DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS DELHI TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY VISION Consolidating teaching and learning process covering ail aspects of pure and applied physics that promotes research and development leading to creation. of new knowledge, inventions and discoveries fostering institute-industry linkages’ and entrepreneurial culture for betterment of all its stake holders and society at large...” MISSION To establish global and industry standards of excellence by generating new Knowledge in all the endeavors concerned to teaching, learning, research and. consultancy. + To-develop close linkages with industry to undertake collaborative projects so as to enable young engineers to bé a part of fast changing technological scenario. +» To help our students.in developing human potentials, intellectual interests, creative abilities and be lifelong learners to meet the challenges of the national aiid lébal environment and be trué proféssional leaders. * To stand up to the needs and expectations of our society by equipping and training our students to be good citizens, aware of their commitments and responsibilities, to make this world a better place to live. * To be a world class centre.for,education, research’ and innovation in. the various upcoming fields of Applied Physics. * To focus on the development of cutting-edge technologies and to foster an environment of seamlessness between academia and industry.>. i TNR ek eres ? / ; . ? & DEPARTMENT.OF APPLIED PHYsicg - , eS DELHI TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY > > - UG-APPLIED PHYSICS : Programme Educational Objectives (PEQg PEO 1: To educate professionals in the current and vibrant emerging areas of Applied Physics PEO 2: To develop the professionals to understand and enrich with fundamental knowlege o¢ Applied Physics to use as platform for various core enginecring subjects. PEO 3: To provide an environment for student to be interested, motivated to tackle the complex problems and capable of self-leaming. PEO 4: To equip students with: integrity and ethical values so that they become responsible Engineers UG-Engineerin?” Physics ’ > > > > 2 > » » > 3 Program Educational Objectives (PEOs) ° ° > > > PEO 1: To provide quality education in engineering physics to advanced areas of engineering and technology. PEO 2: To produce world class skilled engineers, which meet the needs of industry, academia and society PEO 3: To mould as an engineer with knowledge, research and innovation, skills, judgement 0 be leaders~along, with humanistic values for the development’ of the society by providing quality education. PEO 4: The students will be able to work in team, competent enough to make an entrepreneir ) and also to pursue research aiid higher education:Program Outcomes (POs) 1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of multi- disciplinary community of science and engineering to the solution of complex engineering problems. 2. “Problem-analysis: An ability to identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex engineering problems reaching: substantiated conclusions using engineering sciences. 7 : . 3. Design/development of solutions: An ability to design system components or processes that nmicet the specified needs with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental considerations- - Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research methods including design-of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions. 5, Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate.techniques, resources, and modem, engiecring including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations. 6.. The engineer aiid society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextiial knowledge to asses, Societal, health; safety; legal and cultural issués and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice. 7... Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering, solutions in societal and environmental contexts; and’ demonstrate the knowledge of, and néed for sustainable developmeat. 8. Ethics; Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and respossbilities and nonms of the engineering practice: 9, ‘Individual and teamwork: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member ot leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings. 10. Communication:- Communicate effectively on complex engincering activities. with the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write effective reports and:design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive clear instructions. c 11. Project management and finance: Deinonstrate knowledge and understanding of theengineering and management principles and apply these'to one"s own work, as a member ang leadet in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments. 12. Lifelong learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.Department of Applied Physics APPLIED PHYSICS LAB_B.Tech_1°* Semester Paper Code: AP-101 Paper Title: Applied Physics Lab-I ‘OBJECTIVE: To impart experimental ‘skills which are useful in various branches of Engineering and Technology. The practical course.is based_on experiments designed to illustrate various Phenomena in different aréas of physics and hence provides thorough understanding of the Subject. This course is also aimed at- enancing the analytical capability of the engineering students. List of Experiments 1. Todetermine the compressibility of a given liquid by Ultrasonic Diffraction Method. 2. Todetermine the specific rotation of sugar solution using Laurent’s half shade polarimeter. 3. To verify the equation of focal length of combination of lenses using Nodal Slide Assembly. 4. To determine the wavelength of yellow line of mercury light using Plane diffraction Grating. 5. Todetermine the dispersive power of the material of a prism using Spectrometer 8. To determine the wavelength of sodium ight by Newton's rings 7. To determine the resolving power of Telescope. 8. Tofind the Numerical aperture of a given optical fiber. 9. To study the mechanical forced oscillator and t6 determine the resonance frequency, 10. To compare: the wavelength of a laser source measured by diffraction pattém froma single slit and a plane diffraction grating.laf sics Departinent of App’ ed Phy: SS - nic Difraction Meio AIM: To determine the coinpesiilty of a given liquid by Ultréso ith liquid (Kerosene oi, APPARATUS: Radio frequency oscillator, glass cell filled with Liquid ( 2 qui sené oil) Piezoelectric crystal slab, spectrometr, sodium lamp, liquid (kero THEORY: The sound aves of ffequency:more than 20,000 Hz are called pia input is connected to the A.C. mains ang Waves or ultrasonics. A radio frequency oscillator input is conné the output to the piezoelectric crystal slab. The piezoelectric crystal slab fixed on a side in the siss ell in order dip the cy nthe liquid. Wren the fequency ofthe sitar Caual to the natural frequency ofthe piezoelectric crystal, resonance occurs and ultrasonic ‘aves of the same frequency ‘Produced in the liquid. When ultrasonic waves are produced in @ liquid the pressure varies-with the distance from the ultrasonic source being higher at a compression and lower at rarefaction. The density of the medium and the refractive index also’ show. a periodic: variation with distance. from ‘the source along the: direction of Propagation of the wave. . Under sich a condition, if light from a slit is passed through the liquid in’ a ‘direction at right angies-to the wave Propagation, the liquid behaves as aDepartment of Applied Physics The ultrasonic wave passing through liquid behaves as an clastic wave in which the compressions dnd refractions travel one behind-the other spaced equally apart as shown in Fig. 1. The successive distance between the two compressions or rarefaction is equal to the wavelength of ultrasonic wave Ay. if is the wavelength of incident light in air and 6 is the angle of diffraction for the nth order maxima, then Ay sit, =n" ~ (where (a+b) is equal to 2) Wavelength of the ultasonic waves (2,) = nisin 8, seal) TEV is the frequency of iltrasonic waves, the Velocity (V)-of the ultrasonic wave in the liquid is given by © V=VAy ee Q) The relation between the velocity of sound wave in a liquid and its bulk elasticity (E) is given by v= £ => E=pv? see GB) . Pp Where p is the density:of liquid, V is the velocity of sound wave obtained by Eq. (2) and E is ~ the bulk elasticity of the liquid. The feciprocal of this bulk elasticity is known as the compressibility of the liquid. Thus, the compréssibility of the liquid canbe determiied by ultrasonic diffraction method. PROCEDURE: 1.- Adjust the spectrometer in order to obtain a well collimated beam. 2. -Place the. glass cell on: the’prism table and fill it.by given liquid upto its % of the height. ; 3. Turn the prism table till the front & back faces of the cell are exactly normal to the incident light. Also make sure thatthe ultrasonic’ waves produced by the eystal travel in the liquid in a direction perpendicular to the direction of incident light. 4. Switch on the radio frequency oxillator.” Adjtist the frequesicy of the oscillator so that it becomes equal to the natural frequency of the crystal slab. “At this ‘stage resomance takes place and diffraction pate will be secin in the telescope.” An enlarged view of diffraction pattem is shown in ig. 2,Z ‘Department of Applied Physics 5. Note down the frequency of RF oscillator at which diffraction pattem is obtained. This is also the frequency of the ultrasonic wave in the liquid. Keep this as constant at this value through out the experiment. Je 20, between the first order spectral lines, similarly m asure 20. 6. Measure the ang! 203, ete OBSERVATIONS: Wavelength of the sodium light @) = 5893 x 10"? m Frequency of the oscillator used (Q) = Least count of spectrometer= Density of liquid (p) = 810 ke/m* ‘Measurements of the angle of diffraction ( ) for the nth order diffraction maxima Order] Telescopeon | Telescope on 2 of =| Ver Right a b Mean | Mean diffrac | Bier [MS] VS" ] Tou [M[VS* | Toul Vi V2 204 On a x fy fangs |x | bee] ean | cso (ace) | (eg ae |x File. maxim ' a a(a) < . + vi 2 Te fT M 1 [Ww *V.S. readitig(y) = No. of divisions on vemier scale in front of main scale x Least count ofthe spectrometer. CALCULATIONS: Wavelength of the ultrasonic waves (A,) =2/sin 0, For first order nat Mean 0; Au=2/Sin@, = ...m For second order n=2Department of Applied Physics du= 20/Sin@, = m= Velocity of ultrasonic wave in liquid (V)=f2y= oc... msec Bulk elasticity (E) = pV? = Nin? (Pa) Compressibility (K) = (1/E) = NI Standard value of K (kerosene) = 5.2 x 107 m7AN (0.52 x 10° m7/N) RESULTS: The velocity: of ultrasonic wave in liquid (Kerosene) is found to be.......... m/sec and its compressibility is a Nn? PRECAUTIONS: (1) The crystal slab should be immersed comipletely in the liquid. (2) The crystal slab should be set in such a way that the ultrasonic waves produced by it travel at right angles to the incident light. (3) The diffraction pattern shéuld be sharp and narrow. (4) Asithe angles measured are extremely small, angles should be observed carefully. (5) The frequency of the RF. oscillator should be properly adjusted for resoance and should not be disturbéd during tho experiment.Department of Applied PRYSS 10.2 EXPERIMENTNO.2 EXPERIM) Lawent’s half shade i solution using AIM: To determine the specific rotation of sua polarimeter, * -godium Lamp, Polarimeter ss im “ APPARATUS:Laurent’s Half Shade Polarimeter, spit level, Sodiut cubes, beakers, graduated jar tube, Reading Lamp, weight box, balance, Sugar THEORY: the optical rotation produced by an Polarimefer is an instrument which is-uséd to. measure oe isms capable of rotting about a optically active substance. consists of two Nicol P common axis. [tis also provided with hollow tube for fill substance. ting the solution of optically active ‘The experimental arrangemeatis shown if figure, S is source of nonochromatic light placed el by lens L, falls on called polarizer at the focuis‘of convex leas L. The beam, rendered paral! P. After passing through polarizer P the light become plane. polarized. The polarized light beam passes through a half-shale device H (called Laurent plate) and thea through @ tube T containing optically active Solution. The transmitted light passes.through another Nicol ‘A’ which can be rotated about te direction of propagation of light as axis and its rotation can be read on a circular:scalé gradiated in degree, with the help of a Vernier. Liquid containing an-optcally active substance ¢.g. sugar solution, camphor ia alcohol etc rotate the plane of the liiealy polarized light. The angle through which thé plaie polarized light is rotated depends on the thickness of the medium (2) conceitatioa of the solution (3) Wavelength of light (4) temperature. ‘Working Formula: Specific rotation is defined as the rotation produced by a deci ya decimeter (10 cm) lo ng column of the liquid containing | gm ofthe active substance in one cc of the solution. Theref foreDepartment of Applied Physics S=100/ (1c) Where § represents the specific rotation at temperature t “C for a wavelength), 0 is the angle of rotation, | is the length of the solution in cm, through which the plane potarized light Passes and c is the concentration of the active substance in gin/cc in the solution. The angle through which the plane of polarization is rotated by the, optically active: substance is determined with the-help of a Potatimeter, when this instrument is used to deteémine the quantity of sugar in a.solution, it is known as a saccharimeter.. The graph between c-(x-axis) and 9 (y-axis) is-a straight line. PROCEDURE: 1. Weigh in.a watch lass 20 gin of sugar and carefully dissdlve it in water to wake up 100 c¢ of solution. This gives 20% solution of sugar. The Verniet onstant of cirtular scale is. found. The Polarimeter is placed so that the aperture is in front of sodium lamp. After looking through the telescope the position of the eyepiece is adjusted so that thé ewo halves of half shade device are clearly in focus. 3. Clean the Polariniéter tube and fll. it with distilled water. See that there is no air bubble in the tube when the end caps have-beén screwed. Place the tube in its position inside the Polarimeter. - : 4, Rotate the analyzer A tll the field of view is completely and uiforily dark ie. both halves are equally dark. In this position there will be an abrupt change in intensity of two halves with slight rotation on either side. Read the position of analyzer onthe citcular scale, provided for the purpose. A further rotation through 180° will again produce __— extinction (Le. equally dark position). Record this position of analyzer also on the circular sca!s for further use.Department of-Applied Phy: 5s, ae Remove the tube, empty it rinse it with solution and then il tcompletely with solution, ‘emoving all sir bubbles. Clean the ends and put the tube i poston. The tw the field will appear unequal dark. Rotate the analyzer ill the two halves are 0 halves of equally dark and note the reading. The difference in readings gives rotation 0. - Rotate the analyzer through 180° to produce extinction again and read the s difference gives the rotation produced. Get a second position of extinction by a fu Totation Of 180° and take mean for the rotations 0 produced. 7. Now, to 50 ce of solution add 50 co of ‘water and mix thoroughly: This gives 2.10% solution. Take readings with it and then mix 50 cc of this solution with 50 cc of water. This gives a 5% solution. Take readings with this also. Repeat with 2.5% and 1.25% solution. OBSERVATIONS: Least Count of Analyzer LC = ......degree — Room Tesipeniure t F cesses °C Length of the Polaiietar Tube cesses OM ; ‘Wavelength of Sodium Light ‘27 =5893 A Table A: To find Angle of Rotation scale. This ther Concentration of Sugar: Polarimeter Reading ise ta’ 5 b eran: Clockwise ‘a’ Anticlockwise csr(ia| -vsR |TSR=csr.| csR(in | vsR “| TSR=CSR degrees) +VSR*LC || degrees) +VSR*LC {in degrees) (in degrees) 0% 0 20% 0.20 10% 0.10 "5% || 0.05 E tae 0.025 =Department of. Appl ied Physics Calculations: Determination of 6 from Table A Gone. OF | Clockwise | Anticlockwise Mean Rotation Ode (1= 1,2,3.4) oe Final ‘a’ | Final ‘bt | (a +by2 6 (degree/gm.cc") ‘e’ (amice) (in (in degrees) | (in degrees) (in degrees) : degrees) 0 say Co 0.20 say Cy O = 1-9 0.10 say Cr ®&=c2- co 0.05 ad say C5 B= 3-09 0.025 _ ‘say Cx O4= ca Co . degree/gm.cc". Numerical Calcul: Now’ "$=106/ (Le) Where; | is.length of polarimetertube in cm Take mean value of 6/c Calculate S for the observations made. Graphical Calculations From the graph between ¢ and @ which is a straight line, Take © Slope=@/c Now ~ S=100/(Ic)=10* stope/1 Where, | is length of Polarimetés tube in em. Calculate $ graphically for the observations made.. Department of Applied Physics Result: The specific rotation of sugar solution is a — © (Room ‘Tenipérature) and). A graphically. 4 . = Do a The specific rotation of sugar solution is at, __'C (Room Temperature) and = A numerically. — PRECAUTIONS: 1. The Polarimetér tube and glass windows should be well cleaned. 2. Care should b¢ taken in weighing sugar and measuring the quantity of water. 3.’ The sugar solution should be well-mixed so as to have ijform concentiation, 4. Care’stiould be taken that there is no-air bubble wher the tubeis filled with liquid 5.- Note the temperature of the room-and also the wavelength of the light used, 6. Start with a concentrated solution and then go on diluting by adding water to it.. Department of Applied Physics EXPERIMENT NO. -3 AIM: To verify the equation of focal length of combination of lenses using Nodal Slide Att od PSR PE ‘Where’ F,represétits the focal lerigth of the combination of nvo convex lenses of focal Assembly. lengths f, and f;- when the two are separated by a distance d. APPARATUS: Nodal slide arrangement (optical bench, plane mirror, cross-slit and a lamp) and two convex lenses of nearly same focal tengths. DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS: . The nodal slide assembly consists of an optical bench which.is provided with four uprights (Fig. 1). On one iipright, placed at one extreme end af the bench, is mounted a lamp housing which has a circular opening for light from the frosted: lamp to pass out and illuminate the cross-slits in, a metal plate mounted ‘on the adjacent upright. The third upright carries the nodal slide. Nodal ‘slide is essentially. a.horizontal'imetal support capable of rotation about the vertical axis; and lens or lenses can be- mounted upoit the support. The metallic support can, be fixed or it can be moved back and forth by means of a screw’ so that the relative position of the two lenses-cant Vary ‘with respect to this upright: The support can be rotated in'a horizontal plane. The- fourth upright carries the plane mirror which can be rotated about’ the horizontal axis perpendicular to the bed of the bench. THEORY: Figure 1. Experimental set-up.The principle is based of the propérty of nodal pots, ic, when a ray of light passes through one of them, its conjugate ray passes through other and is always parallel to the incident Tay. If the system is now rotaied slightly about the vertical axis, the image will not be shifted from its position. The distance of the screen from the axis of rotation gives the principal focal length of the lens system. The focal length of a éas. system is the distance between its principal " po! corresponding nodal points. Thus the focal length of int’ and ‘the corresponding foéal point. The principal points coincide with the when the media are the same on both the sides of the system (here, ait). corresponding focal point. ‘The second nodal point can be located by using the fact that in case-of-parallel beam of light ‘ona screen“in its second focal the system can be determined by locating a nodal point and the incident on a convergent lens system, thus forming an image plane, the image does not shift laterally when the system is rotated about @ vertical, axis passing through its second nodal point. “The distance between the uprighis carrying thie séreen (or ~cross- sit) and the nodal slide (which gives the position of the axis of rotation) will, thesefore, give the focal length of the lens System. PROCEDURI (a) “First the focai leagth fj and fof the two given lenses aré determined. For this, one of the lenses is ‘mounted on the riodal — slide such that.its optical center lies on the axis: of ‘rotation of nodal slide. The source of light, screen having the cross slit and plané~ mirror ‘are mounted on the proper uprights arid the heights of-uprights are’adjusted in’ such a jridnner that the line joining the center of each part is parallel to the bed of the bench. (2) The cross- slit is illuminated and the plane of the mirror is adjusted till the image of the cross slit is fomed close to the cross ‘slit itself. If the inage is blurred and not well defined then'the upright carrying the nodal slides moved towards or away from the slit till ithe image becomes sharp and well defined. (In this position light diverging from the cross-slit einerges as a parallel.beam of light after passing through the lens. This parallel beam of light reflécted 2s_parallel beam: ffom the plaie-miror and brouglit:to focus on the (plane of the’cross-slit by the lens. Ii ‘wor it serves as the second focal oe for the ne om me maaan” ight coming from the planeDepartment of Applied Physics mirror). (3) The stide is rotated slightly about the vertical axis and lateral shift of the image is ‘observed. If there is any shifi, the position of the axis of rotation with respect to the lens is slightly changed by moving the nodal slide on the upright:by means of the screw provided “for this purpose: The sharpness of the image is disturbed. The image is _ Tefocused by moving the upright (carrying the nédal slide) on the Optical bencli. Lateral shift of the image is'again observed. The same process is repeated till the image of the slit is in sharp focus’ and does.not show any lateral shift when the nodal slide is slightly rotated about its vertical axis~Fhe-distance between the plane of the cross slit and the axis of rotation now gives the focal length of the lens. (4) The tens is rotated through 180° and the whiole process is repeated. The mean of the two distances, thus obtained, will give the exact focal length “fy” of the lens. (5) The first lens is removed and the second lens is mounted on the nodal- side. Its focal Jength “fy” is determined in the same manner as described (6) ~To“determine the focal length. of the combination, the two lenses are mounted ‘ort the’ aM (8) -(9) nodal. slide at'some distanicé apart (the lenses are beitig placed équidistance. and! on opposite sides of the axis of rotation). By adjusting the inclination of the plane mirror-and the position ofthe nodal slide the image of the cross slit is made to lie‘on'the side‘of the slit itself, ‘The shift in the image duie to a slight rotation of the nodal-slide is observed, If there is any lateral shift, with the’ simultaneous focusing of image a suitable position of the nodal slide is determined for which no lateral shift of the image occurs due to a’slight rotation of the nodal slide. The distance between the plane of the’ screen and the axis.of the rotation of the nodal slide now gives the focal length of the combination. Different sets of reading are to be taken by tuming the faces of the lens through 180°and inter-changing the position of the component lenses. The experiinent is repeated for different values of distance (4) between the lense’ (say 4,6,8:6m)- . «PAE foal lent of the combination is also obtained theordiclly for each value of “e" by using the formulaAf fitfr-4 (10) It willbe found that the experimental and theoretically values:o fying the tru F= f the focal-length of the i i ila. combination for given separation agree fairy well thus ver h of the formu “OBSERVATIO! Table 1: Observation for the focal length of the first lens: fh Position of The | Position ofthe | Focal Length Mean f, SNo| ac ae Cross- Slit lens —Lhi= b-a) (em) oie (a) (em) (b) (em) (cm) One Face 1 > Other Face Mean. fy Table 2: Observation for the focal length of the Second lens: Position of The | Position ofthe] Focal Length | - \tean 4, Light i S.No “i Cross- Slit lens (f= b-a) Jncident Ox (a) (em) () (em) (cit) (em) One Face 1 Other Face Mean fyDepartment of Applied Physics Table 3: Observations for the focal length of the combination of two lenses: Experimental i Experimental Distance Position | Position of | Focal Length | “aon Fecal - S.No } Between ‘of Cross | The Nodal F; teagth | Theoretical + | tenses x | Incident On} Stie(a) | Stide (6) {veal tenet (Fa) (em), (em) om | a)(Cm)| Gay L _ | One face Other face| = - ‘One face — _| 2 Other face| One face | 3 ee f Other face] ean Fe = Mean Fr. = CALCULATION: Calculate the theoretical combined focal length with the help of the formula (Fe) = (W,) + (1/6) - d/fi) RESULT: The theoretically caloulated Fy, and experimentally observed F, values of the focal length of the combination are vezy nearly equal (Fy - F. ~~ (ME}=(1/fi) + (1B) - /EiB) -.) and hence the formula is verified.— Department of Applied Physics . ~ RECAUTIONS: _ . 1, False images formed by partial reflection from the faces of the lenses should not be . Confused with the true image of the cross-slit, 2. While determining the focal length of a single lens, its optical centre must lie on the axis of rotation of the nodal slide. (for easy aid quick setting) 3. Bench-error should also be taken into account, 4. The nodal slide should be rotated slightly about theaxis of rotation. & In order to'get a bright image of the slit the plane mirror should be placed as close to. the combination as Possible,Department of Applied Physics EXPERIMENT NO. - 4 AIM: To detenmine the wavelength of yellow line of mercury light using Plane diffraction Grating. APPARATUS: Spectrometer, Plane transmission grating, mercury Vapour lamp. he wavelength 4 of any spectral lines can be calculated by the (a+b) sind = ni (a+b)sin? n Where, (a +6) = grating clement , 8 = angle of diffraction for a particular spectral line of wavelength a n= order of spectrum PROCEDURE: 1. Setting Take a spectrometer and set it so that the following conditions are satisfied. a). ‘The telescope should be focused in order to'recéive pitallel rays. b) “The collimator is to be adjusted in order to send parallel rays. ©). The grating should be normal to the incident light beam. 4). The slit should be parallel to the line of grating. To ensure the normal incidence condition (c), tur the telescope in order to receive the direct image of slit-and coincide it with the: cross wire. Note the reading of both the verniérs. Let the reading of a vernier be $. Rotate the telescope through 90°. Under this condition the vemier will read +90 and the axis of telescope anid collimator are perpendicular, Rotate the prism table (now grating table) about the main axis of the instriment in order to obtain the reflected image of the slit in the field of view of telescope. Coincide the image of slit with the cross wire, Note this reading. Under this condition the plane of grating will be at an angle of 45° with the incident beam. Now tum - the grating through an angle of 45° in order to pui it'pépendicular to the incident beam: ”@ - Direct Ray Fig.1 Setting diffraction grating normal to the incident light 2. Measurement of angle of diffraction for different spectral lines 1. On rotating the telescope on either side of the direct image, spectrum will be observed in different order as showh in Fig. 2. It can be seea that violet color spectral line will have smaller angle of diffraction as compared to red, 2. Turn the telescope to one side say left of the direct image coincide the crosswire with the green line of the mercury appearing at the extreme left in second order. Note the readings of the both verniers: 3. Rotate the telescope in the’ sare direction and coincide: it with the violet liné ofthe dealt tld i" ro an am Fig.2 Grating diffraction7 Department of Applied Physics Table 1: Measurement of angle of diffraction (0) - iv 14 Order of | Colour] Vernier Reading of spectrum om ee Spectrum Scale | Teft Side of Direct image | Right Side of Direct Image Ms | VS.] Total MS ] VS | Total Reading | 45, deg.) Reading: |(4ee)] |] ¥=MS*(VS | (degree) |“) aMS# (VS - xLO) xLQ Gee) deg.) Grea] V; | ann Vr noes —— First a2 n=1 [Viole [V, Second Z ; he m2. iatet PV) Vz tye a it ‘MS= Main Scale Reading, VS= Vernier scale reading, Li = least count of spectrometer CALCULATIONS: (a+6)sin() n a Grating element, (a+5) = Where, N isthe number of ruling pet ich on the grating. For first order n =1, wavelength of spectral lines can be calculated by: a= (a+b)sind 1 = (a+b)sind _ efor green’= 2 for violet =Department of Applied Physics Fer second order « =2, waveletigth of spectral lines is given by: (a+0)sind Ai 2 for green 2 for violet Average value of A for green and violet color can'be calculated by taking average of ® for both the orders. RESUL’ The wavelengths of the various spéctral’ lines of mercury spectrum calculated by the grating are given below Colour of the | Observed ‘Standard Percentage error spectral line wavelength (A) wavelength (A) Violet =. [4358 Green 4916 Yellow 3710 “| Red 3 : 634 PRECAUTIONS AND.SOURCES OF ERRORS: 1. All adjustments of the spectrometer must be correctly made. 2. Slit should be as narrow as possible. 3. Grating should be set normal to the incident light. 4; Ruled surface of the grating should face the telescope. 5;° Both the verniers should be read.Department of Applied Physics - EXPERIMENTNO.-5 ~~ AIM: To detemine the dispersive power of the: material of a prism using Spectrometer. - APPARATUS: Spectrometer, prism, spirit level, magnifying lens, reading lamp and source of light (Mercury Lamp). .- FORMULA USED: ‘Thé dispersive power of the matetial of prism is given by where, Hy : Refractive index of the material of the prism for the Violet colour. Hr : Refractive index of the material of the prism for the red colour. Hy : Refractive index of the material of the prism for the yellow colour. . yt Mr rr Also, the refractive index is given by. AtEm Sin sai) where, A> Angle of prism n-: Angle of minimum deviation Knowing the values of dnfor violet, red and yellow colours, #/-, and can be determined, respectively. PROCEDURE: A. ADJUSTMENT OF THE SPECTROMETER Follow the following procedure: 1. Level the spectrometer tablé ind set the collimator and telescope for the pale rays and follow general instructions for adjustment of spectrometer. — Some areas follows: a. The slit should be thin and vertical. b. Itshould be symmetrical for both sides.__ Department of Applied Physics ©. Note least count of tlie Vernier scale. 4. Adjust the height of the prism table. : 2. Place the prism on the prism table such that one fits refracting faces AB(say) in igure lies perpendicular to line joining two sorews. 3. Unscrew the prism table sorew such that two windows on the top of the: table are perpendicular to collimator. Both the scales can be read easily now. By \ B. DETERMINATION OF THE ANGLE OF PRISM (4) Follow the following procediire: Place the prism at the centre of the prism table with its base perpendicular to the axis of colliniator andthe edge.A towards the collimator. Parallel rays from the collimator will be incident on refracting surfaces AB and AC and are reflected by'each surface as shown L in figure’? Now turn the telescope to'receive the light reflected from the face AB and the position of the telescope is so adjusted that the image of th slit coincides with vertical cross wites of the telescope. Note down the reading of both the verniers sales V and Vp.Department of Applied Physics Again move the telescope on other side such that it receives the light reflected from the face AC and adjust it till the image of the slit coincides with the with vertical cross wires of the telescope The reading of both the verniers scales V, and V; is recorded again. ‘Write the observations in the table I for the determination of angle of prism (A). Mercury Lamp ae Collimator Incident Rays from Collimiator Prism Table C. DETERMINATION OF ANGLE OF MINIMUM DEVIATION (6,) Follow the following procedure: t The prism is placed on the prism table such that the light from the collimator is incident on one of the refracting faces of thé prism. The incident light get deviated by. the prism and dispersed through another refracting surface. Thus, a spécirum is obtained as’ shoivi in figure 3 Focus the telescope on the violet line of the specttum. Now gradually rotate the prism table in the one direction, the spectrum will appear to move. The telescope is also moved along with the prism table so as to keep the image of—— Department of Applied Physics . the violet colour in the Fld of view. Kep on otation ofthe prism table until poston is obtained from where the spectrum begins to move in the opposite direction een = though the prism is continued to move in the same direction. This position for which the ‘minimum deviation. incides with the vertical tion and:note down image of violet colour just retraces its path is the position of | 4. The telescope is focused: suich that the image of violet line col cross wires, Fix the prism table as well as telescope in this, very posit the readings of both the Vernier scales Vi and Vo.in observation table 2: 5. At this. positiod’ of minimum deviation, do the same for red and yello spectrum successively by setting the vertical erosswie-on-red-and yellow lin the readings of both the Vernier scales Vi and V2 in observation table 2, 6. Keep the table fixed and remove the prism from prism table gently telescope towards the collimator axis and see the slit directly through it. Note the readings of both the Vernier scales Vand V; in observation table 2 Ww line of the je and note and move the Direct Image (Without Prism) Tncident Light From Collimator Vr 4 3. | Red vi Ve " CALCULATIONS: (Angle of minimum deviation for violet colour, dyes The refractive index,= = Department of Applied Physic i ini @) Angle of minimum deviation for yellow entour, 2m The refractive index, : 9 sin (2) Gi) Angte-of minimum deviation for ed colour, r= —~ The refractive index, (At ome sin(“3*) Sin (iv) The dispersive power of the material of prism ba = br a ° By - RESULT: The dispersive power of the material of the given prism is - Standard Results: The standard value of the dispersive power of @ Dense flint glass prism = 0.027. (ii): Extra dense flint glass prism =0.030 PRECAUTION AND SOURCES OF ERROR: * The telescope and collimator should be set individually for parallel rays, 2. Proper levelling of various paris should be done with spirit level. 3. The height of the prism table should be so adjusted that the: maximum light must fall on the eritire surface of the prism 4. Slit should always be vertical. The slit should be adjusted so that a narrow and fine image ‘can be obtained in the telescope. 6. While taking observations, the telescope and prism table should be clamped with the help of clamping screws. -7. Care should be taken in noting the readings of the vernier scales. The reading leas should be used for taking readings on both the verniers. 8. The prism table and the telescope should not be rotated simulatenously. To move the one, other should be clamped.Department of Applied Physics = EXPERIMENT NO. - 6 AIM: To observe Newton rings formed by the interface of produced by a thin air film and to determine the wavelength of sodium light. APPARATUS: Plano convex léns, plane glass plate, sodium. lamp, travelling microscope, spherometer, magnifying lens & optical arrangement for Newton’s rings. FORMULA USED: The wavelength of the light is given by —s _ Oiem 4 Gm Where Dyin = diameter of (n+m), ring D, = diameter of na ring R= radius of curvature of the spherical surface of the plano-convex lens PR nh 2 1 distance between two legs of the spherometér h thickness of the fens at the centre Férmation of Newton Rings: The term "Newton's rings" refers to a phenomenon that occurs when a curved piece of glass, typically a convex lens, is‘put in Contact with a flat piece of glass. The curved glass sits on the flat glass, creating’ a film ofair between them whose thickness is increasing larger along the length of the curve: When white light is directed into the curved glass,.a series of concentrié circles, like a bull's eye, appears. Sir Isaac Newton was the first to observe the phenomenon, which is why the concentric ritigs’are referred to as Newton's’ rings. The concentric circles produced by the Newton's rings phenomenon typically are’ dark alternating with bright, wth the dark béginning in the center. The_ phenomenon occurs as a result of interference between the light reflected by the two surfaces, Another characteristic of the Newton's ring- phenoménon is that the circles nearer the center are thicker than those on the periphery of the circle. This has to do with the curvature of the convexDepartment of. Applied Physics th it, the rings become 4 lens. As the lens becomes more distant from the flat glass benea' thinner. and closer together. ey [HD scree — _ Fig Formula Used: ‘The wavelength of monochromatic light which produces these rings is given by: = Phem=Din) (Bem -08 ne ama ™ a= AmR ~ Where, R= Radius of cuirvature of the surface of convex lens in, contact with glass plate Daem= Diameter of n+m™ bright ring Dm Diameter of m™ brightring UL. Setup and Procedure: the microscope.Departinent of Applied Physics 4. Once good rings are in focus, rotate the eyepiece such that out of the two perpendicular cross wires, one has its length parallel to the direction of travel of the microscope. Let this eross wire also passes through the center of the ring system. y i 7 - 5. Now move the microscope to focus on a ring (say; the 20" order dark ring). On one side of the center,. Set the. crosswire tangential’ to one ring as shown .in -fig 2. Note down the - microscope reading. fig 2 T Figure 2 (Make sure that you correctly read tlie least ‘count of the. vernier in mm units) 6. Move the microscope:to make the crosswiré tangential fo. the next ring nearer'to, the center and note the reading. Continue’ with this purpose till you pass through’ the ‘center. Take readings for an equal numiber of rings on the both sidés of the center. 7._.Remove the plane convex. lens and find the radius of curvature.of the convex surface im contact with the glass plate accurately using the spherometer. The formula for-the calculation of Radius of curvature is~ R=(1/6h) +(h/2) where, |= distance between two legs of spherometer h =hieight of convex surface of lens OBSERVATION: A) Determination of least count of the microscope Value of one smallest division of the main scale, = ____ em _Nuinber of divisions on the vernier scale = = Least count of the microscope; i ics ——____ Department of Applied Physi B) Determination of D’, - 5 Table 1 Measurements of the diameter of the ring _ Microscope readings (em) on tite Diameter etm Ring a Right () Dato Yom’) (0. 1) Ri-Rz ! = ier | Total ‘(orm [Main scate [Vernier [Total —.. [Main | Vernier | fatal | coy @LSjem. | Scale [IM.S.+ scale Scale | MSA @vsyem fv. as) | (v-Sjem| S.* bes xLe.)J cm’ | cm sm ntlO nto ats —l nt+7 * nté J a5 ; nd = a3 = m2 ne Table 2 Calculation of Radius of Curvature of given Planoconvex lens . Pitch of the screw ‘Number of circular scale divisions Least count of the spherometer (/.c.) Si ‘Spherometer reading No. |" Zero reading on plane | ~ Reading on lens (b) surface (a) h=b- | Mean'|7 | R=(F/6b) + M.S. | V.S. | Total MS.|VS. | Total a bem | cm | hem cm fem | [MS-+V.S.}em fem. | [M.S.+¢V.s: xLe.)] cm xLe)} cm zl CALCULATION:- Numerical Calculations In the formula, A=(D_'—D.1/4R (m-n) - Take n= 10, m=.20 (say) wehave 7 jpDepartment of Applied Physics A= (ac — Dye!) /4R (20-10) A= (Dao" — D3c') / 408 Similarly calculate A for different readings. Graphical calculations Plot the graph-between D, & no-of the rings (a). Best-fit line is the drawn. 2 yt Measure the slope of that line which is Slope = (Divsin'~ Din) Amk slope a= 4R RESULT: = The Numerically Calculated value for Ais A The Graphically-Calculated value for) is, A. The actual value for 2 for Sodiuim light is 5893 A. % Error i: PRECAUTIONS:— Notice that as you go away from the central dark spot the fringe width decreases. In order to minimize the errors in measurement of the diameter of the rings the following precautions shouldS 7 sics = Department of Applied phy: be taken: ~ y 2 2) 3) 4) 5) 9) 7) 8) of the glass plate ‘The-microscopé should be parallel to the edge of the £I 2 fo erp . F ter side of a Pp . 7 If you place the cross wire tangential to the oul vagencial t6 the iar side of the yendicular ring on one. side Of the central spot then the cross wire should be placed t3! ‘same ring on the other side of the central spot.(See fig 1 The traveling microscope should move only in one direction. The: Léné aind the glass plate should be cleaned. A lens of large radius of curvature should be used. convex lens should be measured accitrately. vine incide wi ring system. The point of intersection of cross wires should coincide with the center of ring syst ‘The Radius of curvature of Plano il jirection.- The micrometer screw should always be moved in the-seme-directit The amount of light from the source should be adjusted for maximum visibility.-. EXPERIMENT NO. -7 AIM: To determine the resolving power of telescope. APPARATUS: A telescope fitted with a rectangular adjustable slit, source of light (Sodium light), black painted glass plate with two fine parallel slits about 2 or 3 mum apart, travelling microscope anda meter scale.» FORMULA USED: ‘The theoretical and practical resolving powers are given by: d —s - ‘Theoretical ieolving power = 4 — ~ d . 7 00" Practical resolving power = —>- Where, 2. = Mean wavelength of light used. . Width of the rectangular aperture (slit) for just resolution of two objects. 00! = Separation between the two dbjects Which are to be resolved by. the telescope (here the-two objects are thedouble slits on glass slide) D_= Distance of the objécts from the objective of the telescope. Hence, for the Limiting angle of resolution (8), Wwe have THEORY: The resolving power-of a telescope represents its ability to form. separate and distinguishable imagis of two distant objects Kept close to each othe. I is measu‘ed. by the angle subtended at the objective of the telescope by the two objects which are just resolved by it. The smaller the’ value of this angle, the higher is the resolving power of the telescope. This angle is a measure of the limit of resolution of the telescope which can be defined.as the smallest angle subtended at the objective of the telescope by the two, objects, which. are just resolved by-the telescope. ‘The limiting: angle of resolution (8) fOr a telescope fitted with a rectangular . 4 aperture is givenby 9=7 2.= wavelength of sodium lighta a Department of Applied Physic: | p i telescope) Width of the aperture (placed before the objective of the Ught source Telescope Double Stit on Glass Slide with micrometer to'AC Mains: S Fig. 1" Set up forresolving power of telescope In the limit of small angular resolution (tan 6 ~ 6), the limit of resolution can . approximated as: 2a" = D O0' = distance between the two parallel lines D = distance between the object and the objective of the telescope Fig. 2’ Well resolved images Fig. 3 Just resolved images PROCEDURE: 1. Using travelling microscope determine the distance between the two parallel lines (00). Mount the telescope on the stand and adjust the height of telescope such that two parallel line and eye piece of telescope are linear. 2. Move the telescope (away from the two parallel lines) and adjust at a position where you will get fine focussed: image of two parallel lines. 3... Now place the cross wites in telescope at the image.of (say) right slit; note down its position, Let this eR in'er or muni: i ° - 4. Next place the cross wires in telescope at the image of left slit; note down its position. Let this be L in cm or mm. 5. The difference between R and L will give the distance between the two parallel lines (OO' = R-L)D partment of Applied Physics $$ —ient of Applied Physics §- Mount the rectangular adjustable sit near (0 the objective of the telescope in closed position and adjust.the width of the rectangular adjustable slit to the minimum value for which the two images of the parallel lines (00) just merge. Measure this width of rectangular adjustable slit. and abjective of the telescope with meter scale. This gives value of D. 8. Repeat the experiment for three different values of D (ic. at a gap of 10 em): OB: SERVATION AND CALCULATIONS: SBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS: Wavelength of light used A= (@) Table 1: Determination of the dista travelling microscope: Value of one division of main scale of travelling microscope(x) = Total number of division on vemier scale of travelling microscope (y) = Least count of travelling microscope (L.C.) = x/y = Measure the distance betwee black painted glass plate (with two fine parallel slits) ‘ace between thé parallel lines (00')-using—— - At left hand edge of parallel fine ‘L? At Right hand edge of parallel line Distance between two. parallel lines BR 7 : (004) in. mim S.No. | Main scale -] Vernier Total =M.S. | Main scale-] Vernier Total= NLS. reading scale +(VS)x- | reading pat +Ws)x in-ty ats.) division Uc) Ms, division «cy (vs) (.s) L 2. 3. (b) Table 2: Determination of the slit width for rectangular adjustable Value of one division of main scale on the micrometer (x) = Total number of division on circular scale of micrometer (y) = Least count of Micrometer (L.C.) = x/y =__ a f i ics Department of Applied Physi a a width of sit for resolution | Mini 7 [7 Vernier. Distance between parallel : in-Scale tal “? = MLS. + (vy. S.No | lines on black paintea_ | MAUS Seale © | To au ws) lass andobjecive - | Re4i"® | Reading areas Ls.) ws.) 1 2. (©) Table 3: Determination of.resolving power: between | Theoretical —) D Minimum eee a or Experimental 5 two linear sources esolvil a width of slit 0 aa reson’ _| resolving power - “ on ower for resolutio: a 00” oa ua 1 : - 2 3, RESULT: The resolving power of the telescope obtained by two formulas is approximately equal. PRECAUTIONS AND SOURCES OF ERRORS: () The plane of the evo parallel slits on the plate should be vertical and paraillei with the rectangular aperture. ~ 2) The axis of the telescope should be horizontal GB) The width d of the rectangular aperture should be measured very carefully. (4) The distance ‘D’ between the plates of object slits and rectangular aperture should be inieasuréd accurately. =sDepartment of pplied Physics at of Applied Physics EXPERIMENT NO.= EXPERIMENT NO.= 8 AIM: To find the Numerical Aperture of a given Optical fiber. APPARUTI THEORY: US: He-Ne: Laser, Microscopic Objective, Optical Fiber and Multimeter. Optical fibers are fine transparent glass or plastic fibers which can propagate Tight. They work under the principle of total internal reflection from diametrically opposite walls: In this Way light cin’be taken anywhere because fibers have eriough flexibility. This ‘Property makes them suitable for data communication, design of fine endoscopes, micro sized microscopes etc. An optic fiber consists of a core that is‘surrounded by a cladding which is normally made of silica glass or plastic. The core transmits an optical signal while the cladding guides the light within the core. Since light is guided thivugh thé fiber it is sometimes called an optical wave guide. The basic construction of an optic-fibet is shown in figure (1). In order to understand the propagation of light through an optical fibre, consider the figure’(2). neem Roars Consider a light ray (j) entering 'the-core at a ray f point A, travelling ‘through the ‘core tintil, it ae = \ = * ‘Teaches the core cladding boundary at point. B. -&) 4 = As long as the light ray intersedts the-core- cladding boundary at small angles, the ray will be. reflected back in t the core Figure 1: Basic construction of an optical Fil to travel, on to poitit C where'the process of reflection is repeated .ic,, total internal reflection takes place. Total internal reflection occurs only when the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle. If ray enters an optic fiber at. a steep angle (ii), when this ray intersects. the “core: cladding boundary, the angle of intersection is too large. So, reflection back in to the core does not take place and the light ray is lost.in the cladding. This means that to be guided through ‘in optical fibre, alight ay must enter the core with an angle less than a particular angle called the aeceptance angle Of the’ fibré. A: ry. which eiters' the Hbé With: an angle greater than the acceptance angle will be lost in the cladding.Fiber Axis Figure 2 Propagetionofligh in an optical fre Numerical aperture is a basic characteristic of an optical fiber. It represents the size op degree of openness of the input acceptance cone. Math half angle of the acceptance cone. the maximum angle with which light will be accepted into and guides ~ ematical it defined 2s the singe Using Snell’s law through fiber is NASsinQ,) = (n17-02")" Where sin 0, isthe numerical aperture and n and ny are the reffactive index of the core and the cladding, respectively. ___ Hfthe incident angle @ <0, the ray undergoes multiple intemal reflections at core and cladding interface and itis éalled the guided ray. If 8 > 0 the ray undergoes only partial reflection at core cladding interface, In short, length of fiber, ideally a ray launched at angle @ atthe input erid should come out atthe same angle @ from output end. Therefore the far field‘ the output end will also appear as a cone of semi angle 8, emanating from the fiber end.= Department of Applied Physics PROCEDURE: - an Take the background reading in the multimeter. 2.” Light from the laser is coupled into the given fiber by using microscope objective. 3. 4 The output end of the fiber is placed in front of photo detector. A pinhole detector is mounted onthe rotational stage such that the pinhole is at same horizontal level, as the fiber end. Without disturbing the input.coupling, the fiber’s spot is scanned in suitable steps at each angular position of the detector. The angular reading.of the rotation stage and reading of multimeter (in milli volts) is recorded. At least 20 reading should be taken so that a proper graph can be drawn. . Background reading can be taken for all detector positions after switching off the light source. Subtract this background reading from the observed value to get the actual reading. Plot a graph, showing actual reading in voltage along y-axis and angular position of the detector along x-axis. ‘A typical graph will appear as shown in the figure below. From the giaph; find out the angle 20, corresponding to the 95% below from the maximum detector reading and hence obtain 6. Find. NA=Sin 6, Bata - 3 a, oe 285 Angle (6), ———~Department of AP, plied Physics —_- OBSERVATIONS: : Table for Numerical Aperture ™ S.No. | AngularDeflection | Detector Reading | Actual rea ing (mV) (mv) (Detector. Reading- Backgroung (degrees) Reading) 20 RESULT: Numerical Aperture (NA) of a given optical fiber is ... PRECAUTIONS: The optical fibre provided should be handled careflly so as to prevent cracks. vs 2. 3. 4. Mounting and coupling should be done carefully. Optical source should be properly.aligned with the cable. Care should be taken so that laser light should net directly fall into the eye.= Department of Applied Physics mat of Applied Physics EXPERIMENT NO. -9 SR SRMENT NO. -9. AIM: To study the mechanical forced oscillator and to determine the resonance frequency. APPARATUS: ~The apparatus consists of a mass attached to a spring; which is connected to a cord Passing over a pulleyand futher connected to a drive:whee. Th trequency of the drive Wheel is displayed in “Hertz” on its panel: Mass on the spring can be made to oscilkate . ies and free or damped in a tube of water. The system can be driven at various frequencies an the amplitude can be measured with a scale.~ Forays ring wet hoe nah ‘THEORY: phenomenon occurs when a system is driven at it§ natural ‘oscillation The. resonance d alt to a driving the, system exhibits a maxinium response nance means that aim frequency. Resor force when itis driven at some particular frequency,—_—— Department of APP ied Physics | hose support ‘mm’ hanging from a spring “4 fixed. = then force F\ on the ‘Consider the motion of a mass a : x Let the displacement of the mass from its equilibrium position 9° ‘mass due to the spring, a) wliere, k is the sprifig constant . Eqn. (1) can'be written as. 5 Fy =m dxdt =-kx Q) Px/d? = kam @) if at (0, the mass is at x=0 and its velocity is v=0 then, solving (3) X=vo/ @o sin. ag t o” where, (9 = (k/m)' is called the “Natural Oscillation Frequency”. T= 2n/ea9 =28/ (lk)? ©). Now, consider the case when the support holding. the spring moves up and down_at some frequency @ thich isnot the natural oscillation frequency 9. The movement of the spring aots as the driving force: Let, the displacement of the support be. a = a9 €0$ Wt, where ‘ao is the amplitude ‘of the motion of the support. In this case, the force on the mass due to spring F,=-K(G-a) é © ‘The amplitude of the oscillation gradually decteases to zéro as’a result of friction which arises, from air resistance r intemal forces. The magnitude of the frictional force Fs is proportional to he velocity of the mass but has a direction opposite to it. Therefore; Fy=-b'dx/dt ~@ where; b is a positive constant. Combining all, we obtain -k(x-a) — b dx/dt = md?x/dt? (8) The solution of this equation gives X(t) = Xo cos (wt-0) ey where X» is theamplitude of niotion and 6 is the difference ia phase between the motionDepartment of Applied Physics of the support and thie mass: The above'eduation shows that the mass oscillates atthe same frequency as the support but with a phase shift 6. L PROCEDURE: ‘Attach the free end of the spring to.the thread and pass the thread over the pulley: Unscrew the disc attached tothe rod and pass it through the lid of the clear acrylic cylinder. Attach the 150gm brass weight to the rod. Now, screw the disc to its position. a - Fill the cylinder with clear water to a level just below the brim and close the lid of the cylinder, Placé: the scale (with magnetic rear) just behind the cylinder and see the scale through the éylinder. The scale appears to be magnified. If needed, adjust the scale vertically or sidéways so that the lower edge of the disc lies onthe graduation of the scale. Siwitch ON the, Oscillator “and set.the frequency’to.0:10 Hz’ by piessing “the downward amow switch. Set the driving frequency to f=0.2 Hz by pressing the Upward Arrow Switch. Carefilly observe the total displacement ‘y’ of the disc along the scale. Divide this by 2 to git the Amplitude *x’, Increase the’ frequency in steps of 0.2 Hz upto a frequency just above the natural frequency ofthe mass spring system and each time find out thé amplitude, (Note: after setting the frequency to some value, allow the Mass spring system to oscillate for few minutes and then-note down the amplitude.) Use spread sheet to plot the amplitude x versus @=2nf. Observe that at resonance, ‘the amplitude becornes maximum.Department of Applied Physics OBSERVATIONS AND. CALCULATIONS: ‘S.No. ‘Applied o=2at Amplitude frequency @cm (Hz 1. . 2. RESULTS: 3 Resonance frequency .... Hz. at amplitude of .... cm: PRECAUTIONS AND SOURCES OF ERROR: 1. The axis of the-spring ‘should be vertical. 2. The scale should be vertical and should not touch the pointer. 3. The spiing stiould not be stretched beyond the elasti¢ limit, 4. The amplitude of vertical oscillations should be small. 5. The spring should oscillate vertically and any other inotion should not be there.: Department of Applied Physics —<—— EXPERIMENT NO. -10 - AIM: To compare the wavelength of a laser source measured by diffraction pattem from @ single slit and a plane diffraction grating. APPARATUS: He:Ne laser, diffraction grating, screen (graph paper), scale, slit. THEORY: , . Diffraction pattern for a single When monochromatic radiation of wavelength 2.is diffracted by a narrow rectangut n* order minima is formed at an angle 8, given by ~ @ lar slit, the asin @,=nh where, a is the'width of the slit and sing, === a D “ke, is the distance of then!" minima from the centre of the ceatral maxima. D is'the distance of screen from thé slit (see fig:1) Aigoxe! 0Ifthe values of aD and xq (for n=1, 2, 3, ~ ae 2 pal ee _._. “Department of Applied Phystc Bos o i ), waveleagth of the laser light can be calculated. F ‘or rectangular adjustable si 1. Placea rectangular adjustable slit (in closed position means zero slit width) in front of the laser beam. , is e - 2. Now open the slit (i.e: increase the slit width) by rotating the circular nob of the slit and-simultaneously see the diffraction pattem foamed on screen: -- Adjust the slit width to'get the sharp diffraction pattern on thé. screen. Measure the distance of the first order diffraction minima from the centre of the central spot. This is the value of x;. Also, measure the width of the slit (a) and the distance of screen from: the slit (D). Substitute these values in equation (3), a te x10 , for n=1 and calculate ay. nN . a 5._Repeat the above process for secérid and third order diffraction minima and find x, and xy and then calculate the values of A and 23, 6. Take the mean of these 2 values; this will be the value of the wavelength of the laser light. 6 3. 4. OBSERVATION: @. Width of the slit ‘a’ MSR ‘VSR: TSR=. -| MSR+VSR*LC Distance of the screen (Graph paper) from the slit (D)=$—=—___ tat [ S.No. ‘Order of minima (a) |” Position of minima Wavelength (4,) (a) 1 Mean }. = -. (2) Plane Diffraction Gzatin;Department of Applied Physics - Theory:- When monochromatic radiation of wavelength i is diffracted by a diffraction grating, then!’ order priticiple maxima is formed at an angle 0, given by. ; (a+b) sin@,=n2 Gd where (a +) is grating element which is equal to 1 (9) a+6)= (a+o)= 5, . where (N=Numiber of lines pet mun) Thus, S08 1g) © aN Tf laser light is incident on the diffraction grating and diffraction pattern, is obtained on the screen (usually a graph paper), as shown in the fig (2). From the figure, we have sin, == ro) Substituting in equation’ (6) we get If we know’the value of N, x and ys (for'n = 1, 2, 3,4), the wavelength of laser can be calculated.For diffraction grati For diffraction grating ~ Place a diffaction grating in front ofthe laser ‘obtained on a graph paper which serves as screen from the grating, 2. The central maxima (brightest spot) i distance of frst order (n =1) diffraction spot Also measure the distance from the grating (0 . Calculate sind, = 28 . vem 1 the value of i. is due 10 from the cen the screen (X)- 4. Put this value in equation (6) forn=1 a Te diffraction spot arid find sin Repeat the above process for second, third, fouth 6, sin 83, sin, and then calculate Aa, is, Ms velength of the laser 6. Take the mean of these 2. values. This willbe the value of the wa light, OBSERVATIONS:- F (@__- Nusnber oflines ruled per inch on the grating (ii) Grating element (a +) = 2.54/N cm. (iii) ‘Distance from the grating to the screen (x) = (N)=_Gay, 15000 lines /inch) cm. cams $0 that a diffraction patter i placed aa distance of around 2 the undeviated rays. Measure the tre of the central spot (y,), S.No. | Order of Diffraction Position of the spot (ya) _ |. Wavelength (5 ): spot(n) (1) The wavelength’ of He-Ne laser source measured by diffraction pattern froma single slit is ~ A (2) The wavelength of He-Ne laser source measured by diffraction pattern from @ plane diffraction grating is ——--———-A 3) The wave length of the laser source measured’ by above two ‘imethods is approximately same. “se THC ~ FMD