fulfill all criteria, for example,
opposite points are not available on the feature, are called
non-feature of sizes.
 
A feature of size is used extensively in GD&T to establish lots of references, we will
see as we are going to learn about further topics.
 
5.3 FEATURE MATERIAL CONDITIONS
 
Due to manufacturing tolerances, any feature will have an upper limit
and lower limit of size. Accordingly, the amount of material will be
maximum or least. The maximum material of shaft results in the
largest dimension and least material of shaft results in the smallest
dimension. For holes, it is exactly opposite. Maximum material
remaining after cutting hole results in smallest dimension and least
material of after cutting hole results in largest hole. These material
conditions of features are called feature material condition and
termed as:
1. MMC – Maximum material condition
2. LMC – Least material condition
Look at illustration given below to confirm your understanding.
 

 
  
Figure 5.6 – Illustration of MMC and LMC
 
I would like to put a quick question to check your understanding at
this level. Consider the design of the clearance fit we discussed in
the previous chapter. We learnt about the minimum and maximum
size of hole and shaft and then we learnt about allowance. Can you
re-present the same allowance in terms of MMC/LMC of hole and
shaft? Try it before reading further.
 
Answer:
Allowance in clearance fit = minimum gap between hole and shaft
 
The minimum gap will be a situation when the hole is smallest and
the shaft is largest, means, the hole is at MMC and shaft is also at
MMC. It implies:
 
Allowance = MMC hole – MMC shaft.
 
Now attempt to re-present the following values in terms of
MMC/LMC:
1. Maximum clearance
2. Minimum interference
 3. Maximum interference
 
You should celebrate the day if your answers are:
1. LMC hole – LMC shaft
2. LMC shaft – LMC hole
3. MMC shaft – MMC hole
 
5.4 TOLERANCE WITH MATERIAL CONDITION
 
For any assembly or Fits, it is important to consider the material
condition of both parts (hole and shaft) to ensure proper functioning.
Let’s take two examples to understand the importance:
 
§    Case 1: Clearance fit analysis with material condition    §
 
For a clearance fit, biggest shaft diameter should be smaller than the
smallest hole diameter and there must exist a minimum gap
(allowance) to ensure proper clearance fit functioning. We learnt
earlier:
Biggest diameter shaft = MMC of the shaft -- Least desirable
condition
Smallest diameter hole = MMC of the hole -- Least desirable
condition
 
Therefore, our functional requirement should be:
MMC of Shaft < MMC of Hole
It guarantees clearance fit even at least desirable conditions.
 
QUESTION TIME !
 
Does the condition mentioned above (MMC of Shaft < MMC of Hole)
always guarantees a clearance fit?
The answer is NO. Let’s try to understand the situation.
 
You got a task to design a hole to meet the following requirements:
 Clearance fit with allowance (minimum gap) of 1 mm
The shaft of MMC diameter of 8 mm. It cannot change.
Dimensional tolerance of hole is ±1 mm
 
Design step 1: Calculate MMC of hole
= MMC of shaft + allowance = 8 + 1 = 9 mm.
Design step 2: Calculate nominal diameter of hole
= MMC of hole + tolerance = 9 + 1 = 10 mm
Design step 3: Calculate LMC of hole
= Nominal hole diameter + tolerance = 10 + 1 = 11 mm
 
Figure 5.7, given below, illustrates the above design.
 

Figure 5.7 – Example of clearance fit without geometric tolerance

 
Here you see a new word “DATUM”, which is nothing more than
another name of reference. It can be a point of reference or line of
reference or plane of reference. We will learn, in detail, about it in
next chapter.
 
In the above example, we assumed the shaft axis to be perfectly
aligned to the axis of the hole (datum A), which may not always be
possible. Suppose there exists a manufacturing limitation in which
maximum possible accuracy is limited to only 1 mm, means the
position of shaft axis may deviate up to 1 mm in either direction from
datum A (which is hole’s axis). The zone in which shaft axis may be
expected is shown below in figure 5.8.
 
 Figure 5.8 – Positional tolerance zone for shaft axis
 
Consider a case when the shaft in at lowermost position resulting in
the situation illustrated in figure 5.9, given below.
 

 
Figure 5.9 –Effect of positional deviation of shaft
 
Here you can see the shaft touching at the bottom of the hole. It can
occur at any point on the hole. This situation is undesirable as one of
the design requirement is to ensure 1 mm allowance. So our design
failed. To fix this issue, we need to add positional tolerance in our
earlier approach. Let’s see how it goes:
 
Design step 1: Calculate MMC of the hole
= MMC of shaft + allowance + positional tolerance
= 8 + 1 + 1 = 10 mm.
Design step 2: Calculate nominal diameter of hole
= MMC of hole + dimensional tolerance of hole + positional tolerance
= 9 + 1 +1 = 11 mm
Design step 3: Calculate LMC of hole
= Nominal hole size + dimensional tolerance + positional tolerance
= 10 + 1 + 1 = 12 mm
Final design after considering dimensional tolerance, positional
tolerance, MMC of the shaft and required allowance can be shown
as in Figure 5.10 given below.
 

 
Figure 5.10 –Design with consideration of positional tolerance
 
Congratulations! You just designed a clearance fit while considering
geometric tolerance, dimensional tolerance, allowance and MMC
material condition. We are doing good!
 
QUESTION TIME !
 
Do you think we need to do the same analysis with LMC material
condition or not? Why?
 
If your answer was “LMC analysis is not required, because we
already did an analysis of the least desirable condition of MMC” then
you are correct. Any deviation between MMC and LMC will be better
than MMC, which is the worst-case fit.
 
§    Case 2: Interference fit analysis with material condition    §
For an interference fit, the shaft must have a close fit with a hole
without any gap. Here the smallest shaft would be bigger than the
largest hole as we learnt earlier:
 
Smallest diameter shaft = LMC of the shaft -- Least desirable
condition
Biggest diameter hole = LMC of the hole -- Least desirable
condition
Therefore, our functional requirement should be:
LMC of Shaft > LMC of Hole
It guarantees interference fit even at least desirable conditions.
 
QUESTION TIME !
 
Does the condition mentioned above (LMC of Shaft > LMC of Hole)
always guarantee a clearance fit?
 
Based on the previous case of clearance fit, you can guess the
answer would again be NO. Right?
 
Wrong! Here additional positional tolerance will still keep the fit as
interference fit due to the boundary of the hole. I leave it for you to
draw your sketch to find out how it will show up?
 
IMPORTANT POINT !
 
With the help of the above two cases, we found MMC is to be
considered while designing tolerance. On the other hand, LMC is not
so important when designing for tolerances.
 
Then a question arises when would we use LMC?
 
One of the most common use of tolerancing at LMC is to take care of
any hole near the edge of a part, as shown in picture 5.11, shown
below.
 

Figure 5.11 – LMC consideration for positional tolerance

 
Here positional tolerance should be considered at LMC (largest hole)
such that hole to safely away from edge and part does not become
weak. The maroon round area shows the maximum positional
tolerance zone at LMC to avoid hole touching the edge.
 
5.5 TOLERANCE WITHOUT MATERIAL CONDITION
 
There are few geometric tolerances which are independent of
feature size. For example, if any surface is to be flat or circular then
the size of the feature does not matter. Such material condition is
called RFS, that is, regardless of feature size. We will take it up later
when we do a detailed analysis.
 

In this chapter, we learnt about:

Features
Features of size
Regular feature of size
Irregular feature of size (type a and b)
Non-feature of size
 Feature material conditions
MMC (Maximum material condition)
LMC (Least material condition)
Tolerance with material conditions
Tolerance without material conditions
Material conditions modifiers
 
If you are unclear about any concept, then first clear it before
proceeding to next chapter.
 

6 DATUM – GD&T SYSTEM OF

REFERENCE
 
In this chapter, we will learn about all types of datum used
extensively in GD&T to measure dimensions and tolerances.
 
6.1 DEFINING DATUM
 
The concept of Datum is used in GD&T to provide a reference for
dimensions and tolerances. It is a Latin word. meaning "given", i.e.
an accepted fact. Let’s understand Datum and related terms.
 
§    Datum reference frame    §
 
Suppose you are given an engineering drawing with dimensions and
tolerances to perform some machining activities to produce a part.
How would you proceed? There are two primary needs:
1. Restricting movement of the part on some clamp, or so, to
perform any operations. In engineering terms, it is a
restriction of the degree of freedom. (Recall your studies of
six degrees of freedom for a free body in which three are
translational and three are rotational movement along X, Y
and Z axes, this is also shown in Figure 6.1).
 2. Next, you would need references like point, axis or plane
from which dimensions can be measured. These references
may be on any feature or we may create an imaginary
reference from which dimensions are taken or controlled.
 
Datum reference frame is created to fulfil the above two
requirements. Refer to Figure 6.1 and notice planes A, B, and C
forming the frame in which the object is placed near the origin.
 
In a practical scenario, to fix any part on three planes, you would go
in a sequence. Let’s depict the same process while fixing the object
shown in Figure 6.1 to the three planes A, B, and C.  Let us first put
plane ‘A’ (coffee color plane at the bottom) to establish full contact
with the object. Plane ‘A’ will restrict the movement of an object in
the Z direction, although the object can still move in X and Y
direction. Plane ‘A’ will also restrict the object’s rotation around X and
Y direction (else full contact between the object and plane ‘A’ will be
lost) but it can rotate around Z direction while keeping full contact.
Look at the right side table in Figure 6.1 where plane (datum) A
restricts three degrees of freedoms as explained.

Figure 6.1 – Datum reference frame

 
Now use plane (datum) ‘B’ to further restrict the movements of the
object. It will restrict the translational degree of freedom of the object
along the X-axis and also a rotational degree of freedom along Z
axis to keep the object in full contact with a plan (datum) ‘B’, as
shown in the table on the right side.
As the last step, use a plane (datum) ‘C’ to further restrict the
movements of the object. It will restrict the translational degree of
freedom of the object along Y-axis to keep the object in full contact
with a plan (datum) ‘C’.
With the help of the three planes (datums) A, B, and C, all degrees
of freedoms are restricted and the object will not move at all. These
three planes or datums will also become a reference for
dimensioning and tolerancing.
 
This entire setup is called the datum feature frame.
 
Did you notice the terms primary, secondary and tertiary datum in
the figure above? Below is the convention to call them so:
Primary Datum restricts 3 degrees of freedom
Secondary Datum restricts 2 degrees of freedom
Tertiary Datum restricts 1 and last degree of freedom
 
We interchangeably used plane and datum in the above explanation.
It was an intention to start imbibing the term datum in your mind.
Now let us define a few concepts related to the datum feature frame.
Datum: These are “imaginary” reference point, surface, or
axis on an object against which measurements are made. In
the above example, plane A, B, and C were datums, as we
started using the term for those planes.
 
Datum feature: “Actual” reference point, surface, or axis on
an object feature. Example, the face of an object.
 
Functional Datum: Datums are chosen based on the
connection between parts to fulfil its functionalities. Functional
 datums are not used for manufacturing.
 
Manufacturing Datums: These are datums for the
manufacturing process to save cost, improve process speed,
and repeatability. Tolerance analysis is used to get
manufacturing datums from functional datums. Example,
Functional tolerance + Bonus Tolerance = Manufacturing
tolerance).
We will learn about bonus tolerance later in this book. The
above equation is also given here to differentiate between
functional and manufacturing tolerances.
 
Datum Feature Simulator (theoretical): It is the theoretically
perfect boundary used to establish a datum from a specified
datum feature, as shown for a shaft and hole in figure 6.2, as
given below:

 
Figure 6.2 – Datum feature simulator (theoretical)
 
Datum Feature Simulator (Physical): It is the physical
boundary used to establish a simulated datum from
specified datum features. Look at Figure 6.3 in which Step 1
is showing the placement of an object one a primary datum
simulator to establish a primary datum. This step restricts
three degrees of freedom as explained with the help of Figure
6.1.
 Figure 6.3a: Step 1: Primary datum simulator
 
In the next step, another plate (secondary datum simulator) is
placed on one side of the object to establish a secondary
datum. This step restricts two more degrees of freedom.

Figure 6.3b: Step 2: Secondary datum simulator

 
In the last step, another plate (tertiary datum simulator) is
placed on one side of the object to establish a tertiary datum.
This step restricts one, which is the last degree of freedom.
 
  
Figure 6.3c: Step3:– Tertiary datum simulator
 
§    Datum Symbol – Representation of Datum    §
 
After identifying any datum, we need to identify it in drawing too.
Below are the conventions followed to show a datum.

Figure 6.4 – Datum symbol

 
As we learnt, the datum may be a point, line or surface, below are
the example to represent them in all these cases.

Figure 6.5 – Point or hole axis as Datum

 
 
 

            
Figure 6.6 – Axis and surface as datum
 
6.2 DATUM TARGET IN GD&T
 
Because of irregularities and large size, entire feature surface cannot
be effectively used as a datum feature, for example, uneven casting,
forging, thin surface subjected to bending, warping, etc. To overcome
such situations, “Datum Target” is used, which is a placeholder on
Datum feature to derive Datum. It may be a “point”, “line” or “plane”.
 
Going to the basics of geometry, at least three non-linear points are
required to define a plane. These points can be located with help of
3 pins, either with a pointed tip or flat top or spherical top, as shown
in figure 6.7, given below.
 Figure 6.7 – Types of pins
 
Let’s consider a case of a large uneven casting, shown in Figure 6.8,
given below. We want to determine the plane of the casting to make
it Datum feature. Practically, how would we do it? To mark three
places on casting surface, let’s select 3 flat top pins and mark target
touching area as shown by a blue hatched circle. Using the location
of three pins, we can determine the Datum plane.
 

Figure 6.8 – Identification of Datum target

 
Datum target is written in a circle. Lower semicircle has Datum name
and target area number. Upper semi-circle has the size of datum
area.
 
There can be two deviations in the sample given above.
(i)          For point target areas, the upper circle will be blank.
(ii)     If dimension cannot fit in an upper semicircle, then write it
outside.
Look at Figure 6.9, given below, for examples of three hypothetical
points A4, A5, and A6 to explain above two situations.
 
 Figure 6.9 – Identification of Datum target
 
Important notes:
1. With a similar approach, we use two pointed pins to
determine datum line (as only 2 points are required to draw a
line), and, 1 pointed pin to determine datum point.
2. Datum identification tool need not be only a pin. It can be any
other tool with a different contact area, like rectangular,
square, etc. The only consideration is it should be convenient
to use.

In this chapter, we learnt about:

Datum – a system of reference in GD&T
Datum feature
Datum feature frame
Primary, secondary and tertiary datums
Relationship between datums and degree of freedoms
Functional datum
Manufacturing datum
Datum feature simulator (theoretical/physical)
Showing datum symbol on point, axis, and surface
Datum target and its representation
 
If you are unclear about any concept, then first clear it before
proceeding to next chapter.
 
 7 GD&T LANGUAGE – SYMBOLS AND
SYNTAX
 
In this chapter we will about basics of GD&T language, in particular:
Symbols of fourteen (14) geometric tolerances
Syntax to write geometric tolerance as per GD&T syntax
The proper method of reading GD&T
 
Note 1: We will start with knowing the symbols of 14 geometric
tolerances to first become familiar with language such that we can
start writing GD&T language. Detailed analysis of these geometric
tolerances will be covered in the next chapter. So, hold your curiosity
till next chapter as you will have a little less clarity and lots of
unanswered questions in this chapter, which will be made clear in
next chapter.
 
Note 2: There are more symbols in addition to 14 geometric
tolerance symbols. These are called modifier, for example, MMC, LMC
modifiers. These modifiers are used to add a description to dimension or
geometric tolerance to communicate more details. We will learn about the
most widely used feature material condition modifiers in this chapter such that
writing few examples are not impacted. Remaining modifiers will be taken up
in next to next chapters.
 
7.1 SYMBOLS OF GEOMETRIC TOLERANCES
 
Refer to Figure 7.1, given below, which lists all fourteen types of
geometric tolerances, their tolerance type, and application of these
tolerances for independent or assembly features.
 
 Figure 7.1 – 14 GD&T geometric tolerances
 
§    Tolerance type – Form   §
 
These are tolerances given to basic geometric shapes or FORMS.
Refer figure 7.2, given below, listing straightness, flatness, circularity,
and cylindricity as tolerances of type ‘FORMS’. These tolerances are
used to mention the kind of perfection needed for features with these
shapes. All these tolerances are applied independently on the
features. It means datums are not required for them as these
features are controlled independently.
 
 Figure 7.2 – Form geometric tolerances
 
§    Tolerance type – Profile   §
 
These are tolerances used for geometric curved PROFILE as given
below in figure 7.3. These are related to curved surfaces. Line profile
is the path of a 2D line and surface profile is a 3D profile of a curved
surface. All these tolerances can be applied independently or with
reference to a datum, which means datum may or may not be
required, means datum becomes optional to mention.
 
 Figure 7.3 – Profile geometric tolerances
 
§    Tolerance type – Orientation   §
 
These are tolerances used for geometric ORIENTATION of a plane
with respect to another plane (datum) as given below in figure 7.4.
So datum becomes mandatory.
 

Figure 7.4 – Orientation geometric tolerances

 
§    Tolerance type – Location   §
 
These are tolerances used for geometric LOCATION of a point, line
or plane as given below in figure 7.5. Since all these All these
tolerances are applied in relation to other feature, datum becomes
mandatory.
 

Figure 7.5 – Location geometric tolerances

 
§    Tolerance type – Runout   §
 
These are tolerances used for geometric RUNOUT of rotating parts.
Runout is basically to highlight the deviation of rotating shafts from
desired mean stable position. Refer or figure 7.6 for names and
symbols. Since all these All these tolerances are applied in relation
to other feature, datum becomes mandatory.
 
 Figure 7.6 – Runout geometric tolerances
 
 
7.2 MATERIAL CONDITION MODIFIERS
 
Material condition modifiers are modifiers of the tolerance to be
provided to consider tolerance in consideration with material
conditions. There are many more modifiers we will learn as we go
along.
 
Below is a complete family of material condition modifiers to
geometric tolerance and their symbols used in GD&T, as shown in
Figure 7.7:

Figure 7.7 – Material condition modifiers

 
Yes, you saw it correctly. RFS has no sign. It means when you want
to provide geometric tolerance independent of MMC and LMC,
means without considering any material condition then you don’t
need to mention any modifier.
 
7.3 WRITING IN GD&T LANGUAGE - FEATURE
CONTROL FRAME
 
As a designer, you need to communicate functional requirements.
For each Feature, geometric tolerance Control is written in a Frame, which is
called – “Feature Control Frame”, as shown in figure 7.8:
 

Figure 7.8 – Feature control frame

 
Notice the following details of feature control frame:
The first box in the feature control frame is a place for
geometric tolerance symbol, we learn earlier in this
chapter.
The second box is the largest one. It contains three
elements:
Symbol of diameter when you have circular tolerance
zone. Remember the first example in the first chapter
 where the conflict occurred due to the difference in
understanding of tolerance zone as a square zone or
circular zone? To avoid any such conflict, it is
recommended to put this symbol whenever applicable.
In many cases, like flatness, circular tolerance zone
does not apply. So this symbol becomes options.
Next comes the geometric tolerance value provided
to the feature. Unit of dimension is not mentioned.
This is the place for any modifier to be considered
when assigning a geometrical tolerance.
Third, fourth and fifth boxes are placeholders for primary,
secondary, and tertiary datums, respectively. Datums are non
mandatory in many cases (e.g., form and profile tolerances).
Therefore, last three boxes are optional.
 
Based on the above explanations, if we exclude all optional
components from feature control fare then the smallest example may
look something like given below:

Figure 7.9 – Example of the shortest feature control frame.

 
IMPORTANT POINT !
 
Geometric tolerances are provided in addition to dimensional
tolerances, as learnt earlier. For the same reason, in practice,
complete dimensional and tolerance details would appear as shown
below in Figure 7.10:
 Figure 7.10 – Geometric and dimensional tolerances.
 
7.4 READING FEATURE CONTROL FRAME
 
You learned how to write in GD&T language. Now let’s see how to
read it. Let’s take the same example from the figure above (7.10).
 
We will read it out as,
This <mention the feature pointed to> feature has <GD&T symbol name> of
<geometric tolerance with diameter > in reference to Primary Datum A,
Secondary Datum B, Tertiary Datum C, with Maximum Material Condition.
 
Altogether, we will speak as follows
This hole feature has  True Position of 20 Micron Diameter Tolerance in
reference to Primary Datum A, Secondary Datum B, Tertiary Datum C , with
Maximum Material Condition.
 

In this chapter, we learnt about:

Name and symbols of Fourteen geometric tolerances
Grouping of geometric tolerances in five tolerance types
Application of fourteen geometric tolerances as independent
or in a combination with a datum
Need of datum for geometric tolerances
Material condition modifiers (MMC, LMC, RFS)
Writing in feature control frame
Reading feature control frame
 
As mentioned at the beginning of the chapter, deep concepts of
fourteen geometric tolerances are pending and being taken in next
chapter but if you are unclear about any concept mentioned above
then first clear it before proceeding to next chapter.
 
 


8 GD&T TOLERANCES - “FORM”

 
As promised in the previous chapter, we are starting the detailed
study of geometric tolerances from this chapter onwards. We will
start with four tolerances as identified in FORM tolerance type, as
identified in an earlier chapter and again listed below for ready
reference.
 

 
For each tolerance, we will get into details to cover the following
points:
1. Meaning of the geometric tolerance
2. Graphical illustration to clear our understanding
3. Usage of the geometric tolerance and examples
4. Need of datum of the geometric tolerances
5. The relevance of the geometric tolerance with LMC/MMC
6. Writing the geometric tolerance in feature control frame
7. The inclusion of other geometric tolerance(s)
 
 
Let’s understand the inclusion of a geometric tolerance(s) in
another geometric tolerance. Let’s consider any perfectly flat
surface. All lines on the surface will be straight. Therefore, if we
provide flatness requirement then we don’t need to explicitly mention
about straightness requirement. In this case, we say, flatness
requirement includes straightness requirement, means flatness in
inclusive of straightness.
 
As we analyze a geometric tolerance, we will note down its details in
the format shown in figure 8.1 such that we can build our big picture
by the end of this chapter.
 

Figure 8.1 – Analysis output of straightness geometric tolerance

 
Are you ready for this exciting journey? Yes! Then let’s roll…
 
8.1 STRAIGHTNESS
 
Straightness is about a one-dimensional straight line, which is
supposed to have the only length. It should not be curved or bent.
Refer Figure 8.2, given below.
 

 
Figure 8.2 – Illustration of straightness
 
Let us try to relate straightness with our mechanical industry. You
should have seen the hydraulic system in earth moving machine
which controls their arms movement, as shown in Figure 8.3, given
below.
 

Figure 8.3 – A hydraulic system on earth moving the machine

 

Figure 8.4 – Hydraulic system close view

 
Now, look at the design of the hydraulic system as given in figure
8.5.
 
 
Figure 8.5 – Section view of hydraulic system design
 
Here your design requirement is to provide a straight rod. It will not
only ensure the negligible gap between rod and seal to avoid any oil
leakage but also it would avoid any buckling failure.
Now, look at Figure 8.6, given below, for two possible cases for
straightness variations.
 

 
Figure 8.6 – Straightness variation in a rod
 
There are two profiles on the rod which need to be straight. One is
straightness of the surface (shown on the left side) and another is
straightness of the axis of the rod (shown on the right side).
Surface straightness: It is a two-dimensional tolerance zone
shown between two red lines on a cross section plane. The
line profile must remain between these two lines.
Axis/line straightness: It should be a 3D tolerance zone
around an ideal axis as shown in right side of the picture as a
 green cylinder with red boundary.
 
IMPORTANT NOTE: In ASME Y14.5-2009, and various other
sources, this tolerance zone is shown as a 2D zone, similar to the
zone shown for surface tolerance. I am aware of this explanation but
I do not agree to that. My logic is that deviation cannot be limited to
any plane as deviation can occur in any direction. I verified it from
the industry and found my understanding to be correct. When the
deviation is checked in real life, the deviations are found in all
directions, which forms a 3D zone. Therefore, for practical purposes,
you should consider the straightness tolerance zone for the axis to
be of a 3D shape, however, if you are appearing for any certification
exam based on ASME Y14.5-2009 then you should answer in
compliance of it, that is you select the 2D option.
 
§    Datum for straightness   §
Since straightness is not related to any other feature, so we don’t
need any datum to provide straightness tolerance.
 
§    MMC/LMC for straightness   §
For surface straightness, we don’t need material condition but for
axis straightness, we need MMC condition such that for the biggest
shaft (or smallest hole) the corresponding fits work as expected.
 
§    Writing straightness tolerance   §

 
Figure 8.7 – Example of writing straightness tolerance
 
§    Inclusion of other tolerances  §
Since it is basic shape so it does not include any other tolerance.
 
§    Analysis output of straightness  §
Below is analysis output of above learning for straightness:

 
8.2 FLATNESS
 
Flatness is about two dimensional flat surfaces like a wall, side of a
box, floor, etc., which are called plane in geometry and has two
dimensions, length, and breadth. It should not have pits and
mounds.
 

Figure 8.8 – Illustration of flatness

 
Let us try to relate flatness to our mechanical industry. Look at the
press machine shown in figure 8.9, given below:
 
 Figure 8.9 – Press machine and flatness illustration
 
It is important to keep both sides of the press machine as flat as
possible such that the output of the product generated after pressing
with this machine is of high quality. Look at right side of Figure 8.9
which is an expanded view of the top surface of the bottom pressing
plate. The two red lines provide the flatness tolerance zone for the
surface.
This particular tolerance is useful in saving manufacturing cost
as well.
Let’s take an example of 20 mm thick tabletop where required
flatness precision is 0.10 mm and thickness tolerance is 1 mm.  We
can control it with dimension tolerance as 20 ± 0.05 mm to meet both
the requirements. This design is tough to achieve in the
manufacturing process of the entire tabletop.
Alternatively, we can have size tolerance as 20 ± 0.50 mm and
flatness tolerance as 0.10. look at figure 8.10, given below.

Figure 8.10 – Press machine and flatness illustration

 
With this design, we can make a tabletop with 0.50 mm tolerance
(which is much easier to make as compared to the tabletop with 0.05
mm tolerance) and then we can finish tabletop to achieve 0.10 mm
flatness tolerance.
 
§    Datum for flatness   §
Just like straightness, flatness is not related to any other feature, so
we don’t need any datum to provide flatness tolerance.
 
§    MMC/LMC for flatness   §
The material condition is not so relevant here. It may be needed if
we want flatness at a particular plane. This is the reason why the
material condition is optional for flatness. We will take two cases of
flatness, one without material condition and another with MMC.
 
§    Writing flatness tolerance   §
We saw the writing of flatness tolerance without material condition in
Figure 8.10. Now we will take flatness at MMC as shown in Figure
8.11.

Figure 8.11 – Flatness tolerance with the material condition

 
§    Inclusion of other tolerances  §
Any line on a flat plane will be a straight line. So when you provide
flatness tolerance on a surface then you don’t need to provide
straightness tolerance for any line profile on the same surface. Isn’t it
included already? Yes. So we can say flatness includes straightness.
 
§    Analysis output of flatness  §
Below is the analysis output of above learning for flatness:
 

 
Figure 8.12 – Analysis output of flatness
 
 
§  Special Case Of Straightness and Flatness  §
 
As a designer, you allowed straightness or flatness or both
tolerances by looking at the practicality of the manufacturing
process. It resulted in the abrupt rise and drop of the line of plane
profiles as shown in Figure 8.13.
 

Figure 8.13 – Intended and actual profile variations

 
To understand it better, let me take help of profile of the roads from
the civil industry. Look at Figure 8.14, given below. The first image
(8.14a) shows the intention of the engineer to allow some variation in
horizontal and vertical directions due to the available terrain of the
area.
 
  
Figure 8.14a – Intended profile variations of a road
 
The length of the road was 1 km and engineer allowed total vertical
variation of 20 meters, he expected maximum 2 to 3 ups and downs.
Similarly, he allowed a maximum horizontal deviation of 50 meters
with 2 to 3 turns.
 
The contractor got the requirement to keep vertical variation within
20 meter and horizontal variation of 50 meter and build roads. It
resulted in roads shown in figure 8.14b.
 

Figure 8.14b – Actual profile variations of a road

 
As you can find in the above picture, if variations intended for longer
length is allowed in shorter length then bumps and turns are more,
which are undesirable.
 
The same situation may occur in mechanical design when you want
to control straightness and flatness variation over a length or area to
avoid sharp bumps or turns.
 
Consider cases of a vacuum base machine and car shield phone
holder mount, which also has a vacuum base to hold on to the
mounting surface as shown in figure 8.15, given below:
 

Figure 8.15 – Vacuum based machine and car phone holder

 
GD&T provides you with an option to control straightness or flatness
over a unit length or area. Suppose you are fine with a total surface
variation of 1 mm over 50 mm2 bases of the device but you don’t
want more than 0.1 mm variation in 1 mm2 area to ensure proper
functioning of vacuum base. You can write this requirement as
shown below in figure 8.16 (A). You can also give area is a circular
form with a diameter associated with it, as shown in figure 8.16 (B).
 

 
Figure 8.16 – Examples of per unit flatness and straightness
 
The same concept is applicable to flatness. Refer to Figure 8.16 (C)
which allows axial straightness tolerance of 1 mm for a cylinder axis
for entire length with the limitation of maximum 0.10 mm variation for
1 mm length. 
 
Per unit tolerance concept is applicable to only straightness and
flatness, as per ASME Y14.5-2009. I believe it can be extended to
other tolerances as well. Maybe for ‘Total runout’? When you learn
about other tolerances then you should think if per unit concept can
be applied to them or not. This is called progressive thinking!
 
8.3 CIRCULARITY
 
Circularity tolerance is relevant to the profile obtained by a cross-
section of a cylinder cut by a plane. It provides a two-dimensional
tolerance zone between two circles as shown below in Figure 8.17.
 

Figure 8.17 – Circularity geometric tolerance illustration

 
Circularity is also called roundness. It is the most common geometric
tolerance applicable to rotating parts like shaft. Circularity is
particularly important for a cross-section area where you have
sealing between shaft and hole to avoid any oil leakage or to
minimize wear and tear. You can imagine other examples of the shaft
connecting engine and generator, etc.
 
Circularity is also useful in saving manufacturing cost, just as you
saw in the case of flatness to save manufacturing cost of the table by
shifting dimension tolerance of table to flatness tolerance of tabletop.
Similarly, for circularity also, we may increase diameter tolerance
and add circularity tolerance for economical manufacturing.
 
§    Datum for circularity   §
Since circularity is not related to any other feature, just like
straightness and flatness, we don’t need any datum to for circularity
tolerance.
 
§    MMC/LMC for circularity   §
The material condition is not required for circularity. It is always taken
in relation to the top surface of the shaft.
 
§    Writing circularity tolerance   §
Writing circularity is very simple as it does not have material
condition or datum associated with it. It is written as shown in Figure
8.18.
 

 
Figure 8.18 – Writing circularity tolerance
 
§    Inclusion of other tolerances  §
Since the circle is a basic shape, therefore circularity does not
include any other geometric tolerance.
§    Analysis output of circularity  §
Below is analysis output of above learning for circularity:

Figure 8.19 – Analysis output of circularity

 
8.4 CYLINDRICITY
 
Cylindricity tolerance is an extension of circularity tolerance
throughout the length of a cylinder. It is a combination of circularity
and surface straightness. It provided a tolerance zone made of
space between two cylinders as shown below in Figure 8.20.
 
It is a common geometric tolerance applicable to any part which
needs to be both round and straight, for example sliding shafts, pins
and any critical cylindrical element bush and housing, etc.
 

 
Figure 8.20 – Cylindricity geometric tolerance illustration
 
Refer to figure 8.21, given below for an example of bush and
housing.
 

 
Figure 8.21 – Cylindricity geometric tolerance example
 
Here both bush and housing need to be perfectly cylindrical to fulfil
the requirement. Manufacturing up to such precision becomes
difficult during mass production but it becomes feasible and cost-
effective to produce with more tolerance and then machining to
achieve geometric cylindrical tolerance. Therefore, cylindricity also
saves manufacturing cost.
 
§    Datum for cylindricity   §
Since cylindricity is not related to any other feature, just like
straightness and flatness, we don’t need any datum to it.
 
§    MMC/LMC for cylindricity   §
The material condition is not required for cylindricity. It is always
taken in relation to the top surface of the shaft.
 
§    Writing cylindricity tolerance   §
Writing cylindricity is is very simple as it does not have any
associated material condition or datum. It is written as shown in
Figure 8.22.
 
 Figure 8.22 – Writing circularity tolerance
 
§    Inclusion of other tolerances  §
Since the cylinder is an extension of a circle along a straight line, so
defining cylindricity would include circularity and straightness, isn’t it?
 
§    Analysis output of circularity  §
Below is analysis output of above learning for cylindricity:

Figure 8.23 – Analysis output of circularity

 

In this chapter, we learnt about four geometric tolerances as part of

FORM tolerance type. These tolerances are:
Straightness, flatness, circularity, and cylindricity.
We did detailed analysis, looked at different examples, and
consolidated our learning in below form:
 We also learnt about the special case for straightness and
flatness to define per unit tolerance.
We learnt about writing above tolerances in GD&T format
 
If any point is unclear, then clarify it before we proceed to PROFILE
type tolerances.

9 GD&T TOLERANCES – “PROFILE”

 
In the previous chapter, we learnt about tolerances related to basic
forms of line, plane, circle, and cylinder. In this chapter, we will
continue our journey to cover two more tolerances grouped under
PROFILE tolerance class as listed in chapter 7 and again listed
below for ready reference.
 

 
If you look at the exterior surface of cars, aero-planes, motorbikes,
boats, etc. then you would find lots many other shapes or
combination of shapes. These curves and shapes serve the purpose
of least resistance by reducing aerodynamic forces and also
improving the aesthetic look of the exterior surface. Let’s have some
leisure time watching these wonderful shapes and profile in Figure
9.1.
 

Figure 9.1 – Examples of surface profiles in real life

 
These surface designs are good to look at and at the same time
extremely difficult to design. The biggest challenge is to
communicate the profile details to the manufacturer in such a way
that the final output matches the intended design. This is done with
the help of two profile tolerances in GD&T which we are going to
learn in this chapter.
 
9.1 PROFILE OF A LINE
 
Generally, curved surfaces are complex in nature and need careful
profiling. Let’s take an example of an aero-plane wing and study line
profile created at the top surface, at a cross-section, as shown in
Figure 9.2:
 

Figure 9.2 – Line profiling of airplane wing at a cross section

 
Here you may find a green curved line around the hatched area
which shows the ideal profile the designer would like to get
manufactured. Now concentrate on the upper surface and find black
line representing actual profile of line at the top of wings. Two red
lines are given by the designer to keep the actual line profile
between these two red lines.
 
Let us take another real-life example, given below in figure 9.3. It is a
cross-section of a plastic part in a car.
 

 
Figure 9.3 – Line profiling of plastic part of a cross section
  
The green line shows the desired profile of the line at the cross-
section. Set of 2 red lines are to define the tolerance for line profile.
 
After looking at above two examples, we can say, a line profile is a
2D profile of a curved line over a curved surface, taken at a cross-
section.
 
Let’s move forward to understand other details of the tolerance.
§    Datum for a profile of a line   §
 
You may like to control the profile of a line in conjunction with other
features or datum. It is particularly important when you want
continuity of flow of contour between two surfaces. For example, a
line profile may flow from bonnet of the car to the front door to back
door to all the way to the backside of the car. Look at Figure 9.4,
given below where one curved profile (purple) is shown on a block
(green). On the purple curved profile, one black line is shown which
is a profile of a line to which we intend to assign tolerance in
reference to datum A and B.

Figure 9.4 – Line profiling of plastic part of a cross section

 
Tolerance gave to profile if the line is 0.01. Refer to the right side of
the picture, which is cross-sectional view along the line. The black
line is ideal profile, the purple line is an actual profile and red lines
show the tolerance zone within which actual profile should be limited
to exist. There may be a situation when the entire surface is profiled
independently. In such cases, datums are not required.
 
§    MMC/LMC for a profile of a line   §
The material condition is not required for a profile of a line as it is
always taken at the top surface of a curved surface profile.
 
§    Writing profile of a line   §
Writing a profile of a line is very simple as shown in Figure 9.4, given
above. It can only go simpler when datums are not required.
 
§    Inclusion of other tolerances   §
Profile of a line is similar to straightness. The only difference is that it
is curved in a 2D plane. Therefore, it does not include any other
tolerance.
 
§    Analysis output of profile of a line   §
Below is analysis output of above learning for a profile of a line:

Figure 9.5 – Analysis output of profile of a line

9.2 PROFILE OF A SURFACE
 
It is a 3D profile of a curved surface. Refer to figure 9.6, given below,
in which a car hood picture is shown on left figure.
 
  
Figure 9.6 –Example and illustration of the profile of a surface
 
Illustration on the right is surface profiling of same car hood. The
ideal surface profile is shown in green color and tolerance profiles
are shown in red color, showing upper limit and lower limit tolerance
profile.
 

 
Figure 9.7 –illustration of the profile of a surface and notations
  
Look at Figure 9.7, given above, in which blue top of the curved
profile is given a tolerance of 0.01 mm. The tolerance zone is shown
by two red curved surfaces on the right side of the picture. The
actual profile should remain between these two red planes.
 
§    Datum for a profile of a surface   §
Just like the profile of a line, you may like to control the profile of a
surface in conjunction with other features or datum, however, you
may have surfaces which are independently controlled. Therefore,
again datum becomes optional.
 
§    MMC/LMC for a profile of a surface   §
The material condition is not required for a profile of a surface as it is
always taken at the top surface of a curved surface profile.
 
§    Writing profile of a surface   §
Writing a profile of a surface is very simple as shown in figure 9.7,
given above. It can only go simpler when datums are not required.
 
§    Inclusion of other tolerances   §
Profile of a surface is similar to flatness. The only difference is that it
is curved in a 3D plane. As flatness includes straightness, the profile
of a surface will include the profile of a line Look at Figure 9.8 which
shown multiple paths, as black lines, on the curved surface of the
profile.  Any profile checking equipment will measure the accuracy of
profiling by travelling through these paths on actual surface.

Figure 9.8 –Paths to check profiling on a profile of a surface

  
These paths are along a curved line obtained as a cross-section of
the curved profile surface with a plane. Obviously, it shows the
profile a line on the same surface. Therefore, when we provide a
profile of a surface, it is inclusive of the profile of a line.
 
§    Analysis output of profile of a line   §
 
Below is analysis output of above learning for a profile of a surface:
:

Figure 9.9 – Analysis output of profile of a surface

 
QUESTION TIME !
 
If the profile is flat, then the profile of the surface will include flatness.
Right? Then we did not include flatness in inclusion. Did we make a
mistake and shall we revise above understanding?
 
The answer is “No”.
 
Although the profile of a surface can be used to control the flatness,
we don’t use the profile of a surface for such purposes. Profile of a
surface can cover a wide range of profile and almost all profiles can
be controlled by it. However, we use it when nothing else can be
used.
 
9.3 SPECIAL CASE OF PROFILE – NON-UNIFORM ZONE
 
Till now we always found a uniform zone of tolerances created by
any geometric tolerance studied so far. Recall straightness in which
the zone was created between two parallel lines or cylindrical zone
at axis, for flatness, the zone was formed between two parallel
planes, for circularity, the zone was created between two concentric
circles, which is again uniform, and for cylindricity, it was between
two coaxial cylinders, which is again uniform. In fact, you will find it to
be the same case for all remaining profiles we are going to learn in
this book.
 
However, our “Profile” tolerance has got special consideration in the
2009 edition of ASME standard. It can have varying or non-uniform
tolerance zone. Look at one example given below in Figure 9.10:
 

Figure 9.10 – Illustration of varying tolerance zone of a profile

 
The feature has a requirement of less tolerance on the right side,
medium tolerance in the central part and can allow bigger tolerance
on the left side, as shown by red lines. You can see sudden
tolerance zone area change at four places highlighted by red circles.
This kind of disruption in tolerance zone causes manufacturing issue
and raise confusion between design and manufacturing teams.
 
Now, look at another example in Figure 9.11, given below, in which
connection issue is not there but designer wants to provide an
increased tolerance zone in the centre area of the feature to
increase manufacturing convenience and reduce manufacturing
cost.
 
 Figure 9.11 – Example and representation of a non-uniform zone
 
Here writing in GD&T is simple, just put symbol and write NON-
UNIFORM next to it. But it is insufficient for the detailed purpose.
You have to put all geometric detail in drawing or put notes in the
drawing.
 

In this chapter, we learnt about two geometric tolerances as part of

PROFILE tolerance type namely profile of a line and surface. We did
detailed analysis, looked at different examples, and consolidated our
learning in below form:

 
We also learnt about the special case for a profile to be non-uniform.
If any point is unclear then clarify it before we proceed to
ORIENTATION type tolerances.

10 GD&T TOLERANCES – “ORIENTATION”

 
 
Meaning of word orientation is “action of placing something relative
to other specified position”. It means Orientation is always relative. In
this chapter, we will continue our journey to cover three more
tolerances grouped under ORIENTATION tolerance class as listed in
chapter 7 and again listed below for ready reference. .
 

 
Before we dive into these tolerances, I would like to establish two
concepts which will make this learning a baby’s game.
 
1ST CONCEPT:
 
Angular tolerance is different from angularity tolerance. Look at
figure 10.1, given below: in which angular tolerance denotes a
variation in the angle of inclination between two lines or planes.
 
 
Figure 10.1 – Difference between angular and angularity tolerance
 
On the other hand, angularity tolerance creates a uniform thickness
zone around ideal orientation in which line or plane may remain.
 
2ND CONCEPT
 
Perpendicularity and parallelism are an extension of angularity with
the angle of inclination being 900 and 00/1800 as shown below in
figure 10.2.
 

 
Figure 10.2 – Angular in form of perpendicular and parallel
 
After understanding two concepts, you will smoothly sail through the
orientation tolerances. Let’s move forward…
 
10.1 ANGULARITY
 
Now when you look at figure 10.3, given below, for angularity
tolerance zone, then you can understand each bit of it. Isn’t it?
 
 Figure 10.3 – Illustration of angularity tolerance
 
Clearly, the red transparent planes are forming the tolerance zone
for the green ideal plane. Picture of the right side is line diagram for
same.
 
QUESTION TIME !
 
It’s your turn to imagine how would angularity for a line work? What
would be the shape of such tolerance zones?
Did you visualize a cylindrical tolerance zone, which is the case for
straightness as well?
 
 Figure 10.4 – Illustration of angularity tolerance for a line
 
Look at Figure 10.4, given above, illustrating the same case. I am
sure it was easy for you to understand it (else revisit section 8.1)
 
QUESTION TIME !
 
The above simple question was a trap for you, the real question is
coming now. Tell me the importance of datum B. When angularity is
given with respect to datum A then what difference datum B is
making here?
 
Hint: Answer is related to the datum reference frame and degree of
freedom. Refer to section 6.1 and try to answer this question.
 
§    Datum for angularity   §
As explained at the beginning of this chapter, all orientation
tolerances are relative to one or more datum. So datum is
applicable.
 
§    MMC/LMC for angularity   §
You can apply a material condition to angularity but it is
conventionally not used to keep it simple. In the next section, you will
find it to be useful for perpendicularity tolerance.
 
§    Writing angularity   §
Writing angularity is very simple as shown in figures 10.3 and 10.4.
 
§    Inclusion of other tolerances   §
As it controls axis and plane, straightness and flatness are included.
 
§    Analysis output of angularity   §
Below is an analysis output of above learning for angularity:
 

Figure 10.5 – Analysis output of angularity

 
10.2 PERPENDICULARITY
 
Perpendicularity is a special case of angularity where able between
plane and datum is 900. All other explanation remains the same
except the impact of a material condition which we will see later.
First, let’s look into an illustration of perpendicularity in figure 10.6,
given below:
 
 Figure 10.6 – Illustration of perpendicularity
 
Here we have mentioned only one datum. Can you guess when two
datums may be used? Yes, obviously when you need two plane
references. Look at Figure 10.7, given below, to understand it. on the
left side of the figure, we used only one datum. Perpendicularity
tolerance controls it with respect to datum A but allows the plane to
rotate, as shown, in such a manner that it remains perpendicular to
datum A. It does not meet our requirements. To restrict this rotational
degree of freedom, we apply another datum B, as shown on right
side of Figure 10.7.

Figure 10.7 – Illustration of perpendicularity with 2 datums

 
As a result of datum B, the remaining degree of freedom is restricted
as we wanted. In such cases, we use two datums.
 
QUESTION TIME !
 
Can we extend the application of datum to three datums to control
perpendicularity? If yes, then what be the case when the third datum
will be required and how will we apply the third datum?
 
I think I should answer this rather than leaving it to you.
 
Answer: You cannot have a plane which is perpendicular to three
other mutually perpendicular planes (as three planes of datum
reference frame). Geometrically it is not possible. Try to place a
plane in the datum reference frame but you would not be able to do
it. Therefore perpendicularity cannot have three datums.
 
QUESTION TIME !
 
How do we decide if we need to apply no datum, one datum or two
datums for perpendicularity?
 
Answer: It is driven by the available degree of freedom. If no degree
of freedom is available, it may be constrained by other features, then
we don’t need to apply any datum. If one degree of freedom is
available, then apply one datum and if two degrees of freedom are
available then apply two datums.
 
Do you remember one unanswered question asked in angularity?
The answer to that question is also to control the degree of freedom
by referencing to datum B.
 
§    MMC/LMC for perpendicularity   §
 
This next concept is very important to understand and needs proper
attention. It will also create a foundation for another important
concept of bonus tolerance. So, proceed once you are ready.
Consider the design of a pin and hole using the Hole Basis System.
Considering it to be clearance fit, basic size 16 mm, 0.1%
fundamental deviations on hole and shaft (=0.016 mm). We select
IT7 grade fit which is the moderate grade for a clearance fit with a
tolerance of 0.018 mm (later we will learn in detail about IT grade
system to calculate dimensional tolerances). Now let us calculate
MMC sizes for hole and shaft.
MMC diameter of hole = Basic size + fundamental deviation +
dimensional tolerance = 16.000+0.016+0.018 = 16.034 mm.
 MMC diameter of shaft = basic size – fundamental deviation
= 16.000 - 0.016 = 15.984
 
Look at Figure 10.8 to visualize an MMC condition interactions. The
left image does not consider perpendicularity tolerance and the right
image illustrates the situation with maximum perpendicularity
tolerance.
 

Figure 10.8 – Illustration of perpendicularity at MMC

 
Closely look at picture details Red shaded areas are a gap between
pin and hole. The total available gap to pin at MMC =
 
MMC of hole – MMC of shaft = 16.034 – 19.984 = 0.050 mm.
 
This is maximum allowed tolerance for the pin to be utilized for any
additional tolerance, which may be additional dimensional tolerance
or any geometric tolerance. In this case, we are using it for
perpendicularity. So we can say, maximum perpendicularity
tolerance available is 0.050 mm at MMC.
 
     This is the way we derive tolerance
 
Now we will at another important concept of impact on tolerance
at LMC. Look at Figure 10.9, given below to take the above case
 to see the derived tolerance at LMC of a pin.
 

 
Figure 10.9 – Illustration of perpendicularity at LMC
 
Pin at LMC reduced to MMC – dimensional tolerance based on IT
grade which is equal to 15.984 – 0.018 = 15.966, as shown above.
In the left image, you may find the maximum possible gap between
pin and hole at LMC = hole diameter at MMC (hole basis system) –
pin diameter at LMC = 16.034 – 15.966 = 0.068 mm.
 
Now, look at the right image. The pin can have a maximum deviation
to the extent of the maximum available gap which is 0.068 mm.
 
Extra tolerance you got between MMC and LMC = 0.068 = 0.050 –
0.018. It is same as the difference between MMC and LMC of the
pin.
It is not a coincidence. It is mathematics. It is engineering. You get
an extra tolerance of the same amount as much as you move away
from MMC up to LMC. Look at Figure 10.10 to validate this concept.
 
 Figure 10.10 – Extra tolerance due to deviation from MMC
 
       This extra tolerance is called bonus tolerance.
 
The concept of bonus tolerance is very important for the
manufacturer as they use this bonus tolerance to manufacture more
output with less rejection and less cost due to increase tolerance. As
a designer, you should understand it when you provide tolerance at
MMC.
 
Coming back to our original point, if the material condition is
applicable to perpendicularity, now you can see it is definitely
applicable.
 
§    Writing perpendicularity   §
Figure 10.11 shows different cases for writing tolerance.
 
  
Figure 10.11 – Writing perpendicularity tolerances
 
§    Inclusion of other tolerances   §
As it controls axis and plane, so straightness and flatness are
included.
 
§    Analysis output of perpendicularity   §
It almost same as angularity. The only difference is MMC becoming
important in case of perpendicularity.
 

Figure 10.12 – Analysis output of perpendicularity

 
10.3 PARALLELISM
 
Parallelism will be simpler to understand.  It is mostly used to
mention parallelism between two parallel planes. In such cases, only
one datum is used and the material condition is not required. Look at
Figure 10.13, given below, to understand its application and method
of writing.
 
 
 Figure 10.13 – Illustration of parallelism between planes
 
Important note: Flatness is not the same as parallelism. Parallelism
uses a datum to control a surface while flatness does not. If a plane
is flat, it need not be parallel to any datum. If we need to control the
flatness, then tolerance will modify as given below in Figure 10.14.
 

Figure 10.14 – Illustration of parallelism with flatness

 
Mainly parallelism is used for geometric conditions, as shown above,
that is, to define parallelism between two planes while making
reference plane at datum. Now we will discuss two more cases
which are slightly less common which are used for parallelism of an
axis. Obviously, the tolerance zone of an axis will be cylindrical as
we will see.
1. Parallelism with two datums. Look at Figure 10.15, given
below, in which we are giving parallelism tolerance to the axis
of a hole in the centre of a cubical block. Here the axis needs
to be parallel to two datums, A and B.
 
 Figure 10.15 – Example of parallelism with 2 datums
 
2. Parallelism with a material condition: Taking a case of
connecting rod in which bigger hole is taken as a datum (with
RFS) and smaller hole is taken at MMC. Look at Figure
10.16, given below, to understand the concept.

Figure 10.16 – Example of parallelism with the material condition

 
Here, the lower hole is taken as reference datum at RFS and
the upper hole is given parallelism tolerance at MMC. Here
again, the concept of bonus tolerance will be applicable.
 
 
 
§    Inclusion of other tolerances   §
As it controls axis and plane, straightness and flatness are included.
 
§    Analysis output of parallelism   §
It is almost the same as angularity. The only difference is MMC may
become important in case of parallelism.
 

Figure 10.17 – Analysis output of parallelism

 

In this chapter, we learnt about three geometric tolerances as part of

ORIENTATION tolerance type namely angularity, perpendicularity,
and parallelism.
We understood the difference between angular tolerance and
angularity tolerance.
We learnt two important concepts of bonus tolerance
We saw use cases of two datums and material conditions.
We did detailed analysis, looked at different examples, and
consolidated our learning in below form:

 
If any point is unclear, then clarify it before we proceed to
LOCATION type tolerances.
 


 
11 GD&T TOLERANCES – “LOCATION”
 
 
In this chapter, we will continue our journey to cover three more
tolerances grouped under LOCATION tolerance class as listed in
chapter 7 and again listed below for ready reference.
 

 
This location tolerance type is used to control
The position of a point (e.g. centre of the circle), axis or
central plane
Concentricity between the axis of feature and datum axis or
point
The symmetry of two features across a datum plane.
 
Let’s start the journey to control locations of features...
 
11.1 (TRUE) POSITION
 
Accurate terminology, as per ASME standard, is “Position”,
however, the True position is also widely. used. Therefore, we can
use either of them.
 
Remember the first GD&T case we discussed in the first chapter?
Let’s start with a similar case as shown in Figure 11.1, given below.
 

 
Figure 11.1 – Simple position tolerance example
 
Look at the left image. Here designer is suggesting a hole of
diameter 12 mm, with 0.50 mm dimensional tolerance, with position
or the centre at 10 mm from datum A and 15 mm from datum B, with
0.50 mm positional tolerance when the hole is at MMC (smallest
hole). The image on the right shows the position tolerance zone in
green colour (at the centre of the hole). It means the centre of the
hole may remain in any place in the identified area.
 
Here one point is important to note. The material condition is 
MANDATORY for position tolerance. It can be MMC, LMC or RFS.
It can be applied to the feature itself or other datum features. We will
look at such cases. Before that, I would like you to understand the
impact of MMC material condition applied at feature (hole) itself.
 
Refer to Figure 11.2, given below. Consider the mating part of the
hole is a shaft of diameter 11.50 mm at its MMC, as shown by grey
shaded circle. By giving 0.50 mm position tolerance, the designer is
ensuring the shaft to fit properly. When a manufacturer produces
makes the hole, the hole should be able to accommodate the shaft.
This is required to meet the functional need.
 

Figure 11.2 – Illustration of fit at MMC

 
Now refer to Figure 11.3 in which another extreme condition of the
hole is illustrated, that is when the hole is made at LMC (biggest hole
in red colour). Here manufacturer will get a bigger tolerance zone to
ensure proper fit. Because the shaft gets more space to move
sideward up to the extent of touching the hole, as needed.
 

Figure 11.3 – Illustration of fit while departing from MMC to LMC

 
This extra tolerance is the same as BONUS TOLERANCE as we
learnt in the previous chapter when we learnt about perpendicularity
for a pin (shaft). Therefore, now the concept of BONUS tolerance
should have been clear to you for cases when tolerance is provided
at MMC. To summarize, we can say, bonus tolerance is extra
tolerance made available to the manufacturer when moving from
MMC to LMC The value of extra tolerance will be same as the value
of departure from MMC.
 
If the bonus tolerance concept at MMC is not yet clear, then revisit
section 10.2 and again go through the above example to clarify it
before you proceed to next topic
 
QUESTION TIME !
 
If position tolerance is given at LMC then will you get a bonus
tolerance?
 
Answer and hint: Bonus tolerance concept is applicable at LMC as
well. Consider a case of hole and shaft. Suppose you need to ensure
some minimum gap between hole and shaft and you have provided
position tolerance at LMC then as you move away from LMC
towards MMC, you get extra bonus, of same value as you moved
away from LMC to MMC as you need to shift the position of hole
away from ideal position to ensure minimum gap. Try to write your
own figure and see if you can do it.
 
§    Material conditions at datum features   §
 
As mentioned earlier, the datum is mandatory for position tolerance.
It can be applied to the feature or datum features as well. Look at
Figure 11.4, given below, in which datums are provided at the feature
as well as two datum features A B and C.
 
  
Figure 11.4 – Material condition at the feature and datum features
 
Here the design is to make one bigger hole at centre and four small
holes at corners of a rounded rectangular plate. Look at Figure 11.5,
given below, illustrating the situation at LMC.

Figure 11.5 –Effect of MMC at datum features

 
When datum features B and C departs from MMC to LMC, position
tolerances of holes are increased in order to remain functional with
mating part(s). the increased tolerance zones are shown by red
circles.
 
§    Position tolerance for axis   §
Let’s again go back to our first example to see how position
tolerance can be used for the axis. Look at Figure 11.6, given below.
 

Figure 11.6 –Position tolerance for the axis of a hole

 
Here you can see a green cylindrical zone to control the position of
the axis of the hole. It is a three-dimensional control and widely used
when the depth of the hole increases such that proper fit can be
ensured.
 
§    MMC/LMC for position tolerance   §
We learnt that material condition is mandatory for the position. It is
also true because position tolerance is always applied to a feature of
size.
§    Writing position tolerance   §
In multiple examples, we learnt multiple cases to write position
tolerance. An important role is played by a material condition which
can apply to the feature as well as datum features.
 
§    Inclusion of other tolerances   §
Since it is basic position tolerance so it does not include any other
geometric tolerance.
 
§    Analysis output of position tolerance   §
Below is the analysis output for position tolerance.
 

Figure 11.7 – Analysis output of position tolerance

 
11.2 CONCENTRICITY
 
Concentricity is a 3D geometric tolerance zone of circular features
(like a cylinder, cone, etc.) to be coaxial with reference (Datum) axis,
as shown below in Figure 11.8:
 

 
Figure 11.8 – Illustration of concentricity of a cylinder
 
Here concentricity of the axis of the feature (smaller cylinder) with
the axis of the datum feature (bigger cylinder) is controlled by
concentricity tolerance, which is 0.5 mm as shown in the figure. It
creates a cylindrical tolerance zone as shown by transparent red
cylindrical zone around the ideal axis of the feature.
Axes of datum feature and datum are measured by the distribution of
the center of mass of these features. It is extremely difficult to
measure and demonstrate. Due to this difficulty, concentricity
tolerance is rarely used in industry. Instead of it, we can use runout
or total runout tolerances. These will be taught in next chapter.
 
§    MMC/LMC for concentricity   §
Since it is based on the mass distribution of feature and datum
feature, the material condition is not used.
 
§    Writing concentricity tolerance   §
Since it is not widespread, so the example we saw above is
sufficient.
 
§    Inclusion of other tolerances   §
It does not include any other geometric tolerance.
 
§    Analysis output of concentricity tolerance   §
Below is the analysis output for concentricity tolerance.
 

Figure 11.9 – Analysis output of concentricity tolerance

 
11.3 SYMMETRY
 
Refer to Figure 11.10 to understand the meaning of symmetry. In the
left side of the figure, you can see a symmetrical object with a plane
of symmetry in green colour. When you look at the image on the right
side then you would find the object to be asymmetrical across the
green plane. There may exist another vertical plane across which
object may be symmetrical but we are interested only in our own
green plane. It may be our functional requirement.
 Figure 11.10 – an Illustrative example of symmetry
 
How is this plane of symmetry identified? Using dimensions? No.
GD&T standard expects you to find the centre of mass on both sides
of the plane of symmetry and check where it falls. If all such
measurement falls on the (green) plane of symmetry then you can
say it is perfectly symmetrical. Such quality is hard to achieve so we
provide symmetry tolerance to allow some deviations.
Look at Figure 11.11, in which two red planes are representing the
upper and lower limits of tolerances which creates a tolerance zone
between which centre of mass of all opposite mass should fall.
 

Figure 11.11 –Symmetry tolerance zone and calculation method

 
Figure on right-hand side in the above figure is a schematic diagram
of the same setup. Green plane of symmetry is represented by a
green line and red tolerance zone planes are represented by red
lines. These centre of masses are represented by red dot between
red lines. If all dots are falling within tolerance zone, then the object
would be accepted as a symmetrical object.
As you must have got the question, how to measure the center of
opposite masses and represent it? Actually, it is not only difficult to
measure it but the process becomes expensive too. It leaves this
tolerance more theoretical and less practical. So it is seldom used.
 
So what is a workaround for symmetry?
When you look closely then you would realize the symmetry has the
capability of controlling position, flatness, and also parallelism. If you
could control symmetry then you would not need to control position,
flatness, and parallelism for features already covered in symmetry,
Isn’t it? We will make use of the same property of symmetry but in
reverse order. Means, we will control symmetry by controlling
position, flatness, and parallelism of different features. Liked the
idea? This is exactly what is being practiced in industry. Instead of
using symmetry tolerance and getting involved in expensive and
complicated measurement techniques, industry uses position,
flatness, and parallelism to achieve the same result. This is the
workaround.
 
 §    MMC/LMC for Symmetry   §
Since it is based on the mass distribution of feature and datum
feature, so the material condition is not used.
 
§    Writing symmetry tolerance   §
Since it is not widespread, so the example we saw above is
sufficient.
 
§    Inclusion of other tolerances   §
It is a very comprehensive 3D geometric tolerance across a central
datum plane across which all features need to be symmetrical. It
includes flatness, parallelism, and position.
 
§    Analysis output of symmetry tolerance   §
Below is the analysis output for symmetry tolerance.
 

Figure 11.12 – Analysis output of symmetry tolerance

 

In this chapter, we learnt about three geometric tolerances as part of

LOCATION tolerance type namely position, concentricity, and
symmetry. Below are main points covered:
Position tolerance is provided for the feature of size.
Position tolerance need material conditions.
The material condition can be provided the feature of size or
datum features or both.
Position tolerance zone will be a circular zone for position
tolerance of a point. It will be a cylindrical zone for axis
position.
Concentricity tolerance is coaxiliaty of the axis of the feature
with the axis of the feature with feature axis. It is measured
on the basis of the center of mass of feature and datum
feature, if applicable.
Symmetry is most comprehensive 3D tolerancing which
works on the concept of center of mass across datum plane.
Due to complexity to calculate the center of mass, both
concentricity and symmetry are rarely used in industry.
 We did detailed analysis, looked at different examples, and
consolidated our learning in below form:

If any point is unclear, then clarify it before we proceed to RUNOUT

type tolerances.
 
 
12 GD&T TOLERANCES – “RUNOUT”
 
In this chapter, we will continue our journey to cover two remaining
tolerances grouped under RUNOUT tolerance class as listed in
chapter 7 and again listed below for ready reference.
 

 
RUNOUT is not related to cricket! It is related to something even
more popular in the mechanical industry. It is related to something
without which mechanical industry cannot exist. It is related to
something which is involved in every person’s life. It is related to
rotating parts. Have a look around you and identify rotating part
around you. In mechanical industry also there are many rotating
parts, for example, rotating shafts, axles, drills, gears and so on. It
becomes extremely important to control these rotating parts such
that they rotate without boggling and generates minimum vibrations.
It becomes important to increase the life cycle of rotating parts,
connecting parts and also better safety.
 
§    Identification of datum feature and datum axis   §
 
For tolerance of rotating parts:
We must identify the axis of rotation which we call datum axis.
The datum axis must be derived from a related functional
part which we call datum feature. Here related means the
datum feature and feature under consideration are
connected. Functional means the datum feature is a working
component.
Datum axis can be:
derived from another cylindrical feature of long size.
collectively derived from two cylindrical features
sufficiently distance apart.
Derived from planar datum feature which is
perpendicular to the axis.
 
Look at figure 12.1, given below, to understand datum feature and
datum axis and surface around datum axis to be controlled by
runout.
 

Figure 12.1 – Datum feature, datum axis, and surface for runout
 
12.1 IDENTIFYING DATUM FEATURES AND AXIS
 
We begin the process of defining runout tolerances with the
identification of datum feature in the entire component which will be
used to derive datum axis. Datum feature should be sufficiently long
and therefore we selected leftmost feature in Figure 12.1 as the
datum feature. Automatically axis of the datum feature will define
datum axis, as shown in the figure. Remaining all surfaces, either
parallel, inclined or perpendicular to datum axis can be controlled by
RUNOUT.
 
§    Two cylindrical datum feature   §
 
If one cylindrical datum feature is not large above, then it may be
difficult to identify the datum axis. In such case, we may find two
short datums features and combine them to get the datum axis. Look
at Figure 12.2, given below, in which two short cylinders at both the
ends are selected as combined datum features to derive datum axis.
 

Figure 12.2 – Two datum features to derive datum axis

 
Datums derived with the help of two cylindrical profiles are
represented as C–D as shown in Figure 12.2.
 
§    One cylindrical one perpendicular surface datum feature   §
 
Look at Figure 12.3 in which neither single long cylindrical datum
feature is available nor two short cylindrical datum features are
available to define datum axis. In this case, we can select leftmost
cylinder as first datum feature and a surface perpendicular to the
axis of first datum feature as second datum feature, as shown in the
figure. Based on these two datum features, final datum axis can be
derived. Such datums are represented in a regular manner showing
both datums.
 

 
Figure 12.3 – Two datum features to derive datum axis
 
In fact, datum features can be any feature or combination which is
convenient to derive the datum axis during checking the tolerances.
 
Now we will see how circular runout controls circular profile and total
runout controls cylindrical profile of a rotating cylinder.
 
12.2 CIRCULAR RUNOUT TOLERANCE
 
Circular runout is used to control the circular profile of a surface. The
circular profile can be located at a particular cross-section of a shaft
or over a small span of the surface. Look at Figure 12.4, given
below, showing four cases in which circular runout can be used.
 
 Figure 12.4 – Examples of circular runout
 
Here one cylindrical feature (on left) and one plane feature are used
to define datum axis. Case 1 is used for small span surface circular
runout profiling. It means the circular profile will be checked only at
one point on this span and if tolerance comes below 0.020 mm then
it will be accepted. Case 2 is used for the inclined surface. Here
again, the profile is checked only at one point. Case 3 is related to
the flat surface perpendicular to a datum axis. Case 4 is a little
different. If you want to control circular runout profile only over a
limited span of rotating element, then you use the thick chain to
show your area to control the tolerance.
 
§    MMC/LMC for runout   §
Since it is used to control the final surface, material condition is not
relevant and you did not find it in the example.
 
§    Writing runout tolerance   §
The examples we saw above are sufficient.
 
§    Inclusion of other tolerances   §
By using this tolerance, we can control the position of the centre of
circular profile and circularity of surface profile with reference to a
datum axis.
 
§    Analysis output of runout tolerance   §
 Below is the analysis output for runout tolerance.

Figure 12.5 – Analysis output of runout tolerance

 
12.3 TOTAL RUNOUT TOLERANCE
 
Total runout is used to control circular elements of all surface
elements of a cylindrical surface. Look at Figure 12.6, given below:
 

 
Figure 12.6 – Examples of total runout
 
Here, you can notice that the chain line is removed. It means we
need to check the circular profile throughout the surface.
 
§    MMC/LMC for total runout   §
Since it is based on the mass distribution of feature and datum
feature, material condition is not used.
 
§    Writing total runout tolerance   §
The examples we saw above are sufficient.
 
§    Inclusion of other tolerances   §
It is a very useful and easy to use tolerance control. It includes
concentricity, perpendicularity, cylindricity, circularity, straightness
and circular runout.
 
§    Analysis output of total runout tolerance   §
Below is the analysis output for symmetry tolerance.
 

Figure 12.7 – Analysis output of runout tolerance

 

In this chapter, we learnt about two geometric tolerances as part of

RUNOUT tolerance type namely circular runout and total runout.
Below are main points covered:
These are primarily used to control boggling of rotating parts
Identifying datum(s) is important as it has to be a part of the
component itself to ensure no boggling. Datums can be
cylindrical rotating part or a plane perpendicular to the axis of
rotation.
It circular profile control is needed only at a circle then we use
circular runout and if circular profile control is needed over
entire surface then we use total runout.
Total runout is very useful as it includes much other control.
We consolidated our learning as given in below form:
If any point is unclear, then clarify it before you proceed.


13 MULTIPLE FEATURE CONTROL

TOLERANCES
 
As a designer, you may like to use multiple feature controls to get the
desired output. For example, you may like to control the position and
perpendicularity of a hole to ensure proper fit. There are multiple
such conditions which are broadly divided into three parts:
 
13.1 MULTIPLE FEATURE CONTROL
 
This is used when we need to provide more than one geometric
tolerance to a feature. For example, we may need to provide position
and perpendicularity tolerance of a hole. It will be written as shown in
figure 13.1, given below.
 

Figure 13.1 – Example of multiple feature controls

 
Word of caution: If any tolerance is inclusive of other tolerance then
you don’t need to mention the included one unless you want to
control it differently. Look at Figure 13.2 in which straightness and
flatness are used. Since straightness is included in flatness, as we
learnt in section 8.2, so we don’t need to mention straightness with
flatness when tolerance values are same. But we need to mention
both when tolerance values and feature control methods are
different. Therefore, straightness on the left side is not required as
tolerance values are same but straightness is required in right side
case where tolerance values and feature controls are different.
 Figure 13.2 –Inclusiveness examples for multiple feature control
 
13.2 COMPOSITE FEATURE CONTROL
 
This is used when we need to provide single tolerance but different
values in different conditions. Look at Figure 13.3, given below. The
picture on left side show profile of a surface having a tolerance of
0.010 when considered only with datum A but tolerance is increased
when you control it with respect to three datums (A, B, and C) at a
time. More control means tolerance has to be relaxed to keep it
practical. When you look at the picture on the right side then you
would find position tolerance to be 0.02 when considered with
datums A and B with any material condition. But when datum feature
A is considered with MMC when tolerance has been increased to
0.05.
 

Figure 13.3 – Composite feature controls examples

 
13.3 COMBINED FEATURE CONTROL
 
When a feature, controlled by geometric tolerance, also serves as a datum
feature then you get a combined feature control, as shown in figure 13.4.
 Figure 13.4 – Combined feature controls examples
 
Above are just a few examples. You can combine them in any
manner you want. Just because this chapter is short, we are
skipping revision of the chapter.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
14 BOUNDARY AND ENVELOPE
 
14.1 CONCEPTS OF A BOUNDARY
 
As a designer, you know your requirements and maximum deviations
you can allow, during the manufacturing of the components, to keep
your parts functional. These deviations are caused by:
Dimensional tolerances (10 1, 600 50, etc.)
Geometric tolerances (position, straightness, etc.)
Bonus tolerances (departure from MMC/LMC)
As a designer, you are concerned about the combined effect of all of
the above deviations. You would calculate the combined effect of all
tolerances to find out maximum possible deviations. These
maximum deviations are called boundaries. Look at Figure 14.1,
given below:
 
 Figure 14.1 – Inner, outer boundaries (MMB, LMB)
 
In Figure 14.1, we are taking examples of the hole (to represent all
internal features) and shaft (to represent all external features). Grey
features are ideal size features, blue are smallest size features and
green features are largest size features.
 
Smallest features are called “Inner Boundary” and largest features
are called “Outer Boundary”. Let’s understand the meaning of each
of them and also the formula to calculate their values.
 
We will start with inner boundaries (IB):
The smallest possible hole is a condition due to MMC of the
hole and the further reduction in hole size due to all geometric
tolerances (GT) and all bonus tolerances (BT). So, we can
say:
IBHole = MMCHole – ∑(GT) – ∑(BT)
This is the maximum material boundary (MMB) of a hole.
Similarly, the smallest possible shaft is a condition due to
LMC of the shaft and the further reduction in size due to GT
and BT. So:
IBShaft = LMCShaft – ∑(GT) – ∑(BT)
This is the least material boundary (LMB) of a shaft.
 
Now we will pick up outer boundaries (OB):
 The largest possible hole is a condition of LMC of the hole
and a further increase in size due to GT and BT. Here we can
say:
OBHole = LMCHole + ∑(GT) + ∑(BT)
(Notice the change in sign as highlighted by yellow colour. It
is due to the addition of sizes to move from LMC to bigger
size boundary)
This is the least material boundary (LMB) of a hole.
Similarly, the largest possible shaft is a condition due to MMC
of the shaft and increase in size due to GT and BT. So we
can say:
OBShaft = MMCShaft + ∑(GT) + ∑(BT)
This is the maximum material boundary (MMB) of a shaft.
 
Without any stress, we learnt about “Maximum Material Boundary”
(MMB) and “Least Material Boundary” (LMB). Actually, we started
with simple inner and outer boundaries concept and found the
relationship between inner and outer boundaries with MMB/LMB as
summarized in Figure 14.2, given below:
 

Figure 14.2 – Inner, outer boundaries, MMB, and LMB

 
Below are definitions of LMB and RMB from ASMEY14.5-2009:
 
LMB: the limit defined by a tolerance or combination of tolerances
that exists on or inside the material of a feature(s).
MMB: the limit defined by a tolerance or combination of tolerances
that exists on or outside the material of a feature(s).
 
You may validate your learning by checking for LMB which is said to
be of the material. It is shown in Figure 14.2 as inner boundary of the
shaft which will be inside the shaft and the outer boundary of the
hole which will again be inside the hole. Similarly, you can validate
RMS cases as well.
 
There is one more term, RMB (regardless material boundary)
 
RMB is derived from actual parts by moving from MMB to LMB and
stopping when contact is maximum. It is done with the help of
theoretical simulator or practical simulators. Look at Figure 14.3
explaining the RMB concept on actual part.
 

 
Figure 14.3 – Showing RMB with MMB and LMB
 
One very important interpretation is given in Figure 14.3, that is,
MMC and MMB are not same, and similarly LMC and LMB are not
same. For shafts, MMB with being larger than MMC and LMB will be
smaller than LMC. So you should not confuse them. They all are
different. Isn’t it?
 
QUESTION TIME !
  
Can you think the situations when theoretical MMB will be the same
as actual MMB and LMB will be the same as actual LMB?
 
Answer:
The MMB would be an actual MMB if the tolerance (location or
orientation) for that datum feature was zero at MMC.
The LMB would be an actual LMB if the tolerance (location or
orientation) for that datum feature was zero at LMC
 
14.2 VIRTUAL CONDITION AND RESULTANT CONDITION
BOUNDARIES
 
These are boundaries defined by dimensional tolerance and
geometric tolerance when material conditions are applied to the
feature of size. Let us look at the definition of these terms:
 
Virtual Condition
A constant boundary generated by the collective effects of a
considered feature of the size’s specified MMC or LMC and the
geometric tolerance for that material condition.
 
Resultant Condition
The single worst-case boundary generated by the collective effects
of a feature of the size’s specified MMC or LMC, the geometric
tolerance for that material condition, the size tolerance, and the
additional geometric tolerance derived from the feature’s departure
from its specified material condition.
 
In order to simplify, we can say:
Virtual condition boundary is a dimensional boundary at given
material condition adjusted by geometric tolerance crossing the
given material condition.
Resultant condition boundary is a dimensional boundary opposite
to given material condition adjusted by geometric tolerance crossing
opposite material condition (LMC is opposite of MMC and vice versa)
and additional maximum bonus tolerance. Maximum bonus tolerance
is the difference between MMC and LMC (learnt earlier).
 
Let’s take a few examples to confirm our understanding.
 
Example 1: Internal feature (hole) with GT at MMC
Given, Dimension: 30.1 to 30.5, GT: 0.1 positional @ MMC
We learnt, BT will vary from 0 (at MMC) to (30.5-30.1=0.4 (at LMC)
Therefore, BTmax = 0.4
Virtual condition boundary
= Size at MMC GT crossing MMC
= 30.1 + (-0.1) = 30.0
Resultant condition boundary
= Size at LMC (GT crossing LMC + BTmax)
= 30.5 + 0.1 + 0.4 = 31.0
 
Example 2: Internal feature (hole) with GT at LMC
Given: Dimension: 30.1 to 30.5, GT: 0.1 position @ LMC
BTmax=0.4 (at MMC)
Virtual condition boundary
= Size at LMC GT crossing LMC
= 30.5 + (0.1) = 30.6
Resultant condition boundary
= Size at MMC (GT crossing MMC + BTmax)
= 30.1 – (0.1 + 0.4) = 29.6
 
Example 3: External feature (shaft) with GT at MMC
Given, Dimension: 29.5 to 29.9 and GT: 0.1 position @ MMC
BTmax = 0.4
Virtual condition boundary
= Size at MMC GT crossing MMC
= 29.9 + (0.1) = 30.0
Resultant condition boundary
= Size at LMC (GT crossing LMC + BTmax)
= 29.5 – (0.1 + 0.4) = 29.0
 
Example 4: External feature (shaft) with GT at LMC
Given, Dimension: 29.5 to 29.9 and GT: 0.1 position @ LMC
BTmax = 0.4
Virtual condition boundary
= Size at LMC GT crossing LMC
= 29.5 + (-0.1) = 29.4
Resultant condition boundary
= Size at MMC (GT crossing MMC + BTmax)
= 29.9 + (0.1 + 0.4) = 30.4
 
※  Your thought bite   ※
You got the essence of the virtual condition and resultant condition
boundaries. Can you calculate these at RFS for given conditions?
 
Hey! Wait. You got into the trap. You cannot compute it.
 
I mentioned at the beginning of this section, these values are
applicable only to features of size with the given material condition.
So these concepts do not apply to RFS. However same learning is
used to calculate inner and outer boundaries for RFS features by
simplified formula as BT is always zero for RFS (because there is no
MMC/LMC condition applied). Let’s take same hole and shaft
examples to find out inner and outer boundaries.
 
Example 5: Internal feature (hole) with GT (RFS)
Given, Dimension: 30.1 to 30.5, GT: 0.1 positional (RFS)
Here, BTmax = 0.0
Inner boundary
= Size at MMC GT crossing MMC
= 30.1 + (-0.1) = 30.0
Resultant condition boundary
= Size at LMC (GT crossing LMC + BTmax)
= 30.5 + 0.1 + 0.0= 30.6
 
Example 6: External feature (shaft) with GT (RFS)
Given, Dimension: 29.5 to 29.9 and GT: 0.1 position @ LMC
Here, BTmax = 0.0
Inner boundary
= Size at LMC GT crossing LMC
= 29.5 + (-0.1) = 29.4
Resultant condition boundary
= Size at MMC (GT crossing MMC + BTmax)
= 29.9 + (0.1 + 0.0) = 30.0
 
Now we can say, our learning is simplified, yet perfect! Yay! Our
simplified concept for virtual and resultant conditions are:
Virtual condition = dimensional boundary at given material
condition adjusted by geometric tolerance crossing the given
material condition.
Resultant condition boundary = dimensional boundary at opposite
to given material condition adjusted by geometric tolerance crossing
opposite material condition and additional maximum bonus
tolerance.
 
QUESTION TIME !
 
Question 1: A hole has dimension 20.0-20.6 with a straightness
tolerance of 0.1 at MMC. Find:
A. Value of virtual condition of the feature
B. Bonus tolerance of the feature if actual size is 20.6
C. Bonus tolerance of the feature if actual size is 20.4
 
Question 2: A shaft has dimension 10.0-10.5 with a straightness
tolerance of 0.2 at MMC. Find:
 A. Value of virtual condition of the feature.
B. Bonus tolerance of the feature if actual size is 10.5.
C. Bonus tolerance of the feature if actual size is 10.1.
 
Answers:
1.A – 19.9; 1.B – 0.6; 1.C – 0.4
2.A – 10.7; 2.B – 0.0; 2.C – 0.4
 
 
14.3 CONCEPTS OF ENVELOPE
 
Actual mating envelope
Envelope concept is used to validate the actual output. In simple
terms, it is the closest fit counterpart perfect feature. For holes,
an envelope will be the largest size shaft which can establish
maximum contacts with hole surface. Similarly, for shafts, an
envelope will be a hole of smallest size with maximum contacts.
 

 
Figure 14.4 – Illustration of Actual mating envelopes
 
Look at Figure 14.4, given above. On the left side, you see an
irregular shape representing actual shaft. On top of it, there is an
envelope which is closest to the shaft and also it is perfect in shape.
On the right side, you find an irregular hole which has one perfect
shaped closest fit shaft. These two mating shapes are mentioned as
the closest fit counterpart perfect features in the previous
paragraph. These are examples of actual mating envelopes.
 
There are two types of envelopes:
1. Unrelated actual mating envelope: It is closest fit counterpart
perfect feature without considering any datum feature or
constraint.
2. Related actual mating envelope: It is also the closest fit
counterpart perfect feature while constrained either
orientation or location, or both by applicable datum(s).
 
Look at Figure 14.5, given below, to understand the difference.
 

Figure 14.5 – Related and unrelated actual mating envelope

 
Suppose you gave a requirement to make a hole with
perpendicularity tolerance of 0.01 related to datum A. The hole was
made as shown above. Now you want to find actual mating envelop
with the help of a precision pin. When you consider the datum
condition when you put a precision pin perpendicular to datum A,
then you will be able to insert thinner pin as shown in the left side
picture. On another hand when you ignore perpendicularity
requirement, then you can insert thicker precision pin as shown in
the picture on the right side.
 
Size of the precision pin on the left side gives you related actual
mating envelope and size of the precision pin on the right side gives
you an unrelated actual mating envelope. Logic is simple, one is
related to datum and other is unrelated to the datum, hence the
name was given accordingly.
 
14.4 FUNDAMENTAL RULES OF GD&T
 
Rule #1: Perfect Form at MMC – Individual Feature of Size rule
Where only a tolerance of size is specified, the limits of the size
of an individual feature prescribe the extent to which variations
in its form—as well as in its size—are allowed.
In simple terms, dimension tolerance should never cross-
boundary conditions when geometric tolerance is not
provided.             
Example 1: If a shaft dimension to be Ø9.5 – 10.0 mm, then shaft
must pass through a perfect hole of Ø10.0 mm as shown in Figure
14.6:

Figure 14.6 – Illustration for Rule # 1 example 1

  
Example 2: If a hole dimension to be Ø12.0 – 12.5 then a Ø12.0 mm
perfect pin must pass through the hole as shown in Figure 14.7:
 

Figure 14.7 – Illustration for Rule # 1 example 2

 
An important point from Rule #1:
There cannot be any form error (like circularity, straightness,
etc.) at MMC. means, amount of form error is less than or equal
to deviation from MMC.
Rule #2 – The All applicable Geometric Tolerances Rule
RFS applies, with respect to individual tolerance, datum
reference, or both, where no modifying symbol is specified.
MMC or LMC must be specified on the drawing where required.
 
This is really simple to understand. In short, RFS is the default
material condition for tolerance if MMC or LMC is not applicable.
 
In this chapter, we learnt about:
Concepts of Boundary
Inner boundary
Outer boundary
Maximum material boundary (MMB)
Least material boundary (LMB)
Regardless feature boundary (RMB)
Concepts of the actual mating envelope
Related actual mating envelope
Unrelated actual mating envelope
Fundamental rules of GD&T
Rule # 1
Rule # 2
 
If any point is unclear, then clarify it before you proceed.
 
 
15  IMPORTANT MODIFIERS IN GD&T
 
Like MMC/LMC modifiers, there are few more modifiers which add a
description to dimension or geometric tolerance to communicate
more details. In this section, we will cover multiple such modifiers.
 

It is used when the better fit is given more importance than the
position of the fit. Suppose we are designing a mechanism to
measure the rotational speed of a shaft. We decided to fit an
extrusion on the surface which will mark each rotation. Figure 15.1
given below shows shaft in blue colour, extrusion is shown in golden
color and datum of extrusion central plane or slot in transparent is
shown in red color.
 
 Figure 15.1 – a Use case for translation modifier
 
In Figure 15.2, we can see datum B has been allowed translation. It
means better fitting is expected even if datum B needs to be
translated because even after translation rotation can be captured.
 

Figure 15.2 – GD&T representation of translation modifier

 
The right side of Figure 15.2 shows slot after first machining. Now
refer to Figure 15.3 in which fitting is found to be perfect but the
position is shifted. If position HAS TO BE corrected then rework is
needed to widen the slot but it will result in loose-fitting, as shown in
the right side of Figure 15.3. Obviously, if shifting of extrusion is
allowed then we want a situation in the left figure. This is the use of
Translation modifier.
 
 Figure 15.3 – Use of translation modifier
 
As a conclusion, we can say “Translation not only helps in
reducing rejections but also provided better fitting”. It becomes
very significant for rotational or rocking fitting where loose contacts
fail very fast. You know what to do now!
 

It is used for projecting (or extending) the tolerance for continued

mating. For example, continuity of threads in the perpendicular
direction. It is generally useful for positional or orientation tolerances
for desire fit between holes and fasteners, like screws, studs, or pins.
Let’s take an example of the thread profile to understand the benefit
of the projected tolerance zone
 
 Figure 15.4 – Projected tolerance zone example
 
Figure 15.4 shows a design of a threaded hole with a 15 mm thread
depth. If the functional requirement is to limit the perpendicularity of
thread hole to 0.2 mm diameter, then we will provide a projected
tolerance as 15 mm as shown in the figure.
 
Look at Figure 15.5. Picture of the left side shows the impact of
providing tolerance at MMC, in terms of maximum tolerance. The
picture on the right side shows a case when we do not provide
projected tolerance. The only constraint is to keep the centre of the
hole in 0.2 mm tolerance area. Depth can vary in any direction,
making effective projected tolerance zone much larger. Thanks,
GD&T, to provide projected tolerance!
 Figure 15.5 – Impact of the projected tolerance zone
 

 
Non-rigid parts (for example, thin wall vessel) may change shape
after removal of forces applied during manufacture, due to its weight
and flexibility, and release of internal stresses developed during
fabrication. Free state of the non-rigid part is achieved after all forces
are removed. We may need the part to meet its tolerance
requirements while in the free state.
 
  
Figure 15.6 – Illustration of free state modifier
 
In Figure 15.6, you may see the tolerance requirement in a free state
(with symbol ‘F’ in a circle) on the leftmost picture. Pictures in middle
and right side show allowed variations at different cross-sections.
The middle picture shows largest allowed cross-section variation and
the rightmost picture shows smallest allowed cross-section variation.
 

 
It is generally used when we place another object on the surface,
Here tangent plane established by the contacting points of a surface
becomes important, for example, to place another part, the tangent
plane symbol is added. Let’s consider a platform with the horizontal
top on which another object will be placed as shown in Figure 15.7.
 
 Figure 15.7 – Example model for tangent modifier
 
The tabletop needs to be horizontal with max 0.1 mm level
difference. How would you communicate it? Flatness? No, it's only
for variation between two planes. Parallelism? Can be, but not ideal.
See Figure 15.8.

Figure 15.8 – Illustration for tangent modifier

 
Here, the actual surface goes beyond tolerance zone but it is
acceptable as long as a tangent plane in this region remains in 0.1
mm tolerance zone, as shown on right side picture. Do notice the
profiling on the bottom which creates datum feature A. It makes a
difference to have minimum tolerance in datum feature.
 

 
This modifier is used to control the surface profile tolerance zone
across the ideal surface profile. Let’s take the same example of a car
hood. Using this modifier, you can distribute total tolerance above
and below the ideal profile of hood to control allowed variation on a
particular side which is more critical. For example, the top surface of
car hood needs to look better as compared to the bottom part of car
hood because the top part is always visible and the bottom part is
seen only when you open the hood for maintenance activities. Look
at Figure 15.9 in which car hood surface profile is being provided.
 

 
Figure 15.9 – Illustration for unequally disposed of modifier
 
Here green profile, in between blue and red profiles, represents ideal
hood profile, upper blue profile represents maximum deviation on the
upper side and red profile represents maximum deviation on the
lower side of the car hood. Look at the GD&T details. Here designer
wants to have minimum deviations on the top surface and has
provided a total deviation of 3.0 mm but allowed only 1.0 mm
deviations for upper profile and remaining 2.0 mm to be used for a
lower profile. Altogether 3.0mm tolerance is given but by using this
modifier designer has attempted to control a better finish of the top
surface.
 
Sometimes, the upper deviation is called, the maximum addition of
material on idea profile and lower deviation is called the maximum
removal of material on the ideal profile. It makes more sense when
you try to finish the upper layer of a solid body by means of adding
or removal of materials.
 

GD&T rule # 1 says, there cannot be any form error (like circularity,
straightness, etc.) at MMC, means form would be perfect at MMC. It
may not be necessary to achieve perfection at MMC (or LMC) to
meet functionality. In such cases, this modifier can be used as
shown in Figure 15.10, given below:

Figure 15.10 – Illustration for independency modifier

 
Here putting independency means the feature can be controlled
independently without considering any datum. For example, making
finished tabletop with specified dimensions of thickness and flatness
only on top. This is very useful tolerance relaxation for mass
production to reduce cost.
 

 
This is related to cumulative tolerance of an assembly, called
tolerance stack. There are two types of tolerance stack analysis:
A. “Worst Case Analysis”. In this approach, we simply add all
linear tolerances in one direction. Suppose you have 5 linear
parts which join together to form an assembly. If all have a linear
tolerance of 1.0 mm, then in worst-case analysis, total tolerance
of assembly would be 5.0 mm. This approach is extremely safe
but costly to achieve desired assembly tolerance.
B. “Statistical Tolerance Analysis”: Any manufacturing has
deviation among all parts produced. It can safely be assumed to
follow a normal distribution as shown in Figure 15.11, given
below.
 

Figure 15.11 – Normal distribution graph

 
The output of this analysis says the assembly tolerance is
equal to the square root of the sum of the squares of the
individual tolerances. Based on this rule, assembly tolerance in
the same case would be √ (12+12+12+12+12) = √5. Figure 15.12
is an illustration of assigning statistical tolerance.
 

Figure 15.12 – Illustration of statistical tolerance

  
By applying statistical tolerancing, tolerances of individual
components may be increased or clearance between mating
parts may be reduced. The increased tolerance or improved fits
may reduce manufacturing cost or improve the product
performance, but should only be employed where appropriate
statistical procedure control is used.
 

 
This modifier is very useful for the repeated feature, or continuation
of a feature across slots, as shown in Figure 15.13, given below.

Figure 15.13 – Illustration of continuous modifier

 
 
This modifier is used when the circular profile has to have a
fair/smooth curve with radius at all points to remain within given radii
limits. Refer to Figure 15.14, given below, showing two curves
example.
 

 
Figure 15.14 – Use case for controlled radius modifier
 

 
Figure 15.15 – Illustration of controlled radius modifier
 
 

 
It is used to define a reference plane for dimension measurement,
which becomes important in a few cases. One such case is
explained below with the help of Figures 15.16 and 15.17:
 

 
Figure 15.16 – a Use case for dimension origin modifier
 

 
Figure 15.17 – Illustration of dimension origin modifier
 
 

 
This modifier indicates that a tolerance or other specification apply
across multiple features or portion(s) of the features as mentioned
between symbol, F, and G in the example shown in Figure 15.18. 
Here, F and G may be points, lines, planes or features

Figure 15.18 – Illustration of between modifier

 

 
This is applied to a profile to extend tolerance all around the profile
shown in the drawing of a particular view. Consider the example
given below in Figure 15.19. Here, line profile is extended all around
by placing the single circle on leader dimension line. When you place
it, you don’t need to make the same notation on all three line profiles.
 

Figure 15.19 – Illustration of all around modifier

 
 
This is applied to a profile to extend tolerance to the entire 3D
surface of the part. Consider the example given below in Figure
15.20. Here profile is extended to the entire 3D surface by placing
the double circle on leader dimension line. When you place it, you
don’t need to make the same notation on all profiles.
 

Figure 15.20 – Illustration of all over modifier

 

 
It is a great help for repetitive patterns of features. Look at Figure
15.21 in which one plane has six sets of holes and in each set, you
have one large and 4 small holes. It is highly time-consuming if you
work on all features explicitly.
 Figure 15.21 – Illustration of all over modifier
 
In order to make it convenient, the designer has put 6X
INDIVIDUALLY which means each bigger hole will work like datum
feature D individually for four small holes around them. If individually
word was not mentioned then there we would have to derive datum
D based on six holes and use the same datum D for next 24 holes,
which would be complicated and difficult to make. So individually
helps in localized manufacturing over parts with patterns of features.
 

In this chapter, we learnt about menu modifiers which not only helps
designers to communicate important information but also increases
efficiency. Below are the modifiers learnt:
Translation
Projected tolerance zone
Free state
Tangent plane
Unequally disposed profile
Independency
Statistical tolerance
 Continuous feature
Controlled radius
Dimension origin
Between
All around
All over
Individually
 
If any modifier is unclear, then clarify it before you proceed.
 
16.  INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION
EXAMPLES
 
As we all know, there exists a huge gap between theoretical
knowledge and practical knowledge. There lies a huge learning
when we work on real-life works. Highest level of learning is
achieved on the job. And, therefore, the experience is important. Isn’t
it?
 
In this chapter, we will try to fast track industrial learning by looking
at 20 actual industrial examples, which we thankfully received from a
few multinational companies. In order to hide their identity and
protect their design details, we will not share their drawing in as is
form, rather we would make our own models with features and
GD&T applications similar to original component., such that we can
extract following important earnings out of them:
The nature of the features on which GD&T was applied
Example of GD&T application, in an as-is form used by
industry
Discuss the reasons for GD&T application
Selection of datum to apply GD&T
Review of feature condition consideration (MMC/LMC/RFS)
made by industry
Compare the ASME way of suggested standards and actual
industrial works. 
 
You are targeted for (minimum) following learning:
Industry adapts all beneficial points, excludes points which
make their work inefficient,
Corrects the mistakes in standards (if any) by themselves to
move ahead and stay ahead of standards.
Standards are made to help industry based on the learning
from the industry such that all are benefited and unified
standard can be derived. It is a cyclic process between
standardization organizations likes ASME, ISO, etc. and the
industry.
 
To complete our learning process, we will review 14 examples, one
each for each geometric tolerance, to provide real-life examples,
understand how the industry works, and be ready for the industry.
Come along, let's see the actual world of GD&T!
 
16.1. STRAIGHTNESS INDUSTRIAL EXAMPLE

 
Figure I.1 – Example of Straightness
 
Figure 1.1 shows an example of the straightness of an axis. Notice
the following points in GD&T application:
 
Matching to our learning, it does not have any Datum.
We learnt, material condition (MMC/LMC) is applied for axis
straightness, however, we don’t find it in industrial example.
Why? If you are saying, the designer applied RFS for which
nothing is to be mentioned then you are perfectly right. Okay,
another question, why RFS is applied, why not MMC, which is
generally applied on straightness? First hint: tolerance at
MMC or LMC generates bonus tolerance. Now getting the
clue? Yes, the designer did not intend to give any bonus
tolerance and therefore RFS was used. You are right, again.
 
Let me check your thought process. What are other possible
geometric tolerances which can be applied on the same hole?
Perpendicularity? Position? Circularity? Cylindricity? Probably all of
these can be applied, but why would you do so. If only straightness
is sufficient to control the feature to remain functional as per need
then you should not add more GD&T to avoid increase of complexity
and cost. Remember, main intention of the GD&T is to reduce cost,
that’s the fundamental, that’s the GD&T mantra.
 
 
16.2. FLATNESS INDUSTRIAL EXAMPLE
 
Figure I.2 – Example of Flatness
 
The above picture shows the rear side of the same part used in
previous example. Here the designer has provided flatness to the
back surface, in order to fit properly to adjacent part. The same
controlled surface has been designated as datum A. Here the
flatness is given without any datum, which is again matching with our
understanding. Isn’t it? So all well for our flatness GD&T learning.
 
16.3. CIRCULARITY INDUSTRIAL EXAMPLE
 
Figure I.3 – Example of circularity
 
Trust me it was time taking job to arrange for an industrial example
of circularity. Why is it so? Don’t industry like it? Do they find it
useless? Or maybe, instead of circularity, they like to use runout or
total runout, which covers circularity? Yes, you are right, the last
option is correct one. Industry prefers runout and total runout over
circularity. Anyways, let’s look at the example shown in Figure I.3,
 
Well, the situation is a little tricky here, but we will simplify it.
Highlighted portions of the part are identified as critical features of
the part. Two belt drives are planned to run over these areas.
Therefore, the designer decided to control circularity of these two
features, and also derive Datum A based on these two features.
Look at datum target A1 and A2. These two datum targets are used
to derive datum A. So the intention of the designer to control the
datum features to have good quality datum is achieve in this
process. Wasn’t it interesting? This is the beauty of industrial
examples. You learn much more than what you may learn in
theoretical models and explanations.
 
16.4. CYLINDRICITY INDUSTRIAL EXAMPLE
 

 
Figure I.4 – Example of Cylindricity
 
We are referring to the same model used in the previous example.
This time the central thick cylindrical feature is our point of focus and
has been highlighted in orange color. Here, the designer wants to
control cylindricity, as shown in figure. We don’t see Datum reference
in this example. It is matching our learning of datum being not
required for cylindricity, as it is independent feature to be controlled.
So we are becoming GD&T literate.
 
16.5. PROFILE OF A LINE INDUSTRIAL EXAMPLE
 
 Figure I.5 – Example of Profile of a line
 
In section 9.1, we saw the illustrative example of the profile of a line
with two datums. Theoretically, 2 datums may be sufficient but in
above industrial example, the designer has given three datums.
Why? Whether the third datum unnecessary? What is the intention of
putting it? The answer is simple, The designer suggests to measure
the profile while manufacturing and quality check by fixing the part by
three constraints aligned to datums A, B, and C.
 

Exclusive new learning from this industrial example:

 
 
 
 
 
16.6. PROFILE OF A SURFACE INDUSTRIAL EXAMPLE

Figure I.6 – Example of Profile of a Surface

 
Figure I.6, given above, shows a part which looks similar to a bread
loaf. The designer intends to control upper profile between points A
and B. Our learning for section 9.2 is matching with above GD&T
example. So we are good at this geometric tolerance.
 
16.7. ANGULARITY INDUSTRIAL EXAMPLE
 Figure I.7 – Example of Angularity
 
Figure I.7, given above, shows a central part which is angular to the
axis of the complete part, defined as datum A. So it matching our
learnings. We are good in angularity.
 
16.8. PERPENDICULARITY INDUSTRIAL EXAMPLE

Figure I.8a – Example of perpendicularity of vertical face to an axis

 
In part shown above, the axis of the part is identified at Datum
feature A. The perpendicularity of vertical faces needs only one
datum and tolerance should be a simple number, as we learnt.
Above industrial example also reflects same convention used. So we
are good again!
 
Now look at Figure I.8b, given below. Here, the designer has
identified earlier controlled feature as datum feature B.
 
 Figure I.8b – Example of perpendicularity of cylindrical profile to a plane
 
Did you notice symbol Ø for perpendicularity? In section 10.2, when
we were learning the basics of perpendicularity in section 10.2 then
we never found use of symbol Ø. First question. Is it correct to use Ø
symbol in above example? Second question. If yes then what does it
represent? Answer is: Ø represents circular geometric tolerance
zone applied on the axis of the cylindrical profile. It is justified if the
designer intends to provide perpendicularity to the axis. If you want
to control cylindrical profile then we would use cylindricity. Isn’t it?
 

Exclusive new learning from this industrial example:

 
 
16.9. PARELLELISM INDUSTRIAL EXAMPLE
 Figure I.9 – Example of parallelism
 
In section 10.2, we learnt about the parallelism between two planes,
taking one of the planes as datum. In industrial example shown in
Figure I.9, given above, we find a ring-like part whose both the sides
needs to be parallel to each other. Surprisingly, the designer has not
used any datum. Did she/he miss it? Not really. It was not needed.
The designer has left the discretion to choose datum whichever way
the manufacturer wants. The designer’s interest is only to ensure
parallelism between both sides.
 
16.10. TRUE POSITION INDUSTRIAL EXAMPLE
 
Look at Figure I.10 showing a flange with 4 holes at four equally
spaced locations with 0.025 position tolerance of circular zone.
 
 Figure I.10 – Industrial example of Position tolerance
 
Notice the following points:
No material condition is given, means it is RFS, means the
designer is not providing any bonus tolerance to manufacturer
these holes.
Location (diameter of the circle on which holes are located has
been assigned a basic (boxed) dimension.
We learnt earlier, DATUM to be mandatory for position tolerance.
Correct? But we don’t find any such datum mentioned here. Does
it mean this industrial example is incorrect and would lead to
miss-communication between designer and manufacturer? The
answer is No. The designer could have identified the axis of the
flange, passing through the center, to be used as datum A and
could have referred to same as datum A in positional tolerance. It
would have provided the same information which the designer
has communicated by providing basic (or boxed) dimension for
the location. So there is no information loss. Yes, as a standard
practice, the designer should have given datum reference in the
feature control frame. But industry likes to keep it simple.
 

Exclusive new learning from this industrial example:

 
16.11. CONCENTRIC TOLERANCE APPLICATION
 

Figure I.11 – Example of concentricity

 
We take the same model used in first (straightness) and second
(flatness) examples. This time the designer has put concentricity of
central hole with axis of outer surface, identified by Datum B. Here
all points are going as per our learning and standard, means we find
symbol Ø to represent cylindrical tolerance zone. and inclusion of
datum A in feature control frame. So all well here.
 
Okay, let me ask a question here.
 
The designer has another option to provide perpendicularity of
central hole axis to datum A, which was already defined, then why
the designer did not use it, instead of defining one more datum and
then use concentricity tolerance?
 
Answer: Both the options are possible to use. As a designer, we will
select the geometric tolerance which is functionally important. Here
designer’s requirement is for the concentricity, not the
perpendicularity. If both controls are required then designer will apply
both conditions.
 
16.12. SYMMETRY INDUSTRIAL EXAMPLE
 

Figure I.12 – Example of symmetry

 
Figure I.12, given above, shows an industrial example of symmetry
across an imaginary pink plane identified as datum B. Here our
learning is exactly matching with the industrial example. So we are
well on track.
 
16.13. RUNOUT INDUSTRIAL EXAMPLE
 
 Figure I.13 – Example of Runout
 
Figure I.13, given above, shows an industrial example of runout. We
have taken the same model used earlier to explain the concept. Here
runout is applied on features highlighted with orange colour. The
application is simple, aligned to our learning. So we are good for
runout as well.
 
16.14. TOTAL RUNOUT INDUSTRIAL EXAMPLE
 
 
Figure I.14 – Example of Total runout
 
Let’s consider a flywheel design shown above in Figure I.14. The
central axis is defined as datum A. We can find total runout to be
applied at two places. One is at the central axis and another is at the
rim of the flywheel. Notice the values of total runout provided by
designer. Can we reverse the values? Actually no, if you want to
sound like a sensible designer, because as your distance from
rotating axis increases, we would have to provide higher tolerance
for total runout. This is the last learning from our industrial examples.
 
APPENDIX A1: DETERMINING DIMENSIONAL
TOLERANCES USING ISO-286
 
We are referring to ISO 286-1:2010 and ISO 286-2:2010 in
particular for the definition of IT Grades.
 
Tolerances (or limit deviations) are taken on the recommendations
for International Tolerance Grades (IT Grades) defined in ISO 286.
There are two parts of ISO 286:
Part 1: Basis of tolerances, deviations, and fits (ISO 286-1:2010)
Part 2: Standard tolerance grades and limit deviations for holes &
shafts (ISO 286-2:2010)
 
Note: ISO 286 mostly uses the term “Standard Tolerance Grades”
in place of “International Tolerance Grades”, however, these are
same (refer 3.2.8.2 of ISO 286-1:2010).
 
International Tolerance Grade (IT Grade) provides guidance for manufacturing
process capability to have a fair expectation of precision and therefore,
tolerance. Below are the highlights:
It is represented by a number IT1 to IT18. Lower the number, less is
tolerance, higher is precision.
Measuring tools need very high precision. For them, 2 more IT Grades are
added, IT01 and IT0.
 
A2 DETERMINING TOLERANCE USING IT GRADES
IT grade can be used to determine tolerance depending on the type of product,
manufacturing process and dimension of the product. Below are the steps to
use IT Grade for tolerance determination.
 
Step 1: Determine manufacturing output category and map to a range of IT
Grades as shown below in figure A.1.
 
 Figure A.1 – Mapping of IT grade and output category
 
Step 2: Determine manufacturing process to further reduce to a
range of IT Grades, as shown below in figure A.2.
 

Figure A.2 – Mapping of IT grade and manufacturing process

 
Step 3: Refer to the figure A.3, table below to determine tolerance
options for a range of IT Grades and select a tolerance satisfying
your functional needs.
 
 Figure A.3 – Mapping of IT grade and output category
 
Note 1: All values provided in above table is based on following
formula:
T = 10 0.2 x (ITG – 1) x ( 0.45 x D – 1/3 + 0.001 x D), where
T is tolerance in micrometer [µm] – to be calculated
D is geometric mean dimensions in millimeters [mm] – for 100 mm
dia., range 80-120, D = (80x120)-1/2
ITG is IT Grade, a positive integer – E.g. ITG = 6 in IT6
 
Note 2: IT Grades can be extended beyond IT18. Simple multiply
“tolerance at the fifth place earlier” by 10. For example, IT19 column
will be IT14x10, IT20 column will be IT15x10, and so on.
 
A3 DETERMINING FUNDAMENTAL DEVIATION (USING
TOLERANCE CLASS)
 
After learning about finding tolerances, we are going to learn about
finding fundamental tolerance. Together these will provide all linear
dimensions and tolerances details for manufacturing.
 
Remember we still have to provide geometric dimensions and
tolerances for features.
 
A4 TOLERANCE CLASS
 
ISO 286 defines “Tolerance class” to provide different options for
fundamental deviation. It has two parts:
1. Letter(s) - Upper-case (A to ZC) for holes and lowercase (a
to zc) for shafts, excluding I/i; L/l; O/o; Q/q; W/w, to avoid
confusion between letter I and number 1, letter O and
number 0, letter Q and number 0, letter q and number 9, and
between letter w and letter v.
2. Number – Representing the IT grade.
For Example, H7 represents a hole with IT Grade 7, h6
represents a shaft with IT Grade 6
 
Figure A.4, given below, provides tolerance class graph for different
types of fits.
 
 Figure A.4 – Tolerance class graph and fits
 
Selection of tolerance class: Among such a wide range of
tolerance classes, ISO 286-1:2010 suggests preferred combinations
as given in figure A.5 for shafts and A.6 for holes.

Figure A.5 – Tolerance class for shafts

 
Figure A.6 – Tolerance class for holes
 
A5 MOST WIDELY USED TOLERANCE CLASS
COMBINATIONS
 
Figure A.7, given below provides few most widely used tolerance
class combinations in the industry.

Figure A.7 – Most widely used tolerance class combinations

 
ISO 286-2:2010 provides upper and lower limit deviations for a
combination of nominal dimension and tolerance class. Let’s find out
upper and lower limit deviation for a 60 mm shaft for tolerance class
M6. We will refer to table 9 of ISO 286-2:2010, part of which is given
below in figure A.8.
 
 Figure A.8 – Part of table 9 of ISO 286-2:2010
 
As highlighted in the table, the upper limit deviation is -5 μm and
lower limit deviation is -24 μm. It means the hole must be made
between size 59.976 and 59.995 mm.
This seems to be very high precision to maintain. Isn’t it? This is the
reason; it is not advised by ISO. Verify it in the chart given above. At
this point, the designer has to take a call, either to provide a bigger
allowance for easy manufacturing, if it meets intended functionality
or to ask for it, even at the higher cost of manufacturing, as per
need. This decision is a most crucial part of a designer.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 


QUESTION BANK
 
The approach of the question bank
 
Generally, we find traditional books asking questions at the end of
every chapter and also provide some exercises to expertise the topic
of the chapter. This is a well experienced streamlined approach. It is
good for sequential reading and academics. In practical situations,
high-grade tests or during job interviews, the situation differs.
Questions do come randomly. You are forced to recall many areas of
studies and your experiences to answer these questions. This
section is intended to thoroughly test your current level of
understanding of GD&T.
 
Following areas are covered in two different sections:
Q1.     Fundamental based questions
Q2.     Design calculation based questions
 
You should attempt all the questions. If answers do not match, then
investigate deeper and make sure you understand the reason behind
the correct answers and correct your understanding.
 
SELF EVALUATION AND NEXT STEPS
 
Below is the advisory for the next step, based on your performance
after attempting these questions
 
Your
Next step
Performance
Read again from first chapter.
Probably required level of
0-30%
attention was missing. This time
get it.
31-60% Read from 4th chapter. Focus
 on examples.
You can claim to understand
61-80% GD&T, little more practice will
help.
Bravo!. You were purpose of
my writing this book. Enjoy,
81-99% have fun, and move ahead to
claim the GD&T expert position.
Well done!
You are guru! Who am I to
100%
advice you?
 
All the Best!
Q1. FUNDAMENTAL BASED QUESTIONS
 
1. What are the main purposes of GD&T concept?
A. Saving cost
B. Indicating tolerances for different geometric features
C. Communication of functional requirement of the features of the parts
or between parts of the assemblies
D. All of the above
 
2. GD&T provided tight or loose tolerances?
A. Intentional tight tolerances for better quality
B. Derivable loose tolerances for easy manufacturing
C. It depends on the features on which GD&T is applied
D. GD&T do not change the values of any tolerances
 
3. Why GD&T is called a functional language between the designer and the
manufacturers?
A. It works as a mathematical function to calculate tolerances.
B. It works on the concepts of geometric functions.
C. Designer provides functionality requirements of the parts or between
parts of the assemblies which are derived from the design
requirements.
D. It is not a functional language, it is a tolerancing language.
 
 4. How can GD&T reduce the cost of the manufacturing process?
A. Communication of the functional design requirements, manufacturer
can derive additional bonus tolerances to  reduce the chance of
rejection.
B. Cost remains unchanged, because GD&T do not talk about materials
to be used or machining processes to be followed.
C. In fact, it will increase the cost of the manufacturing due to additional
GD&T requirements.
D. Cost may increase or decrease, depending on the types of the GD&T
requirement required by the designer.
 
5. What is a Basic Dimension?
A. It is the dimension of a feature on which any tolerance is not
permissible and manufacturer has to produce at exact size.
B. It is the dimension which is presented in basic unit.
C. It is dimension of features at the base of the equipment.
D. It is theoretical exact size on which tolerances are given.
 
6. What is the condition of an internal feature when it measures the largest
size within design limits or weighs the least
A.   MMC B.   LMC
C.   RFS D.   None of the above
 
7. How reference only dimensions are mentioned?
A.   With bracket B.   With word REF
C.   Any of the above D.   None of the above
 
8. How the dimensions without tolerances are written on drawing?
A.   With sign ±0.00 B.   Written inside a box
C.   Not allowed D.   Written inside brackets
 
9. What is a feature is mechanical engineering?
A. It is any physical portion (curved or flat) of a part
B. It is important portion of a part which interacts with other parts in any
assembly.
C. It is any portion of the part which is exposed to be visible.
D. It is main feature of ant machine.
 
10. What are feature of size (FOS)?
 A. These are features without any tolerance.
B. These are the features which are given a dimension with GD&T
tolerances.
C. These are features which has opposite physical points which can be
measured and also it can be used for references.
D. It is geometric shape of any feature, e.g., circular or straight.
 
11. Elliptical hole can be considered as a feature of size?
A. Yes, internal size can be measured between opposed end.
B. No, it does not have consistent size between any two opposed points.
 
12. Upper limit + Lower limit = Total tolerance
A.   True B.   False
 
13. If upper deviation = lower deviation then it will be basic size.
A.   True B.   False
 
14. MMC represents maximum size of any feature.
A.   True B.   False
 
15. Which statement is true?
A. Upper deviations, lower deviations, and fundamental deviations are
unwanted deviation.
B. Upper deviations, lower deviations, and fundamental deviations are
wanted deviation.
C. Upper deviations, lower deviation are unwanted deviations but
fundamental deviations are wanted deviations.
D. Upper deviations, lower deviation are wanted deviations but
fundamental deviations are unwanted deviations.
 
16. Which is correct statement for Regardless of feature size (RFS) ?
A. Regardless of position of the feature, dimension tolerance must be
met.
B. Regardless of the manufacturing process, geometric tolerance must
be met.
C. Regardless of datum condition of the feature control, geometric
tolerance must be met.
D. Regardless of the actual size of the feature, geometric tolerance must
be met.
 
17. In case of RFS control, bonus tolerance is always zero.
A.   True B.   False
 
18. For any systems of fits (hole and shaft), maximum clearance is
A.   MMC shaft – MMC hole B.   LMC shaft – LMC hole
C.   MMC hole – MMC shaft D.  LMC hole – LMC shaft
 
19. For any systems of fits (hole and shaft), minimum interference is
A.   MMC shaft – MMC hole B.   LMC shaft – LMC hole
C.   MMC hole – MMC shaft D.   LMC hole – LMC shaft
20. To design a clearance fit, which kind of analysis you need to perform in
design process?
A. MMC for both hole and shaft
B. LMC for nth hole and shaft
C. MMC for hole andLMC for shaft
D. LMC for hole and MMC for shaft
 
21. What is difference between a Datum and Datum Feature?
A. Datum is universal, Datum feature is local to a feature
B. Datum is hypothetical, Datum feature is actual
C. Datum is theoretical, Datum feature is practical
D. Both are same.
 
22. What is relationship between Primary Datum and Degree of freedom
(DOF)?
A. Primary datum controls one DOF
B. Primary datum controls two DOF
C. Primary datum controls three DOF
D. Primary datum controls all six DOF
 
23. Is it necessary for primary, secondary, and tertiary datums to be mutually
perpendicular to each other?
A. Yes, as it is taken in datum reference frame
B. No. In fact datum need not be a plane. It can even be a curved profile
 
24. As a designer, we provide functional or manufacturing datum?
A.   Functional datum B.   Manufacturing datum
 
 25. It is necessary to restrict all six DOF for manufacturing?
A. Yes, that is why three datums are used.
B. No, take example of turning operation in which one rotational degree
of freedom is unrestricted.
 
26. When datum target is used?
A. When datum is decided based on target of manufacturing.
B. When datum feature is too large or uneven.
C. When datum is based on target of finished feature.
D. It is extremely difficult to use. So practically it is never used.
 
27. Circularity is applicable to independent or assembly feature?
A. Independent feature
B. Assembly feature
C. Both of the above
D. It depends upon type of manufacturing process.
 
28. Do we require datum for circularity?
A.   Yes B.   No
C.   May be (optional) D.   Datum is not relevant to circularity
 
29. Do we need datum for profile of a line?
A. Yes
B. No
C. May be (optional)
D. Datum is not applicable for profile of a line
 
30. In which GD&T tolerance, datum is mandatory?
A.   Position B.   Straightness
C.   Flatness D.  Profile of a surface
 
31. Feature control frame is
A. It is GD&T representation in a box to communicate manufacturing
process and geometric tolerances.
B. It is a method to communicate geometric controls, by means of
defined tolerances, represented in a box structure.
C. It is part control details for quality inspector.
D. It is a physical clamp like frame on which part is fixed to control any
feature of a part during manufacturing process.
 
32. We can apply material condition on feature as well as datum.
A.   True B.   False
 
33. Can we provide GD&T without dimension and dimensional tolerance?
A. Yes, GD&T is independent of dimensional tolerance
B. No, GD&T is applied on top of dimensional tolerance
 
34. Tolerance zone for straight is
A. Rectangular plane for straightness on a surface
B. Cylindrical volume for straightness of an axis
C. Both of the above
D. None of the above
 
35. Is material condition (MMC/LMC) mandatory for straightness?
A. Yes, for both of axis and surface straightness.
B. No, for none of axis and surface straightness.
C. Yes, only for axis straightness.
D. Yes, only fro surface straightness.
 
36. Is it possible to have axis straightness greater than position tolerance?
A.   Yes B.    No
 
37. If a dimension is whole number, say 20 mm, then what is the right way to
show it according to ASME standard.
A.   20 B.   20.0 C.   20.00               D.   20.000
 
38. According to ASME Y14.5-2009, per unit tolerance concept is applicable
only to
A.   Straightness B.   Flatness
C.   Both of the above D.   None of the above
39. Datum is mandatory for circularity.
A.   True B.   False
 
40. Material condition (MMC/LMC) is mandatory for circularity.
A.   True B.   False
 
41. Cylindricity is inclusive of:
 A.   Straightness B.   Circularity
C.   Runout D.   Only A and B
42. Material condition is optional for flatness tolerance, because
A. it depends on fixture used during manufacturing process
B. for independent flat feature datum is not needed but having another
interacting feature, datum may be needed.
C. flatness can be controlled by parallelism
D. it is basically multiple straightness for which material condition is not
needed
E. it gives same output with or without material condition
 
43. Profile of a line is controlled with material condition.
A.   True B.   False
 
44. Profile of a line is always 2D in nature.
A.   True B.   False
 
45. If we consider 2D profile of a surface then it is same as
A.   Profile of a line B.   Flatness
C.   Parallelism D.   None of the above
 
46. We can control flatness with surface profile but we don’t do so. Why?
A. Flatness is 2D however profile of a surface is 3D
B. Controlling profile of a surface is complicated than controlling flatness
C. Using parallelism is better than profile of a surface
D. Above statement is incorrect.
 
47. In case of angularity, sometime we use only one datum and sometimes
we use 2 datums. How to decide how may datum to be used?
A. It depends of functionality, no fixed rule can be derived
B. For angularity between planes, we use only one datum, but for
angularity between plane and a line then two datums becomes
mandatory to define exact position of the line.
C. We may need to use up to three datums for angularity.
D. Datum is optional for angularity.
48. Perpendicularity is inclusive of:
A.   Straightness B.   Flatness
C.   Position D.   Only A and B
 
 49. Parallelism is always used with one datum. Two datums are impossible to
use in case of parallelism.
A.   True B.   False
 
50. Material condition is ________ for position tolerance.
A.   Required B.   Not required
C.   Optional D.  No fixed rule is defined
 
51. Bonus tolerance is independent of material condition.
A.   True B.   False
 
52. Why concentricity is rarely used in the industry?
A. Functionality of concentricity can easily be achieved through position
and straightness.
B. Concentricity is measured by center of mass distribution, which is
extremely difficult to use.
C. Position of concentric features are difficult to reach for measurement
of concentricity.
D. There is no equipment to check concentricity.
 
53. Datum is mandatory for concentricity
A.   True B.   False
 
54. Material condition is mandatory for concentricity.
A.   True B.   False
 
55. Symmetry includes:
A.   Flatness B.   Parallelism
C.   Position D.  All of the above
56. What is difference between Runout and Total runout?
A. Runout is used for one part, total runout is used for multiple parts, all
at a time
B. Runout is used at a cross section of a shaft, total runout is used for a
length of a shaft
C. Total runout can be used for inclined cylindrical profile but runout
cannot be used for same.
D. Runout works with one datum but total runout works with at least two
datums.
 
 
57. Datum axis derived for runout or total runout can be derived with help if
two cylindrical datum features, say A and B, can be represented as:
A.   A+B B.   A–B
C.   A & B D.   A to B
 
58. Runout is inclusive of
A. Position, and straightness
B. Position, and circularity
C. Straightness, and circularity
D. Position, straightness, and circularity
 
59. Total runout is inclusive of
A. Concentricity, and perpendicularity
B. Cylindricity, and circularity
C. Straightness and runout
D. All of the above
 
60. Material condition is required for runout and total runout
A.   True B.   False
 
61. Which of the following are types of feature control(s) when we try to
control any feature with more than one geometric tolerances?
A. Multiple feature control
B. Composite feature control
C. Combines feature control
D. All of the above
 
62. What is a boundary in terms of dimensional tolerance (DT), geometric
tolerance (GT), and bonus tolerance (BT)
A. It is maximum deviation due to DT
B. It is combined maximum deviation due to DT + GT
C. It is combined maximum deviation due to GT + BT
D. It is combined maximum deviation due to DT + GT + BT
 
63. Inner boundary of a hole is same as:
A. Size at Maximum material condition (MMC)
B. Size at Least material condition (LMC)
C. Size at Maximum material boundary (MMB)
 D. Size at Least material Boundary (LMB)
 
 
 
64. Inner boundary of a shaft is same as:
A. Size at Maximum material condition (MMC)
B. Size at Least material condition (LMC)
C. Size at Maximum material boundary (MMB)
D. Size at Least material Boundary (LMB)
 
65. Outer boundary of a hole is same as:
A. Size at Maximum material condition (MMC)
B. Size at Least material condition (LMC)
C. Size at Maximum material boundary (MMB)
D. Size at Least material Boundary (LMB)
 
66. Outer boundary of a shaft is same as:
A. Size at Maximum material condition (MMC)
B. Size at Least material condition (LMC)
C. Size at Maximum material boundary (MMB)
D. Size at Least material Boundary (LMB)
 
67. MMB will be same as actual MMB when location or orientation tolerance
for datum feature is
A. Zero at MMC
B. Zero at LMC
C. Zero at MMC and LMC
D. Zero at RFS
68. LMB will be same as actual LMB when location or orientation tolerance for
datum feature is
A. Zero at MMC
B. Zero at LMC
C. Zero at MMC and LMC
D. Zero at RFS
 
69. Virtual condition included bonus tolerance
A.   True B.   False
 
70. Resultant condition included bonus tolerance
 A.   True B.   False
 
71. Actual mating envelop is closet fit counterpart
A. used in the actual assembly
B. with contact at all points
C. with no contact but closet to actual profile
D. with maximum contacts being perfect in shape
 
 
72. Related actual mating envelope is an actual mating envelop
A. related to assembly with counterpart
B. found when considering location conditions by datum
C. found when considering orientation conditions by datum
D. All of the above
 
73. Unrelated actual mating will always be greater than related actual mating
A.   True B.   False
 
74. _______ and ______ of features are controlled by Rule #1
A. Size and Tolerance
B. Size and form
C. Form and envelop
D. Envelop and boundary
 
75. Only Individual features are controlled by Rule # 1
A.   True B.   False
 
76. Rule # 2 makes one of the following to be mandatory, if applicable, to be
mentioned in feature control frame.
A.   MMC, LMC, RFS B.   MMC, LMC
C.   MMC D.   Nothing is mandatory
 
77. Translation modifier is used
A. to translate the GD&T details to another language
B. when MMC or LMC can be changed
C. when dimensional tolerance can be used as form tolerance
D. when datum translation is allowed for better functionality
 
78. Projected tolerance zone may be used for
 A.   Screw B.   Stud
C.   Pin D.  All of the above
 
79. If length of projected tolerance zone is shorter then effective projected
tolerance zone is
A. Shorter
B. Larger
C. Remains same
D. Depends on material condition <MMC/LMC
 
 
 
80. Free state is a type of modifier which defines geometric tolerance
A. of rigid parts
B. of non-rigid parts
C. at normal room temperature
D. at working condition temperature
 
81. Tangent plane modifier is
A. a method to measure the profile of a feature by using only higher
points of the feature
B. used in place of flatness or parallelism when another component
needs to be mounted on the feature
C. measured by another plane placed on top of the profile
D. All of the above
 
82. Unequally disposed profile modifier controls
A. geometric tolerances of disposable parts
B. unequal size of same profile to dispose/reject bad parts
C. the distribution of tolerance between upper and lower limits
D. the resultant profile to have equal upper and lower deviation
 
83. In terms of unequally disposed modifier, upper deviation is called ______
and lower deviation is called ______.
A. minimum addition, maximum removal
B. minimum addition, minimum removal
C. maximum addition, maximum removal
D. maximum addition, minimum removal
 
 84. Independency modifier is used
A. to make any datum feature to work independent of any other datum of
combination of datums
B. to make any feature control independent of any datum
C. to independently provide geometric tolerance without considering
actual functionality
D. for mass production of any independent part
 
85. Below are the types of stack tolerance analysis
A. Worst case analysis
B. Cumulative sum analysis
C. Statistical tolerance analysis
D. Only A and C
 
 
86. Normal distribution statistical analysis assumes
A. tolerance of an assembly is average of tolerances of all components
B. tolerance of an assembly is arithmetic mean of tolerances of all
components
C. tolerance of an assembly is square root of sum of square of
tolerances of all components
D. tolerance of an assembly is maximum tolerances of all components
 
87. Statistical tolerance modifier relaxes the tolerance requirements, but it
should be used only at a place
A. where statistics experts are available
B. where statistical procedure controls are used
C. where statistical calculations are done on CAD software
D. where six sigma certification is available
 
88. Continuous feature modifier is used for a surface
A. which has no breaks between two ends
B. which has repeated surface of same specifications
C. which has continuously changing profile
D. None of the above
 
89. Controlled radius modifier is used
A. when smooth curve is required
B. when feature is complete circular in shape
C. for continuously rotating circular features
 D. when radius is controlled by designers
 
90. Dimension origin modifier is used
A. for unsymmetrical parts
B. to denote the starting point of measurement
C. to define reference system or plane for quality assurance
D. All of the above
91. Between modifier is used
A.   when same geometric tolerance applies to all features falling between
two given points.
B.   when geometric tolerance is given as a range and actual value is
expected to remain within the given range
C.   Both of the above
D.   None of the above
 
92. All around modifier zone is 2D and All over modifier zone is 3D.
A. True
B. False
 
93. Individually modifier is generally used
A. for repeated pattern of feature(s)
B. for large work piece and measurement all dimensions becomes
difficult
C. when multiple features need to function as a group.
D. All of the above
 
94. ISO 286-1:2010 refers IT grade as:
A. International tolerance grade
B. Intentional tolerance grade
C. Standard tolerance grade
D. None of the above
 
95. In IT grade always remains between IT1 to IT18
A.   True B.  False
 
96. In IT grade, less is the number:
A. Higher is precision
B. Less is tolerance
C. Costlier is manufacturing
 D. All of the above
 
97. Determining IT grade will help in deciding geometric tolerances
A.   True B.  False
 
98. Tolerance class, as defined in ISO-286, is used to decide:
A. Dimensional tolerance
B. Geometric tolerance
C. Fundamental deviation
D. IT Grade
 
99. In tolerance class H7, H represent _______ and number ‘7’ represents
_________
A. ‘Hole’ and ‘IT Grade’
B. ‘Hole’ and ‘Size of feature in mm’
C. ‘Shaft’ and ‘IT Grade’
D. ‘Shaft’ and ‘Size of feature in mm’
 
100.         IT grades used for highest precision measuring instruments are:
A. IT01
B. IT0
C. Both of the above
D. None of the above
 
Q2. DESIGN CALCULATION BASED QUESTION
 
You are designing a clearance fit of basic size = 10.00. You kept
upper deviation of the shaft as 0.10, lower deviation of the shaft as
0.20, upper deviation of hole as 0.25, and lower deviation of the hole
as 0.15. Calculate following values:
 
1. MMC of the shaft
A.  10.00 B.  9.90 C.  9.80 D.  10.10
 
2. LMC of the shaft
A.  10.00 B.  9.90 C.  9.80 D.  10.10
 
3. Total dimensional tolerance of the shaft
 A.  0.00 B.  0.10 C.  0.20 D.  0.25
 
4. Fundamental deviation of the shaft
A.  0.00 B.  0.10 C.  0.20 D.  0.25
 
5. MMC of the hole
A.  10.00 B.  10.15 C.  10.25               D.  10.40
 
6. LMC of the hole
A.  10.00 B.  10.15 C.  10.25               D.  10.40
 
7. Total dimensional tolerance of the hole
A.  0.00 B.  0.10 C.  0.15 D.  0.20
 
8. Fundamental deviation of the Hole
A.  0.00 B.  0.10 C.  0.15 D.  0.20
 
9. Maximum gap of the clearance fit
A.  0.25 B.  0.35 C.  0.45 D.  0.55
 
10.            Minimum gap of the clearance fit
A.  0.25 B.  0.35 C.  0.45 D.  0.55
 

Figure Q2.1: Situation for question 1 to 4

 
In the figure given above, find following values:
 
11.            MMC size of hole
A.  11.00 B.  11.50 C.  12.50                                         
D. 13.50
 
12.            MMC virtual condition size of the hole
A.  11.00 B.  11.50 C.  12.50                                         
D. 13.50
 
13.            LMC size of the hole
A.  11.00 B.  11.50 C.  12.50                                         
D. 13.50
 
14.            Total positional tolerance for the hole if the actual size is
12.20
A.   0.50 B.  0.70 C.   1.00                                          D. 
1.20
 
 
 Figure Q2.1: Situation for question 5
 
15.            When datum features B and C move away from MMC by
0.10, the total positional tolerance zone size of holes will be:
A. 0.25 B. 0.30 C.  0.35                             D. 0.45

Figure Q2.2: Details of a hole

 
In figure Q2.2, find total positional tolerance:
 
16.            if actual size of hole is 0.555 and X = M
A.  0.10 B.  0..105 C. 0.102 D.  0.110
 
 17.            if actual size of hole is 0.550 and X = M
A.  0.10 B.  0.105 C.  0.102               D.  0.110
 
18.            if actual size of hole is 0.560 and X = M
A.  0.10 B.  0.105 C.  0.102               D.  0.110
 
19.            if actual size of hole is 0.552 and X = M
A.  0.10 B.  0.105 C.  0.102               D.  0.110
 
20.            if actual size of hole is 0.555 and X = L
A.  0.10 B.  0.105 C.  0.095               D.  0.110
 
21.            if actual size of hole is 0.550 and X = L
A.  0.10 B.  0..105 C.  0.095 D.  0.110
 
22.            if actual size of hole is 0.560 and X = L
A.  0.10 B.  0.105 C.  0.095               D.  0.110
 
23.            if actual size of hole is 0.552 and X = L
A.  0.10 B.  0.102 C.  0.108               D.  0.110
 
24.            if actual size of hole is 0.555 and X is not mentioned, i.e.,
RFS
A.  0.10 B.  0.105 C.  0.095               D.  0.110
 
25.            if actual size of hole is 0.560 and X is not mentioned, i.e.,
RFS
A.  0.10 B.  0.105 C.  0.095               D.  0.110
 
 
A hole has permissible diameter between 30.0 and 31.0. The
positional tolerance is 0.10 @ MMC. What will be the values of:
 
26.            Maximum bonus tolerance
A. 0.00 B.  1.00 C.  0.50 D.  0.01
 
 27.            Virtual condition boundary
A.  29.90 B.  30.00 C.  30.10               D.  31.10
 
28.            Resultant condition boundary
A.  31.10 B.  31.11 C.  32.10               D.  32.11
 
A hole has permissible diameter between 30.0 and 31.0. The
positional tolerance is 0.10 @ LMC. What will be the values of:
 
29.            Virtual condition boundary
A.  28.90 B.  30.00 C.  30.10               D.  31.10
 
30.            Resultant condition boundary
A.  28.90 B.  31.11 C.  32.10               D.  32.11
 
A shaft has permissible diameter between 30.0 and 31.0. The
positional tolerance is 0.10 @ MMC. What will be the values of:
 
31.            Virtual condition boundary
A.  28.90 B.  30.00 C.  30.10               D.  31.10
 
32.            Resultant condition boundary
A.  28.90 B.  31.11 C.  32.10               D.  32.11
 
A shaft has permissible diameter between 30.0 and 31.0. The
positional tolerance is 0.10 @ LMC. What will be the values of:
 
33.            Virtual condition boundary
A.  28.90 B.  29.90 C.  30.10               D.  31.90
 
34.            Resultant condition boundary
A.  28.90 B.  31.11 C.  32.10               D.  32.11
 
 
A hole has permissible diameter between 30.0 and 31.0. The
positional tolerance is 0.10 @ RFS. What will be the sizes of:
 
35.            Maximum bonus tolerance
A.  0.00 B.  1.00 C.  0.50 D.  0.01
 
36.            Inner boundary
A.  28.90 B.  29.90 C.  30.10               D.  31.90
 
37.            Resultant condition boundary
A.  28.90 B.  31.10 C.  32.10               D.  32.11
 
A shaft has permissible diameter between 30.0 and 31.0. The
positional tolerance is 0.10 @ RFS. What will be the sizes of:
 
38.            Maximum bonus tolerance
A.  0.00 B.  1.00 C.  0.50 D.  0.01
 
39.            Inner boundary
A.  28.90 B.  29.90 C.  30.10               D.  31.90
 
40.            Resultant condition boundary
A.  28.90 B.  31.10 C.  32.10               D.  32.11
 
You are designing an interference fit of basic size = 10.00. You kept
shaft dimension as 10.10-10.15 and hole dimension as 9.95-9.90
such that it an interference fit in all condition. You are designing to
put geometric tolerances. Answer following design questions:
 
41.            If no geometric tolerance is applied on either of the features,
what is the minimum interference designed in above case?
A.  0.00 B.  0.05 C.  0.10 D.  0.20
 
42.            If geometric tolerance is applied on the shaft then what is
maximum bonus tolerance you are allowing to manufacturer?
A.  0.00 B.  0.05 C.  0.10 D.  0.20
 
 43.            If geometric tolerance is applied on the hole then what is
maximum bonus tolerance you are allowing to manufacturer?
A.  0.00 B.  0.05 C.  0.10 D.  0.20
44.            If no geometric tolerance is applied on hole, what can be
maximum available value of position tolerance on shaft at LMC
such that minimum interference of 0.10 is available?
A.  0.00 B.  0.05 C.  0.10 D.  0.20
 
45.            If no geometric tolerance is applied on shaft, what can be
maximum available value of position tolerance on hole at LMC
such that minimum interference of 0.15 is available? 0.00
A.  0.00 B.  0.05 C.  0.10 D.  0.20
 
46.            For greater than 0.00 interference, combined total
geometric tolerance available together for both the features will
be:
A.  0.00 B.  0.05 C.  0.10 D.  0.20
 

47.            In GD&T notation given above, the value of lowed deviation
is:
A.  0.0 B.  1.0 C.  2.0 D.  3.0
 
48.            A shaft has size 10±0.01 and axis straightness Ø 0.001 @
MMC. If actual size is 10.005 then diameter of axis tolerance
zone is:
A.  0.001 B.  0.005 C.  0.006               D.  0.011
 
49.            A table top has dimension of 20±0.02. What can be
maximum value of flatness if only applicable to upper face of the
table top?
A.  0.00 B.  0.01 C.  0.02 D.  0.03
 
50.            Consider a clearance fit design with basic size 15.00 mm,
0.1% fundamental deviation and IT7 grade fit. Find MMC
 diameter of hole and MMC diameter of shaft.
A. MMC of hole: 20.000; MMC of shaft: 20.000
B. MMC of hole: 20.020; MMC of shaft: 19.980
C. MMC of hole: 20.041; MMC of shaft: 19.980
D. MMC of hole: 20.241; MMC of shaft: 19.959
 
Answers: Q1-Fundamental based questions
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
D B C A D B C B A C
 
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
B A B B C D A D B A
 
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
B C B A B B A B C A
 
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
B A B C C B A C B B
 
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
D B B A B B B D B A
 
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
B B A B D B B B D B
 
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
D D C D D C A B B A
 
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
D D A B A B D D B B
 
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
D C C B D C B B A D
  
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
A A D C B D B C A C
 
Answers: Q2-Design calculation based questions
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
B C B B B C B C C a
 
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
B A C D C B A D C b
 
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
D A C A A B A C D A
 
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
D A B C A B B A B B
 
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
D B B B A C C C C C

 
CONCLUDING NOTES
 
Purpose of GD&T is to save money
By making requirements clearer to the manufacturer.
By making tolerances explicitly documented.
By finalizing the acceptance criteria before production.
 
GD&T is relatively new in the mechanical industry. It is maturing
and new concepts are shaping up. In this evolving phase, you should
feel privileged to be a part of the journey.
 
Going to basics, GD&T is to put additional geometric tolerances
on top of dimensional tolerances. There are many standards to
decide dimensional tolerances but there is no globally accepted
single standard yet available to derive this geometric tolerance. This
is obvious for two reasons:
1. The geometric concept is in an evolving phase
2. Geometric tolerances are related to the functional
requirement and there could be many combinations of
functional requirements for which writing standard will be
difficult, if not impossible.
 
Convert the challenge into an opportunity. This is where your
designer hat can put you in driving seat. You just need to understand
the most important functions and put those priorities in terms of
GD&T language. You would become GD&T expert before you
realize.
 
There is no perfection achieved yet. The entire world is working
towards it to make it simpler. So you are allowed to make mistakes
and learn. It’s not only okay but it’s the only way you will learn GD&T
as a practitioner.
 
Across the globe, as we read, there is a huge scarcity of GD&T
expert. Demand is more as word realized the potential to save
money by standardizing tolerancing and manufacturing.
 
This is the right time to make your full-throttle move towards
becoming a GD&T expert to advance in your career.
Finally, I would urge you to review this book on the platform which
you got this book. It may be Amazon, iBook, etc., but you must take
out some time to put your true findings of this book. It will help me to
improve this book and release a new edition with more accurate and
beneficial contents. It will help fellow readers to get reading content
and save time.
 
I thank you for spending time with me on this book. You can get in
touch with me through www.azukotech.com and I would revert based
on best of my capabilities.
 
All the Best for your future endeavors!
 
-Ashok Kumar