I ME I Correspondence Course

Syllabus

1. Introductions: - Macroscopic vs microscopic, Thermodynamic Systems and

Control Volume, Thermodynamic Properties, processes and cycles, Quasi-static
Process

2. Temperature: - Zeroth Law of thermodynamics, Comparison of Thermometers

3. Energy Interactions: - Work Transfer, Free Expansion, Heat Transfer, Specific

HeaCarrd latent Heat

4. First law of Thermodynamics: - Closed system undergoing a cycle, Closed

system undergoing a change of state, Energy, Specific, Enthalpy, Energy of an
isolated system.

5. First Law Applied to Flow Process: - Control Volume, Steady Flow Process,
Mass balance and energy balance.

6. Second Law of Thermodynamics:- CYClic heat engine, Heat Reservoir, Kelvin-

Planck Statement, Clausius Statement, Refrigerator, Heat Pump, Reversibility
and Irreversibility, Carnot Cycle, Reversed Heat Engine, Carnot's Theorem

7. Entropy: - Clausius' Theorem, Property of entropy, Entropy Principle, Causes of

Entropy Increase.

8. Available Energy, Availability and Irreversibility

9. Properties of Pure Substances: - Quality or dryness fraction.

10. Properties of Gases and Gases Mixtures:- Avogadro's law, Equation of State
of Gas, Ideal Gas, Internal Energy, Enthalpy and specific heats of Gas mixtures.

11. Vapour Power Cycles: - Steam Power Cycles, Rankine Cycle, Reheat cycle,
Ideal Regenerative cycle, Regenerative cycle.

12. Gas Power Cycles:- Carnot Cycle, Stirling Cycle, Ericsson Cycle, Air Standard
Cycles, Otto Cycle, Diesel Cycle, Brayton Cycle.

13. Refrigeration Cycles: - Refrigeration by non-cyclic process, Reversed heat

engine cycle, Vapour Compression Refrigeration Cycles, Absorption cycles, Gas
Cycle Refrigeration.

14. Psychrometries: - Properties of AtmospheriC air, PsychrometriC Chart,

Psychrometric Process .

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Topics Covered
• General Thermodynamics

• Applied Thermodynamics

-Eca • IC Engines

..
CD
• Refrigeration and Air Control

.I:
I-

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INTRODUCTION

Thermodynamics is the science of energy transfer and its effect on the physical
properties of substances. It is based upon observations of common experience which
have been formulated into thermodynamic laws. These laws govern the principles of
energy conversion. The applications of the thermodynamic laws and principles are found
in all fields of energy technology, notably in steam ~nd nuclear power plants, internal
combustion engines, gas turbines, air conditioning, refrigeration, gas dynamics, jet
propulsion, compressors, chemical process plants, and direct energy conversion devices.
Macroscopic Vs Microscopic
There are two pOints of view from which the behaviour of matter can be studied: the
macroscopic and the microscopic. In the macroscopic approach, a certain quantity of
matter is conSidered, without the events occurring at the molecular level being taken
into account. From the microscopic point of view, matter is composed of myriads of
molecules. If it is a gas, each molecule at a given instant has a certain position, velocity,
and energy, and for each molecule these change very frequently as a result of collisions.
The behaviour of the gas is described by summing up the behaviour of each molecule.
Such a study is made in microscopic or statistical thermodynamics. Macroscopic
thermodynamics is only concerned with the effects of the action of many molecules, and
these effects can be perceived by human senses. For example, the macroscopic
quantity, pressure, is the average rate of change of momentum due to all the molecular
cqllisions made on a unit area. The effects of pressure can be felt. The macroscopic point
of view is not concerned with the action of individual molecules, and the force on a given
unit area can be measured by using, e.g., a pressure gauge. These macroscopic
observations are completely independent of the assumptions regarding the nature of
matter. All the results of classical or macroscopic thermodynamics can, however, be
derNed from the microscopic and statistical study of matter.
Thermodynamic Systems
The thermodynamic systems (or system) may be System Boundary
defined as the definite area or a space where some
thermodynamic process is taking place. It is a region
where our attention is focused for studying a
thermodynamic process. A thermodynamic system has
Its boundaries and anything outside the boundaries is Surroundings
called its surroundings as shown in figure.
These boundaries may be fixed like that of a tank
enclosing a certain mass of compressed gas, or movable like boundary of a certain
volume of liquid in a pipeline.

Classification of Thermodynamic systems

The thermodynamic systems may be classified into the following three groups.
1. Closed system: This is a system of fixed mass and Identity whose boundaries
are determined by the space of the matter occupied in it. A closed system does
not permit any mass transfer across its boundary, but it permits transfer of
energy.
2. Open system: In this system, the mass of the working substances crosses the
boundary of the system. Heat and work may also cross the boundary. The mass
. within the system may not be constant. An open system may be referred to as
control volume .

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3. Isolated system: A system which is completely uninfluenced by the surrounding

is called an isolated system. It is a system of fixed mass and no heat or work
energy cross its boundary. An open system with its surroundings (known as an
universe) is an example of an isolated system.

Control Surface
For thermodynamic analysis of an open system, such as an air compressor, in which
there is a flow of mass into and out of the system (Figure), attention is focused on a
certain volume in space surrounding the compressor, known as the control volume,
bounded by a surface called the control surface. Matter as well as energy can cross the
control surface.

r----------
I Control
V Surface
I
~~~------------~I
________ J

Control volume

Air in
Control volume and control surface

While dealing with a fixed quantity of mass, a system is defined, and in the case of a
device involving a flow of mass a control volume is specified. The system approach
concentrates on a fixed mass and the control volume approach focuses on the mass
(and energy) flowing across the control surface. These are equivalent to the closed
system and the open system respectively.

Properties of a system
The state of a system may be identified or described by certain observable quantities
such as volume, temperature, pressure, density etc. All the quantities, which identify the
state of a system, are called properties.

Classification of properties of a system

The thermodynamic properties of a system may be divided into the following two
general classes:
1. Extensive Properties: The properties of the system, whose value for the entire
system is equal to the sum of their values for the individual parts of the system
are called extensive properties, e.g. volume, mass, energy etc. In other words,
extensive properties are dependent on the mass of the system.
2. Intensive Properties: These are defined as the properties whose value is not
dependent on the mass of system i.e. independent of mass of system such as
pressure, temperature, density etc.
The ratio of any extensive property of a system to the mass of the system is
, called an average specific value of that property and this becomes an intensive
property .
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State of a system
The state of a system (when the system is in
thermodynamic equilibrium) is the condition of the P
1 I
(1)

I
system at any particular moment which can be I
I
identified by the statement of its properties such ____ IL. _________ _

as pressure, volume, temperature etc. The number I

I
of properties which are required to describe a I
system depends upon the nature of the system. I

(1) and (2) represents the two states of a system v-

on pressure volume diagram.

Change of State: - Any operation in which one or more of the properties of a system
changes is called a charge of state.

Path of change of state

When a system passes through the continuous series of equilibrium states during a
change of state (from the initial state to the final state), then it is known as path of
change of state. When the path is completely specified, it is then known as path of the
process.

Thermodynamic process 1
1
~,
When a system changes its state from one
equilibrium state to another equilibrium state, then
Pressure
the path of successive states through which the
system has passed is known as thermodynamic
process.
In figure (A), 1-A-2 represents a thermodynamic
process. Volume_
Figure (A)

Thermodynamic cycles or Cyclic Process

When a process or processes are performed on a system in such a way that the final
state is identical with the initial state, it is then known as a thermodynamic cycle or
cyclic process. In figure (A), 1-A-2-B-1 is a thermodynamic cycle or cyclic 'Process.

Homogenous and Heterogeneous System

A quantity of matter homogeneous throughout in chemical composition and physical
structure is called a phase. Every substance can exist in any ·one of the three · phas·es,
viz, solid, liquid and gas. A system consisting of a single phase is called a homogeneous
system, while a system consisting of more then one phase is known as a heterogeneous
system.

Thermodynamic Equilibrium
A system is said to exist in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium when no change in any
macroscopic property is registered, if the system is isolated from its surroundings.
An isolated system always reaches in course of time a state of thermodynamic
equilibrium and can never depart from it spontaneously .

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Therefore/ there can be no spontaneous change in any macroscopic property if the

system exists in an equilibrium state. Thermodynamics studies mainly the properties of
physical systems that are found in equilibrium states.
1. Mechanical equilibrium
2, Thermal equilibrium
3. Chemical equilibrium

Quasi-static or Quasi-equilibrium process

When the process is carried out in such a way that at every instant/ the system
deviation from the thermodynamic equilibrium is infinitesimal/ then the process is known
as Quasi-static or Quasi equilibrium process and each state in the process may be
considered as an equilibrium state. ..,
The quasi-static or quasi-equilibrium process is also known as reversible process. A
process which can be reversed in direction and the system retraces the same equilibrium
state is known as reversible process .

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TEMPERATURE

Zeroth law of Thermodynamics-

This law states that "when the two systems are, each in thermal equilibrium with a third
system, then the two systems are also in thermal equilibrium with one another". This
law provides the basis of temperature measurement.

In order to obtain a quantitative measure of temperature, a reference body is used, and

a certain physical characteristic of this body which changes with temperature is selected.
The changes in the selected characteristic may be taken as an indication of the change
in temperature. The selected characteristic is called the thermometric property, and the
reference body which is used in the determination of temperature is called the
thermometer. A very common thermometer consists of a small amount of mercury in an
evacuated capillary tube. In this case the extension of the mercury in the tube is used as
the thermometric property.

Temperature-
It is an intensive thermodynamic property, which determines the degree of hotness or
the level of heat intensity of a body. The temperature of a system is a property that
determines whether or not a system is in thermal equilibrium with other systems.
Following are the two commonly used scales for measuring the temperature of a body.
1. Celsius or centigrade scale
2. Fahrenheit scale
The relation between Celsius scale and Fahrenheit scale is given by
C F -32 C F -32
100 = 180 or 5= 9

Absolute Temperature-
The temperature, below which the temperature of any substances cannot fall is known
as absolute zero temperature.
The absolute zero temperature
= -273°C - Celsius scale
=-460°F - Fahrenheit scale
The absolute temperature in Celsius scale is called degree Kelvin and given as
K = °C +273

Normal Temperature and Pressure ·(N.T.P.)-

The conditions of temperature and pressure at OOC (273 K) temperature and 760 mm of
Hg pressure are termed as normal temperature and pressure (N.T.P).

Standard Temperature and Pressure (S.T.P.)-

The temperature and pressure of any gas, under standard atmospheric conditions is
taken as 15°C (288 K) and 760 mm of Hg respectively.

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ENERGY INTERACTIONS

A closed system and its surroundings can interact in two ways: (a) by work transfer, and
(b) by heat transfer. These are called energy interaction and these bring about cflanges
in the properties of the system. Thermodynamics mainly studies these energy
interactions and the associated property changes of the system.
Work Transfer
Work is one of the basic modes of energy transfer.
In mechanics work is defined as:
The work is done by a force as it acts upon a body moving in the direction of the force.
In thermodynamics, work transfer is considered as occurring between the system and
the surroundings. Work is said to be done by a system if the sole effect on things
external to the system can be reduced to the raising of a weight. .
When work is done by a system, it is arbitrarily taken to be positive, and when work is
done on a system, it is taken to be negative. The symbol W is used for work transfer.
Power
This is defined as the rate of doing work or work done per unit time.

Mathematically, Power= Work done

Time taken
Energy
The energy is defined as the capacity to do work. The energy possessed by a system is
of the following two types:
1. Stored Energy: This is the energy possessed by a system within its boundaries.
The potential energy, kinetic energy and internal energy are the examples of
stored energy.
2. Transit Energy: This is the energy possessed by a system which is capable of
crossing its boundaries. The heat, work and electrical energy are the examples of
transit energy.
Only the stored energy is a thermodynamic property whereas the transit energy
is not a thermodynamic property as it depends on the path.

Types of Stored Energy:

1. Potential Energy: This is the energy possessed by a body or a system for doing
work by virtue of its position above the ground level.
This is given as PE = mgh
2. Kinetic Energy: This is the energy possessed by a body or a system for doing
work by virtue of its mass and velocity of motion.

KE = .!.mV 2
2
3. Internal Energy: It is the energy possessed by a body or a system due to its
molecular arrangement and motion of the molecules.
The Total Energy (E) of the system is given as
E = PE + KE + U
Where, U = Internal Energy.
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pdV-Work Or Displacement Work

Let the gas in the cylinder be a system having initially
the pressure Pl and volume V1 • The system is in
thermodynamic equilibrium, the state of which is
described by the coordinates Plt V1 • The piston is the
pnly boundary which moves due to gas pressure. Let
the piston move out to a new final position 2, which is
also a thermodynamic equilibrium state specified by
pressure P2 and volume V2 •
When the piston moves an infinitesimal distance dl, pdV work
and if 'a' be the area of the piston, the force F acting on the piston F = p.a
and the infinitesimal amount of work done by the gas on the piston
dW = F.dl = padl = pdV
where dV = adl == infinitesimal displacement volume.
When the piston moves out from position 1 to position 2 with the volume changing from
V1 to V2 , the amount of work W done by the system will be
VI
Wl _ 2 = JpdV
V,

The magnitude of the work done is given by the area under the path 1-2, as shown in
figure. The integration f pdV can be performed only on a quasi-static path.

CL

.. v
Quasi-static pdV work

With reference to figure, it is possible to take a 1

system from state 1 to state 2 along many quasi-
static paths, such as A, B or C. Since the area I
under each curve represents the work for each I
process, the amount of work involved in each case p I
is not a function of the end states of the process, I
I
and it depends on the path the system follows in
going from state 1 to state 2. For this reason, work -t---------
I
2

is called a path function, and dW is an inexact or

Vi .. V
imperfect differential.
Work-a path function

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., .

Thermodynamic properties are point functions; since for a given state, there is a definite
value for each property. The change in a thermodynamic property of a system 'n a)
change of state is independent of the path the system follows during the change of
stafe, and depends only on the initial and final states of the system. The differentials of
point functions are exact or perfect differentials, and the integration is simply .,

The change in volume thus depends only on the end states of the system irrespective of
the path the system follows.
On the other hand, work done in a quasi-static process between two given states
depends on the path followed.

Rather,
2
JdW = Wl _2 or lW2
1

pdV-work in various quasi-static processes

(a) Constant pressure process (isobaric or isopiestic process)

Wl _2 = f pdV
Il

Vi
= p(V2 - V1 )

(b) Constant volume process (isochoric process)

Wl _2 = pdV J =a
(c) Process in which pV =C
V:.
Wl _2 = JpdV
V,

p = (Pl V1 )
V
v· dV V
V,
J
Wl _2 = Pl V1 -V =Pl V1 In-2
V1

= Pl V1 In 12.
P2
(d) Process in which pV" = C, where n is a constant.

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Other Types of Work Transfer

(a) Electrical work: When a current flows through a resistor, taken as a system,
there is work transfer into the system.
(b) Shaft Work
(c) Paddle-wheel Work or Stirring Work
(d) Flow Work
The flow work represents the amount of work that must be done on a system to
introduce a unit mass of material into it. In figure,
the fluid crossing section 1 exerts a normal
pressure Pl against the area Al , giving a total force ---. Flow
P1A l . In time d't, this force moves in its own -
Al
m
direction a distance Vld't where V1 is the velocity Vl ~ ~ 14 11
of flow. The work in time d't is P1A1Vld't or the
Flow work

lA1V
Now, the flow rate, wl =--
v2
Where Vl is the specific volume
So Alvl = W1Vl
:. work done/time = P1W1Vl
:. work done per unit mass = P1V1
This is flow work or the flow energy associated with unit mass of a fl uid.
(e) Work Done in Stretching a Wire
(f) Work Done in Changing the Area of a Surface Film
(g) Magnetization of a Paramagnetic Solid

Law of conservation of energy

The energy can neither by created nor destroyed, thoug h it can be transformed from
one form to any other form, in which the energy can exist.

Heat Transfer
The heat is defined as the energy transferred with out transfer of mass, across the
boundary of system because of a temperature difference between the system and the
surrounding. It is usually represented by Q and is expressed in Joule or Kilo-Joule (KJ).
A process, In which no heat crosses the boundary of system, is called an ad iabatic
process.
A wall which is Impermeable to the flow of heat is an adiabatic wall, whereas a wall
which permits the flow of heat is ealled diathermic wall,
The unit of "heat is Joule in 5.1. units and cal in MKS units. One calorie is the energy
required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by l°C.
leal = 4.187 J
The rate of heat transfer or work transfer is given in kW
1 kW = 860kcal/ hr
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Points to remember regarding heat

1. The heat is transferred acrpss a boundary from a system at a higher temperature
to a system at a lower temperature by virtue of the temperature difference.
2. The heat is a form of transit energy which can be identified only when it crosses
the boundary of a system. It exists only during transfer of energy into or out of a
system.
3. The heat flowing into a system is considered as positive and heat flowing out of a
system is considered negative .
•
Specific heat
The specific heat of a substance is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of a unit mass of any substance through one degree.
Mathematically,
Heat required = mc(T; - 7;.)
where, c = specific heat
Since the solids and liquids do not change the volume on heating, therefore they have
only one specific heat. But the gases have the following two specific heats depending
upon the process adopted for heating the gas.
1. Specific heat at constant pressure (cp ) and
2. Specific heat at constant volume (cv )'
cp is always greater than cv '

Thermal or Heat Capacity

The thermal or heat capacity of a substance may be defined as the heat required to
raise the temperature of whole mass of a substance through one degree.
Mathematica lIy,
Thermal heat capacity = mcKJ
where, m = mass of substance in Kg and
c = ·specific heat of substance KJ/Kg-K.

Latent Heat
The latent heat is the amount of heat transfer required to cause a phase change in unit
mass of a substance at a constant pressure and temperature. There are three phase in
which matter can exist: solid, liquid, and vapour or gas. The latent heat of fusion (Ifu) is
the amount of heat transferred to melt unit mass of solid into liquid, or to freeze unit
mass of liquid to solid. The latent heat of vaporization (Iyap) is the quantity of heat
required to vaporize unit mass of liquid into vapour, or condense unit mass of vapour
into liquid. The latent heat of sublimation (lsub) is the amount of heat transferred to
convert unit mass of solid to vapour or vice versa. Ltu is not much affected by pressure,
whereas Iyap is highly sensitive to pressure.

Water Equivalent
The water equivalent of a substance may be defined as the quantity of water, which
requires the same quantity of heat as the substance to raise its temperature through
one degree .
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Water equivalent of a substance =mc

The numerical value of the thermal capacity and the water equivalent of the substance
are the same.

Mechanical Equivalent of heat

Joule established that heat and mechanical energies are mutually convertible. There is a
numerical relation between the unit of heat and unit of work. This relation is denoted by
J and is known as Joule's equivalent or mechanical equivalent of heat.

Heat Transfer-A Path Function

Heat transfer is a path function, that is, the amount of heat transferred when a system
changes from a state 1 to a state 2 depends on the intermediate states through which
the system passes, i.e., its path. Therefore dQ is an inexact differential, and we write
2
fdQ = Ql-2 or lQ 2
1

Points to Remember Regarding Heat Transfer and Work Transfer

(a) Heat transfer and work transfer are the energy interactions. A closed system and
its surroundings can interact in two ways: by heat transfer and by work transfer.
Thermodynamics studies how these interactions bring about property changes in
a system.
(b) The same effect in a closed system can be brought about either by heat transfer
or by work transfer. Whether heat transfer or work transfer has taken place
depends on what constitutes the system.
(c) Both heat transfer and work transfer are boundary phenomena. Both are
observed at the boundaries of the system, and both represent energy crossing
the boundaries of the system.
(d) It is wrong to say 'total heat' or 'heat content' of a closed system, because heat
or work is not a property of the system. Heat, like work, cannot be stored by the
system. Both heat and work are the energy in transit.
(e) Heat transfer is the energy interaction due to temperature difference only. All
other energy interactions may be termed as work transfer.
(f) Both heat and work are path functions and inexact differentials. The magnitude
of heat transfer or work transfer depends upon the path the system follows
during the change of state.

Example-l
It is required to melt 5 tonnesjhr of iron from a charge at 15°C to molten metal at
1650°(, The melting point is 1535°C, and the latent heat is 270kJjkg. The specific heat
in solid state is 0.502 and in liquid state (29.93jatomic weight) kJjkgOC. If an electric
furnace has 70% efficiency, find the kW rating needed. If the density in molten state is
6900 kgjm 3 and the bath volume is three times the hourly melting rate, find the
dimensions of the cylindrical furnace if the length to diameter ratio is 2. The atomic
weight of iron is 56.
Solution:
Heat required to melt 1 kg of iron 15°C to molten metal at 16500 C
= Heat required to raise the temperature from 15°C to 1535°C+latent heat+Heat
required to raise the temperature from 1535°C to 16500 C

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= 0.502(1535 -15) + 270 + 29.93(1650 -1553) /56

= 763 + 270 + 61.5 = 1094.5 kJ / kg
Melting rate = 5 x 103 kg / hr
So, the rate of heat supply required= (5x103 x 1094.50) kJ/hr
Since the furnace has 70% efficiency, the rating of the furnace would be
_ Rate of heat sup ply per sec
- Furnace efficiency
3
= 5x10 x1094.5 = 2.17x103 kW
0.7x3600
3x5x103 3 3
Volume needed = 6900 m = 2.18m
If d is the diameter and I the length of the furnace,
1t d21= 2.18m3
4
3
or *d2 x 2d = 2.18 m
d = 1.15m
and I:::: 2.30m

Example-2
If it is desired to melt aluminium with solid state specific heat 0.9kJ/kg °C, latent heat
390 kJ/kg, atomic weight 27, density in molten state 2400kg/m 3 and final temperature
700 0 C, find out how much metal can be melted per hour with the above kW rating.
Other data are as in the above example. Also, find the mass of aluminium that the
above furnace will hold. The melting point of aluminium is 660°C.
Solution:
Heat required per kg of aluminium
= 0.9(660 -15) + 390 + 2;.;3 (700 - 660)
= 580.5 + 390 + 44.3
= 1014.8kJ
Heat to be supplied = 10 14.8 = 1449.7 kJ/kg
0 .7
With the given power, the rate at which aluminium can be melted
3
= 2.17x10 x3600 k /hr
1449.7 g
= 5.39 tonnes / hr
Mass of aluminium that can be held in the above furnance
= 2.18x 2400 kg
= 5.23 tonnes

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FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

First law of thermodynamics:

This law may be stated as follows:
(a) "The heat and mechanical work are mutually convertible". According to this law,
when a closed system undergoes a thermodynamic cycle, the net heat transfer is
equal to the net-work transfer. In other words, the cyclic integral of heat transfer is
equal to cyclic integral of work transfers.
Mathematically, ~oQ = ~OW
(b) The energy can neither be created nor destroyed though it can be transformed
from one form to another.
Limitations of First Law of Thermodynamics
1. The statement (b) does not specify the direction of flow of heat and work. It also
does not give any condition under which cond ition these transfers take place.
2. Though the mechanical work can be fully converted into heat energy but only a
part of heat energy can be converted into mechanical work. This means that the
heat energy and mechanical work are not fully mutually convertible.
First Law for a Closed System Undergoing a Change of State
The expression (L W)CYde = (LQ)CYde applies only to systems undergoing cycles, and the
algebraic summation of all energy transfer across system boundaries is zero. But if a
system undergoes a change of state during which both heat transfer and work transfer
are involved, the net energy transfer will be stored or accumulated within the system. If
Q is the amount of heat transferred to the system and W is the amount of work
transferred from the system during the process, the net energy transfer (Q-W) will be
stored in the system. Energy in storage is neither heat nor work, and is given the name
internal energy or simply, the energy of the system.
Therefore Q - W = .1E
Where .1E is the increase in the energy of the system
Or Q = .1E+ W
Here, Q, W, and .1E are all expressed in the same units (in Joules). Energy may be
stored by a system in different modes.
If there are more energy transfer quantities involved in the process, as shown in figure,
the first law gives Q3 Q2
(Q2 + Q3 - Ql) = 6E + (W2 + W3 - W1 - W4 )

o
SurroundinQs
SurroundlnQs
Heat and work
Interactions of a system System surroundings
with its surroundings in a interaction in a process
process involving mar.y energy
fluxes
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 I ME I Correspondence Course

Energy-A Property of the System

a. 1 "........- _

f
2

• V
Energy- a property of a system

The change in energy between two states of a system is the same, whatever path the
system may follow in undergoing that change of state. If some arbitrary value of energy
is assigned to state 2, the value of energy at state 1 is fixed independent of the path the
system follows. Therefore, energy has a definite value for every state of the system.
i.e. aE; = aEc
The energy E is an extensive property. The specific energy, e = Elm (J/kg), is an
intensive property.
The cycle integral of any property is zero, because the fina l state is identical with the
initial stat~. ~dE= O,~dV = 0, etc.

Different Forms of Stored Energy

The symbol E refers to the tota l energy of the system. Basically there are three forms in
which energy may be stored in a system, which are:
(A) Kinetic energy
(8) Potential energy
(C) Molecular internal energy
The part of the total energy which is stored in the molecular and atomic structure of the
system is known as the molecular internal energy or simply, internal energy, customarily
denoted by U.
When only pdV work is present, the first law of thermodynamics' equation becomes
dQ= dE+pdV
dQ = dU+pdV
or, in the integral form
Q= aE+ JPdV
Q= aU+ JpdV

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Specific Heat at Constant Volume

The specific heat of a substance at constant volume Cy is defined as the rate of change of
specific internal energy with respect to temperature when the volume is held constant,
i.e.,

cy = (~~)p
For a constant-volume process
T.
(dU)y = f cy.dT
T,
The first law may be written for a closed stationary system composed of a unit mass of a
pure substance
Q = dU+ W
or dQ= du+dW
For a process in the absence work other than pdv work
dW = pdv
dQ = du + pdv
:. When the volume is held constants
(Q)y = (dU)y
T
(Q)y = JcydT
T,

since u, T and v are properties, Cy is a property of the system. The product mcy = C. is
called the heat capacity at constant volume (J/K).

Enthalpy
The enthalpy of a substance, h, is defined as
h = vu+ pv
It is intensive property of a system (kJ/kg).
... '"..: .
Internal energy change is equal to the heat transferred in a constant volume process
involving no work other than pdv work. From first law equation, it is possible to derive
and expression for the heat transfer in a constant pressure process involving no work
other than pdv work. In such a process in a closed stationary system of unit mass of a
pure substance
dQ = du + pdv
At constant pressure
pdv = d(pv)
(dQ)p = du + d(pv) -
-.
or (dQ)p = d(u + pv)
or (dQ)p = dh
where h = u + pv is the specific enthalpy, a property of the system.
Total enthalpy H = mh
Also H = U+pV
And h = H / m (J / kg)

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Specific Heat at Constant Pressure

The specific heat at constant pressure cp is defined as the rate of change of enthalpy
with respect to temperature when the pressure is held constant.

cp =(~~l
For a constant pressure process
T.
(Ah)p = Js,dT
Ti

The first law for a closed stationary system of unit mass

dQ = du + pdv
Again, h = u+pv
dh = du+ pdv+ vdp
= dQ+vdp
dQ=dh-vdp
(dQ)p = dh
or (Q)p = (Ah)p
:. From equations
T.
(Q)p = Jc;,dT
Ti

e;, is a property of the system, just like Cv ' The heat capacity at constant pressure cp is
equal to me;, (J/K).
Energy of an Isolated System
An isolated system is one in which there is no interaction of the system with the
surroundings. For an isolated system, dQ = 0, dW = 0
The first law gives
dE= 0
or E = cons tant
The energy of an isolated system is always constant.

Perpetual Motion Machine of the First Kind-PMMl

A machine which violates the first law of thermodynamics is known as perpetual motion
machine of first kind (PMM-I). it is defined as a machine which produces work energy
without consuming an equivalent of energy from other source. This is impossible to
obtain such machine in actual practice.
Example-l
A stationary mass of gas is compressed without friction from an initial state of 0.3m 3
and 0.10sMPa to a final state of 0.15 m3 and 0.10sMPa, the pressure remaining
constant during the process. There is a transfer of 37.6 kJ of heat from the gas during
. the process. How much does the internal energy of the gas change?
Solution: First law for a stationary system in a process gives
Q=AE+W
or Ql-2 = ~ - ~ + Wl _2 (1)
v.
Here 1
Wl _2 = pdV = p(V2 - V1 )
Vi .
= 0.105(0.15- 0.30)MJ
=-15.75 kJ
Ql-2 =-37.6 kJ
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 I ME I Correspondence Cour~e

:. Substituting in equation (1)

-37.6 kJ= E; -~ -15.75 kJ
E; - ~ = -21.85 kJ
The Internal energy of the gas decreases by 21.85kJ in the process.

Example-2
When a system is taken from state a to state b, in figure along path acb, 84 kJ of heat
flow into the system, and the system does 32 kJ of work. (a) How much will the heat
that flows into the system along path adb be if the work done is 10.5 kJ? (b) When the
system is retumed from b to a along the curved path, the work done on the system is
21 kJ. Does the system absorb or liberate heat, and how much of the heat is absorbed
or liberated? (c) If U. = 0 and Ud = 42 kJ, find the heat absorbed in the process ad and
db.
Solution:
Q.cb = 84kJ
Wacb = 32kJ
We have
Q.cb = Ub - Ua + Wad;)
Ub - U. = 84 - 32 = 52 kJ
(a)
~b = Ub -U. + Wadb
=52+10.5
= 62.5kJ
(b)
'4-a = Ua -Ub + Wb-a
=-52-21
= -73 kJ

Cr-____~~----~~b
a.

1 a d

~v

The system liberates 73 kJ of heat.

(c)
Wadb = Wad + Wab = 10.5 kJ
Q.d = Ud - U. + W. d

Now Q.db = 62.5 kJ = ~ + ~b

Q.b = 62.5 - 52.5 = 10 kJ

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 I ME I Correspondence Course

Example-3
A fluid is confined in a cylinder by a spring-loaded, frictionless piston so that the
pressure in the fluid is a linear function of the volume (p = a + bV). The internal energy
of the fluid is given by the following equation
U = 34+ 3.15pv
where U is in kJ. p in kPa, and v in cubic metre. If the fluid changes from an initial state
of 170kPa, 0.03 m3 to a final state of 400kPa, 0.06 m 3 , with no work other than that
done on the piston, find the direction and magnitude of the work and heat transfer.

solution:
The change in the internal energy of the fluid during the process
U2 - U1 = 3 . 15(p2 V2 - Pi Vi)
= 315(4x 0.06 -1.7 x 0.03)
= 315x 0.189 = 59.5 kJ
Now
p = a+ bV
170=a+bxO.03
400 = a+ bx 0.06
From these two equations
a = -60kN/m2
b = 7667kN/ms
Work transfer involved during the process
Vt Vt

J
Wl _ 2 = pdV
V,
= J(a + bV)dV
v,
2
= a(V2 - Vi) + b v/ - V1
2
b
= (V2 - Vi)[a +"2 (Vi + V2)]
7667 kN
= 0.03m3[-60kN/rrr +-2-+~ XO.09 m3]
= 10.35kJ
Work is done by the system, the magnitude being 10.35 kJ
:. Heat transfer involved is given by .
Ql-2 = U2 - Ui + Wl _2

= 59.5 + 10.35
= 69.85 kJ
69.85 kJ of heat flows into the system during the process .

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PROPERTIES OF PERFECT GASES

A perfect gas is defined as a state of a substance, whose evaporation from its liquid
state is complete, and strictly obeys all the gas laws under all conditions of temperature
and pressure.
Laws of perfect gases
The physical properties of a gas are controlled by the following three variables.
1. Pressure exerted by the gas
2. Volume occupied by the gas
3. Temperature of the gas

The behaviour of a perfect gas is governed by the following laws:

(A) Boyle's law
(B) (harle's law
(C) Gay- Lussac law
Boyle's law: This law states that "the absolute pressure of a given mass of a perfect
gas varies inversely as its volume, when the temperature remains constant".
Mathematically,
1
P oc V ........ [T = constant]
Or, PV = constant
Or in general
P1V1 = ~V2 = ~V3 = ......... = constant
Charle's law: It may be stated in two different forms.
(i) "The volume of a given mass of a perfect gas varies directly as its absolute
temperature when the absolute pressure remains constant"
Mathematically,
V oc T ..... [p = constant]
V
Or T = constant

Or in general
V ~ V;
-1 =- = - = ......... = constant
~ 7; 7;

(ii) "All perfect gases change in volume by 2~3 til of its original volume at Oo( for

every 1°( change in temperature when the pressure remains constant".

Let Vo =Volume of a given mass of gas at Oo(
~ = Volume of the same gas of same mass at toe
According to above statement

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~
1
= Va + 273 (273+
Vot = Vo 273
t) =Vo x To T

Or
~ =Vo-
-
T To
The temperature at which the volume of a gas becomes zero is called absolute
zero temperature.
Gay - Lussac law
According to this law, "the absolute pressure of a given mass of a perfect gas varies
directly as its absolute temperature, when the volume remains constant.
Mathematically,
P oc T ....... {V = constant)
Or ~ = constant
p. p. p.
Or T.1 = r.2 =....1. = ........ = constant
1 2 7;
General Gas Equation
This represents the combined Boyle's law and Charle's law.
Mathematically,
PV oc T or PV = CT
Where C is constant and its value depends upon the mass and properties of the gas
concerned.
In general form,

-~Vl =--
~\4 ~~
=-- = ........ = constant
~ 7; 7;
louie's law
It states, "The change of internal energy of a perfect gas is directly proportional to the
change of temperature".
Mathematically,
dE oc dT or dE = mcdT = mc{7; -~)
m = mass of gas
c = constant of proportionality, known as specific heat.
This change in energy (E2 - E1 ) is irrespective or independent of pressure and volume
change.
Characteristic equation of a gas \
This is modified form of general gas equation.
PV=mRT
Where, m = mass of gas in Kg
R = characteristic gas constant or gas constant

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Important points regarding gas constant

1. The unit of gas constant is J/Kg-K.
2. The value of gas constant (R) is different for different gases.
Value of gas constant (R) for atmospheric air in SI units is 287 J/Kg-K or 0.287
KJ/Kg-K.
3. The characteristic equation of gas may also be written as:
m
p = V RT or P = pRT
Where, p =density of given gas.

Avogadro's law
It states, "Equal volumes of all gases, at the same temperatu re and pressure, contain
equal number of molecules".
It is important to note that 1 g mole (molecular mass expressed in gram) of all gases
occupies a volume of 22.4litres at N.T.P.

Universal gas constant or Molar constant

The universal gas constant or molar constant (Rv) of a gas is the product of the gas
constant and the molecular mass of the gas.
Mathematically,
Ru=MR
M = Molecular mass of gas in Kg-mole
R = Gas constant
The value of Ru is same for all gases and its value in SI units is given as 8314 J/Kg-mole
or 8.314KJ/Kg-mol K. The characteristic gas equation may be written in terms of
molecular mass as
PV= MRT

Specific heats of gas

All the liquids and solids have one specific heat only. But a gas can have any number of
specific heats (lying between zero and infinity) depending upon the conditions, under
which it is heated.
The following two types of specific heats of a gas are important.
1. Specific heat at constant volume.
2. Specific heat at constant pressure

Specific heat at constant volume

This is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of
gas through one degree when it is heated at a constant volume. It is represented by Cv '
Mathematically,
Total heat supplied to the gas of mass (m) at constant volume
Ql-2 = mCv (7; -~)

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Specific heat at constant pressure

" ," It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a gas
through one degree, when it is heated at constant pressure. This is represented by Cpo
Mathematically,
Total heat supplied at constant pressure to a gas of mass (m).
Ql-2 = mCp (7; - T,.)
Whenever a gas is heated at a constant pressure, the heat supplied to the gas is utilized
for the following two purposes.
'.
1. To raise the temperature of the gas. This heat remains within the body of the gas
and represents the increase in internal energy.
2. To do some external work during expansion.
It is thus obvious that the specific heat at constant pressure is higher than the specific
heat at constant volume.
Enthalpy of a gas
This is defined as the sum of the internal energy (U) and the product of pressure and
Volume (PV).
Enthalpy, H = U + PV
This is also a property.
For a unit mass, specific enthalpy,
h = u+p~
When a gas is heated at constant pressure, then
Ql-2 = H2 - Hl
Molar Specific Heats of a gas
The molar or volumetric specific heat of a gas may be defined as the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of unit mole of gas through one degree.
Mathematically,
.' - Cm =MC
M = Molecular mass of gas.
Molar specific heat at constant volume, Cvm = MCv and molar specific heat at constant
.-' pressure, Cpm = MCp
. ;- .......
Regnault's law: The two specific heats of a gas (Cp and Cv ) do not change with the
change in pressure and temperature of the gas.
Relation between specific heats
Cp -Cv = R ......... (i)
The ratio of specific heats (~) is known as adiabatic index and is represented by r.
-
.~

p
C = r ........ · ("")
- 11
Cv
From (i) and (ii)
.' - R
r=l+-
.; . ..
"
Cv
Since Cp is always greater than Cv , the value of ris always greater than unity .

- -- ..
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Example-1 .
A vessel of capacity 3m 3 conta ins air at a pressure of 1.5 bar and a temperature of
25°C. Additional air is now pumped into the system until the pressure rises to 30bar and
temperature rises to 60 0 C. Determine the mass of air pumped in and express the
quantity as a volume at a pressure of 1.02bar and a temperature of 20 0 e.
If the vessel is allowed to cool until the temperature is again 25 0 e, calculate the
pressure in the vessel.
Solution:
Given: v1 = 3rrr; Pl = 1, 5bar = 0.15 x 106 N / rTf; Tl = 250 e = 25 + 273 = 298K;
P2 =30bar = 3 x 106 N / rTf; Tl =600 e =60 + 273 = 333K; P3 = 1.02bar = 0.102x l()6N / rTf;
T3 = 200 e = 20 + 273 = 293K
Mass of air pumped in
Let = Mass of air initially filled in the vessel, and
rT\
~ = Mass of air in the vessel, after pumping.

We know that Pl v1 = I'l\RTl

= P1V1 = 0.15x106 x3 = 5 26k
.. rT\ RTl 278 x 298 . g
... (Taking R for air = 287J / kgK)
Similarly,

.. Mass of air pumped in,

m = ~ - rT\ = 94.17 - 5.26 = 88.91kg
Volume of air pumped in a at a pressure of 1.02 bar and temperature of 20 0 e
Let V3 = Volume of air pumped in.
We know that
P3 V 3 = mRT3
:. v= mRT3 = 88.91x287x293 = 73.3rrr
3 P3 0.102x 1()6
Pressure in the vessel after cooling '
Let P4 = Pressure in the vE!ssel after cooling
We know that the temperature after cooling,
T4 = Tl = 250 e = 298K
Since the cooling is at constant volume therefore
-P4 =T4
-
P2 T2
= 298x3xl0 = 2.68xl~N/rTf = 26.8bar
6
.. P4 = T4P2
Tl 333

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Example-2
Nitrogen is to be stored at pressure 140bar, temperature 27 0C in a steel flask of O.05m 3
volume. The flask is to be protected against excessive pressure by a fusible plug which
will melt and allow the gas to escape if the temperature rises too high. Find:
1. How many kg of nitrogen will the flask hold at the designed conditions? Take
molecular mass of nitrogen as 28; and
2. At what temperature must the fusible plug melt in order to limit the pressure of
the full flask to a maximum of 168 bar?
Solution:
Given: Pi = 140bar = 14x 106 N/ rrr; Ti = 270 C = 27 + 273 = 300K;
Vi = 0.OSm3 ; M = 28
1. Mass of nitrogen
Let m = Mass of nitrogen in kg which the flask will hold.
We know that gas constant,
R= Universal gas constant = Ru = 8314 = 297J/ kgK
Molecular mass M 28
... (~ for all gases = 8314J/kgK)
We also know that
PiVi = m R Ti
6
= Pi Vi = 14x10 xO.OS = 7 86k
.. m R Ti 297 x 300 . g
2. Melting temperature of fusible plug
Let T2 = Melting temperature of fusible plugm and
P2 = Maximum pressure=168bar=16.8x106 N/rrr ... (Given)
Since the gas is heated at constant volume, therefore
Pi =P2
- -
Ti T2
6
T = P2 Ti = 16.8x10 x300 = 360K = 870C.
2 Pi 14x 1Q6

Example-3
3kg of an ideal gas is expanded from a pressure 7bar and volume 1.5m 3 to a pressure
l.4bar and volume 4.5m 3 • The change in internal energy is 525kJ. The specific heat at
constant volume for the gas is 1.047kJ/kgK. Calculate: 1. Gas constant; 2. Change in
enthalpy and 3. Initial and final temperatures.
Solution:
Given: m= 3kg;Pi = 7bar = 0.7x 106 N/ rrr; Vi = l.Sn-r;P2 = l.4bar
= 0.14x106 N/rrr;v2 = 4.Sn-r;dU = S25kJ;c., = 1.047kJ/kgK.
1. Gas consta nt
Let R = Gas constant,
Ti and T2 = Initial and final temperatures,

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We know that Pi Vi = m R Tl
RTl = P~l = 0.7 X 1~6 x 1.5 = 0.35x 106

Similarly RT2 = P2 V2 = 0.14x106 x 4.5 =0.21x106

m 3
from above equations
R (Tl - T2) = (0.35 - 0.21) 106 = 0.14x 1~
We also know that change in internal energy .
dU = me;, (T2 - T1 )
Since during expansion, there is a decrease in internal energy,
therefore the change
in internal energy is negative.
-525=3x 1.047(T2 - T1) ~ Tl - T2 = 167.14
SO,R = 0.838kJ/kgK
2. Change in enthalpy
First of all, let us find the volume of specific heat at constant pressure
(s,). We know that
S, - e;, = R or S, = R + cy = 0.838 + 1.047 = 1. 885kJ / kgK
Change in enthalpy,
dH = ms, (T2 - T1) = 3x1.885(-167.14) = -945kJ
The -ve sign in indicates that there is a decease in enthalpy.
3. Initial and final temperatures
From first equation we find that initial temperature,
6
T = 0.35x1~ = 0.35x10 = 417K
1 R 838
and final temperature,
T2 = Tl -167.14 = 417 -167.14 = 249.86K.

Example-4
A gas, having initial pressure, volume and temperature as 27SkN/m 2, 0.09m3 and 18SoC
respectively, is compressed at constant pressure until its temperature is 15oC. Calculate
the amount of heat transferred and work done during the process. Take R=290j/kg K
and Cp=1.00SkJ/kg K.
Solution:
Given: Pi = 274kN/ rrr = 275')( 103 N/ rrrN/ m2; Vi = 0.09rrr; Tl = 1850 C = 185+ 273 = 458K;
T2 ~ 150 C = 15+ 273 = 288K;R = 29OJ/kg K;s, = 1.005kJ/kgK
Amount of heat transferred
First of all, let us find the mass of the gas (m), We know that
P1Vl = mRT1
. = P1 Vl = 275x 1Ql x 0.09 = 0 186k
" m RTl 290 x 458 . g
We know that the amount of heat transferred,
<4-2=ms,(T2-T1) = 0.186x1.005(288-458)kJ=-31.78kJ
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 I ME I Correspondence Course

The negative sign indicates that the heat has been extracted from the gas during the
process.
Work done during the process
First of all, let us find the final volume of the gas (V2). Since the process takes place at
constant pressure, therefore
v 1 = v 2 or v = v1T2 = 0.09 x 288 = 0.056n-r
2
Tl T2 Tl 458
We know that the workdone during the process,
Wl - 2 = p(vp - v1 ) = 275x 103 (0.056- 0.09) =-9350J = -9.35kJ.

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THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES OF PERFECT GASES

Classification of thermodynamic processes

All the thermodynamic processes are classified into the following two groups.
1. Non flow process: The processes occurring in closed systems which do not
permit the transfer of mass across their boundaries are known as non-flow
process. The energy crosses the system boundary in the form of heat and work
but there is no mass flow into or out of the system.
2. Flow processes: The processes occurring in open systems which permit the
transfer of mass to and from the system are known as flow processes. In a flow
process, the mass enters the system and leaves after enhancing energy. The flow
processes may be steady flow and non-steady flow processes.

Work done during a Non-flow process

(1)
I
I
I
Pressure I
I
• • • • 1.. • • • • • • ___ _
I
I
I
I

V1
Volume - -...

Above figure represents a system which expands from state 1 to state 2.

Work done for non-flow process from state 1 to state 2
2 2
f
~-2 = 8W = PdV
1
f
1

Thus, work done is given by the area under PV diagram.

Points to remember
1. The work done by the system is taken as positive while the work done on the
system is considered as negative.
2. For an irreversible process, 8W ~ pdV, because the path of the process is not
represented truly on the P-V diagram due to its non-equilibrium states in the
process.
Application of First Law of Thermodynamics to a Non-flow process
When a system undergoes a change of state or a thermodynamic process, then both the
heat transfer and work transfer takes place. The net energy transfer is stored within the
system and is known as stored or total energy of the system.
Mathematically,
Ql-2 - ~-2 = dE = E2 - El ........... (i)
Equation (i) for the first law of thermodynamics, when applied to a non-flow process or a
static system may be written as .
Ql-2 - ~-2 = dV = V2 - VI
Where, dV = change in internal energy = V 2 - VI
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Heating and Expansion of gases in Non-flow processes

The heating and expanding of a gas may be performed in following ways.
[A] Reversible non-flow process:
(i) Constant volume process
(ii) Constant pressure process
(iii) Hyperbolic process
(iv) Constant temperature process
(v) Adiabatic process
(vi) Polytropic. process.
[6] Irreversible non-flow process

Constant Volume Process (or Isochoric Process)

f ----------j2
Pz ~

Pressure
i
Pressure

~ -- - ------- 1 ~ 1 I
I

Volume
- v" "" Vz

Since there is no change in its volume, therefore no work is done by the gas. All the
~
Temperature ~
7:

heat supplied to the gas is stored within the gas in the form of intef'!'al energy.
Following relations hold good for the reversible constant volume process.

1. ~ = P2 or P = constant
~ 7; T
Thus, constant volun process is governed by Gay-Lussac law.
2. Work done by the gas
2 2
~-2 = f bW = f pdV = a
1 1

Since volume is constant.

3. Change in internal energy
dV = V2 - V1 = mCv (7; - ~)[.: dV = mCvdTJ
4. Heat supplied or heat transfer
Ql- 2 = V2 - Vi = mCv (7; - ~)[: ~-2 = OJ
5. Change in enthalpy
H2 - Hi = mCp (T2 - 7;.)

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Constant Pressure Process (or Isobaric Process)

1
f ~. Pz
--I
I
I
1
)
2
f~ =Pz
-----1
I
I
)
2

Pressure Pressure I
I
I

Iii Vz ~ Tz
Volume - Temperature _

Following relations are important for the reversible constant pressure process.

1. II;. =~ or V = constant
~ 7; T
2. Work done by the gas
2 2
~-2 = Jem. = JPdV
1 1

~-2 = P(V2 - 11;.) = mR(T2 -7;)[: PII;. = mR~ and PV2 = mRTJ
3. Change in intemal energy
dV = V2 - V1 = mCv (7; - ~)
4. Heat supplied or heat transferred
Ql-2 = mCp (T2 - T,.)
5. Change in enthalpy:
dH=H2 -Hl = mCp (7; -~)
So, it can be seen t~~t c_~ge in enthalpy is equal to the heat supplied or heat
transferred. - :'" .•':, .
Hyperbolic Process: (:..
A process in which the gas is heated or expanded in such way that the product of its
pressure and volume (i.e. P x V) remains constant is called a hyperbolic process.

(1)
I
I
. '.'": ....
-:-:.
. '" .... .: ' I
,.
Pressure I
I
I
I

----r-----------
I

V1
Volume - -••

Hyperbolic process Is govemed by Boyle's law .

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Constant Temperature Process (or Isothermal Process)

(1)
1
1
1
Pressure 1
____ 1.
1 _________ _

1
1
1
1
T2 =1",.
Temperature _
Volume_

Important relations for constant temperature process are as follows:

1. ~v;. = ~V2 or PV = constant

Thus, the process is governed by Boyle's law.

2. Work done by the gas:

~-2 = ~v;. (n
V.
J.
= 2.3p,.v;.log r
1

V2 . k . .
Wh ere, r =V.' IS nown as expansion ratio
1 .

Since ~v;. = ~~ = mRT :. ~-2 = 2.3mRTlogr = 2.3mRTlog ~

2

3. Change in internal energy:

dV = V2 - Vi = mCv ('1; - ~) = a, since 7; = ~
4. Heat supplied or heat transferred:
Ql- 2 = dV + ~-2 ~ Ql-2 = ~-2 as dV = a
5. Change in enthalpy
dH = H2 - Hi = mCp (T2 -~) = a, since 7; = ~

Adiabatic process (or Isentropic Process)

A (Xocess, in which the workJng SJJDstcnce nejtner receives nor 9JYes out heat to its
surroundings, during its expansion or com pression, is called an adiabatic process.

(1)
1
1
1
Pressure 1
1
1
1
1
- - - -1- - - - - - - - - - - -
1

Vi V2
Volume-

M Kg of a certain gas is being heated adiabatically from an initial state 1 to a finite state 2.
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1. Pressure - Volume - Temperature (P - V - T) relationship:

PV"f =constant =C
,q = (V2)Y , 7i = (V2 )Y-1 , 7i (Pl )r~l
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
2. Work done during adiabatic expansion:

W.1- 2 = ~~y-l
-P2~ .......... f or expansion
.

= ~~ -~~ .......... f or compression

.
y-l
Or,
mR(~ - T2 ) •
~-2 = y-
1 · · .... ·· .. for expansion

= mR(T2 -~) .......... for compression

.
y-l
3. Change in Internal Energy:
dU = U2 - U1 = mCv (7; - T1 )
4. Heat supplied or heat transferred:
Heat supplied or heat transferred in case of adiabatic process is zero.
Ql-2 = 0
5. Change in enthalpy:
dH = H2 - Hi = mCp (T2 - ~)

Polytropic Process
This is also known as the general law for the expansion and compression of gases and is
given by the relation,
PV n = constant
n = polytropic index, which may have any value from zero to infinity.

I
I
I
I
I
~ ----~-----------
I

v
1. Pressure - Volume - Temperature (P-V-T) relationship:

(a) ~~n = ~~n = ........ =C (b)

T. .
~=
(\I.-t )n-l
T2 ~

(c)

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2. Work done during polytropic expansion:

~~ - P2"'i mR(7; - T2) .
W.1-2 == == .......... for,expanslon
n-1 n-1
~V2 - ~Iti mR (7; - 7;) .
== 1 == 1 "........ for compression • I

n- n-
3. Change in internal energy:
dU == U2 - U1 = mCv (T2 - 7;)
4. Heat supplied or heat transfer
Q = y - n x mR (7; - T2 )
1-2 Y -1 n-1
5. Change in enthalpy:
dH = H2 -H1 = mCp (7; -7;)
6. The equation for heat transfer may also be expressed as

Ql-2 = y-n xchange in internal energy

n-1
7. Rate of heat transfer per un it volu me is
dQ = y-n xP
dV y-1
and rate of heat transfer per second

dQ == y - n x P x dV ,dV == swept volume of piston per second ·

dt y-1 dt dt

Determination of polytropic index

n= IOg(~l
IOg(~)
Similarly, adiabatic index can also be found out.

IOg(~ )
y= 1

log(~ )
Free expansion (or un-resisted expansion) process
The free expansion (or un-resisted expansion) process is an irreversible non -flow
process. A free expansion occurs when a fluid is allowed to expand suddenly into a
vacuum chamber through an orifice of large dimensions.
For a free expansion process,
Ql-2 = O;~_2 = 0 and dU =0
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Following pOints are important for free expansion of the gas.

1. Expansion may be called as an adiabatic expansion since there is not heat transfer.
2. Free expansion process is irreversible.
3. This is also known as un-resisted expansion process since there is no work done by
the system.
4. Since dU=O => U2 = Ui
Free expansion process is also known as constant internal energy processes.
S. Enthalpy and temperature, both are constants during the free expansion process.

General Laws for Expansion and Compression

The general law of expansion or compression of a perfect gas is pvn = Constant.
It gives the relationship between pressure and volume of a given quantity of gas. The
value of n depends upon the nature of gas, and condition under which the changes (i.e.,
expansion or compression) take place. The value of n may be between zero and infinity.
But the following values of n are important from the subject point of view:
1. When n= O. This means pvo = Constant, i.e., p = Constant. In other words, for
the expansion or compression of a perfect gas at constant pressure, n= O.
StartlnQ point
2. When n = 1; then pv = Constant, Constant pressure
i.e;, the expansion or compression
is Isothermal or hyperbolic.
r...
CII
CII
E
::l
n=0

3. When n lies between 1 and n, the g n =1

expansion or compression is ...c:
polytropic, i.e., pvn = Constant. ~c:

4. When n = 1, the expansion or

f 8

compression is adiabatic, i.e., n =oc

pvY = Cons tan t ~
----.;Volume - -....
Curves for various values of n
5. When n =00 , the expansion or compression is at constant volume, i.e., v =
Constant.
Figure shows the curves of expansion of a perfect gas for different values of n. It is
obvious that greater the value of n, steeper the curve of expansion.

Flow process
Processes occurring in open system which permit the transfer of mass to and from the
system are known as flow processes. In a flow process, the mass (working substance)
enters the system and leaves after doing the work.
The flow process may be classified as:
1. Steady Flow Process
2. Unsteady Flow Process

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Application of first law of thermodynamics to a steady state process

Consider an open system through which the working substance flows at a steady rate as
shown in figure. The working substance enters the system at section 1 and leaves the
system at section 2.
,-----------------,
1 1
1 I
1 I 2 Outlet
1
1
1 --1----------
I
Inlet 1 System
1
1 1
---------~-- 1
1 1
1 1
1 I
IL _________________ II Zl
Zl

Datam level

The flow or displacement energy in flow process is defined as the energy required to
flow or move the working substance against its pressure. It is also known as flow work.
Steady flow equation for the system is written as
~2
h1 +""2 + gZl + ql- 2 = ,,.,'2 +""2
V;2 IAI
+ gZ2 + rrl _2' ••••••• ••
( .)
I

Work done in a steady flow process:

2 2 2
JbW = -JVdP or ~-2 = -JVdP
1 1 1

Work done for various steady flow processes:

2
1. Constant Volume Process: ~-2 = -JVdP = V(~ - P2 )
1

2
2. Constant Pressure Process: ~-2 = -fVdP = 0
1

2 V
3. Constant Temperature Process: Wl _ 2 = -fVdP = 2.3~Vilog.J..
1 Vi

4. Adiabatic Process: ~-2 =_r_(~~ -~V;)

y-1
n
5. Polytropic Process: ~-2 = --1 (~~ - ~V;)
n-
Points to Remember:-

1. In a steady flow, the mass flow rate (m) of the working substance entering and
leaving the system is given by
m=_i_i
AV AV .
=~(mkg/s)
VSi Vs2
The equation is known as equation of continuity.

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2. The steady flow energy equation for unit mass flow may be written as

ql-2 - Wl _2 = (h2 - hl ) + (~ -1) + (g Z2 - g Zl)

= (h2 - h1) + (ke2 - k~) + (p~ - pel)
In differential form, this expression is written as
Bq - Bw = dh + d (ke) + d (pe)
3. In thermodynamics, the effect of gravity is generally neglected, therefore

ql-2 - W1-2 = (~ - hl ) + (t
V2 -i-
V2)
If Vl = V2, then equation reduces to
ql-2 - W1-2 = h2 - ~
4. In a non -flow process, the flow or displacement energy at inlet and outlet is zero,
i.e., P1Vsl = a and P2vs2 = O. Therefore ~ = ~ and h1 = ul
Thus the equation may be written as ql-2 - W l _2 = u2 - ul ; which is same as for
non-flow process.

Throttling Process
The throttling process is an irreversible steady flow expansion process in which a perfect
gas is expanded through an orifice of minute dimensions.
For throttling process,
ql-2 = 0 a~d ~-2 = a and
h1 =~
The difference between the throttling process and the free expansion process is that in
th rottling process, the gas leaves with negligible velocity whereas in the free expansion,
the gas leaves with a large velocity.

Application of Steady Flow Energy Equation to Engi· eering Systems

1. Boiler- A boiler, as shown in figure, is a device wnich supplies heat to water and
generates steam. In this system,. there is no change in kinetic and potential
energies.

Also there is no work done by the

system. In other words, (k~ - kel ) = a,
(pe 2 - pel) = a and Wl _2 = a
We know that the steady flow energy
Steam
equation for a unit mass flow is
ql-2 - W l _2 = (h2 - hl ) + (ke2 - kel ) + (pe2 - pel)
Water
Thus, for a bOiler, the steady flow energy in --.--'-1 Water

equation is written as 0'-n-.-,...----~.....J

ql-2 = h2 - h1 \.::.J
-------1------~
This shows that the heat supplied to the
system in a boiler increases the enthalpy
of the system. 01·2
Boiler

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2. Condenser- A condenser, as shown in figure, is a device used to condense

steam in case of steam power plants using water as the cooling medium, whereas
in refrigeration systems, it is used to condense refrigerant vapour using air as the
cooling medium. For such a system, there is no change in kinetic and potential
energies. Also there is no work done by the system. In other words,
(k~ - k~) = 0; (pe2 - pel) = 0
and Wl _2 = 0

We know that the steady flow energy equation for a unit mass flow is,
ql-2 - Wl _2 = (~ - hl) + (k~ - kel ) + (pe2 - pel)
Thus, for a condenser, the steady flow energy equation becomes
- ql-2 = h2 - hl or ql-2 = ~ - hl
The -ve sign with ql-2 is taken because the heat is lost by the coolant while
passing through the condenser.
Steam in

r--------~~-------i
10
coolant: / - ~ ~
in =+'
" :
tl! 0" 4 -
~1
:~ ~~---.
-V l ;~~Iant
L-------11f~----J
Condensate out
Condenser

3. Evaporator- The evaporator, as shown in figure, is a device used in refrigeration

systems in which the liquid refrigerant passes, receives heat and leaves as
vapour refrigerant. For such a system the change in kinetic and potential
energies is negligible. Also there is no work done by the system. In other words.
(ke2 - k~) = 0, (pe2 - pel) = 0
and Wl _2 = 0
We know that the steady flow energy equation for a unit mass flow is
ql-2 - Wl _2 = (~ - hl) + (k~ - k~) + (pe-:: -. ~el)
Thus, for an evaporator, the steady flow energy equation becomes,
ql-2 = ~ - hl
Note: The process occurring in an evaporator is the reverse of that of condenser.
r-----------------------
I
I
I Evaporator
I
I
I
I
I
I
Liquid :
refriaerant in : CD
t.::t:;:::E~~ Vapour
0 L----------------------- J
Evaporator
refriaerant out

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4. Nozzle- A nozzle, as shown in figure, is a device which increases the velocity or

kinetic energy of the working substance at the expense of its pressure drop. The
nozzle is insulated so that no heat enters of leaves the system (Le., ql-2 = 0). In
other words, the flow through nozzles is considered adiabatic. Further, the
system does not deliver any work i.e., Wl _2 = 0 and there is no change in
potential energy, i.e., (pe2 - pel) = O.
We know that the steady flow energy equation for a unit mass flow is
~-2 - Wl _2 = (~ - hl ) + (ke 2 - kel ) + (p~ - pet> = 0
Thus, for a nozzle, the steady flow energy equation becomes
o
= (~ - hl ) + (ke 2 - kel )

or
This shows that the increase in kinetic energy will result in decrease in enthalpy.
If the process is reversed, it is obvious that the decrease in kinetic energy will
result in increase of enthalpy. Such a system is known as diffuser.
From the above expression, we have
vt = 2(hl - h2) or V; - vt = +2(hl - h2)
VI -
V2 = ~vt + 2(hl - h2 )
If the initial velocity Vi (also known as velocity of approach) is very small as
compared to outer velocity V2 , then Vi may be neglected.
.. V2 = ~2(hl - ~)
Note: If Ai = Cross-sectiona l area of the nozzle at inlet,
Vl = Velocity of the fluid entering the nozzle.
V Sl = Specific volume of the fluid at inlet,
A2 , V2 and v s2 = Corresponding values at outlet.
:. For continuous steady flow, mass flow rate,
Ai V A2 V2
m = -l - = - -
Vsl Vs2

r-----------------------
I ' I
I I

~
Inlet Outlet

~;o~:e~;e~:
ConverQent-diverQent nozzle

5. Turbine- A turbine, as shown in figure, is a device which coverts energy of the

working substance (gas or steam) into work in the turbine. The turbine 'Is
insulated so that there is no transfer of heat (i.e., ql-2 = 0). In other words, the
flow through a turbine is considered adiabatic.
We know that the steady flow energy equation for a unit mass flow is
I
=--.-C-o-rres--n-d-e-nc-e-C-o-u-rs-e-.-rarG--A-TE-.-IC-P---In-t-en-s-iv-e-C-Ia-s-sr-oo-m-Pro-gr-a-m-.-:--e-r-ut-o-r-.-O-n-li-n-e-r-es-t-S-en-'e'"s"1r-
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 I ME I Correspondence Course

ql-2 - Wl _2 = (h2 - hl ) + (ke2 - kel ) + (pe2 - pel)

Thus, for a turbine, the steady flow energy equation becomes
-Wl _2 = (h2 - hl ) + (ke 2 - ke l ) + (pe2 - pel)
In case the changes in kinetic and potential energies are negligible
[Le.(ke2 - kel ) = 0 and (pe2 - pel) = 0], then the above expression is written as
-Wl _2 = h2 -~. or Wl _2 = hl - h2
This shows that the work is done by the system due to decrease in enthalpy of
the working substance. Gas or steam in
~ --------------:
I
I
I
I
I

Turbine

Gas or steam out

louie Thompson Co-efficient Turbine
The slope of a constant enthalpy line is called Joule Thompson co-efficient and is
denoted by IJ.

p=(aT)
ap h

The value of Joule Thompson co-efficient (IJ) at a particular state may be positive, zero
or negative. For a perfect gas, the value of IJ is zero.

Example-l
The values of specific heats at constant pressure and at constant volume for an ideal gas
are 0.984 kJ/kg K and 0.728 kJ/kg K. Find the values of characteristics gas constant (R)
and ratio of specific heat (y) for the gas. If one kg of this gas is heated at constant
pressure from 25° C to 200°C, estimate the heat added, ideal work done and change in
internal energy. Also calculate the pressure and final volume, if the initial volume was
2m 3 •
Solution: Given: cp = 0.987 kJ I kg K; C = 0.728 kJ I kg K; m = lkg; Tl = 25°
V

= 25 + 273 = 298K;T2 = 200°C = 200 + 273 = 473K; v l = 2m3

The heating of gas at constant pressure is shown in figure. t(II 1 2
5 p -- ...- ....
~--.,
Characteristic gas constant ~
~
:
We know that characteri~tic gas constant,
R=cp-c v =0.984-0.728 =0.256kJ/kg K
Ratio of specific heats
i Vi V2
~
--Volume--....
We know that the ratio of specific heats,
y= cp Ic v = 0.984/0.728 = 1.35
Heat added
We know that heat added during constant pressure operation,
Ql-2 = m Cp (T2 - Tl ) = 1 x 0.984(473 - 298) = 172.2 kJ
Work done
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We know that work done during constant pressure operation,

Wl _2 = P(V2 - Vi) = mR(T2 - TJ ... (.: pv = m R T)
= 1xO.256(473-298) = 44.8 kJ
Change in internal energy
We know that change in internal energy,
dU = U2 - U1 = mCy (T2 - T1 ) = 1 x 0.728(473 - 298)kJ= 127.4kJ
Pressure and final volume of the gas if the initial volume, v 2 = 2rrt
Let Pi = P2 = pressure of the gas, and
v 2 = Final volume of the gas

We know that ... (.: Pressure is constant)

We also know that

P1V1 = mRT1

mRT1 1x256x298 38 0 2 ( . k .
:. P l =-- = 2 = 14 N/m ... R IS ta en In )/kg K) = 0.3814 bar
s v1

Example-2
A quantity of air has a vol:.Jme of 0.4 m 3 at a pressure of 5 bar and a temperature of 80 0
C. It is expanded in a cylinder at a constant temperatu re to a pressure of 1 bar.
Determine the amount of work done by the air during expansion.
Solution:
Given: v 1 = 0.4m3 ; Pi = 5bar = 0.5x106 Njm2; T = 80°C; P2 = 1bar = 0.lx106 N/rrt
First of all, let us find the volume of air at the end of expansion (i.e., V2). We known that

and exp ansion ratiO,

We know that work done by the air during expansion,

Wl _ 2 = 2.3 P1V1 log r = 2 .3x 0.5x 106 x 0.4 log 5 ) = 0.46x 106 x 0.699 = 321 540) = 321.54 kJ

Example-3
0.1 m 3 of air at a pressure of 1.5 bar is expanded isothermally to 0.5 m 3 • Calculate the
final pressure of the gas and heat supplied during the process.
Solution:
Given: v 1 =0.lm3 ; Pl = 1.5bar= 0.15x106 Njm2 ; v 2 =0.5m3
Final pressure of the gas
Let P2 = Final pressure of the gas.
We know that P1 v1 =P2 V2
6
P2 = PiV1 = 0.15x10 xO.1 = 0.030x106 N/m2 = 0.3bar
v2 0.5
Heat supplied during the process
We know that expansion ratio,

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r = v 2 IVl = 0.5/0.1 = 5
:. Work done during the process
Wl _2 = 2.3pl v l log r = 2.3x 0.15xl<t xO.llog 5 J
= 0.0345x 106 x 0.699 = 24 115J = 24.115 kJ
We know that in an isothermal process, heat supplied (Ql-2) is equal to the work done
during the process.
.. Ql-2 = Wl _2 = 24.115 kJ

Example-4
The initial volume of 0.18 kg of a certain gas was 0.15 m 3 at a temperature of 15°C and
a pressure of 1 bar. After adiabatic compression to 0.056 m 3 , the pressure was found to
be 4 bar. Find;
1. Gas constant; 2. Molecular mass of the gas; 3. Ratio of specific heats; 4. Two specific
heats, one at a constant pressure and the other at a constant volume; and 5. Change of
internal energy.
Solution:Given: m= O. 18kg; vl = 0.15rrT;T1 = lSOC = 15+2763 = 288K;Pt = lbar = O.lxlcrN/rrt;
v =0.056m3 ; P2 =4bar=0.4xl0 6 N/m2
2
The p-v diagram is shown in figure.

1. Gas constant
Let R = Gas constant.
We know that
PlV l = m R Tl
6
R = PlVl = O.lx 10 x 0.15 = 289.4J Ikg K = 0.2894 kJ/kgK
m~ 0.18x288

2. Molecular mass of the gas

We know that molecular mass of the gas,
M= Universal gas constant(Ru) = 8314 =28.73 kg
Characteristic gas cons tant(R) 289.4
... (.: Ru = 8314 J/ kg K, for all gases)

3. Ratio of specific heats

..~ llil'Ott' fir<tt rotkl of SP'CCmc .?..c,zts, 1 I

10g(~: ) 10g( O.4x

6
10 ) ...
<II
::J
I
I
6
0.lxl0 III
III
I
Y= = ...
<II I

10g( ~~)
Cl. I
I (0.15) I
og 0.056 I
I
I

=
log 4
=
0.6020 Pl --+-----------
I
1
log 2.678 0.4278 I

= 1.407 V2 Vl

Volume ~

4. Specific heat at a constant volume and constant pressure

Let cy = Specific heat at a constant volume, and
c; = SpeCific heat at a constant pressure.

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We know that e; - c., = R or 1.407 cv - c., = 0.2894 ... (.: Y = e; / cy = 1.407)

c., =0.2894/0.407=0.711 kJ/kg K
and e; = 1.407 Cv = 1.407xO.711 = 1 kJ/kg K

5. Change in internal energy

First of all, let us find the final temperature (T2)' We know that
l::! 1.407-1
T1 =
T2 P2
(12) (.!.)--u07
T =
4
= (0.25t· 289 = 0.67

T2 = T1 /0.67 = 288/0.67 = 430 K

We know that change in internal energy,
dU = U2 -U1 = mcV (T2 - T1) = 0.18xO.711(430-288)kJ= 18.17 kJ

Example-5
A system contains 0.15 m3 of a gas at a pressure of 3.8 bar and 1500 C. It is expanded
adiabatically till the pressure falls to 1 bar. The gas is then heated at a constant
pressure till Its enthalpy increases by 70 kJ. Determine the total work done.
e; = lkJ/kg K and Cv = 0.714kJ/kg K.
Solution:
Given: v1 = 0.15rrri P1 = 3.8bar = 0.38 x 106N/ m2; Tl = 150°C = 150 + 273
= 423K;P2 = 1 bar = 0.lxl()6N/m2; dH = 70kJ;c;. = lkJ/kg K; c. = 0.714 kJ/kg K
In figure, process 1-2 represents adiabatic expansion of the gas and the process 2-3
represents heating at constant pressure.
First of all, let us find the temperature (T2) and volume (V2) after the adiabatic
expansion.
We know that adiabatic index,
"f=e;/c., =1/0.714=1.4
I:! 1.~1
1 1
T1 = (P1) T = (3.8)1:4 = (3.8)0.286 = 1.465 QI

T2 P2 1 5
!llQI
or T:z = Tl /1.465 = 423/1.465 = 288.7K ...
0. Constant
pressure
1 1 heating
and vl = (P2)'1 = (~)1.4 = (0.263)0.714 = 0.385 2, 3
v2 Pl 3.8 I
I
I
Vl V2 V3
v 2 = vl /0.385 = 0.15/0.385 = 0.39rrr --Volume ---.

Now let us find the temperature (T3) and volume (V3) after constant pressure heating.
Let =
m Mass of gas contained in the system.
We know that gas constant,
R = e; - c., = 1- 0.714 = 0.286kJ/ kg K = 286]/ kgK
and Ptvl = mRTl
m = PlVl = 0.47 kg
RTl
We also know that increase in enthalpy (dH),
70
70 = m c;,(T] - T2) = 0.47 x 1(T3 - 288.7) kJ... T3 = 0.47 + 288.7 = 437.6 K

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Since the heating is at constant pressure, therefore

v 2 = V3 or V3 = V2 T3 = 0.39x437.6 = 0.59 m3
T2 T3 T2 288.7
We know that work done during adiabatic expansion,
6 6 3 3
W = P1V1 - P2V2 = 0.38x 10 x 0.15- O.lx 10 x 0.39 = 57 x 10 x 39 X 10 = 45 OOQ] = 45kJ
1-2 y-l 1.4-1 0.4

and work done during constant pressure heating,

W2_3 = P2(V3 - v 2) = O.lx 106(0.59- 0.39) = 20 OOOJ = 20kJ
:. Total work done, W = W1_2 + W2_3 = 45 + 20 = 65kJ

Example-6
A certain quantity of air has a volume of 0.028 ml at a pressure of 1.25 bar and 25°C. It
is compressed to a volume of 0.0042 m l according to the law pV 1. 3 = Constant. Find the
final temperature and work done during compression. Also determine the reduction in
pressure at a constant volume required to bring the air back to its original temperature.
Solution:
Given:v 1 =0.028nl3; P1 = 1.25bar= 0.125xl0 6 N/m2; Tl =250 C=25+273=298K;
3
v 2 = 0.042m ;n = 1.3
The p-v diagram is shown in figure 2
1
Final temperature P2
~
Let T2 = Final temperature ~
We know that ~ P3 ---I
3 1
I
Tl = (V2]n-l = (0.0042)1.3-1 a. 1
I
T2 v1 0.028 PI ---~-------Il
1 1
1 1
= (0.15)0.3 = 0.566
v2 = V3 VI
.. T2 = Tl /0.566 = 298/0.566 = 526.5K = 526.5- 273 = 253.50 C --Volume --+
Work done during ~ompression
First of all, let us find the final pressure (P2) at the end of compression. We know that
"_ " P1 _ v 2 " _ (0.0042 )1.3 _
P1V1 - P2V2 or P - (v ) - 0.028 - 0.085
2 1
P2 = Pl /0.085 = 1.25/0.085 = 14.7 bar = 1.47 x 106N / m2
We know that work done during compreSSion,
W _ P2V2 -Pl V1 _1.47xl06 xO.0042-0.125xl06 xO.028
1-2 - n- 1 - 1. 3 - 1
= 6174- 3500 = 8913J = 8.913
0.3
Pressure at a constant volume
Let P3 = Pressure at a constant volume required to bring the air back to its initial
temperature, T1 = 298K.
We know that for a constant volume process 2-3,
-P2 -_ -P3 or P3 -_ -
P2T 3 _ 14.7x298 - 832 ba
- - -. r
T2 T3 T2 526.5

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Example-7
A gas mixture obeying perfect gas law has a molecular mass of 26.7. The gas mixture is
compressed through a compression ratio of 12 according to the law pV1.25 =Constant,
f rom initial conditions of 0.9 bar and 333 K. Assuming a mean molar specific heat at
constant volume of 21.1 kJ/kg K, find, per kg of mass, the workdone and heat flow
across the cylinder walls.
For the above gas, determine the value of characteristic gas constant, molar specific
heat at a constant pressure and ratio of specific heats.
Solution:
Given: M = 26.7; r = VI IV2 = 12; n = 1.25; PI = 0.9 bar = 0.09x106 N/m 2 ;TI = 333K;
cy m = 21.1 kJ 1 kg K; m = lkg
The p-v diagram is shown in figure.
Work done per kg of gas
First of all, let us find the initial volume (V1), final volume (V2) and final pressure (P2)'
We know that PI V; = P2 v~

.. P2 = PI (~: J = 0.9(12)1·25 I
I
I
= 20.1 bar = 2.01 x 106N 1 I'T'f I
I
We also know that gas constant, 3 I
I
R = Ru = 8314 = 311 4J/kg K I
I
M 26.7 . I
- - - I~ - - - - - - - - - I 1
an d PI VI = m RT or Il V = mRTl = 1x311.4x333 = 1.1~--3
6:;;n, r
PI
I I
P1 0.09x 10 I

VI
v 2 = v 1 112 = 1.15/12 = 0.096 m3 ... (.: v 1 IV2 = 12)
--Volume -+
We know that work done
W _ P1V1 -P 2V2 _ 0.09xl0 6 x1.15-2.01xl06 xO.096
1-2 - n- 1 - 1.25 - 1
= 103 500 -192 960 = -357 840 J = -357.84 kJ
0.25
The negative sign indicates that the work is done on the gas.
Heat flow across the cylinder walls
Let T2 = Final temperature
T (v )n-1 (1 )1.25-1
We know that T: = v: = 12 = 0.537

T2 = T1 /0.537 = 333/0.537 = 620K

and specific heat at constant volume,
cy = cym /M = 21.1/26.7 = 0.79 kJ/kg K
:. Change in internal energy, .
dU = U2 - U1 = m Cy (T2 - T1) = lx 0.79(620 - 333) = 226.7kJ
We know that heat flow across the cylinder walls,
Ql-2 =W1_2 +dU=-357.84+226.7=-131.1 kJ
The negative sign indicates that the heat is rejected through the cylinder walls.
Characteristic gas constant
We know that characteristic gas constant

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R = Universal gas constant = Ru = 8314

Molecular mass M 26.7
... Co: Ru = 8314 J/ kgK, for all gases)
= 311.4 J/kg K = 0.3114kJ/kg k
Mblar specific heat at a constant pressure
1~t <;m = Molar specific heat at a constant pressure.

We know that <; - c" = R or <; - 0.79 = 0.3114

.. <; = 0.3114+ 0.79 = 1.1014 kJ/kg K

and <;m =M<; =26.7x1.1014=29.4 kJ/kgK

Ratio of specific heats
We know that ratio of specific heats,
Y= cp /c y = 1.1014/0.79 ~1.394

Example-8
The velocity and enthalpy of fluid at the inlet of a certain nozzle are 50m/s and 2800
kJ/kg respectively. The enthalpy at the exit of nozzle is 2600 kJ/kg. The nozzle is
horizontal and insulated so that no heat transfer takes place from it. Find: 1. velocity of
the fluid at exit of the nozzle; 2 mass flow rate, if the area at inlet of nozzle is 0.09 m 2
and the specific volume is 0.185 m3/k~ ; and 3. exit area of the nozzle, if the specific
volume at the exit of nozzle is 0.495 m jkg.
Solution:
Given:V1 =50m/s; t\ = 2800xlQlJ/kg; ~ = 2600kJ/kg= 2600xl03 J/kg:
ql-2 = 0; Al = 0.09m2; VS1 = 0.185m3 /kg; Vs2 = 0.495m3 /kg
1. Velocity of fluid at exit of nozzle
Let V2 = Velocity of fluid at exit of nozzle.
We know that the steady flow energy equation for a unit mass flow is
t\ + ke1 + p~ + ql-2 = h2 + ke2 + pe2 + Wl _2
Since the nozzle is insulated so that no heat transfer takes place, therefore
ql-2 = O. Also there is no work done, i.e., W l _2 = O. Neglecting the potential
energy at inlet and outlet of the nozzle because of at same level from datum, the
steady flow energy equation is written as
hl + ke1 = ~ + k~ or k~ - k~ = t\ - h2
V2 V2
.. -t --t = t\ -~ or V; - V{ =r-2_(_h,:","1_-_h_2)_ _ _-=--_ _ ___=_
and V2 = ~V2 +2(h1 -h2)= (50)2 + 2C2800x 103 -2600xlQl)
= 2500 + 400x 103 = 634.4 m/ s
2. Let m = Mass flow rate in kg/so
We know that m= Al V1 = 0.09x50 = 24.3 kg/s
Vsl 0.185

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Exit area of nozzle

Let A2 = Exit area of nozzle in m2~

We know that m -_ A2 V2 or A2 -_ mxvs2 -_ 24.3x0.495 -

_ 0019
.
-2
rrr
vs2 V2 634.4

IExample-9
:- a gas turbine, the gases flow at the rate of 5 kg/so The gases enter the turbine at a
-"essu re 7 bar with a velocity 120 m/s and leaves at a pressure 2 bar with velocity 250
s. The turbine is insulated. If the enthalpy of the gas at inlet is 900 kJ/kg and ~t
let 600 kJ/kg, determine the capacity of the turbine
Solution:
Gven: m=5kg/s; Pl = 7bar= 0.7x106 N/rrf;Vl =120m/s; P2 = 2bar=0.2x106 N/rrf;
3
4 = 250 m / 5; hl = 900 kJ / kg = 900 x 1Q3 J / kg; h2 = 600 kJ / kg = 600 x 10 J / kg

e know that the steady flow energy equation for a unit mass flow is
k~ + pel + ql-2 = ~ + k~ + pe2 + w1-2
_ T

Since the turbine is insulated so that no heat transfer takes place, therefore ~-2 = O.
eglecting the potential energy at inlet and outlet, the steady flow energy equation
becomes

or Wl _2 = (h1 - h2) + (k~ - k~) = (~ - ~) + ( ~21 )

= (900 X 103 _ 600 x 103) + [(l~0)2 _ (2;0)2]

= 300x 103 - 24.05x 103 = 275.95x 1Q3 J/kg

... Capacity of the turbine
=mxwl _2 =5x275.95x103 = 1379.75x103 J/s
= 1379.75 kJ/s = 1379.75 kW

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SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The first law of thermodynamics states that a certain energy balance will hold when a
system undergoes change of state or a thermodynamic process. But it does not give any
information on whether that change of state or the process is at all feasible or not. The
first law cannot indicate whether a metallic bar of uniform temperature can
spontaneously become warmer at one end and cooler at the other. All that the law can
state is that if this process did occur, the energy gained by one end would be exactly
equal to that lost by the other. It is the second law of thermodynamics which provides
the criterion as to the probability of various processes.

Cyclic Heat Engine

A heat engine cycle is a thermodynamic cycle in which there is a net heat transfer to the
system and a net work transfer from the system. The system which executes a heat
engine cycle is a called a heat engine.
In the cyclic heat engine, as represented in figure, heat Ql is transferred to the system,
work WE is done by the system, work We is done upon the system, and then heat Q2 is
rejected from the system. The system is brought back to the initial state through all
these four successive pr~ sses which

---.~WE

wc ....· - - -
(a)

Furnace
-+-+-~ Sea, River or
Atmosphere

Cyclic heat eng ine

(a) Heat engine cycle performed by a closed system undergoing four successive energy
interactions with the surroundings
(b) Heat engine cycle performed by a steady flow system Interacting with the
surroundings as shown

constitute a heat engine cycle. In figure (b) heat Ql is transferred from the furnace to
the water in the boiler to form steam which then works on the turbine rotor to produce
work WT, then the steam is condensed to water in the condenser in which an amount Q2
is rejected from the system, and finally work Wp is done on the system (water) to pump
it to the boiler. The system repeats the cycle.
The net heat transfer in a cycle to either of the heat engines
Q,et = Q1 -Q2
and the net work transfer in a cycle
Wnet = WT - Wp
(or Wnet = We - We)

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By the first law of thermodynamics, we have

IQ=IW
cycle cycle

Q"et = Wnet
or
Figure represents a cyclic heat engine in the form of a block diagram
0
Ql
j?
9
9

Wp Wr

H2O

Q2
Cyclic heat engine with energy interactions represented in a block in a block diagram
Indicating the various energy interactions during a cycle. Boiler (B), turbine (D,
condenser (C), and pump (P), all four together constitu te a heat engine. A heat engine is
here a certain quantity of water undergoing the energy interactions, as Shown, in cyclic
operations to produce net work from a certain heat input.
The function of a heat engine cycle is to produce work continuously at the expense of
heat input to the system. So the net work Wnet and heat input Ql referred to the cycle
are of primary interest. The efficiency of a heat engine or a heat engine cycle is defined
as
Net work output of the cycle
11 = Total
heat input to the cycle
From equation
W W - Wp Q1 -Q2
11 - -net
-- T - ~---'~
-Ql- Q - Q
1 1

11=1-Q2
Q1
This is also known as the thermal efficiency of a heat engine cycle. A heat engine is very
often called upon to extract as much work (net) as possible from a certain heat input,
i.e., to maximize the cycle efficiency

Heat Reservoirs
A thermal energy reservoir (TER) is defined as a large body of infinite heat capacity,
which is capable of absorbing or rejecting an unlimited quantity of heat without suffering
appreciable changes in its thermodynamic coordinates. The changes that do take place
in the large body as heat enters or leaves are so very slow and so very minute the at all
processes within it are quasi-static. The thermal energy reservoir TERH from which heat
Ql is transferred to the system operating in a heat engine cycle is called the source. The
thermal energy reservoir TERl to which heat Q2 is rejected from the system during a
cycle is the sink.

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KELVIN-PLANCK Statement of Second Law

The efficiency of a heat engine is given by
,,= Wnet =1- Q2
Q1 Q1
Experience shows that Wnet < Ql' since heat Ql transferred to a system cannot be
completely converted to work in a cycle. Therefore, " is less than unity. A heat engine
can never be 100% efficient. Therefore, Q2 > 0, i.e., there has always to be a heat
rejection. To produce net work in a thermodynamic cycle, a heat engine has thus to
exchange heat with two reservoirs, the source and the sink.
The Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law states: It is impossible for a heat engine
to produce net work in a complete cycle if it exchanges heat only with bodies at a single
fixed temperature.
If Q2 = 0 (le., Wnet = Ql' or " = 1.00), the heat engine will produce net work in a
complete cycle by exchanging heat with only one reservoir, thus violating the Kelvin-
Planck statement (Figure). Such a heat engine is called a perpetual motion machine of
the second kind, abbreviated to PMM2. A PMM2 is impossible.
A heat engine has, therefore, to exchange heat with two thermal energy reservoirs at
two different temperature to produce net work in a complete cycle (Figure) So long as
there is a difference in temperature, motive power (i.e., work) can be produced. If the
bodies with which the heat engine exchanges heat are of finite heat capacities, work will
be produced by the heat engine till the temperatures of the two bodies are equalized.

I tl
I
r Ql

I---+Wn.c

(0
'.
Q2 =0 Sink at t2
APMM2
Heat engine producing net work in a cycle by
exchanging heat at two different temperatures
CLAUSIUS' Statement of the Second Law
Heat always flows from a body at a higher temperature to a body at a lower
temperature. The reverse process never occurs spontaneously.
Clausius' statement of the second law gives: It is impossible to construct a device which,
operating in a cycle, will produce no effect other than the transfer of heat from a cooler
to a hotter body.
Heat cannot flow of itself from a body at a lower temperature to a body at a higher
temperature. Some work must be expended to achieve this.
Refrigerator: A refrigerator is a device which operating in a cyclic process, maintains
the temperature of a cold body at a temperature lower than the temperature of the
surroundings. In other words a refrigerator works between the cold body temperature
and the atmospheric temperature .

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Atmosphere at ~

--., R Refrigerator

Cold body at T2 T2 < Tl

The performance of refrigerator is measured in terms of co-efficient of performance

which is defined as the ratio of the maximum heat transferred (i.e heat taken from the
cold body) to the amount of work required to produce the desired effect.

(C.O,P)R = ~R = Q1 ~ Q2 = T.1 ~ T2
Hot Body at ~
Heat Pump: A heat pump is a device which operating in a cyclic
process maintains the temperature of a hot body (heated space)
at a temperature higher than the temperature of surroundings. A
heat pump operates between the hot body temperature and the
atmospheric temperature. Heat pump
The performance of heat pump is also measured in terms of co- w~
efficient of performance (C.O.P).
Co-efficient of performance for a heat pump is given as:
(C.O.P)p = Q1 = Q2 = T;, Atmosphere at ~
w" Q1 - Q2 T;, - 7;
Or
(C.O.P)p = (C.O.P)R + 1

Reversibility and Irreversibility

The second law of thermodynamics enables us to divide all processes into two classes~
(A) Reversible or ideal process.
(B) Irreversible of natural process.
A reversible process is one which is performed in such a way that at the conclusion of
the process, both the system and the surroundings may be restored to their initial
states, without producing any changes in the rest of the universe.
A reversible process is carried out infinitely slowly with an infinitesimal gradient, so that
every state passed through by the system is an equilibrium state. So a reversible
process coincides with a quasi-static process.
Any natural process carried out with a finite gradient is an irreversible process. A
reversible process, which consists of a succession of equilibrium states, is an idealized •
hypothetical process, approached only as a limit. It is said to be an asymptote to reality.
All spontaneous processes are irreversible .

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Causes of Irreversibility
The irreversibility of a process may be due to either one or both of the following:
(a) Lack of equilibrium during the process.
(b) Involvement of dissipative effects.

Irreversibility due to lack of Equilibrium

The lack of equilibrium (mechanical, thermal or chemical) between the system and its
surroundings, or between two systems, or two parts of the same system, ·causes a
spontaneous change which is irreversible. The following are specific examples in this
regard:
(a) Heat Transfer through a Finite Temperature Difference
(b) Lack of Pressure Equilibrium within the Interior of the System or between the
System and the Surrounding
(c) Free Expansion

Irreversibility due to Dissipative Effects

(a) Friction
(b) Paddle-Wheel Work Transfer
(c) Transfer of Electricity through a Resistor

Carnot Cycle
A reversible cycle is an ideal hypothetical cycle in which all the processes constituting
the cycle are reversible. Camot cycle is a reversible cycle. The cycle consists of the
following four successive processes
(A) A reversible isothermal process
(8) A reversible adiabatic process
(C) A reversible isothermal process
(D) A reversible adiabatic process
Two reversible isotherms and two reversible adiabatics constitute a Carnot cycle, which
is represented in p-v coordinates as shown in figure.
Q1 - Q2 = (Wl _2 + W2 _3 ) - (W3 -4 + W4-1)' or L Q.,et = cyde
cyde
L Q.,et
A cyclic heat engine operating on the Carnot cycle is represented as shown in engine.

Rev. Adiabatics

/ ' Rev. Isotherm (tl)

Rev. Isotherm (t2)

~v
Carnot cycle

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Carnot's Theorem
It states that of all heat engines operating between a given constant temperature source
and a given constant temperature sink, none has a higher efficiency than a reversible
engine:

Corollary of Carnot's Theorem

Since the efficiencies of all reversible heat engines operating between the same heat
reservoirs are the same, the efficiency of a reversible engine is independent of the
nature or amount of the working substance undergoing the cycle.

Absolute Thermodynamic Temperature Scale

The efficiency of any heat engine cycle receiving heat Q1 and rejecting heat Q2 is given
by
11 = Wnet = Q1 - Q2 = 1 _ Q2
~ Q1 Q1
Q1 T1
Q2 = T2
The absolute thermodynamic temperature scale is also known as the Kelvin scale. Two
temperatures on the Kelvin scale bear the same relationship to each other as do the
heats absorbed and rejected respectively by a Carnot engine operating between two
reservoirs at these temperatures. The Kelvin temperature scale is, therefore,
independent of the peculiar characteristics of any particular substance.

Efficiency of the Reversible Heat Engine

The efficiency of a reversible heat engine in which heat is received solely at T1 is found
to be

=n'(max =1_(Q2) =1- T2 1 2

n
· ...ev Q T orn'(rev = T T-T
1 rev 1 1

It is observed here that as T2 decreases, and T1 increases, the efficiency of the

reversible cycle increases.
Since 11 is always less than unity, T2 is always greater than zero and positive.
The COP of a refrigerator is given by

(COP)refr = Q
1
~2Q2 = ~1_ 1
Q2
For a reversible refrigerator, using
Q1 T1 [COP T2
-Q2 = T'
2
refrl.. = T1 - T2
Similarly, for a reversible heat pump

[COPHP.l-.. = T
1
~T 2

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Example-l
A cyclic heat engine operates between a source temperature of 800°C and a sink
temperature of 30°C. What is the least rate of heat rejection per kW net output of the
engine?
Solution: For a reversible engine, the rate of heat rejection will be minimum
T
llmax = llrav =1- T2 Tl = 1073K
1 Source

= 1- 30+273
800+ 373
I
=1-282=0.718 Ql

Now
w
Q~ = llmax = 0.718

1
Q1 = - 0
.71
8 = 1.392kW
e W=Q1 -Q2 = 1kW
r

Q2
Now ~ = Q1 - Wnat = 1. 392 - 1
= 0.392kW
This is the least rate of heat rejection. Sink
-
T2 - 303K

Example-2 A domestic food freezer maintains a temperature of -15°C. The ambient air
temperature is 30°C. If heat leaks into the freezer at the continuous rate of 1.75 kJ/s
what is the least power necessary to pump this heat out continuously?
Solution: Freezer temperature,
T2 = -15 + 273 = 258K
Ambient air temperature,
Tl = 30 + 273 = 303 K
The refrigerator cycle removes heat from the freezer at the same rate at which heat
leaks into it (Figure).
Ambient air
TI =
303 K

w0

Q2 = 1.75kJ/5

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For minimum power requirement

Q2 Q1
-=-
T2 T2
Q1 = ~~85x303=2.06kJ/S
W =Ql -Q2
= 2.06-1.75 = 0.31kJ/s
= 0.31kW

Example-3
A reversible heat engine operates between two reservoirs at temperatures of 600°C and
40°C, The engine drives a reversible refrigerator which operates between reservoirs at
temperatures of 40°C and -20°C, The heat transfer to the heat engine is 2000 kJ and the
net work output of the combined engine refrigerator plant is 360 kJ.
(a) Evaluate the heat transfer to the refrigerant and the net heat transfer to the'
reservoir at 40°C.
(b) Reconsider (a) given that the efficiency of the heat engine and the COP of the
refrigerator are each 40% of their maximum possible values.
Solution: (a) Maximum efficiency of the heat engine cycle (Figure) is given by

Tl = 873 K T2 = 253 K

Ql - 20000 kJ

~~W__ 1 ____ ~ ~ ~W~2__~~

__ __

W =360 kJ

T2 = 313K

·.max = 1-~=
n
T.1 1-~
873 = 1- 0.358 = 0.624
Again ~i = 0.642
~i = 0.624x 2000 = 1284kJ
Maximum COP of the refrigerator cycle
T3 253
(COP)max = T. _ T. = 313 _ 253 = 4.22
~3
Also COP=-=4.22
~
Since w,. - W = W = 360 kJ
W
2 = Wl...- W = 1284- 360 = 924kJ
C4 = 4.~a x 924 = 3899 kJ
~ = C4 + W2 = 924+ 3899 = 4823kJ
Q2 = Qi - Wi = 2000 -1284 = 716kJ
Heat rejection to the 40°C reservoir = Q2 + Q3 = 716 + 4823 = 5539 kJ

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(b) Efficiency of the actual heat engine cycle

11 = 0.4 11m. = O.4x 0.642
.. '!!}. = O.4x 0.642 X 2000 = 513.6 kJ
.. w2 = 513.6-360 = 153.6kJ
COP of the actual refrigerator cycle
COP = -C4 = O.4x 4.22 = 1.69
W2
Therefore
C4 = 153.6x 1.69 = 259.6kJ
Q3 =259.6+153.6kJ
Q2 = Q1 - W1 = 2000 - 513.6 = 1486.4kJ
Heat rejected to the 40 0 C reservoir
= Q2 + Q3 = 413.2 + 1486.4 = 1899.6kJ
Example-4
Kelvin was the first to pOint out the thermodynamic wastefulness of burning fuel for the
direct heating of a house. It is much more economical to use the high temperature heat
produced by combustion in a heat engine and then to use to work so developed to pump
heat from outdoors up to the temperature desired in the house. In figure a boiler
furnishes heat Ql at the high temperature T 1 • This heat is absorbed by a heat engine,
which extracts work Wand rejects the waste heat Q2 into the house at T2. Work W is in
turn used to operate a mechanical refrigerator or heat pump, which extracts Q3 from
outdoors at temperature T3 and rejects Q'2 (where Q'2 = Q3 + W) into the house . As a
result of this cycle of operations, a total quantity of heat equal to Q2 + Q'2 is liberated in
the house, against Ql which would by provided directly by the ordinary combustion of
the fuel. Thus the ratio (Q2 +Q'2)/Ql represents the heat multiplication factor of this
method. Determine this multiplication factor if Tl = 473 K, T2 = 293 K, and T3 = 273 K.
Solution: For the reversible heat engine (Figure).

,---w..... -.,9
House
Tz

w Ie
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:. Multiplication factor (M.F.)

Q T2 Q T2 Tl - T2
_ Q2 + Q f 2 _ 1 T; + l' T2 - T3 ' Tl
- Q - Q
1 1

or
T; - T2 T3 + T2 Tl - T;
m F. -_ -"--~,,-----"~-~
T1 (T2 - T3 )

or M.F. = T2(T1 - T3 )
Tl (T1 - T3)
Here Tl = 473 K, T2 = 293K and T3 = 273 K
M.F. = 293(473 - 273) = 2930 = 6.3
473(293 - 273) 473
Which means that every kg of coal burned would deliver the heat equivalent to over 6
kg. Of course, in an actual case, ~he efficiencies would be less than Carnot effiCiencies,
but even with a reduction of 50%, the possible savings would be quite significant.

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ENTROPY OF PERFECT GASES

Entropy is an important thermodynamic property of a working substance, which

increases with the addition of heat and decreases with its removal.
Mathematically, heat absorbed by the working substance
t5Q = T.dS
Where, T = Absolute temperature and
dS = Increase in entropy
Points to remember
1. Two Reversible Adiabatic Paths cannot intersect Each Other
2. Through one pOint, there can pass only one reversible adiabatic

Relation between Heat and Entropy

T2 --------------------- 2

f
Temperature

if
,..
','
\
{ ~ ~
Tile diagram shown is known as temperature - entropy (T-S) diagram. Let us consider
"any point A on the curve 1-2. Let 8Q be the small quantity of heat supplied.
I -
8Q = T.dS
I t5Q == ITdS = Total heat supplied or absorbed
. t5Q
:.dS=-
T
The total change in entropy is obtained as

j ds = j t5Q
1 T 1
, :. "
• • .: .. . .,.6' .. .

. Entropy is a point function and is a property of the system. ' ,: '

This can also be expressed as

Tds =dU+pdV
The entropy remains constant in a reversible cyclic process and increases in an
irreversible cyclic process.

Importance of entropy
..In general, efficiency is given by

"., maximum work obtained OW

1'/ = heat supplied or absorbed = t5Q

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bW = c5Q x 1] = c5Q (~ - 7;)

~
For one degree temperature, the above expression reduces to

· bW= c5i =ds=change in entropy ........ (i)

. I

The equation (i) implies that

9
1. The change in entropy represents the maximum amount of work obtainable p~
degree drop in temperatu re.
2. The change in entropy may be regarded as a measure of the rate of toe
availability or un-availability of heat for transformation into work.
3. The increase in entropy is obtained from a given quantity of heat at a low
temperature.

Clausius Inequality
The Clausius in-equality states that whenever a closed system undergoes a cyclic
process, the cyclic integral of c5i is less than zero (i.e. negative) for an irreversible cyclic
process and equal to zero for a reversible cyclic process.
Mathematica lIy,

Pc5i < 0, for an irreversible cyclic process and

pc5i = 0, for a reversible cyclic process
I.e. pc5i:5 0
for irreversible cyclic process,

p~ +1=0
Where I represents the amount by which the cyclic process is irreversible.

Principle of increase of entropy

Clausius inequality is

p~ sO ............ (i)
And change in entropy is given as
ds= c5Q
T
Equation (i) may be written as

p~ Spds
Or ds ~ rc5Q ........... (II)
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For reversible process, ds =~

For irreversible process, ds > o~

If equation (ii) is applied to an isolated system, for which oQ = 0 then same equation
can be re-written as
ds ~ 0
For a reversible cyclic process,
ds = 0 => S = constant
For irreversible cyclic process, ds > 0
Since, in practice all processes are irreversible, therefore the entropy of such a system
like universe goes on increasing. This is known as the principle of increase of entropy.

General expression for change of entropy of a perfect gas

Consider a certain quantity of a perfect gas is being heated by any thermodynamic
process.

(a) 52 -51 = 2.3m[ Cv I09(~)+(Cp - Cv)IOg(~)]

(b) 52 - 51 = 2.3m[ Cp IOg(~) +(C p - Cv ) IOg( ~)]
(c) 52 - 51 = 2.3m[ Cv IOg(~) +Cp IOg(~)]

Change of entropy is positive when heat is absorbed by the gas and negative when heat
is removed from the gas.

Change of entropy of a perfect gas during various thermodynamic process

1. Constant volume process (or Isochoric process):

T2 --- ------------------ 2

f
Temper:lture

Entropy _

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2. Constant Pressure Process (or Isobaric process)

T.2 ---------------------

t
T

s ~

3. Constant Temperature ~rocess (or Isothermal process)

1 2
T
•
I •
t
T
I
I
I
I
I
I

51 5 ~
52

~ -51 =2.3m(C -Cv)IOg(~) p or

~ -51 = 2.3m(C Cv )IOg(~) p -

4. Reversible Adiabatic Process (or Isentropic Process):

5
Entropy ~

Since
8Q= 0 ~ d5 = 0
i.e. s=constant

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s. Polytropic process (PV n = constant)

52 - 51 = 2.3m(Cp - nCv )IOg(~) or

52 - 51 = 2.3mCv x y- n IOg(~) or
n-l T2
., ,
52 - 51 = 2.3mCv x y- n IOg(~)
n ~

Approximate Method for heat absorbed

t
Temperature

.,
.1

'1
1': 2'

Entropy --+

Heat absorbed = Area of 1- 2 - 2' -1'

Ql-2 = (52 -51)X(~; 7;)

Thus the heat absorbed is approximately equal to the change of entropy multiplied by
mean absolute temperature. .

Transfer of heat throur" a finite temperature difference

Let Q be the rate of heat transfer from reservoir A at Tl to reservoir B at T2, Tl > T2

~ System Boundary

rl;':;-;'; ;-;'; ;-T"; ;'~"; ;'-"; ;'-; ;'-il ~ ________ 9~- - - - - _:1- --~ ---Ii
I
I _______ JI
~------------------~I I
I
~ L _______ ~

Reservoi rr A Reservoir B
Heat transfer through finIte temperature dIfference

Therefore, for the isolated system comprising the reservoirs and the rod, and since
entropy is an additive property

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S = SA + Ss
.!1SUniV. = ASA + A~
Q Q 1:-T
or, ASuniv. =-:r+:r=Q. ~T 2
1 2 1 2
Since Tl > T2,ASuniv. is positive, and the process is irreversible and possible
If Tl = T2, ASunlv. is zero, and the process is reversible
If Tl < T2, ASUniv. is negative and the process is impossible.

Mixing of two fluids

Subsystem 1 having a fluid of mass ml specific heat Cl, and temperature tl, and
subsystem 2 consisting of a fluid of mass m2, specific heat C2, and temperature t 2,
comprise a composite system in an adiabatic enclosure. When the partition is removed,
the two fluids mix together, and

Adiabatic
endosure

ubsystem 1 Subsystem 2

Mixing of two fluids

at equilibrium let tf be the final temperature, and ~ < t f < fl' Since energy interaction is
exclusively confined to the two fluids, the system being isolated

~~(~-t,)=~c;(tf-~) .. t,=~~~+~c;~
~~+~c;

ASun.iv. = A~ + AS2
T. T.
= ~C; In--l + ~c;ln--l
Tl T2
.!1Suniv. will be positive definite, and the mixing process is irreversible
If ~ = ~ = m and ~ = c; = c.

This is always positive, since the arithmetic mean of any two number always greater
than their geometric mean .
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Maximum work obtainable from two finite bodies at temperatures T 1 and T 2

Let us consider two identical bodies of constant heat capacity at temperatures Tl and T2
respectively, Tl being higher than T2. If the two bodies are merely brought together into
thermal contact, delivering no work, the final temperature Tf reached would be the
maximum
T._Tl+T2 Body 1
,- 2 Tl -+ T,

Q1

@
~

Body 2
T2 -+ T,
Mxlmum work obtalnble
from two finite bodies

For W to be a maximum, 1j will be~TIT2

Wmax = c;, (Tl + T2 - 2~TIT2) = Cp (If: - Jf;t

The final temperatures of the two bodies, initially at 1;. and T2 can range from
(Tl + T2) / 2 to ~Tl T2

Available energy
The sources of energy can be divided into two groups, viz. high grade energy and low
grade energy. The conversion of high grade energy to shaft work is exempt from the
limitations of the second law, while conversion of low grade energy is subject to them.
The examples of two kinds of energy are:
High grade energy Low grade energy
a. Mechanical work a. Heat of thermal energy
b. Electrical energy b. Heat derived from nuclear
fission or fusion
c. Water power c. Heat derived from combustion
of fossil fuels
d. Wind power
e. Kinetic energy of a jet
f Tidal power
The bulk of the high grade energy in the form of mechanical work or electrical energy is
obtained from sources of low grade energy, such as fuels, through the medium of the
cyclic heat engine. The complete conversion of low grade energy, heat into high grade
energy, shaft-work, is impossible by virtue of the second law of thermodynamics. That
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~art of the. \ow grade. e.{\e.rg'l w\\\C.\\ \s a\la\\ab\e. ~or C.O{\\Ie.rs\O{\ \s t'e.~e.l'l'e.Q \0 as a\la\\a'o\e.
energy, while the part which, according to the second law, must be rejected, is known
as unavailable energy.

Example-l
A vessel of capacity 3 m 3 contains air at a pressure of 1.5 bar and a temperature of
25°C. Additional air is now pumped into the system until the pressure rises to 30 bar and
the temperature rises to 60°C. Determine the mass of air pumped in, and express the
quantity as a volume at a pressure of 1.02 bar and a temperature of 20°C.
If the vessel is allowed to cool until the temperature is again 2SOC, calculate the
pressure in the vessel. Determine the quantity of heat transferred and change of entropy
of the gas during the cooling process only. Neglect the effect of heat capacity of the
vessel. Assume air as an ideal gas.
Solution:
Given: v 1 = 3m3 ;P1 = 1.5 bar = 0.15x 106 N/ m2; T1 = 25°C = 25 + 273 = 298K;
P2 = 30bar = 3x 106 N/ m2; T2 = 60°C = 60+ 273 = 333K
Mass of air pumped in
Let ml = Mass of air initially filled in the vessel, and
m2 = Mass of air in the vessel after pumping.
We know that P1V1 = m1RT1

~
6
= P1V1 = 0.15x10 x3 = 5.26 ... (Taking Rforair = 287 J/kg K)
RTl 287x298
Similarly P2V2 = ~ R T2
6
= P2 V2 = 3x10 x3 = 94.17
~ R T2 287x333
:. Mass of air pumped in,
m= ~ -~ =94.17-5.26=88.91 kg
ume of air pumped in at a pressure of 1.02 bar and temperature of 20 0 e
Given: P = 1.02 bar = 0.102x 106 N/ m2; T = 20°C = 20 + 273 = 293K
Let v = Volume of air pumped in.
We know that pv = mR T
v = mRT = 88.91x287x293 = 73.3 m3
P O.102x106
Pressure in the vessel after cooling
Let P3 = Pressure in the vessel after cooling.
We know tha the temperature after cooling,
T3 = Tl = 25°C = 298K
Since the cooling is at constant volume, therefore
P T3
- 3= -
P2 T2
6
or P3 = T3 P2 = 298x3x10 = 2.68x106 N/m2.= 26.8 bar
T2 333
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Heat transferred during cooling

Since the vessel is cooled from Tz = 333 K to the initial temperature T3 = Tl = 298K,
therefore change in internal energy during cooling,
dU = m 2 c. (T) - T2 ) = 94.17 x 0.172(298 - 333) = -2346 kJ
The -ve sign indicates that the internal energy decreases during cooling.
We know that heat transferred is equal to change in internal energy, when the process
takes place at constant volume (because work done is zero). Therefore heat transferred,
SQ = - 567 kJ
The -ve sign indicates that heat is rejected by the gas.
Change of entropy during cooling process
We know that change of entropy during cooling process,

S3 - ~ = 2.3 m C. IOg ( ~: ) = 2.3x 94.17 x 0.712 IOg(~~~)kJ/ K

2

= -7.44 kJ/K ... (Taking c. = 0.712kJ/kg K)

The -ve sign indicates t hat there is a decrease of entropy .
.J .. .;

Example-2
An insulated vessel of capacity 0.056 m 3 is divided into two compartments A and B by a
conducting diaphragm. Each compartment has a capacity of 0.028 m 3 .The compartment
A consists air at a pressure of 1.5 bar and 25°C and the compartment B contains air at a
pressure 4.2 bar and 175°C Find: 1. final equilibrium temperature, 2. final pressure on
each side of the diaphragm, and 3. change of entropy of the system.
Solution:
Given: VA =vB =0.028m3 i PA =1.5bar=0.15x106 N/m2i TA =2SOC=25+273=29~8
PB = 4.2bar = 0.42 x 106 N/ m2 i TB = 175°C = 175 + 273 = 448K
.I
1. Final equilibrium temperature
Let TF = Final equilibrium temperature.
First all, let us find the mass of air in compartment A (mA) and the mass of air in
compartment B(me). We know that
6
0 m = p A v A =0.15x10 xO.028=00489k
PAv A =mRT
A A r A RT 287 x 298 . g
A

... (.,' R for air = 287 J / kg K)

6
_ RT. - PB VB _ 0.42x10 xO.028 - 0 091k
PBVB - me B or me - RTB - 287x448 -. g

Since the diaphragm is conducting, therefore

Heat gained by air in compartment A
=Heat rejected by air in compartment B
or mAc. (TF - TA):: meC. (TB - TF )
0.049xc. (TF - 298):: 0.091xc.(448- TF)
0.049TF - 14.6 = 40.77 - 0.091 TF or 0.14 TF :: 55.37
TF :: 395.5K
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2. Final pressure on each side of the diaphragm

Let P"F = Final pressure in compartment A, and
PSF = Final pressure in compartment B.
Since the volume of each compartment is same, therefore
PA _ PAF or p = PATF = 1.5x395.5 = 1 99bar
TA TF AF TA 298 .
and Pe _ PBF or PBF = PeTF = 4.2 x 395.5 = 3.078 bar
TB TF TB 448

3. Change of entropy of the system

We know that change of entropy for compartment A, whose temperature has
been increased from T" to TF,

(dS)A. = 2.3mAc" 10g(~) = 2.3x 0.049x 0.712 log ( 3i;a5 )

... (Taking Cv = 0.712 kJ/kg K)
= 0.0810g(1.327) = 0.0098 kJ/K
and change of entropy for compartment B, whose temperature has been
decreased from Ts to TF,
.,
(dS>S = 2.31'l\cv 10g(~) 5
= 2.3x 0.091x 0.71210 g (3!!a ) kJ / K : .
= 0.14910g(0.883) = -0.0081 kJ/K
Change of entropy of the system,
dS = (dS)A + (dS>S = 0.0098 - 0.0081 = 0.0017 kJ / K

I!x.mple-3
Cold air from atmosphere is circulated through an air heating system, where the
temperature of air is increased from 7.2°C to 21.2°C without any pressure loss. If the
hour1y consumption of warm air at 21.2°C is 850m 3 , calculate how much heat per hour
must be imparted to the air?
What will be the change in entropy of air circulated per hour? Assume proper values of
the specific heat of air.
Solution:
Given: Tl =7:rC = 7.2 + 273 = 280.21<; T2 = 21.~C = 21.2 + 273 = 294.21<; v = 850ml / hH
eat imparted to the air per hour
Let PI = P2 = Atmosphere pressure (constant).
= 1.013 bar = 0.1013x 106 N/ rr.t Given
R = Gas constant = 287 J/kg K ... (Assume)
Cp = Specific heat at constant pressure = 1.005 kJ/kg K
... (Assume)
First of all, let us find the mass of air (m). We know that
P2V2 0.1013x 106 x 850
P1V1 = mRT1 or m = RT2 = 287 x 294.2 = 1020 kg/ h
We know that heat imparted to the air
Q = mCp(T2 - T1 ) = 1020x 1.005(284.2 - 280.2)kJ/ h
= 14351.4kJ/h
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Change in entropy of air circulated per hour

We know that change in entropy of air,

52 - 51 = 2.3mc;, IOg(~: ) = 2.3x 1020x 1.00SI09(~~~:~)kJ/K/ h= SOkJ/K/h

Example-4
A mass of 9 kg of air at 1.75 bar and 13°C is compressed to 24.5 bar according to the
law pyl.32 =constant, and th.en cooled at constant volume to 15°C, Determine: 1. Volume
and temperature at the end of compression, and 2. Change of entropy during
compression and during constant volume cooling .
For air, take cp = 0.996 kJ/kg K and cy = 0.712kJ/kg K.
Solution:
Given: m=9kg; P1 = 1.75bar= 0.17Sxl06 N/m2; Tl =13°C=13+273=286K;
P2 = 24.Sbar= 2.4Sxl06 N/m2; n=1.32; T3 =lSOC = lS+273=288K; c;, =0.996
kJ/kg/K; Cy = 0.712kJ/kg K
In the p-v diagram, as shown in figure, the process 1-2 represents the compression of
air according to pV1.32 = C and the process 2-3 represents cooling of air at constant
volume.

f P2 -- 2

3
I
P1 -- r- - - - - - - - - - 1
I I
I I

---Volume ~

1. Volume and temperature at the end of compression

Let V2 = Volume at the end of compression, and
T2 = Temperature at the end of compression.
We know that gas constant,
R = c;, -cy = 0.996- 0.712 = 0.284kJ/kg K = 284J/kg K

and _ RT - mRTI - 9x284x286 - 4 18rrr

PI v1-m I or Vl-~- 0.17Sxl06 - •

We also know that

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1 1
6
V =V (PI)" =4.18(0.175XI0
2 1 P 2.45 X 106
)l.32
2
= 4.18 (0.0714)°·758 = 0.565 m3
n- l 1.32- 1

We know that Tl = (PI)" = (0.175Xl~6)TI2 = (0.0714)0.242 = 0.528

T2 P2 2.45510 .
T2 = Tl /0.528 = 286/0.528 = 542 = 269°C

2. Change of entropy
We know that change of entropy during compression (process 1-2),

S2 - 51 = 2.3m(s, - nCV>109 ( ~: )
= 2.3x9(0.996-1.32x 0.712)109(~~1~) kJ/K

= 1.1610g(0.135) = -1.008 kJ/K

The -ve sign indicates that there is a decrease of entropy
We also know that change of entropy during constant volume cooling (process 2-
3),

~ - ~ = 2.3 mc 10g(~:) = 2.3x9xO.712 109(~!~)kJ/K

y

= 14.7410g(0.5314) = -4.04kJ / K
The -ve sign indicates that there is a decrease of entropy.

Example-5
An ideal gas of mass 0.25 kg has a pressure of 3 bar, ( temperature of 80 0 C and a
volume of 0.07 m 3 • The gas undergoes an irreversible adiabatic process to a final
pressure of 3 bar and a final volume of 0.10 m 3 , durin~ vhich the work done on the gas
is 25 kJ. Evaluate Cp and Cy of the gas and increase in entropy of the gas.
Solution:
Given: m=0.25kg; PI =3bar=0.3x10 6N/m2 ; Tl =80°C=80+273=253K;
VI =0.07ml; P2 =3bar=0.3x106N/ m2 ;v2 =0.1 ml;Wl _2 =-25kJ
Value of Cp and Cv of the gas
First of all, let us find the value of gas constant (R) and the final temperature of the gas
(T2).

We k now t hat P1Vl = m RT1 or R = PI VI 0.3x106 X O.07 238J/k K

mT = 0.25x353 = g
l
6
RT T P2V2 0.3x10 xO.1 504K
an d 2 2
P V = m 2 or 2 = mR = 0.25x238 =
We know that change in internal energy,
dU = mc.,(T2 - Tl ) = 0.25xcy (504- 353) = 37.75 cy
We also know that heat transfer,

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Ql- 2 = dU + Wl _2
0= 37.7Sc.. -25 or Cv = 25/37.75 = 0.662kJ/kg K
Now <;, - Cv = R = 238J/kg K = 0.238kJ/kg K
<;, = R + Clv = 0.238 + 0.662 = 0.9 kJ / kg K
Increase in entropy of the gas
We know that the change in entropy,

~ -51 =2.3m[CvI09(~:)+<;'109(~:)] ... (General equation)

=2.3XO.25[ 0.662109(~) + 0.9109(0~017 )]

= 0.575[0.662 log 1 + 0.910g 1.428]
= 0.575xO.9xO.155 = 0.08kJ/K
The +ve sign indicates that there is an increase in entropy .

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FORMATION AND PROPERTIES OF STEAM

Steam is a vapour of water, and is invisible when pure and dry. It is used as the working
substance in the operation of steam engines and stream turbines. Steam does not obey
laws of perfect gases, until it is perfectly dry. When the dry vapour is heated further, it
becomes superheated vapour which behaves, more or less, like a perfect gas.
Important terms of steam
1. Wet Steam: When the steam contains moisture or particles of water in suspension,
It Is said to be wet steam. It means that whole of the latent heat has not been
absorbed.
2. Dry Saturated Steam: When the wet steam is further heated, and it does not
contain any suspended particles of water, it is known as dry saturated steam.
3. Superheated steam: When the dry stream is further heated at a constant pressure,
thus raising its temperature it is said to be superheated steam. Since the pressure
is constant, therefore the volume of superheated steam increases.
4. Dryness fraction or quality of steam: It is defined as the ratio of the mass of actual
dry steam to the mass of same quantity of wet steam:
Mathematically,
m mg
Dryness fraction, x = 9 =-
mg +m, m
mg =Mass of actual dry steam
m, =Mass of water is suspension
m =mass of wet steam = mg + m,
S. Sensible heat of water: This is the amount of heat absorbed by 1 kg of water,
when heated at a constant pressure, from the freezing pOint (O°C) to the
temperature of formation of steam i.e. saturation temperature (t). The sensible
heat is also known as liquid heat.
Sensible heat = Mass x Specific heat x Rise in temperature
= 4.2 t KJjKg
t= saturation temperature in O°C.
Sensible heat of water is taken equal to the specific enthalpy (i.e., total heat) of
water.
6. Latent heat of vaporization: It is the amount of heat absorbed to evaporate 1 Kg of
water at its boiling point or saturation temperature without change of temperature.
The heat of vaporization of water or latent heat of steam is 2257 KJjKg at
atmospheric pressure.
7. Enthalpy or total heat of steam: It is the amount of heat absorbed by water from
freezing point to saturation temperature plus the heat absorbed during
evaporation.
Enthalpy or total heat of steam = Sensible heat + Latent heat
(A) For wet steam
h = h, + xhrp
(8) Dry steam
h = hg = h, + hrp
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(C) Superheated steam:

hl4lP = h, + hfp + cp (tsup - t)
=hg+cp(tsup-t)
Where, Cp =Mean specific heat at constant pressure for superheated steam.
tsup = Temperature of the superheated steam

t = Saturation temperature at the given constant pressure.

The difference (tsup - t) is known as degree of superheat.

8. Specific Volume of steam: It is the volume occupied by the steam per unit mass
at a given temperature and pressure. It is the reciprocal of density of steam.
Value of specific volume decreases with the increase in pressure
(A) Wet Steam:
Volume of one Kg of wet steam
= x~ + (1- x) V,
V, «Vg = xVg
:.Specific volume of wet steam, V = xVg m 3 / Kg
(B) Dry steam:
Since the mass of water is suspension is zero and dryness fraction is unity,
therefore specific volume of dry steam is given as Vg m3 / Kg .
(C) Superheated steam:
v: = VgTsup
sup T

External Work Done During Evaporation

Whenever water at boiling temperature is heated at a constant pressure, it gets
converted into steam after absorbing the latent heat. This latent heat is utilized in the
following two ways.
1. In overcoming the internal molecular resistance of water in changing its state from
the saturated water to dry saturated steam.
2. In overcoming the external resistance to the movement of the piston due to
increase in volume during evaporation.
The first effect is called internal work or internal latent heat, as the change takes place
within the body of the steam, and represents the energy stored in the steam. The
second effect is called external work of evaporation and represents the energy which has
been taken out of the steam.
:.Work done during evaporation,
W= 100P(Vg -V,)KJ
Where, P = Pressure in bar
Since V, «Vg
W = 100PVg KJ

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If the steam has dryness fraction of x, then work done

W = lOOPxVg KJ
If the steam is superheated, then work done
W = 100P.Vsup KJ
Internal Energy of steam
It is the actua\ heat energy stored in steam, abo\le the freezing point of water.
Mathematically,
Internal energy of steam = Enthalpy or total heat - external work done during
evaporation
(a) u = h -100pxVg = hf + xhrg -100pxVg - for wet steam
(b) u= hg -100pVg = h, + hrg -100pVg -for dry saturated steam

(c) u = [hg + cp (tsup - t)] -100pVsup - for superheated steam.

Entropy of steam
The entropy of steam consists of
1. Increase in entropy of water during heating from freezing point to boiling point
corresponding to the pressure at w .. ~ '" the water is being heated.
2. Increase in entropy during evaporation, and
3. Increase in entropy during superheating.
Entropy of water

j ds =
o
f
273
cwdT
T
T
Sf = 2.3cw log 273
Entropy Increase during evaporation
This is given as
Heat absorbed
Entropy = ~-,-------
Absolute temperature
S _ h,g
fg -r-
If the steam is wet with dryness fraction x, then
xh
Increase in entropy, Srg = Trg

Entropy of wet and dry steam

For wet steam,
xhrg
Increase in entropy = S, + T = Sf + XSrg
For dry steam,
h
Increase in entropy = Sf + ; = Sf + Sfg = Sg

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Entropy of superheated steam

This is given as
5_ Toup dT

J,
5
ds=Cp J-
TT

Temperature - Entropy (T-S) diagram for water and steam

~p ---------------------

273K
Srp

Entropy _
(S)
T -s diagram

Critical
Water Point
Line

Water
Region

Superheated region

Dry steam line

S ~

T - S Graph for water and steam

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Moltler chart
Mollier chart is Enthalpy-Entropy (h-s) diagram for water and steam.

Superheated Region

t
Enthalpy
Saturation line

--j'--+-J.--!:r::::..~~ Water steam region

The Moiller diagram has the following lines:

1. Dryness fraction lines
Entropy
-
2. Constant volume lines
3. Constant pressure lines
4. Isothermal lines ..;
" ..

S. Isentropic lines ./ to

"I:

6. Throttling lines .~...

'.,.
Thermodynamic processes of vapour '. . .._ ~

1. Constant Volume Process (or Isochoric.1Ii6cess):

Since volume is cQnstant
:. X 1Vgl = X 2 Vg2 (since Vl = ~)

O r, x 2 =v-
X1Vgl
g2
Points to remember I I

(a) If the value of x2 is less than Xl' then the steam is being cooled at constant
volume.
(b) x 2 = 1- if the final condition of the steam is dry saturated.
i.e, V 2 = Vg2 = X 1Vgl
(C) V2 = Vsup ' if the final condition of the steam is superheated.
Work done during the process
W l _2 = Pressure x Change in Volume

Since there is no change in volume, therefore

~-2 =0
Change In internal energy:
ul = hl -100~Vl = ~ -100~X~~1 KJ/Kg
u2 = ~ -100~"i = ~ -100P2x2Vg2 KJ/Kg
du = u2 - ul
Heat absorbed or heat transferred:
= du + ~-2
ql-2

Since ~-2 = 0
:. ql-2 =du =u2 - u1

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2. Constant pressure process (or Isobaric process):

\ti = X1V9
~ =X2~
Work done during the process:
~-2 = Pressure x Change in volume
=100P(~ -\ti) KJ / Kg
Change in internal energy:
u1 = 1\ - 100P\ti
u2 = ~ -lOOP~
du = u2 - u1
Heat absorbed or heat transferred:
ql-2 = du + ~-2
= (~ - 1\) KJ / Kg

3. Constant Temperature Process (or Isothermal Process):

For an isothermal process (which is limited to wet steam region only), the same
expressions for the work done, change in internal energy and heat absorbed may
be used as for constant pressure process.
Once the steam is superheated, it behaves like a perfect gas and follows the law.
PV = constant
T
The superheating of steam at constant temperature may be regarded as
hyperbolic.

A. Hyperbolic Process (or PV = constant process)

Let us consider 1 Kg of wet steam being heated hyperbolically from an initial
state 1 to the final state 2.
\ti = xVg1 and V2 = X 2Vg2
Word done during the process:

~-2 = 2.3xlOOp,.V1 Iog J.1

KJ/Kg

Change in internal energy of steam:

du = u2 -u1
Where,
u2 = ~ -100~~ KJ/Kg
u1 = 1\ - l00p,.\ti KJ/Kg
Heat absorbed or heat transferred:
ql- 2 = du + ~-2

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5. Reversible Adiabatic Process (or Isentropic process or constant entropy process):

Let 1 Kg of wet steam is being heated by reversible adiabatic process from the
initial state 1 to final state 2. Since the entropy before expansion is equal to the
entropy after expansion therefore
5 + Xl hfpl = 5 + x 2hfp2
n ~
1
n T
or, 5 f1 + x15fpl = 5'2 + x 2 5fp2
Change in internal energy:
= u2 - ul '
du
Where, u2 = ~ -100~\I;
ul = h1 -100~~
Heat absorbed or heat transferred:
q1-2 = 0, since an adiabatic process
Work done during the process:
q1-2 = du + ~-2
Since q1-2 = 0
:. ~-2 = -du = u1 - u2
6. Polytropic Process) (PV n = constant process)
Work done during the process:
W. = 100(~~ - ~\I;) /OJ/(!
1-2 n -1 9
Change in internal energy:
du = u2 -u1
Heat absorbed or heat transferred:
ql-2 = du + ~-2 = (u2 - u1 ) + ~-2
7. Throttling Process (constant Enthalpy or constant total heat process)
Steam is said to be throttled, when it passes through a restricted opening such as
a narrow aperture or a slightly opened valve.
During a throttling process:
1. No heat is supplied or rejected
2. No work is done by the expanding fluid
3. No change in the internal energy of fluid
4. The enthalpy or total heat of the fluid remains constant.
i.e., ~ =~
hfl + x1hfpl = h'2 + x 2hfp2
hfl + x1hfpl - hn
Or, X2 = ---.:...=--=--.;~---.:.=-
hfp2

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Exa~ple-l

Calculate the enthalpy of lkg of steam at a pressure of Bbar and dryness fraction of O.B.
How much heat would be required to raise 2kg of this steam from water at 20 0 C?
Solution:
Given: p=Bbar; x=O.S
Enthalpy of lkg of steam
From steam tables, corresponding to a pressure of Sbar, we find that
h, = 720.9kJkg and H,g = 2046.5kJ/kg
We know that enthalpy of lkg of wet steam,
h = h, + xh,g = 720.9 + 0.8 x 2046.5 = 2358.1kJ
Heat required to raise 2kg of this steam from water at 20 0 C
We have calculated above the enthalpy of total heat required to raise lkg of steam
from wter at 00 C. Since the water, 'in this case, is already at 20 0 C, therefore
Heat already in water = 4.2 x 20 = 84kJ
:. Heat required per kg of steam
= 2358.1- 84 = 2274.1kJ
and heat required for 2kg of steam = 2 x 2274.1 = 4548.2kJ.

Example-2
Determine the quantity of heat required to produce lkg of steam at a pressure of 6 bar
at a temperature of 2S oC, under the following conditions:
1. When the steam is wet having a dryness fraction 0.9;
2. When the steam is dry saturated; and
•
3. When it is superheated at a constant pressure at 2S0 0 C assuming the mean
specific heat of superheated steam to be 2.3kJ/kg K.
Solution:
Given: p = 6bar; ~ = 250 C; x = 0.9; t.u p = 2500 C; c;, = 2.3kJ / kg K
From steam tables, corresponding to a pressure of 6 bar, we find that
h, = 670.4kJ / kg; h,g = 2085kJ / kg and t = 158.8°C
1. When the steam is wet
We know that enthalpy or total heat of lkg of wer steam,
h = h, + xh,g = 670.4+ 0.9x 2085 = 2546.9kJ
Since the water is at a temperature of 25 0 C, therefore
Heat already in water = 4.2 x 25 = 10Sk]
:. Heat actually required = 2546.9 -105 = 2441.9kJ

2. When the steam is dry saturated

We know that enthalpy or total heat of lkg of dry saturated steam,
hg = h, + h,g = 670.4 + 2085 = 2755.4kJ
:. Heat actually required = 2755.4 -105 = 2650.4kJ

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3. When the steam is superheated

We know that enthalpy or total heat of lkg of superheated steam,
hsup = hg + C; (tsup - t) = 2755.4+ 2.3(250 -158.8) = 2965.16kJ
:. Heat actually required = 2965.16 - 105 = 2860.16kJ

Example-3
Determine the condition of steam in the following cases
1. At a pressure of lObar and temperature 2000C
2. At a pressure of 10 bar and volume 0.175m 3/kg
Solution:
Given:p=10bar; t=2000C; v=0.175rrr/kg
Condition of steam ata temperature of 2000C
1. From steam tables, corresponding to a pressure of 10 bar, we find that
Vg = 0.194ffi3 / kg; h, = 762.6kJ/ kg; and t = 179.goC
Since the saturation temperature at 10 bar is (179.9 0C) or lower than the given
temperature of the steam (2000C), therefore the given steam is superheated. The
degree of superheat = 200 -179.9 = 20.1 o C
2. Condition of steam at a volume of 0.175m 3/kg
Since the volume of given steam (0.175m 3/kg) is less than the speCific volume of
the dry saturated steam (0.194m 3/kg), therefore the given steam is wet. The
dryness fraction of steam,
= 0.175 = 0902
x 0.194 .

Example-4
Steam enters an engine at a pressure of 12bar with a 67 0 C of superheat. It is exhausted
at a pressure of 0.15 bar and 0.95 dry. Find the drop in enthalpy of the steam
Solution:
Given~Pl = 12bar; t sup - t=670C; P2 =O.15bar; x=O.95
Given: Pl = 12bar; ~ - t = 67°C; P2 = 0.15bar; x = 0.95
From steam tables, corresponding to a pressure of 12 bar, we find that
h, = 798.4kJ/kg; hfg = 1984.3kJ/kg
We know that enthalpy or total heat of lkg of superheated steam,
hsup = h, + h,g + C; (~p - t) = 798.4+ 1984.3 + 2x 67 = 2916.7kJ/ kg
We know that enthalpy or total heat of 1kg of wet steam,
h=h, + xhrg = 226 + 0.9Sx 1984.3 = 2111kJ/kg
:. Drop In enthalpy of the steam
= hsup - h = 2916.7 - 2111 = 805.7kJ/kg.

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THERMODYNAMIC VAPOUR CYCLES

Carnot cycle with steam as working substance

The Shematic diagram of a Carnot engine is shown below.

Steam engine or turbine

2
Work output
Steam

Cooling water
-~-+--
Condenser \----.Heat rejected

Compressor

Work input

__ 1
~ =Pz 2
1
1
pI 1
1 Tl Dry steam
1 line
1
1

p] '" p. ---r--
1
13 T] '" T. 3
1 1 1 14 1
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
V1 V.

V
-
Vz Vl Sl
S
- Sz

The cycle is completed by the following four processes:

1. Process 1 - 2: The saturated water at point 1 is isothermally converted into dry

saturated steam in a boiler and heat is absorbed at a constant temperature
~and pressure~.

:. Heat absorbed during isothermal process

ql-2 =change in entropy x Absolute temperature

= (52 - 51) ~ = (52 - 51) T2

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2. Process 2 - 3: The dry steam at point 2 now expands isentropically in a steam

engine or turbine. Since no heat is supplied or rejected during this process,
therefore there is no change of entropy.
3. Process 3 - 4: The wet steam at pOint 3 is now isothermally condensed in a
condenser and the heat is rejected at a constant temperature T3 and pressure P3'

:. Heat rejected during isothermal compression

q3-4 = (52 - 51) T3 = (52 - 51) T4
4. Process 4 - 1: The wet steam at point 4 is finally compressed isentropically in a
compressor till it returns back to its original state (point 1). Since no heat is
absorbed or rejected during this process, therefore entropy remains constant.
This completes the cycle.
Work done during the cycle:
= Heat absorbed - Heat rejected
= (52 - 51)(T,. - 7;)
work done (~ - 5 1 )(T,.
-7;)
11 = heat absorbed = (52 - 51) T,.
7:
11=1--1.
T,.

Performance criteria for Thermodynamic Vapour cycles

1. Efficiency Ratio: It is also known as relative efficiency.
This is defined as the ratio of thermal efficiency (or actual cycle efficiency) to
Rankine efficiency (or ideal cycle efficiency).
Mathematica Ity,
Efficiency ratio = Thermal effiCiency
Rankine effiCiency
Thermal efficiency = Heat equivalent to one kilowatt hour
Total heat supplied to the steam per kwh
3600xP
=
ms (~ - h'3)
Where, ms = Mass of steam supplied in Kg/h
P = Power developed in kW

2. Work ratio: This is defined as the ratio of network, output to the gross (engine or
turbine) output.
.
:. wo rk ratio = Network output =-
Turbine work - Compressor work
- - -____-=--.----'---:------
Gross output Turbine work
Camot cycle, despite of its high ideal thermal effiCiency, has low work ratio. This
is the one reason why Carnot cycle is not preferred .

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3. Specific heat consumption:

This is also known as steam rate or specific rate of flow of steam. This is defined
as the mass of steam that must be supplied to a steam engine or turbine in order
to develop a unit amount of work or power output.

Specific heat consumption = lKwh = 3600 Kg/Kwh

W hz-~
W= Net work done or power output = (hz -~) KJ / Kg

Rankine Cycle
The Rankine cycle is an ideal cycle for comparing the performance of steam plants. It is
modified form of Camot cycle, in which the condensation process (3-4) is continued until
the steam Is conde"nsed into water.
Steam 'engine or turbine

Work output
Steam

t:-:-~=-4 Boller Cooling water

_"'T-~-

1 - - - + Heat rejected

Hot well
Work Input Feed pump

A Rankine cycle, using steam as a working substance is represented on P-V and T-S
diagram as shown below.

~1-~---;2

v- S --+

The cycle is completed by the following four processes:

1. Process 1 - 2:
The saturated water at point 1 is isothermally converted into dry saturated steam
in a boiler, and the heat is absorbed at a constant temperature ~ and pressure
p,..
The heat absorbed during isothermal process by water during its conversion into
dry steam is its latent heat of vaporization (i.e. hfpl = hfp2) •

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2. Process 2 - 3:
The dry saturated steam at point 2, now expands isentropically in an engine or
turbine. Since no heat is supplied or rejected during this process, therefore is no
change of entropy.

3. Process 3 - 4:
The wet steam at point 3 is now isothermally condensed in a condenser and the
heat is rejected at constant temperature 7;and pressure ~ until the whole steam
is condensed into water. The heat rejected by steam is its latent heat equal to
X3 hfg3·

4. Process 4 - 1:
The water at point 4 is now warmed in a boiler at constant volume from
temperature T4 to 7;. Its pressure also rises from P4 to ~. The heat absorbed by
water during this operation is equal to the sensible heat or liquid heat
corresponding to the pressure ~.
Heat absorbed during warming operation 4 -1:
= h'l -
h'4 = h'2 - h'3
Heat absorbed during the complete cycle
= Heat absorbed during isothermal operation 1 - 2 + heat absorbed during
wanning operation 4 - 1
=h,g2 + (hf2 - h,3) = h'2 + hfg2 - h'3
=h,. -
h'3
i.e for dry steam, h,. = hf2 + hfg2
Heat rejected during the cycle
= ~ - h'4 = h'3 + x3 hfp3 - h'4 = x3 hfg3
Work done during the cycle = Heat absorbed - Heat rejected
=h2 -~
So efficiency (Rankine efficiency) is given as
Work done h,. - ~
TJR = Heat absorbed = h,. - h'3
The difference .of enthalpies (h,. -~) is known as isentropic heat drop.

Rankine cycle with incomplete evaporation

1
2
- -,2'
\
\
,,
2_~
pl , Tl
... "- I
4 -=--3'
3 3 3'

V
- 5_

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Steam provided is not complete dry, but it is wet with dryness fraction equal to x 2 •
Heat absorbed during the complete cycle :
x2hfg2 + hf2 - hfJ = ~ - h'3

Rankine cycle with superheated steam

---------2' --

3' 3

s ---+
v

Heat absorbed during isothermal expansion

~ = hsup = hg2 + cp (T.up - T2 )
cp =specific heat of superheated steam
The advantage of superheated steam:
1. The work done increases
2. The dryness fraction of steam at the end of isentropic expansion increases.
3. The specific steam consumption decreases
4. The net efficiency of the cycle increases with the increase in degree of superheat

Example-l
The steam consumption of a steam engine is 20 tones per shift of 8 hours when
developing 220kW. Dry and saturated steam enters the engine at lObar pressure and
leavers it at 0.1 bar pressure. Estimate the Rankine efficiency and the thermal efficiency
of the engine.
Solution:
Given: : ms = 20 / 8 = 2.5t / h = 2500kg / h; P = 220kW; x 2 = 1; P1 = P2 = lObar, PJ = P4 = O.lba"
From steam tables, corresponding to a pressure of lObar, we find that
~ = hg2 = 2776.2kJ / kg; ~ = Sg2 = 6.583kJ / kg K
and corresponding to a pressure of 0.1 bar, we find that
hn = 191.8kJ / kg; h,93 = 2393kJ / kg; Sf3 = 0.649kJ / kg; Sf93 = 7 .502kJ / kg K
Rankine efficiency
First of all, let us find the dryness fraction of steam at point 3 (i.e. x3). We know
that for isentropic expansion 2-3
Entropy before expansion (~) = Entropy after expansion(5.J)
6.583 = Sf3 + X3Sfg3 :. X3 = 0.791

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. e know that enthalpy or total heat of steam at point 3,

-. = hr3 + ~I'\g3 = 191.8 + 0.791 x 2393 = 2084. 7kJ / kj
Ran kine effiCiency, l\t = ~ - ~ =26.7%
~ - hf3
ermal efficiency of engine
3600xP 3600x220 _ °
= f1\ (~ - 1'\3) = 2500 (2776.2 -191.8) - 0.1226 or 12.26 Yo.

xample-2
steam turbine receives steam at 15 bar and 350 oC, and exhausts to the condenser at
6 bar. Determine the thermal efficiency of the ideal Rankine cycle operating between
. ese two limits.
Solution:
"': yen : Pl = P2 = 15bar; Tsup = 350o C; P3 = P4 = 0.06bar
="Om steam tables of superheated steam, corresponding to a pressure of 15 bar and
350 oC, we find that
• =hsup = 3148. 7kJ / kg; and ~ - ssup = 7 .104kJ / kg K
a"d corresponding to a pressure of 0.06 bar, we find that
~ = 151.5kJ/kg; h,gJ = 2416kJ/kg; Sf3 = 0.521kJ/kg; and S,g3 = 7.81kJ/kgK
= rst of all, let us find out the dryness fraction of steam (~) after expansion.
e know that
="tropy before exapnsion(~) = Entropy after expansion(~)
r, ssup = S,3 + X3S,g3
"7.104= 0.521+~ x7.81 or ~ = 0.843
Enthalpy of steam at po int 3,
= h,3 + X3h,gJ = 151.5 + 0.843x 2416 = 2188kJ/ kg
Ve know that thermal efficiency of the ideal Rankine cycle,
-_ hz - h;, -_ 3148.7 - 2188 -
_ 0. 32 or 320f.10
~ - 1'\3 3148.7-151.5
ote: The value of isentropic heat drop (h2 - h3) may be obtained directly from the
oilier chart

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KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

A gas consists of an extremely large number of widely separated minute particles, called
molecules, which are in a state of 'continuous motion. The kinetic theory of gases covers
the behaviour of gases under various physical conditions.

Velocity of a molecule
The following three velocities are important.

1. Mean or average velocity:

This is given as

Mean or average velocity = 1.595~~

2. Root mean square (r.m.s) velocity:

This is given as

C = 1.732l-

=1.73~~
The root mean square velocity of the molecules remains constant so long as the
temperature remains constant.

3. Most Probable Velocity:

This is defined as the velocity with which the largest percentage of molecules in a
gas are found to be move at any given temperature.
The value of most probable velocity is given by

=1.414~~
For all the expression:
K = Boltzmann's constant
T = Absolute temperature
m = Mass of one molecule
I.e., Mean or average velocity = 0.9209 x r.m .s. velocity
Most probable velocity = 0.8164 x r.m.s. velocity

Pressure exerted by an ideal gas

The pressure exerted by a gas is due to the continuous bombardment on the walls of the
containing vessel by the rapidly moving gas molecules .

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This is given as,

Pressure exerted by an ideal gas, P = j X pC

2

2
Or, P = 3E

Where E = Kinetic energy of all the molecules contained in a unit volume of the gas.

Kinetic Energy per Kg molecule of a gas

E = !:MC2 = ~x~T
2 2
Where, ~ =Universal gas constant
Kinetic energy of translation of a molecule = ~ x KT
i.e., the kinetic energy of translation of a molecule is proportional to the absolute
temperature. This is known as kinetic interpretation of temperature.
Let C = velocity of molecule
So, this is given as
C = .J3RT
Where, R = characteristic gas constant.
Hence, the absolute zero of temperature is that temperature at which the velocities of
the molecu les of a gas become zero.
e
Degree of freedom
This is defined as the total number of independent quantities which must be known for
describing completely the state of motion of a body.
a Degrees of freedom for the following cases are considered.
1. Monoatomic gas
Monoatomic gas molecule will have three translational degrees of freedom and
one rotational.
1. Diatomic gas
A diatomic gas possesses five degree of freedom, i.e., three translational and two
rotational.

Law of equi-partition of energy

This is stated as the total energy of any dynamical system in thermal equilibrium is
divided equally among all its degrees of freedom and the energy associated with each
degree of freedom is ~ KT.

Ratio of molar specific heats

e 1. Monoatomic gas:

Cvm = Molar specific heat at constant volume = ~~

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Cpm =Molar specific heat at constant pressure = ~~

-2. Diatomic gas:

5 7
Cvm ="2Ru and Cpm = 2~
C
:. r = -E!!!.. = 1.4
Cvm

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THERMODYNAMIC AIR CYCLES

A thermodynamic cycle or a cyclic process consists of a se ries of thermodynamic

operations (processes), which take place in a certain order, and the initial conditions are
restored at the end of the process. They form a closed figure on P-V diagram.
A cycle, which require~ four piston strokes and two complete revolutions of the crank is
known as four stroke cycle. But a cycle, which requires only two piston strokes and one
revolution of the crank, is known as two stroke cycle. When air is assumed to be the
working substance inside the engine cylinder, the cycle is called as an air cycle.

Important terms used in thermodynamic cycles

1. Cylinder bore: The inner diameter of the cylinder in which the piston moves is
known as cylinder bore.
2. Stroke length: The extreme positions of pistons are known as top dead centre
(TOC) and bottom dead centre (BOC) . The distance between these two extreme
positions is known as stroke length or stroke.
3. Clearance volume: The volume occupied by the working fluid, when piston
reaches the top dead centre, is known as clea rance volume. It is denoted by Vc'
4. Swept volume: The volume swept by the pist on, when it moves between the two
extreme positions is known as clearance volume or stroke volume.
Mathematically,
Swept volume = Vs = Piston Area x Stroke length

V =~xd2x e
s 4
d = cylinder bore or diameter of the piston.
5. Total cylinder volume:
The volume occupied by the working fluid, when the piston is at the bottom dead
centre, is known as total cylinder volume.
Mathematically,
Total volume = Vs + Vc
6. Compression ratio:
The ratio of total cylinder volume to the clearance volume is known as
compression ratio.
Mathematica lIy,
. ratio,
Compresslon . r = ~+~ = 1 + -~
~ Vc:
7. Mean effective pressure:
It is the ratio of work done to the stroke volume or piston displacement volume.
Mathematica lIy,
work done
Pm = Mean effective pressure = -s-tr-o-=-k-e-v-o-=-Iu-m-e

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Efficiency of a cycle
It is defined as the ratio of work done to the heat supplied during a cycle.
Mathematically,
work done
11 = heat supplied
Or, = Heat supplied - Heat rejected
11 Heat supplied

Types of thermodynamic cycles

1. Carnot cycle:

1 2

1
Pressure
---~3

-
3

Volume

The cycle consist of two isentropic and two isothermal processes.

The four stage of cycles are:

(i) 1 - 2 (Isothermal expansion):
Heat supplied = Ql-2 =2.3mR~ logr
Where, r = expansion ratio = J'1

(ii) 2 - 3 (Isentropic expansion):

Work done by the air during isothermal expansion = decrease in internal energy

= mR(~ - 7;)
---'-~----='-'-

)' - 1
(iii) 3 - 4 (Isothermal compression):
Heat rejected = Q3-4 = 2.3mR7; logr
(iv) 4 - 1 (Isentropic compression):
Work done on the air = increase in internal energy
mR(~ - T3 )
= )'-1

Efficienc, = work done = Tl - T3 =1- 7;

Y 11 heat supplied ~ ~
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Efficiency can also be expressed in-terms of compression or expansion ratio.

1
11=1--
T1 r -

Where, r = ratio of expansion or compression

V V V V
r = ...1.. =~ or -1.. = ...1..
~ V1 "i V4

2. Stirling cycle
The cycle consists of two isothermal proc~sses and two constant volume
processes. The last two processes are performed with the help of a regenerator
to make this cycle reversible.
1
P1 ------
_5_c
_ Tl_ . 1
r--+---,2
--"

p. ------
P1
,. pI
TI _:3_=Ji __ ~-~--'3
P3 4
3

v • 5 - -....
(i) 1 - 2 (Isothermal expansion):
Heat supplied = 2.3 mR~ log r

= expansion ~
. ra 10 = -v"
r . t'

(ii) 2 - 3 (constant volume cooling):

Heat rejected to regenerator
=Q2- 3 = mcv (7; - T3 )
(iii) 3 - 4 (Isothermal compression):
Heat rejected, Q3- 4 = 2.3mRT3 10gr
r
.
= compression ration
. = -~
~
(iv) 4 - 1 (constant volume heating):
Heat absorbed by air = Q4-1 = mCv (~ -7;)
. work done T
:. efficiency, 11= h r d
eat sUPP Ie
= 1-...1..
~

Points to remember
(A) The efficiency of the stirling cycle is same as that of Carnot cycle.
(6) If the effiCiency of regenerator is 11R then the efficiency of Stirling cycle is given as
2.3Rlogr(~ -7;)
11 = -----...::...-...!....:'--....::.,:....,...--....,..
2.3R~ logr + Cv (~ -7;)(l-11 R )
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3. Ericsson cycle
The cycle consists of two isothermal and two constant pressure processes.

1 2
~ -Pz ---...,...-~---.

3 4

v • 5 ---+

The cycle is made thermodynamically reversible by the action of a regenerator.

The four stage of the cycles are
(i) 1 - 2 (constant pressure heating)
Heat supplied by th~ air = Ql-2 = mCp (T2 -~)
(ii) 2 - 3 (Isothermal expansion)
Heat utilized during this process
Q2-3 = 2.3mRT2 log r

,
r = expansion ra t'10 = -V;
"i
(iii) 3 - 4 (constant pressure cooling):
Heat rejected by the air,
~-4 = mCp (T3 - T4 )
(iv) 4 - 1 (Isothermal expansion):
Heat rejected during this process,
<4.1 = 2.3mRT4 'ogr
r = com pression
, ra t'10 = -V4
~
, , work done
Now, effiCiency, 11 = h " d
eat supp Ie
Heat supplied - Heat rejected
11 = Heat supplied

11=1- ~
7;
Points to remember
(A) The efficiency of the Ericsson cycle is same as that of Camot ~fficiency.
(6) If the regenerator efficiency is 11R then the efficiency of Ericsson cycle is given as
2.3Rlogr(7; - T4 )
11 = ------;--':.....=...~:"-:--__"7
- 2.3R logr + Cp (7; - T4 )(1-llR)
Heat taken in from the regenerator during process 4 - 1 is mcp (7; - T4 ) (1-11 R ) •

J•

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4. Joule's cycle
It consists of two constant pressure and two reversible adiabatic or isentropic
processes.

!t_=_":. 1 2
T2

pI ~
PJ PJ TI
----
"

3
TJ
4
T.
4
v ---+ 5 ---+
The four stages are:
(i) 1 - 2 (constant pressure heating):
Heat supplied to the air,
Ql-2 = mcp (T2 - 7;.)
(ii) 2 - 3 (Reversible adiabatic or isentropic expansion):
In this process, no heat is absorbed or rejected by the air.
(iii) 3 - 4 (constant pressure cooling):
Heat rejected by the air,
Q3-4 = mcp (T3 - T4 )
(iv) 4 - 1 (Reversible adiabatic or isentropic compression):
Again there is no heat transfer in this process.
Now, efficiency, 11 = work done = Heat supplied - Heat rejected
heat supplied Heat supplied

11=1- _1-
r y- 1

Where 1 V2 ~
,:=~ =V
4

Points to remember
(A) The efficiency of the Joule's cycle is lower than Carnot efficiency.
(B) The cycle is not thermodynamically reversible because there is no regenerator to
provide a constant temperature during heating and cooling at constant pressure.
(C) The reversed Joule cycle is known as Bell-Coleman cycle or Brayton cycle and is
applied to refrigerators, where air is used as a refrigerant.
S. Otto cycle
This is also known as constant volume cycle, as the heat is received and rejected
at constant volume.
The ideal otto cycle consists of two constant volume and two reversible adiabatic
or isentropic processes .

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1 ~ --------------------- -1
2

5-
v-
The four stages are:
(i) 1 - 2 (Reversible adiabatic or isentropic expansion):
In this process, no heat is absorbed or rejected by the air.
(ii) 2 - 3 (constant volume cooling):
Heat rejected by the air = Q2-3 = mcv (T2 - T3)
(iii) 3 - 4 (Reversible adiabatic or isentropic compression):
Again in this process, no heat is absorbed or rejected by the air.
(iv) 4 - 1 constant volume heating):
Heat absorbed by the air during this process is Q4-l = mcv (7;. - T4 )
Ideal efficiency or air standard efficiency is given as
work done Heat absorbed - Heat rejected
11 = heat absorbed = ----H-ea-t-a-b-s-o-r-be-d-=----
T. T.
11=1-2.=1--1.
T4 7;
1
Or, 11 = 1- (rtl

Where, r= expansion ratio = V2 , r = V3

Vi V4
Points to remember
(A) Efficiency of otto cycle depends on compression ratio (r) only. The efficiency
increases with the increase in compression ratio. In actual practice, r cannot be
increased beyond a value of 7 or so.

(8) . ra t 10,
Com pressIon ' ~ + Vs
r = --=--.:...
Vc
V
:. clearance volume Vc = _s_
r-1
6. Diesel cycle
This is also known as constant pressure cycle as heat is received at a constant
pressure.
The ideal diesel cycle consists of two reversible adiabatic or isentropic, a constant
pressure and a constant volume processes .

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T2 -------------- 2

3 3
I

P. -~------~------- - --
I I T -----
I I
• 4
s-

The four stages or an ideal diesel cycle are:

(i) 1 - 2 (constant pressure heating):
Heat supplied to the air,
Ql-2 = mcp (r; - 7;.)
(ii) 2 - 3 (Reversible adiabatic or isentropic expansion):
In this process, no heat is absorbed or rejected by the air.
(iii) 3 - 4 (constant volume cooling):
Heat rejected by the air,
Q3-4 = mcv (T3 - T4)
(iv) 4 - 1 (Reversible adiabatic or isentropic compression):
Here also, no heat is absorbed or rejected by the air.
Air standard efficiency,
work done Heat absorbed - Heat rejected
1'\ = heat absorbed = Heat absorbed
Let
V
Compression ratio, r = --1.
~

Cut-off ratio, p = V2
~
.
Expanslon ra t'10, Ii = -~ =-
V4 = -r
V2 V2 P

1 ( pT -1 )
11 =1- r.,-i· r(p -1)

Points to remember
(A) The efficiency of the ideal diesel engine is lower than that of otto cycle, for the
same compression ratio. This is due to the fact that the cut-off ratio
(p) is always greater than unity.

(8) The diesel cycle efficiency increases with decrease in cut-off ratio.

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7. Dual combustion cycle

This cycle is a combination of otto and diesel cycles. It is sometimes called semi-
diesel cycle. In this cycle, heat is absorbed partly at a constant volume and partly
at a constant pressure.
The ideal dual cycle consists of two reversible adiabatic, two constant volume and
a constant pressure processes.

~
1
--0----------
_____ _
2

3 T t ~ -----5 -------- 3
I
p. ___ ~I ____ _______'-=_'__
~
I
::- --'. 4 I T --
• 4
: I ,

5-
v-
The five stages of an ideal dual combustion cycle are:
(i) 1 - 2 (constant pressure heating):
Heat absorbed by the air, Ql-2 = mcp (T2 - 7;.)
(ii) 2 - 3 (reversible adiabatic or isentropic expansion):
In this process, no heat is absorbed or rejected by the air.
(iii) 3 - 4 (constant volume cooling):
Heat rejected by the air, Q3-4 = mcv (7; - T4 )
(iv) 4 - 5 (reversible adiabatic or isentropic compression):
Here also, no heat is absorbed or rejected by the air.
(v) 5 - 1 (constant volume heating):
Heat absorbed by the air,
QS-1 = mcv (7;. - Ts)
. . work done
:. Air standard effiCiency, 11 = d
heat absorbe
.. V ~
Let compression ratio, r =V.4 = V.
5 1

Cut-off ratio, p = ~ =~
14 \'s
p.
And pressure rati , ex -- .-!.
P
s

1 [
1'\=1- ,.,-1 (ex-1)+ycx(p-1)
apT -1 J

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Points to remember
(A) For otto cycle, p =1
1
"'lotto = 1r-y--i

(8) For diesel cycle, <X =1

Tld.AI = 1- r;i [Y(: ~ ~) 1

(C) The efficiency of dual combustion cycle is greater than diesel cycle and less than
otto cycle for the same compression ratio,

Example-l
A Carnot cycle works with isentropic compression ratio of 5 and isothermal expansion
ratio of 2. The volume of air at the beginning of t he isothermal expansion is 0.3 m 3. If
the maximum temperature and pressure is limited to 550 K and 21 bar, determine: 1.
minimum temperature in the cycle; 2. therma l efficiency of the cycle: 3. pressure at all
salient points: 4. change of entropy during the isoth ermal expansion, S. work done per
cycle, and 6. mean effective pressure. Take ratio of specific heats as 1.4.
Solution:
Given: v 4/ Vi = 5; v 2 / Vi = 2; Vi = 0.3 m3 ; Ti = 550 K; Pi = 21 bar = 2.1 x 106 N / m2 ;
Y= 1.4
1
P1

r
...
QI pz
1
1
__ .l.
1

I r... T, = Tl 1 2
::J 1 ...::J
QI

T~ ~~CJ
1lI 1
...
QI
0..
P4
--.- 1
1

141
1
1
1
1 1
E
~
...
10
QI
0-

--- 4 3
P3 --r-r-------.. ---
1 1

VI V4
1 1

Vz V3
I
- Entropy-.
Volume ~

1. Minimum temperature in the cycle

Let T4(or T3 ) = Minimum temperat ure in the cycle.
The cycle on p-v and T-S diagrams is shown in figures. First of all, let us consider
the isentropic compression process 4-1. We know that
Ti =(v 4~"r1 = (5)1.4-1 = (5)0.4 = 1.9036
T4 l Vi)
T4 = Ti /1.9036 = 550/1.9036 = 289K = 16°C

2. Pressure at all the salient points

Let P2, P3, P4 = Pressure at pOints 2, 3 and 4 respectively.
First of all, let us consider the isothermal expansion process 1-2. We know that in
an isothermal expansion,

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v 1
P1 Vl = P2 V2 or P2 = Pl x-1.
v
= 21x -2 = 10.5bar ... (.; v 2 IVl = 2)
2
Now consider the isentropic expansion process 2-3, we know that
V )Y (1)1.4
P2 v i = P3 v j or P3 = P2 ( V: = 10.5 '5 = 10.5(0.2~·4

= 1.103 bar .. .( ~: = ~:)

Now consider the isentropic compression process 4-1. We know that

r V
P4V~ = Pl v or P4 = Pl ( V:
)1 = 21 (1)1.4
'5 = 21(0.2)1.4 = 2.206 bar

3. Thermal Efficiency of the cycle

It is given as 11 = T2 - Tl = 0.4745 or 47.45%
Tl
4. Change of entropy during the isothermal expansion
We know that change of entropy during the isothermal expansion,

52 - 51 = 2.3mRIOg(V2) = 2.3x P1VlI09(V2) ... (.; P1Vl = mRT1)

vl Tl v1
2.1x 106 x 0.3
=2.3x 550 xlog2=2.636xl03 xO.301=793J/K
= 0.793kJ/K

5. Work done per cycle

We know that heat supplied during the cycle,
Ql-2 = T1(52 - 51) = 550x 0.793 = 436kJ
and heat rejected during the cycle,
Q3-4 = T3(52 - 51) = 289 x 0.793 = 229 kJ
:. Work done per cycle,
W = Heat supplied - Heat rejected = 436 - 229 = 270 kJ Ans.

6. Mean effective pressure ; :.1

We know that the stroke volume in a Carnot cycle
= V3 - v l = 3.0 - 0.3 = 2.7 m3
:. Mean effective pressure t )

= Work done = 2~7 = 76.7 kN I m2

Stroke volume 2.7

Example-2
A Stirling air engine is fitted with a regenerator of efficiency 90%. It operates ,betwE}en
the temperature limits of 3500(: and 50°(, Determine the efficiency of the engine,
assuming isothermal expansion ratio as 2. Take cp = 1.00SkJI kg K
and Cv = 0.712 kJ/kg k.
Solution:
llR = 90% = 0.9; Tl = 350°C = 350 + 273 = 623K; T3 = 50°C = 50 + 273 = 323K;
r = v2 I vl = 2

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We know that gas constant,R = cp -c y = 1.005- 0.713 = 0.293kJ/kg K

:. Efficiency of the engine
1'\ = 2.3Rlog r(T1 - T3)
2.3R T110gr + Cy (T1 - T3)(1-1'\R)
=~~~~2_.~ 3~x~0_
.2~
9~3_lo=g~2(~6~23~-~3_2_3~)~_____
2.3xO.293x 62310g2 + 0.712(623 - 323)(1- 0.9)
60.85
= 126.37 + 21.36 = 0.412 or 41.2%

Example-3
A hot air engine works on Brayton cycle with initial and final pressure of air as 3 bar and
1 bar respectively. If the temperature before isentropic compression and isentropic
expansion are 298 K and ' 923 K, determine: 1. heat supplied per kg of air: 2. heat
rejected per kg of air; 3. work done per kg of air; and 4. efficiency of the engine. Take
cp as kJ/kg K, and c" = 0.715kJ/kg K.
Solution:
Given: P1 = P2 = 3bar;P3 = P. = 1bar;T. = 298K;T2 = 923K;s, = 1kJ/kg K;
c" = 0.715 kJ/kgK
We know that the ratio of specific heats or isentropic index,
r=s,/c v =1/0.715=1.4
Heat supplied per kg of air
We know that in isentropic expansion process
I:! 1.4-1
Tl = y = (~)1.4 =(3t·
(.E!.) = 1.35
286

T. P. 1
T1 = T. x 1.35 = 402K
And heat supplied per kg of air during constant pressure process 1-2
Q1-2 = ms, (T2 - T1) = 512KJ
Heat rejected per kg of air
In isentropic Compression 2-3,
I:! 1.4-1
T2 = (P2) y = (~)1.4 = (3)0.286 = 1.35
T3 P3 .1
T3 = T2 /1.35 = 684K
and heat rejected per kg of air during constant pressure process 3-4,
Q3-. = mCp (T3 - T.) = 1x 1(686 - 298) = 386kJ
Work done per kg of air
We know that work done per kg of air,
W =Q1-2 - Q3-. =521- 386 = 135kJ
Efficiency of the engine
We know that efficiency of the engine,
= Work done = 135 =0.259 or 25.9%
1'\ Heat supplied 521

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Example-4
In an Otto cycle, air at 1 bar and 290 K is compressed isentropically un il the pressure
is lSbar. The heat is added at constant volume until the pressure rises to 40 bar.
Calculate the air standard efficiency and the mean effective pressure for the cycle. Take
cv = 0.717 kJ/kg K and Ru = 8.314 kJ/kg mole K.
Solution:
Given: P3 = Ibar; T) = 290K; P4 = 15bar; Pi = 40bar; c.. = 0.717kJ/kg K;
Ru = 8.314 kJ/kg moleK
We know that characteristic gas constant,
R = Universa I g as cons tan t CRJ = 8.314 = 0.287 kJ / kg K
Molecular massCM) 28.97
... C·: M for air = 28.97kg)
and Cp = R + c. = 0.287 + 0.717 = 1.004 kJ/kg K

'f=~/c. =1.004/0.717=1.4
Air standard efficiency
We know that for isentropic compression process 3-4
1

P3V~ = P4V~ or V3 = (P4)7

v4 P3

,". Compression ratio, r ~ ~: ~ (~: l~ ~ (\sf' ~ (15),'"

We know that air standard efficiency,
1 1 1
,,= 1- Cr)y-l = 1- (6.914)1.4-1 = 1- 2.167
= 1- 0.4615 = 0.5385 or 53.85%
Mean effective pressure
First of all, let us find the workdone during the cycle per kg of air.
Let T4 = Temperature at the end of isentropic compression,
Tl = Temperature at the end of constant volume heating.

We know that ~: =(~:rl =(~r1 =(6.~14r4-1 = 2.:67

T4 = T3 x2.167 = 290x2.167 = 628.5 K
Now for constant volume heating process 4-1

P4 = P1 or Tl = T4 X Pi = 628.5x 40 = 1676K
T4 T1 P4 15
We know that the supplied,
'4-1 = mcV CT1 - T4) = lxO.717(1676- 628.5) = 751kJ
:. Work done during the cycle
= "X Heat sup plied = 0.5385 x 751 = 404.4 kJ
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Now let us find the stroke volume (i.e., V3 - v 4 or v 2 - VI)' We know that
mRT3 lx287x290 3
P3 VJ = mRT3 or V3 = - - = 6 = 0.8323 m
P3 0.lxl0
... {R is taken in J/kgK and P3 In N/m2)
v 4 = V3 /6.914 = 0.8323/6.914 = 0.1204m3
... (.,' r = V3 /V4 = 6.914)
and stroke volume = V3 -V4 = 0.8323-0.1204= 0.7119m3
We know that mean effective pressure
= Wor~ done = 404.4 = 568 kN / mh2 = 5.68 bar
Stroke volume 0.7119

Example-S
In an air standard Otto cycle, the compression ratio is 7 and the compression begins at
1 bar and 313 K. The heat added is 2510 kJ/kg. Find: 1. maximum temperature and
pressure of the cycle; 2. work done per kg of air; 3. cycle efficiency; and 4. mean
effective pressure.
Take for air, cy = 0.713kJ/kg Kand R = 287 J/Kg K.
Solution:
Given: r = V3 /V4 = v 2 /Vl = 7; P3 = 1 bar = 0.lxl0 6 N/m2 ; T3 = 313K;
<4-1 = 2510kJ/kg;c = 0.713kJ/kgK; R = 287 J/kg K = 0.287kJ/kg K
y

We know that cp - cy = R or cp = R+ c y = 0.287 + 0.713 = lkJ/kg K

And Y=Cp/cy =1/0.713=1.4
1. Maximum temperature and pressure of the cycle
Let Tl = Maximum temperature, and
PI = Maximum pressure.
We know that for isentropic compression process 3-4
T43 = (VV43 y-l = (!r)Y-l :: (-71 )1.4-1 1 1
T I = 7°.4 ::: 2.178
T4 = T3 x2.1 8 ~1 3x2.178K3

and P3V~ = P4V~ or P4 = P3 (~:J = lx7l.4 = 15.24bar

We know that heat supplied during constant volume process 4-1 (Q4-1),
2510::: mCy{T1 - T4) = lx 0.713(Tl - 682) ... (.,' m::: lkg)
.. Tl - 682 = 2510/0.713 = 3520 or Tl = 4202 K
2 02
We also know that P.. = Pl or PI = P4 X TTl = 15.24x 46 8 2 = 93.9bar
T4 Tl 4
2. Work done per kg of air
We know that for isentropic expansion process 1-2,
T2 = (~)Y-l = (!)r-l = (!)l.4-l = ~ = _ 1
Tl v2 7 7°·4 2.178
T2 = Tl /2.178 = 4202/2.178 = 1929
and heat rejected per kg of air,
Q2-3 ::: m cy(T - T3) ::: 1 x 0.713(1929 - 313)::: 1152 kJ
:. Work done per kg of air,
w = Heat supplied-Heat rejected = ~1 - Q2-3
::: 2510 -1152 = 1358 kJ
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3. Cycle efficiency
We know that cycle efficiency,
= Work done = 1358 = 0.541 or 54.1%
1'\ Heat sup plie 2510

4. Mean effective pressure

First of all, let us find the stroke volume (i.e., V3 - v 4 or v 2 - VI)'
We know that
mRT3 1x287x313 3
P3 V3 = mRT3 or V3 = - - = 6 = 0.9m
P3 0.lx10
and v 4 = V3 Ir = 0.9/7 = 0.1286m3 ... (.: V3 IV4 = r)
We know that stroke volume,
V3 - v 4 = 0.90.1286 = 0.7714 m3
:. Mean effective pressure
= Workdone = 1358 = 1760 kN 1m2 = 17.6 bar
Stroke volume 0.7714

Example-6
In an ideal Diesel cycle, the temperatures at the beginning and end of compression are
57°C and 603°C respectively. The temperatures at the beginning and end of expansion
are 19500 C and 870°C respectively. Determine the ideal efficiency of the cycle, 1= 1.4.
If the compression ratio is 14 and the pressure at the beg inning of the compression is 1
bar, calculate the maximum pressure in the cycle.
Solution:.
Given :T4 = 57°C = 57 + 273 = 330k; Tl = 60JOC = 603 + 273 = 876K; T2 = 1950°C
= 1950 + 273 = 2223K;T3 = 870°C = 870 + 273 = 11431<; 1 = 1.4;r = v 4 / VI = 14;P4 = 1bar
Ideal efficiency of the cycle
We know that ideal effiCiency of the cycle,
1'\ =1 .!(T3 - T4) = 1_~ ( 1143-330 )
1 T2 - Tl 1.4 2223 - 876
= 1- 0.431 = 0.569 or 56.9%
Maximum pressure in the cycle
Let PI = Maximum pressure in the cycle.
We know that for reversible adiabatic compression,

P1vi = P4 V! or PI = P4 (~: J= 1(14)1'\ = 40.23 bar

Example-'
The compression ratio of an ideal air standard Diesel cycle is 15. The heat transfer is
1465 kJ/kg of air. Find the pressure and temperature at the end of each process and
determine the cycle efficiency. What is the mean effective pressure of the cycle, if tbe
inlet conditions are 300 K and 1bar.
Solution.
Given:r = v 4 1 VI = 15; QI-2 = 1565kJ/ kg; T4 = 300K;P4 = 1 bar = O.lx 106 N / m2
Pressure and temperature at the end of each process
The p-v and T-S diagram for the Diesel cycle is shown in figure.
Let Pl,P2 and P3 = Pressure at points 1,2 and 3 respectively.
Tl , T2 and TJ = Temperature at pOints 1,2 and 3 respectively
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1
PI=P2

t
I
I
I
I
t T2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2
QI
.... I I QI
::J
::J
::! P3 --+----
I I
3
~

~ T3 3
QI
....
QI
psen. c?m
Q.. ~TI
I I
--T----r---- 4 {!!.
I T4 - 4
I I
I I
VI
--Volume ----. --Entropy ----.

(a) p-v dlaQram. (b) T-S diaQram

First of all, consider the isentropic compression process 4- 1. We know that

P4 vl = P1 vI or P1 = P4 (~: J = 1(15)1.4 = 44.3 bar

and ~ T1 = (V4)7-1 = (15)1.4-1 = (15)0.4 = 2.954

T4 v1
-- T1 = T4 x2.954 = 300x 2.954 = 886.2 K
w consider the constant pressure process 1-2,
Pl=P2=44.3 bar
.!, d heat supplied per kg of air during constant pressure process 1-2 os
1465 = mCp (T2 - T1) = 1 x 1(T2 - 886.2) = T2 - 886.2
... (Taking ~forair = 1kJ / kg K)
T2 = 1465 + 886.2 = 2351.2 K
ow consider the isentropic expansion process 2-3. First of all, let us f ind the volumes at
aoint 2 and 3.
V2 = Volume at pOint 2, and
V3 = Volume at point 3.
mRT 1x287x300
We know that P4 V4 = mRT4 or V4 = - - 4 = 6 = 0.861m3
P4 0.l x 10
... C': Rforair = 287 J / kg K)
V3 = 0.861 ITt
and v1 = v4 /15 = 0.861/15 = 0.0574m3
We also know that for the constant pressure process 1-2,
v v T
_1 = -1. or v2 = v1 X -1. = 0.0574 x
2351.2
= 0. 1523 m3
T1 T2 T1 886.2
1
Now · T2 = (V3 )7- = ( 0.861 )1.4-1 = (5.65)0.4 = 2
T3 v2 0.1523
T3 = T2 /2 =2351.2/2 = 1175.6 K

We k now th at P2 V27 -- P3V3

7 or P3 -- P2(V2)7
V3 -- 44 .3(0.1523
0.861 )1.4 -- 3 .92 bar

Cycle efficiency
We know that heat rejected per kg of air during the constant volume process 3-4,
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~-4 = mCy (T3 - T4 ) = 1x 0.712(1175.6 - 300) = 623.4kJ

... (Taking Cy for air = 0.712 kJ/kgK)
:. Cycle efficiency, " = Heat sup plied -
Heat rejected = 1465 - 623.4
Heat sup plied 1465
=0.5745 or 57.45%
Mean effective pressure
We know that work done per kg of air during the cycle
1
= Heat supplied-Heat rejected = 1465 - 623.4 = 841.6 kJ
and stroke volume = v 4 - VI = 0.861- 0.0574 = 0.8036 m3
:. Mean effective pressure
Workdone 8441.6
=Stro ke vo Iume =08036=1047.3kN/rrr
.
= 10.473 bar

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STEAM NOZZLES

A steam nozzle is a passage of varying cross-section, which converts heat energy of

steam into kinetic energy. The main use of steam nozzle in steam turbiries, is to produce
jet of steam with a high velocity. The smallest section of the nozzle is called throat.
Types of steam Nozzle
1. Convergent Nozzle:-
The cross-section of a nozzle decreases continuously from entrance to exit.
"'
1'

1 ,
2. Divergent Nozzle:-
The cross section of he nozzle increases continuously from entrance to exit.
'2
1,
,

2.
,
3. Convergent Divergent Nozzle:-
The cross-section of a the nozzle first decreases from its entrance to throat, and
then increases from its throat to exit. This type of nozzle is widely used in steam
turbines. 2
,

,•~"""""~
1
,,3 ,1

Co-efficient of Nozzle or Nozzle efficiency

This defined as the ratio of use full heat drop to this entropic heat drop.
'"1 efficiency of Nozzle = 100% heat drop due to friction.

Velocity of steam flowing through a Nozzle

=or a steady flow process in Nozzle,

1v 2 1v 2
'---- - .'t ' 1()002 h ·07 12002'''~--

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Where 1 corresponds to entrance and 2 exit

Neglecting losses in nozzle,
Neglecting losses in nozzle,

v 2 =~v~ +2000(h1 - h2) =~V12 +2000hd ...... (i)

where, hd = Enthalpy or heat drop during expansion of steam in nozzle.

hi - h2
Since the entrance velocity or velocity of approach (Vl) is negligible as compared to V2,
therefore from ... (i)
v 2 = .J2000hd = 44072.Jh(i
or, v 2 = 44072.JKhd
K = Nozzle co-efficient or nozzle efficiency.

Mass of steam discharged through nozzle

Flow of steam, through the nozzle is isentropic.
which is approximately represented by the general law
Pvn = constant
Let m be the mass of steam discharged through nozzle of cross-sectional area A per
second.

Condition for maximum discharge through nozzle (critical pressure ratio)

Let Pi = Initial pressure of steam in N / m2
P2 = Pressure of steam at throat in N / m2
A = Corss - sectional area of nozzle at throat in m3

The ratio P2 is known as critical pressure ratio and the pressure P2 at the throat is
Pi
known as critical pressure.
"
:: = (n ~ 1)"-1
The maximum value of the discharge per second is
2

m = A ~x~(_2_)n-l
max n + 1 Vi n + 1
Now values of maximum discharge for different state of steam are as follows:

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1. When the steam is initially dry saturated:-

n = 1.135

rTl",ax =0.637 A fK"

vV:
2. When the steam is initially superheated:-
n = 1.3

rTl",ax = 0.666A ~
vV:
3. For gases:-
n = 1.4

rTl",ax =0.685 A [P;

vv:

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STEAM TURBINES

A steam turbine is a prime mover in which rotary motion is obtained by the gradual
change of momentum of the steam. The force exerted on the blades is due to the
velocity of steam.

Advantage of steam turbines over Reciprocating steam Engines

1. A steam turbine may develop higher speeds and a greater steam range is possible.
2. The efficiency of steam turbine is higher
3. The steam consumption is less
4. There is less frictional loss due to fewer sliding parts.
5. A steam turbine requires less space and lighter foundations, as there are little
vibrations.
6. The applied torque is more uniform to the driven shaft.

Classification of steam turbines

1. According to the mode of steam action
(A) Impulse turbine (6) Reaction Turbine
2. According to the direction of steam flow
(A) Axial flow turbine (6) Redial flow turbine
3. According to the exhaust condition of steam
(A) Condensing turbine (6) Non-condensing turbine
4. According to pressure of steam
(A) High pressure turbine
(6) Medium pressure turbine
(C) Low pressure turbine
5. According to number of stages
(A) Single stage turbine (6) Multi stage turbine

Impulse Turbine
An impulse turbine is a turbine which runs by the impulse of steam jet. In this turbine,
the steam is first made to flow through a nozzle. Then the steam jet impinges on the
turbine blade (which are carved like buckets and are mounted on the circumference of
the wheel. The steam jet after impinging glides over the concave surface of the blades
and finally leave the turbine.)
A De-level turbine is the simplest type of impulse steam turbine, and is commonly used.

Reaction Turbine
In a reaction turbine, the steam enters the wheel under pressure and flows over the
blades. The steam, while gliding, propels the blades and make the m to move.
As a result, the turbine runner is rotated by the reactive forces of steam jet.
A parson's turbine is the simplest type of reaction steam turbine and is commonly used .
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Degree of reaction
The ratio of the enthalpy or heat drop in the moving blades to the total enthalpy or heat
drop in the stage is known as degree of reaction.

f
Enthalpy
hz

h -h
Degree of reactions = 2 3
hl - h3
Degree of reaction is 50% for person's reaction turbine.

Compounding of impulse steam turbines

Compounding is done for reducing rotor speeds. In all method of compounding, multiple
system of rotors are used, in series. These rotors are keyed to a common shaft and the
steam pressure or the jet velocity is absorbed in stages as it flows over the rotor blades.
The following three methods are commonly used for reducing the rotor speed.
1. Velocity compounding
2. Pressure compounding
3. Pressure velocity cOlJ1pounding .

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INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

The internal combustion engines are those engines in which the combustion of fuel takes
place inside the engine cylinder. These are petrol, diesel, and gas turbines. The
combustion is produced by spark and produces very high temperature as compared to
steam engines.
Comparison of steam Engines and Internal combustion Engines
SI.No. Steam Engines I.C. Engines
1. The combustion of fuel takes place The combustion of fuel takes place
outside the engine cylinder inside the engine cylinder
2. These engines are smooth and silent These engines are very noisy since
running since combustion takes place combustion takes place inside the
outside the engine cylinder engine cylinder
3.f The working pressure and temperature The working pressure and
inside the engine cylinder is low. temperature inside the cylinder is
, very high.
4. Because of low pressure and Because of very high pressure and
temperature, ordinary alloys are used temperature, special alloys are used
for the manufacture of engine cylinder for the manufacture of engine
and its parts. cylinders and its parts.
5. A steam engine requires a boiler and An I.e. engine does not require a
other components to transfer energy, boiler or other components. Thus it
thus it is heavy and cumbersome is light and compact
6. The steam engines have efficiency The I.e. engines have efficiency
about 15-20% about 35-40%
7. It cannot be started Instantaneously It can be started instantaneously
Classification of I.C. Engines
1. According to the type of fuel used
(A) Petrol Engines
(B) Diesel engines
(C) Gas engines
2. According to the method of igniting the fuel
(A) Spark ignition engines (S.I. engines)
(B) Compression ignition engines (C. I. engines)
(C) Hot spot ignition engines
3. According to the number of strokes per cycle
(A) Four stroke cycle engines
(B) Two stroke cycle engines
4. According to the cycle of operation
(A) Otto cycle (or constant volume cycle)
(B) Diesel cycle (or constant pressure cycle)
(C) Dual combustion cycle (or semi-diesel cycle)
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Main components of I.C. Engines

1. Cylinder
2. Cylinder head
3. Poston
4. Piston Rings
S. Connecting Rod
6. Crank shaft
7. Crank case
8. Fly wheel
Sequence of operations in a cycle
1. Suction stroke:- In this stroke, the fuel vapour in correct proportion, is supplied to
the engine cylinder
2. Compression stroke:- In this stroke, the fuel vapour is compressed in the engine
cylinder
3. Expansion or working stroke:- In this stroke, the fuel vapour is fired just before the
compression is complete. It results in the sudden rise of pressure, due to
expansion of the combustioOn products in the engine cylinder. This sudden rise of
the pressure pushes the piston with a great force, and rotates the crank shaft. The
crank shaft, in turn, drives the machine connected to it.
4. Exhaust stroke:- In this stroke the burnt gases (or combustion products) are
exhausted from the engine cylinder, so as to make space available for the fresh
fuel vapour.

Two stroke and Four-stroke cycle engines

In a two stroke engine, the working cycle is completed in two strukes of the piston or
one revolution of the crank shaft. This is achieved by carrying out the suction and
compression processes in one stroke (or in inward stroke), expansion and exhaust
processes in the second stroke (or in out ward stroke) in a four stroke engine, the
working cycle is completed in four stroke of the piston or two-revolutions of the
crankshaft. This is achieved by carrying out suction, compression expansion and exhaust
process in each stroke.
Thermodynamically, there is no difference between two stroke and four stroke cycle
engines. The difference is purely mechanical.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Two stroke over Four-stroke cycle engines

Advantages:-
1. A two stroke cycle engine gives twice the number of power strokes than the four
stroke cycle engine at the same engine speed. Theoretically, a two stroke cycle
engine should develop twice the power as that of a four stroke cycle engine. But in
actual practice, a two stroke cycle engine develops 1.7 to 1.8 times the power
developed by four stroke cycle engine of the same dimensions and speed. This is
due to lower compression ratio and effective stroke being less than the theoretical
stroke.
2. For the same power developed, a two stroke cycle engine is lighter, less bulky and
occupies less floor area .

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3. As the number of working strokes in a two stroke cycle engine are twice than the
four stroke cycle engine, so the turning moment of a two stroke cycle engine is
more uniform. Thus it makes a two stroke cycle engine to have lighter flywheel and
foundations. This also leads to a higher mechanical efficiency of a two stroke cycle
engine.
4. The initial cost of a two stroke cycle engine is considerably less than a four stroke
cycle engine
5. The mechanism of a two stroke cycle engine is much simpler than a four stroke
cycle engine.
6. The two stroke cycle engines are much easier to start.

Disadvantages:-
1. Thermal efficiency of a two stroke cycle engine is less than that of a four stroke
cycle engine because a two stroke cycle engine has less compression ratio than
that of a four stroke cycle engine.
2. Overall efficiency of a two stroke cycle engine is also less than that of a four stroke
cycle ~ngine because in a two stroke cycle, inlet and exhaust ports remain open
simultaneous ly for some time. Because of this, a small quantity of charge is lost
from the engine cylinder.
3. In case of a two stroke cycle engine, the number of power strokes are twice as
those of a four stroke cycle engine. Thus the capacity of the cooling system must
be higher. Beyond a certain limit, the cooling capacity offers a considerable
difficulty. Moreover, there is a greater wear and tear in a two stroke cycle engine.
4. The consumption of lubricating oil is large in a two stroke cycle engine because of
high operating temperature.
5. The exhaust gases in a two stroke cycle engine because of high operating
temperature.

Four Stroke Cycle Petrol Engine

This is also known as otto cycle. It requires four strokes of the piston to complete one
cycle of operation in the engine cylinder. The four strokes of a petrol engine sucking fuel
air mixture (Petrol mixed with proportionate quantity of air in the carburetor known as
charge) are as follows
1. Suction or charging stroke
2. Compression stroke
3. Expansion or working stroke
4. Exhaust stroke

Four Stroke Cycle Diesel Engine

It is also known as compression ignition engine because the ignition takes place due to
the heat produced in the engine cylinder at the end of compression stroke. The four
strokes of a diesel engine sucking pure air are as
i. Suction or charging stroke
ii. Compression stroke
iii. Expansion or working stroke
iv. Exhaust stroke

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Four Stroke Cycle gas Engines

A force stroke cycle gas engine uses natural or manufactured gas as the working fuel
and works on otto cycle. All the mechanical features of a gas engine are the same as
those of a petrol engines. The working of a gas engine is exactly similar to that of a
petrol engine.
SI.No. Petrol Engines Diesel Engines
1. A petrol engine draws a mixture of A diesel engine draws only air during
petrol and air during suction stroke suction stroke
2. The carburetor is employed to mix air The injector or atomizer is employed
and petrol in the required proportion to inject the fuel at the end of
and to supply itto the engine during com pression stroke
suction stroke
3. Pressure at the end of compression is Pressure at the end of compression
about 10 bar Is about 30 bar
4. The charge (i.e. Petrol and air mixture) The fuel is injected in the form of
is ignited with the help of spark plug fine spray. The temperature of the
compressed air (about 600 0 C at a
pressure of about 35 bar) is
sufficiently high to Ignite the fuel.
5. The combustion of fuel takes place The combustion of fuel takes place
approximately a constant volume i.e. it approximately at constant pressure.
works on otto cycle. i.e., It works on Diesel cycle
6. A petrol engine has compression ratio A diesel engine has compression
approximately from 6 to 10. ratio approximately from 15 to 25.
7. The starting is easy due to low The starting is little difficult due to
compression ratio. high compression ratio.
8. As the compression ratio is low, the As the compression ratio is high, the
petrol engines are lighter and cheaper diesel engines are heavier and
costlier
9. The running cost of a petrol engines is The running cost of a diesel engine is
high because of higher cost of petrol low because of lower cost of diesel
10. The maintenance cost is less The maintenance cost is high
11. The thermal efficiency is upto about The thermal efficiency is upto about
26% 40%
12. Over heating trouble is more due to Overheating trouble is less due to
low thermal efficiency high thermal efficiency
13. These are high speed engines These are relatively low speed
. engines
14 The petrol engines are generally The diesel engines are generally
employed in light duty vehicles such as employed in heavy duty vehicles like
scooters, motorcycles, cars. These are buses, trucks and earth moving
also used in aero planes . machines.

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Detonation in I.C. Engines

The loud pulsating noise heard within the engine cylinder is known as detonation or
knocking or pinking. It is caused due to the propagation of a high speed pressure wave
created by the auto-ignition of end portion of un-burnt fuel. The flow of this pressure
wave may be of sufficient strength to break the piston. Thus the detonation is harmful to
the engine and must be avoided. The following are certain factors which causes
detonation.
1. The shape of the combustion chamber
2. The relative position of the sparking plugs in case of petrol engines.
3. The chemical nature of the fuel
4. The initial temperature and pressure of the fuel, and
5. The rate of combustion of that portion of the fuel which is the first to ignite. This
portion of the fuel in heating up, compresses the remaining unburnt fuel, thus
producing the conditions for auto ignition to occur.
The detonation in petrol engines can be suppressed or reduced by the addition of
a small amount of lead ethide or ethyl fluid to the fuel. This is called duping.
The following are the main effects due to detonation:
1. A loud pulsating noise which may be accompanied by a vibration of the
engine.
2. An increase in the heat lost to the surface of combustion chamber
3. An increase in carbon deposits.

Rating of 5.1. Engine Fuels - Octane Number

The knocking tendency of a fuel in S.!. engines is generally expressed by its octane
number. The percentage, by volume, of iso-Octane and normal heptanes, which exactfy
matches the knocking intensity of a given fuel, in a standard engine, under given
standard operating conditions, is a standard engine, under given standard operating
conditions, is termed as octane number rating of the fuel. This octane number rating is
an expression which indicates the ability of a fuel to resist knock in a 51 engine.
Since iso-octane is a very good anti-knock fuel, therefore it is assigned a rating of 100
octane. Whereas, normal heptanes has a very poor anti-knock qualities, therefore it is
aSSigned a rating of zero octane number.

Raging of C.I. Engine Fuels - Octane Number

The knock in c.!. engines is due to sudden ignition and abnormally rapid combustion
rapid combustion of accumulated fuel in the combustion chamber. Such a situation
occurs because of an ignition lag in the combustion of the fuel between the time of
injection and the actual burning.
The property of ignition lag is generally measured in terms of octane number and is
defined as the percentage, by volume of octane in a mixture of octane and alpha-
methyl-naphthalene that produces the same ignition lag as the fuel being tested, in the
same engine and under the same operating conditions.
The octane with good ignition quality is assigned a octane number of 100 and alpha-
methyl-naphthalene which is a hydrocarbon with poor ignition quality is assigned a zero
octane number.
The knocking in C.!. engines may be controlled by decreasing ignition lag. The shorter
the ignition lag, the less is the tendency to knock .

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Indicated Mean Effective Pressure

The indicated mean effective pressure of an en gine is obtained from the indicator
diag ram drawn with t he help of an engine indicator.
Mean effective pressure (in bar)
Indicat or Diagram

Volume )

= Area of indicator card x scale of indicator spring axs

length of indicator ca rd
= --
e
The mean effective pressure calcu lated on the basis of the theoretical indicator diagram
is known as theoretical mean effective pressure. If it is based on the actual indicator
diagram, then it is called actua l mean effective pressure.

Indicated Power
The indicated power (I.P.) is the power actually developed by the engine cylinder.
This is given as
Indicated Power, LP = 100~~LAn KW.. .[For single cylinder engine]

= 100PmLAn
60 KW.. .[For mu It·ICY I·mder engme
. ]
where K = Number of cylinders
Pm = Actual mean effective pressure in ba r
L = Length of stroke in metress
A = ARea of piston in m2 •
h = Number of working stroke per minute
= N...... (for two stroke cycle engine)
= ~" ... (for four stroke cycle eng ine)

Morse Test
The morce test is adopted to find the indicated power of each cylinder of a high speed
I.e. engine, without using indicator diagram.
Let III h, hand 14 be the indicated power of each cylinder in a four cylinder engine.
So, total indicated power of engine will be
I = ~ + 12 + ~ + I •
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Brake Power
The break power is the power available at the crank shaft.
This is expressed as
Break power of the engine,
BP. = Torque is N - m x Angle turned in radians throush 1 revolution x R.P.M
60
BF. = 21tNT = wex 2N
60 60
where, w = Break load in Newtons
C = Length of arms In meters
In case of rope break, let
W = Dead load in newtons
S = Spring balance readings in newtons
D = diameter of brake drum
d = diameter of the rope
N = speed of engine in r.p.m
(W - S)1tDN
Break Power B.P. = 60

= (W-s)1t(D+d)N
o rB.P
,. 60

Efficiencies of I.C. Engine

The efficiency of an engine is defined as the ratio of work done to the energy supplied to
an engine. Following efficiencies are important for I.e. Engines.
1. Mechanical Efficiency:- It is the ratio of I?rake power to the indicated power.
BF.
11m = IP.
The power, which is lost in overcoming the engine friction is known as friction al power
(F. P).
F.P. = IP. - B.P

Overall efficiency:- This is defined as the ratio of work obtained at the crank sh aft in a
given time to the energy supplied by the fuel during the same time.
Let mf = Mass of fuel consumed in Kg/h.
C = Calorific value of fuel in KJ/kg
Energy supplied by the fuel per minute
=m,xc kJ
60
Work obtained at the crank shaft per minute
· . BF. x 60 x 60 B.P. x 360
= B.P. x 60 KJ :. overa II effIClency, 110 =
mfxc
= - mfxc
--'

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3. Indicated thermal efficiency:- It is the ratio of the heat equivalent to one KW

hour to the heat in the fuel per I.P. hour.
Mathematically, thermal efficiency,
Heat equivalent to one kw hour
11t = - Heat in fuel per IF. hour
IP.x3600
'1 l = - - - -
mf xc

4. Break thermal efficiency:- It is the ratio of heat equivalent to one KW

hour to the heat in fuel per B. P. hour. This is same as of overall efficiency.
Heat equivalent to one kw hour
llb = Heat in fuel per BF. hour
B.P.x3600
llb -= -
m. xc

5. ,Air standard efficiency:-

11 ..se = 1- r ;'1" . .for petrol engine = 1- r.,-l p" -1

1 [ r(p -1) 1 ...for Diesel engine

6. Relative Efficiency:- This is also known as efficiency ratio. This is given' as

· ff" ndicated thermal efficiency
Re Iat Ive e IClency = - - - - --------..!...
. Air stan dard efficiency

7. Volumetric Efficiency:- It is the ratio of actual volume of charge admitted

during the suction stroke at N.T.P. to the swept volume of the piston.
Mathematically
Volume of charge admitted at N.TF. Va
11 =_. =-
v Swept volume of the piston Vs

Heat Balance sheet

1. Heat su pplied by the fuel
=mtx c kJ/min
2. Heat absorbed 'in I.P. Prod uced
= 100 PmLAn kJ/min

3. Heat rejected to cooling water

=mw Cw(t 1 - t 2 )kJ/min
4. Heat carried away be exhaust gases
-= mgcgt kJ I min

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S. Un accounted heat:- This includes loss of heat due to friction, leakage,

radiation etc.
Now, (1) = (2) + (3) + (4) + (5)
Example-1
During the test on single cylinder oil engine, working on the four stroke cycle and fitted
with a rope brake, the following readings are taken:
Effective diameter of brake wheel = 630mm; Dead load on brake = 200N; Spring
balance reading = 30N; Speed = 4S0r.p.m.; Area of indicator diagram = 420mm 2 i
Length of indicator diagram = 60mm; Spring scale = 1.1bar per mmi Diameter of
cylinder = 100mm; Stroke =150mm; Quantity of oil used = 0.815kg/h; Calorific value
of oil = 42000kJ/kg.
Calculate brake power, indicated power, mechanical efficiency, brake thermal efficiency
and brake specific fuel consumption.
Solution:
Given: K = 1; D = 630mm = 0.63m; W = 20ON; S = 30N; N = 450r.p.m;
a = 420mrrt;1 = 60mm; s = 1.1bar /mm; Dc = 100mm = O.lm; L = 150mm =0.15m;
m, = 0.815kg/h; C = 42000kJ/kg
Brake power
We know that brake power,
= (W - S) 1tDN = (200 - 30) 1t x 0.63 x 450 = 2520W = 2.52KW
B.P. 60 60
Indicated power
We know that indicated mean effective pressure,
_ a x s _ 420 x 1.1 _ 7 7b
Pm - - 1- - 60 - . ar

Area of the cylinder A = ~(Dc)2 = ~(0.1)2 = 7.855x 10-3 m2

4 4
number of working strokes per min
n = N /2= 450/2 = 225 ... (.; Engine works on four stroke cycle)
We know that indicated power,
3
LP = 100KPmLAn = 100x 1x 7.7x 0.15x 7.855x 10- x 225 kW = 3 4kW
. 60 60 .
Mechanical efficiency
We know that mechanical efficiency,
= B.P. = 2.52 = 0.7418 or 74.18%
11m I.P 3.4
Brake thermal effiCiency
We know that brake thermal effiCiency,
= B.P.x3600 = 2.52x3600 = 0.265 or 26.5%
llt, m,xC 0.815x42000
Brake specific fuel consumption
We know that brake specific fuel consumption
= m, = 0.815 = 0.323kg / B.P. / h
B.P. 2.52

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Example-2
An engine uses 6.5 kg of oil per hour of calorific value 30 000 kJ/kg. If the B.P. of the
engine is 22 kW and mechanical efficiency 85%, calculate: 1. Indicate thermal efficiency;
2. Brake thermal efficiency; and 3. Specific fuel consumption in kg/B.P./h.
Solution: Given: m, = 6.5kg I h; C = 30 000k) I kg; BP. = 22kW; TIm = 85% = 0.85
1. Indicated thermal efficiency
We know that indicated power,

l.P. = B.P. = ~ = 25.88 kW

TIm 0.85
:. Indicated thermal efficiency,
= l.P.x3600 = 25.88x3600 = 0.48 or 48%
TIt m, xC 6.5x30 000
2. Brake thermal efficiency
We know that brake thermal efficiency,
TI = B.P. x 3600 = 22 x 3600 = 0.406 or 40.6%
b m, xC 6.5x30000
3. Specific fuel consumption
We know that specific fuel consumption

= m, = 6 '25 = 0.295 kg I B.P.I h

B.P. 2

Example-3
A four stroke petrol engine 80 mm bore, 100 mm stroke, is tested at full throttle at
constant speed. The fuel supply is fixed at 0.068 kg/min and the plugs of the four
cylinders are successively short circuited without change of speed, brake torque being
correspondingly adjusted. The brake power measurements are the following:
With all cylinder firing = 12.5 kW
With cylinder No. 1 cut off =9 kW
With cylinder No.2 cut off = 9.15 kW
With cylinder No.3 cut off = 9.2 kW
With cylinder No.4 cut off = 9.1 kW
Determine I.P. of the engine under these conditions. Also determine the indicated
thermal efficiency. Calorific value of the fuel is 44 100 kJ/kg. Compare this efficiency
with the air standard value. Clearance volume of one cylinder is 70 x 103 mm 3 •
.Solution:
Given: Dc = 80mm = 0.08m; L = lQOmm = O.lm;mf = 0.068kg/min = 4.08k9/h;
B=12.5kW;B1 =9kW;Bz =9.15kW;B3 =9.2kW;B~ =9.1kW;C=44100kJ/kg; Vc =70xl0 3 mm 3
I.P. of the engine
We know that indicated power produced in cylinder 1,
11 = B - Bl = 12.5 - 9 = 3.5 kW
Indicated power produced in cylinder 2,

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12 = B-B2 =12.S-9.1S=3.3SkW
I ndicated power produced in cylinder 3,
13 = B-~ =12.S - 9.2=3.3kW
and indicated power produced in cylinder 4,
14 = B-B4 = 12.5-9.1 = 3.4kW
: . Indicated power of the engine,
1.P. = 11 + 12 + 13 + 14 = 3.5 + 3.35 + 3.3 + 3.4 = 13.55 kW
I ndicated thermal efficiency
We know that indicated thermal efficiency,
n = I.P.x3600 = 13.55x3600 = 0.721 or 27.1%
.~ m, xC 4.08x44100
Air standard efficiency
We know that swept volume
% %
v. = (Dc)2L = (80)2100 = 503 x 103 mm3
: . Compression ratio,
r = Total cylinder volume = Vc + Vs
Clearance volume Vc
3
=_70X1Q3+S03 x 10 =8.18
70 x 1Q3
We know that air standard efficiency,
1 1
l1ase =1- Y-1 = 1- (8.18J .4-1 ... (Taking y = 1.4 for air)

= 1- 0.431 = 0.569 or 56.9%

Ratio of air standard efficiency to indicated thermal efficiency
= 0.569 = 2 1
0.27 1 .
Thus air standard efficiency is 2.1 times the indicated therma l effi ciency.

Example-4
A four stroke diesel engine has a cylinder bore of 150 mm and a stroke of 250mm. The
crankshaft speed is 300r.p.m. and fuel consumption is 1.2/h, havin g a calorific value of
39 900 kJ/kg. The indicated mean effective pressure is 5.5 bar. If the compression ratio
is 15 and cut-off ratio is 1.8, calculate the relative efficiency t aking y = 1.4.
Solution:
Given :Dc = 150mm = 0.15m;L = 250mm = 0.25m; N = 300r.p.m.;
m, = 1.2kg/h;C = 3.9 900kJ/kg; Pm = 5.5bar;r = 15;p = 1.8;y = 1.4
We know that area of the cylinder,
7t
A="4(o.l 5)2 =0.0177m' 2

and number of working stroke per minute,

n = N/2 = 300/2 = 150 ... (Q Engine works on four stroke cycle)
LAn
I nd ·Ica t e power, IP
. . = -100Pm
--'-':!'--
. 60
= 100x5.5xO.25xO.0177x150 = 6.1kW
60
and indicated thermal efficiency,

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n
.~
= I.P.x3600
m xC
= 1.2
6.1x3600 - 0 4586
X 39900 - .
45860
or. Yo
f

We know that air standard efficiency for diesel engine,

=1- r 11 [PY-1]
!lase
1 [(18)1.4-1]
yep -1) = 1- (15)1.4-1 1.4(1.8 -1) = 1- 0.386 = 0.614 or 61.4%
y-

Relative efficiency, I'\. = Indicatedthermaleffieiency = 0,4586 = 0 747 or 74.7%

Airstndardefficiency 0.614'

Example-5
Find the engine dimensions of a two cylinder, two stroke I.e. engine from the following
data:
Engine speed = 4000r.p.m.; Volumetric efficiency = 0.77; Mechanical efficiency = 0.75;
Fuel consumption = 10litres/h (specific gravity = 0.73); Air-fuel ratio = 18.1 ; Piston
speed = 600 m/min; Indicated mean effective pressure = 5 bar.
Find also the brake power. Take R for gas mixture as 281 J/kg Kat S.T.P.
Solution:
Given:K = 2; N = 4000 r.p.m.; I1v = 0.77; 11m = 0.75;1l\ =10 X 0.73
= 7.3kg/h; ma/mf = 18; 2LN = 600m/min;Pm = 5bar;R = 281 J/kg K
Engine dimensions
Let Dc = Diameter of the cylinder, and
L = Length of the stroke
We know that piston speed,
2LN = 600
or L = 600/ 2N = 600 I 2 X 4000 = 0.075m or 75mm
Mass of air required ma = mf X 18 = 7.3 x 18 = 131.4 kg I h ... (Qma / mf = 18)
and corresponding volume of air required at *S.T.P.,
v = ma.RT = 131.4x281x288 =105m3/h=1.75m3/min
a p 1.013 X lOS
We know that swept volume of the piston per minute,

v. =TT4 ( Dc)2L x n x K =1T4 ( DYO.07S x 4000 x 2 =471.3 ( Dc)2m /min 3

... ( .: n = N, for two stroke cycle engine)

and volumetric effiCiency (l1y)

0.77= va = 1.75 2:. (De)2 =4.82xl0-3 or De =0.0694m or 69,4mm

Vs 4.713(De) .
Brake power
We know that area of the cylinder,

A = * (Dc)2 = *(0.0694)2 = 0.003 78m2

and indicated power, LP. = lOOK Pm LAn = 100x2xO.075xO.0378x4000 kW = 18.9kW

60 60
:.Brake power B.P. = LP.X11m = 18.9 x 0.75 = 14.17kW

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RECIPROCATING AIR COMPRESSORS

An air compressor is a machine to compress the air and to raise its pressure. The air
compressor sucks air from the atmosphere, compresses it and then delivers the same
under a high pressure to a storage vessel.
Work done by a single stage reciprocating air compressor
There are three different operations of the compressor and hence there will be three
work done. Work is done on the piston during the suction of air, work is done by the
piston during compression as well as delivery of the air. Normally, work done by a
reciprocating air compressor is mathematically equal to the work done by compressor
during suction.
Case I: Work done without clearance volume

c·1

t
Temperature

Entropy ~

1. Work done during isothermal compression

W = Area ABC, D

= 2.3P1V1log :: = 2.3P1V1log r = 2.3mRT log r[r = ::]

2. Work done during Polytropic compression (PV" = constant)

W = Area ABCD

=_n_XP1Vl(P2V2 -1)=-n-xmRT2(1- Tl)=_n_mR(T2 -R1)

n- 1 P1 V1 n- 1 T2 n- 1
3. Work done during isentropic compression

W = - Y-x mR(T2 - T1 ) = mcp (T2 - T1 )

y-1
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For all the expression,

Pi = Initial pressure of air (before compression)
Vi = Initial volume of air (before compression)
Ti = Initial temperature (before compression)
P2 , V2 , T2 = Corresponding values for the final conditions
(i.e. at the delivery point) and

r = Pressure ratio = P2 .
P1
Work done on the air is minimum when the compcession ,is isothermal (i.e. when
n=1) and it is maximum when the compression is isentropic (i.e. when n = y)
Power required to drive a single-stage Reciprocating air compressor
P = WNw watts
60
W= work done
Nw = speed of compressor in rpm
Nw = N......for single acting compressor
= 2N. .... .for double acting compressor
Case II: Work done without clearance volume
v2
p ................
2 3:
i \+-_---''-"'
i i
Pressure !
:

P1
i
••-.-... - ••• -t----.~.--+----~
I 4 ,1
V. IC vs )1
C
1 v
Volume~
P1 , Vl' T1 = Initial pressure, volume and temperature
of air (before compression)
P2 , V2 , T2 = Corresponding values for the final conditions
(ie at the delivery points)
r = Pressure ratio = P2
PI
VC = clearance volume (ie volum at po int 3)
Vs = stroke volume = v1 - Vc
n = Polytropic index for compression and exp ansion.
W = work done by the compressor per cycle

= n~lP,(v, -v.l[(::f -1]

n ~ 1 mRT, [(~ -1]
x f
It is clear that clearance volume does not affect the work done on the air.

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Two stage reciprocating air compressor with inter cooling

Efficiency of the intercooler plays an important role in the working of a two stage
reciprocating air compressor, following two cases are considered

Case -1 Complete or perfect inter cooling

When the temperature of the air leaving the inter cooler (i.e. T3 ) is equal to the original
atmospheric air temperature (i.e. T1), then the intercooling is known as complete or
perfect intercooling.

~~-~_Pv"=C

t
Pressure Pz t----~........l-

P1
~---------------~-

Volume~

Volume ~

t
Temperature P3
.;c..--

Entropy ~

The amount of work saved due to intercooling is shown by the shaded area.

Case -2 Complete or perfect inter cooling

When the temperature of the air leaving the intercooler (i.e. T3 ) is more than the original
atmospheric air temperature (I.e. T1 ), then the intercooling is known as incomplete or
imperfect intercooling

t
Pressure Pz .-----~Ir.oif"I~ Isentropic

P1
t-----------------~~1~

Volume~

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Volume ~

i
Temperature

Entropy ~

The amount of work saved due to inter cooling is shown by the shaded area.
Work done by a Two-stage Reciprocating Air compressor with inter cooler
PI = Pressure of air entering L.P. cylinder
VI = Volume of the L.P. cylinder
V2 = Pressure of air leaving the L.P. cylinder or entering the H.P. cylinder
V3= Pressure of air leaving the H.P. cylinder
n = Polytropic index for both the cylinders.
1. With incomplete inter cooling:-

W= ~[p.
n-1
V(PP.2)n~l -1] + _n
11
[p. V(P3)n~l -1]
n-1 22 P.
I 2

2. With complete inter cooling:-

w= n~l xp,v,[(~r +(~)";' -2]

_n x mRT [(P2)n~l + (P3)n~l - 2]
=
n-1 I PI P 2

Minimum work required for a two stage reciprocating air compressor:-

Work required to be done by a two-stage reciprocating air compressor with complete
intercooling is given by

w= n~l xp,v,[(::f +(::f -2]

The work required is minimum, when
dw =0
dP2
so, we get P2 = ~P3 P1
I

or" P2 = P3 = (P3 )2
PI P2 PI

.. W=2Xn~1 p,v,[(~)~: -1]

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similar for a three stage compressor

P2 = P3 = P4 = (P4),13
P1 P2 P3 P1
and work required

W= 3 x n : 1 x mRT, [ (:J: -1]

In general, for a compressor having q number of stages,

1

P2 _ P3 _ P4 _ _ Pq+l _ (Pq+l)q
P - P - P - ........ -
1 2 3
p; - If
and minimum work required for compression,

W= 2 xn: 1 xP, V, [( P~, f- 1]

Heat Rejected in a Reciprocating Air compressor

The total heat rejected in a reciprocating air compressor is the sum of the heat rejected
during polytropic compression per kg of air and heat rejected In the rejected during
polytropic compression per kg of air
y-n kd y-n R(T2 -T1 ) cy (y-n)(T2 -T1 )
ql =y_1 xwor one=y_1 (n-1) ,ql= n-1

heat rejected in the Inter cooler per kg of air

ql = cp (T2 - T3 )
Total heat rejected per kg of air
q = ql + q2
for completer inter cooling Tl = T3
q2 - <; (T2 - T1 )
q = (T2 - T1 ) [ c
y
~ ~-1 n) + C 1
p

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GAS TU RBINES

In a gas turbine, the air IS obtained from t he atmosphere and compressed in an air
compressor. The compressed air is t hen passed into the combustion chamber, where it
is heated considera bly. The hot air is then made to flow over the moving blades of the
gas turbine, which imparts rotational motion t o the runner. During this process, the air
gets expanded and fin ally it is exhausted into the atmosphere. A major part of the power
developed by the t urbine is consumed for driving the compressor. The remaining power
is utilized for doing some external work.
SI.No. Gas Turbines Steam Turbines
1. The important components are The important components are
compressor and combustion chamber steam boiler and accessories
2. The mass of gas turbine per KW The mass of steam turbine per KW
developed is less developed is more
3. It requ ires less space for installation It requ ires more space for
installation
4. The installation and running cost is less The installation and running cost is
, more
5. The starting of gas turbine is very easy The starting of steam turbine is
and quick difficult and takes long time
6. Its control, with the changing load Its control, with the changing load
cond ition s, is easy. con ditions is difficult
7. A gas t urbi ne does not depend on A st eam turbine depends on water
water su pply supply
8. Its efficiency is less Its efficiency is higher
Comparison of Gas Turbines and I.C. Engines
SI.No. Gas Turbines I.C. Engine
1. The mass of gas turbine per KW The mass of an I.e. Engine per KW
developed is less developed is more.
2. The installation and running cost is The installation and running cost is
less more
3. Its efficiency is higher Its efficiency is less
4. The ba lanci ng of a gas turbine is Th e balancing of an I.e. Engine is
perfect not perfect
5. The torqu e produced is uniform. Thu s Flywh eel is necessary since torque
no flywheel is required produced is not uniform
6. The lubrication and ignition systems The lubrication and ignition systems
are simple are difficult
7. It can be driven at a very high speed It ca n not be driven at very high
speed
8. The pressures used ' are very low The pressures used are high (above
(about 5 bar) 60 bar)
9. The exhaust of a gas turbine is f ree The exhaust of an I.e. engine is
from smoke and less polluting more polluting
10. They are very suitable for air crafts They are less suitable for air crafts
11. The starting of a gas turbine is not The starting of an I.e. engine is
simple simple
-
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Classification of Gas Turbines

1. Accord ing to path of the working substance
(A) Closed cycle gas turbine
(8) Open cycle gas turbines, and
(C) Semi-closed gas turbines

2. According to process of heat absorption

(A) Constant pressure gas turbines, and
(8) Constant volume gas turbines

Closed cycle Gas Turbines

A closed cycle gas turbines, in its simplest form, consists of a compressor, heating
chamber, gas turbine which drives the generator and compressor and a cooling
chamber.

i T3
i Temperature
Pressure Tl

T4 ...•...•_••. _._.- 4

Volume -+ Entropy -+

A closed cycle gas turbine works on Joule's or Bragton's cycle.

Processes 1-2 ~ shows heating of the air in heating chamber at constant pressure
Processes 2-3 ~ shows isentropic expansion of air in turbine
Processes 3-4 ~ shows cooling of air at constant pressure
Processes 4-1 ~ shows isentropic compression of the air in the compressor
Work done by the turbine per kg of air
WT = Cp (T2 - T3 )
work done by the compressor per kg of air
We = Cp (Tl - T4 )
Net work available, W = Wr - We

Gas Turbine with Intercooling

A major portion of the power developed by the gas turbine is utilized by the compressor.
It can be reduced by compressing the air in two stages with an intercooler between the
~wo. This improves the efficiency of the gas turbine

The process of intercooling the air in two stages of compression is shown below on T-S
diagram .

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T "..""•."-." ......." ...." ... "....." ......... _.".".2

2
Volume -+

t
Temperature

Entropy -+
The different processes are as follows:-
Processes 1-2 ~ Heating of air at constant pressure
Processes 2-3 ~ Isentropic expansion of air in turbine
Processes 3-4 ~ Cooling of air at constant pressure
Processes 4-5 ~ Compression of air in low pressure compressor
Processes 5-6 ~ Cooling of air in the intercooler at constant pressure
Processes 6-1 ~ Compression of air in high pressure compressor
Work done by the turbine,
Wr = Cp (T2 - T3 )
Work required by the compressor
We = Cp [(Tl - T6 ) + (Ts - T4)]
Net work available,
W=Wr - We
for perfect intercooling, the intermediate pressure is given as
P6 =Ps =.JP0P: =~
and also for perfect intercooling,
T4 = T6 and Ts = Tl

Gas Turbine with Reheating

The output of a gas turbine can
be considerably improved by
expanding the hot air in two t
stages with a reheater between Temperature
Ts ..................-.-- --...- .......-.-.........- ....
the two.
T6 ' 6 5
The process of reheating in the
t wo turbines is shown below on
T-S diagram.
Work done by the turbine per kg
Entropy -+
of air
Wr = Cp [(T2 - T3 ) + (T4 - Ts)] --
Work required by the compressor per kg of air
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We = Cp (Tl - T6 )
Net work available, W = WT - We
For maximum work, the reheating should be done to an intermediate pressure.
P3 = P4 = ~P2 X Ps = ~Pl X P6

Overall (Thermal) efficiency of an ideal Gas Turbine Plant

This is defined as the ratio of net work done by a turbine to the heat supplied
Net work done
'TIth = Heat sup plied
W = Cp [ (T2 - T3) - (Tl - T4)]
and heat supplied, Q = Cp (T2 - T1 )
Cp [(T2 - T3) - (Tl - T4)]
'TIth = Cp (T2 - T1 )
(T2 - T3) - (Tl - T4)
'TIth = (T2 - TJ

or, 'TItn =1 - ( r1 )1:"~

Y

where r = P1 = P2 = Pressure ratio.

P4 P3

Uses of Gas Turbines

1. Generation and turbo propeller engines
2. Turbojet and turbo propeller engines
3. Super charger
4. Marine engines
5. Railway engines

Example-l
Air enters the compressor of a gas turbine plant operating on Brayton cycle at 1 bar and
270C. The pressure ratio in the cycle is 6. Calculate the maximum temperature in the
cycle and the cycle efficiency. Assume the turbine work as 2.5 times the compressor
work. Take r = 1.4.
Solution:
Given: P3 = P4 = 1 bar; T4 = 27"C = 27 + 273 = 300 K; r = Pl / P4 = P2 / P3 = 6;
WT = 2.5We ; r = 1.4
The T-s diagram of the Brayton cycle is shown in Fig.

1. Maximum temperature in the cycle .

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Let T2 = maximum temperature in the cycle.

We know that for isentropic compression 4-1,

Tl = (~)7 = (6) \~l = 1.67

T. P.
Tl = T. x 1.67 = 300x 1.67 = 501K
and for isentropic expansion 2-3,

T2 =(P2)7 = (6)\~1 = 1.67

T3 P3
T3 = T2 /1.67 ... (i)
We also know that turbine work per kg of air,
WT = s,(T2 - T3)
and compressor work per kg or air, Wc = s,(T1 - T4 )
Since Wr = 2.5 Wc' therefore
s,(T2 - T3) = 2.5 s,(T1 - T4 )
or T2 - T3 = 2.5(T1 - T4 )
= 2.5{501- 300) = 502.5 K
From equations (i) and (ii) , 1 bar

T2 = 12.52K = 9798'C
and T3 = 750K
Cycle efficiency
We know that cycle efficiency,
(T2 - T3) - (Tl - T4 )
" = ~'--""-::":"'---'--4---'::":'"
T2 - Tl
(1252.5 -750) - (501- 300) 301.5 - - - Entropy ---.~
= 1252.5 - 501 = 751.5
= 0.40 or 40%
Note: The cycle efficiency may also be obtained by using the relation,

11 =1-m¥ = 1-(if~' = 1-1.~7 = 1-0.6

= 0.40 or 40%

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AIR REFRIGERATION CYCLES

The term 'refrigeration' is used for the process of removing heat (ie cooling) from a
substance. Theoretically, the refrigeration is a reversed heat engine, or a heat pump
which pumps heat from a cold body and delivers it to a hot body. The substance which
works in a heat pump to extract heat from a cold body and to deliver it to a hot body is
called refrigerant.
Air Refrigeration cycle
In an air refrigeration cycle, the air is used as a refrigerant.
Units of Refrigeration
Refrigeration is expressed in terms of "tonne of refrigeration" practically. A tonne of
refrigeration is defined as the amount of refrigeration effect produced by the uniform
melting of one tonne (lOOOkg) of ice from and at OOC in 24 hours.
Mathematically,

1TR:::: lOOOx335KJ in 24 hours:::: 10 00 x 335:::: 232.6 KJ/ min

6 Ox60
In actual practice, one tonne of refrigeration is taken as equivalent to 210KJ/min or
3.SKW (i.e. 3.SKJ/S)
Co-efficient of Performance of a refrigerator
The co-effiCient of performance is the ratio of heat extracted in the refrigerator to the
work done on the refrigerant. This is also known as theoretical co-efficient of
performance.
Mathematically,

Th eoret 'cal
I COP.. -_ -Q -_ -
Amount of heat extracted
- - ----:-----:---:---
W Amount of work done
The ratio of actual C.O.P. to the theoretical C.O.P. is known as relative co-efficient of
performance.

.. -___A_ct--:.u~a~I--:.c.......
Re Iat ·Ive COP O_.P_.-
Theoretical C.O.P
Air Refrigerator Working on Reversed Carnot cycle
A refrigerating system working on the reversed Carnot cycle will have the maximum
possible co-efficient of performance.
A reversed Carnot cycle, using air as working medium is shown on P.V and T-S diagram.
At point 1, let Pl , V l and Tl be the pressure, volume and temperature respectively.

!.1_=_~ 1 4

Tl ~ ~

T2 = T3
.2 .3
• •
• •
v---" 51=52 5l=s..
5---.
The four stages of the cycle are as follows
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1. 1-2 (Isentropic Expansion):-

No heat is absorbed or rejected by the air during this process.
2. 2-3 (Isothermal Expansion):-
Heat absorbed by the air or heat extracted from the cold body during isothermal
expansion per Kg of air is
qA = q2-3 = T2 (53 - 52) = T3 (53 - 52 )
3. 3-4 (Isentropic Compression):-
Here also, no heat is absorbed or rejected by the air.
4. 4-1 (Isothermal Compression):-
Heat rejected by the air during this process is
'lR = q4-1 = T4 (54 - 51) = T1 (53 - 52)
Now, work done during the cycle per kg of air

WR = Hea t . t ed - Hea t a bsor bed =

reJec ~ - qA .'. (Co.P.) __ Heat absorbed _ _
T2_
R Work done ~ - T2
Temperature limitations for Reversed Carnot cycle
The C.O.P. of the reversed Carnot cycle may be improved by
1. Decreasing the higher temperature (i.e. T 1) or
2. Increasing the lower temperature (Le. T2 )

Air Refrigerator working on a Bell-coleman cycle (or Reversed louie or Brayton

cycle)
The machine consists of a compressor, a cooler, an expander and a refrigerator. This is
a modification of reversed Carnot cycle. The cycle is shown on P-V and T-S diagram.

Pl= P4 1 ----------------4
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
----~----~--~~
Pz= P3 1 21
I I
1 1
1 1

v---. 5-

The four stages of the cycle are as follows

1. 1-2 (Isentropic Expansion):-
No heat is absorbed or rejected by the air during this process.
2. 2-3 (Constant Pressure Expansion):-
Heat absorbed by the air (or heat extracted from the refrigerator) during
constant pressure expansion is
qA = q2-3 = Cp (T3 - T2)

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3. 3-4 (Isentropic Compression):-

In this process also, no heat is absorbed or rejected by the air.
4. 4-1 (Constant pressure cooling):-
Heat rejected by the air during constant pressure cooling per Kg of air
Ck = q4-i = Cp (T4 - Ti )
Now, work done during the cycle per Kg of air
W = Heat rejected - Heat absorbed = ~ - qA
W =Cp (T4 - Ti ) - Cp (T3 - T2)
COP. = Heat absorbed = T3 - T2
Work done (T4 - Ti ) - (T3 - T2)
1
COP. = I::!
rp T -1
where, rp = Expansion or compression ratio
Pi P4
=-=-
P2 P3
If the compression and expansion processes take place according to the law
PV" = cons tan t then

CO.P. = T3 - T2
_n_ + 'Y - 1 [(T - T ) - (T - T )]
n-1 'Y 4 1 3 2

Vapour compression Refrigeration System

A vapour compression refrigeration system is an improved type of air refrigeration
system in which a suitable working substance, termed as refrigerant, is used. It
condenses and evaporates at temperature and pressure close to the atmospheric
conditions.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Vapour Compression Refrigeration system
over air refrigeration system
Advantages:-
1. It has smaller size for the given capacity of refrigeration.
2. t has less running cost.
3. It can be employed over a large range of temperatures.
4. The co-efficient of performance is quite high.
Disadvantages:-
1. The initial cost is high
2. The prevention of leakage of the refrigerant is the major problem in vapour
compression system.
A simple vapour compression refrigeration system has the following five
essential parts
1. Compressor
2. Condenser
3. Receiver
4. Expansion valve
5. Evapor'atQ[

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Type of vapour compression cycles

1. Cycle with dry saturated vapour after compression
2. Cycle with wet vapour after compression
3. Cycle with superheated vapour after compression
4. Cycle with super heated vapour before compression
5. Cycle with undercooling or subcooling of refrigerant

1. Theoretical Vapour compression cycle with Dry saturated Vapour after

compression

v ----.
h-
The four process of the cycle are as follows

1. Compression Process (1-2):-

Work done during isentropic compression per Kg of refrigerant is given by
Wl _2 = h2 - hi

2. Condensing Process (2-3):-

The vapour refrigerant is changed into liquid refrigerant. The refrigerant, while
passing through the condenser gives its latent heat to the surrounding
condensing medium.

3. Expansion Process (3-4):-

The liquid refrigerant is expanded by throttling process and hence no heat is
absorbed or rejected by the liquid refrigerant.

q
4. Vaporising Process (4-1):-
During evaporation, the liquid - vapour refrigerant absorbs its latent heat of
vaporization from the medium which is to be cooled. This heat which is absorbed
by the refrigerant is called refrigerating effect. The process of vaporization
continues upto pointl, which is the starting point and thus the cycle is
completed.
Refrigeration effect is given as

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Re = hi - h4 = hi - hf3
hf3 = Sensible heat at temperature T3.
:. Co - efficient of performance,
COP. = Re frigerating effect = hi - hf3
wokr done ~ - ~

2. Theoretical vapour compression cycle with wet vapour after

compression

TI
2\ pI
P2= P3

Pi = P4
4 1
------ 14
1
1

s--+ hf3 = n. hi h2
h-

In this cycle, the enthalpy or total heat at point 2 is found out with the help of
dryness fraction at this point. The dryness fraction at point 1 and point 2 may be
obtained by equating entropies at pOints 1 and 2.
C.OP. = Re frigerating Effect = hi - hf3
Wokr done ~ - hi

3. Theoretical vapour compression c;ycle with superheated vapour after

compression:-

S~
h-

In this cycle, the enthalpy or total heat at point 2 is found out with the help of
degree of superheat. The degree of superheat may be found out by equating the
entropies at point 1 and 2.
COP. = Refrigerating Effect = hi - hf3
wokr done ~ - hi
Superheating increases the refrigerating effect and the amount of worked done in
the compressor. Since the increase in refrigerating effect is less as compared to
the increase in work done, therefore the net effect of superheating is to have low
co-efficient of performance .

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4. Theoretical vapour compression cycle with superheated vapour before

compression

uperheating 4!-1-ooo+-~---!
I
I

5 ----+

c.o.P. = Refrigerating Effect = hl - hf3

Wokr done ~ - hl

Theoretical Vapour Compression Cycle with under cooling or sub cooling

of refrigerant

5----+ h--+

The ultimate effect of the under cooling is to increase the value of co-efficient of
performance under the same set of conditions. The process of under cooling is
generally brought about by circulating more quantity of COOling water through the
condenser or by using water colder than the main circulating water.
C.OP. = Re frigerating Effect = ~ -
hf3
wokr done ~ - hl
hf3 = hf3 - Cp x Degree of sup er cooling

Properties of Refrigerant
An ideal refrigerant should have the following properties
1. Lower Boiling Point
2. High Critical temperature
3. High latent heat of vaporization
4. Low specific heat of liquid
5. Non-corrosive to metal
6. Non-toxic, non-flammable and non-explosive
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Commonly used Refrigerant

1. Ammonia
2. Carbon di oxide
3. Sulfur di oxide
4. Freon-12

Example-l
A cold storage plant is required to store 20 tonnes of fish. The fish is supplied at a
temperature of 30°C. The specific heat of fish above freezing point is 2.93kJ/kg K. The
specific heat of fish below freezing point is 1.26kJ/kg K. The fish is stored in cold storage
which is maintained at -Soc. The freesing point of fish is -4°C. The latent heat of fish is
235kJ/kg. If the plant requires 75 kW to drive it, find
1. The capacity of the plant, and
2. Time taken to achieve cooling .
Assume actual C.O.P. of the plant as 0.3 of the Carnot C.O.P.
Solution:
Given: m-= 20t = 20 000 kg; Til = 30°C = 303K;CAF = 2.93kJ/kgK;
CaF = 1.26kJ/kgK; T2 = -SoC = 265K; T3 = -4°C = 269K;h fg(fish) = 235kJ / kg;
P = 75kW = 75kJ/ s

1. Capacity of the plant

We know that Carnot C.O.P.
T2 265 697
Tl - T2 303-265 = .
.. Actual C.O.P. = 0.3x 6.97 = 2.091
and heat removed by the plant

C.O.P. x Work required

= Actual
=2.091x75 = 156.SkJ / s = 940SkJ / min
.. Capacity of the plant
= 940S / 210 = 44.S TR ... (.: lTR = 210kJ / min)

2. Time taken to achieve cooling

We know that heat removed from the fish above freezing pOint,
Q1 = mx CAF(T1 - T3 )
= 20000 x 2.93(303 - 269) = 1.992 x 106 kJ
Similarly, heat removed from the fish below freezing point,
Q2 = m x CaF(T3 - T2)
= 20000x 1.26(269 - 265) = O.101x 106 kJ
and total latent heat of fish,
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Q3 = m x h'g(sish) = 20000 x 235 = 4.7 x 106kJ

:. Total heat removed by the plant
= Q1 +Q2 + Q3
= 1.992 x 106 + 0.101x106 + 4.7x 106 = 6.793x106 kJ
and time taken to achieve cooling
_ Total heat removed by the plant
- Heat removed by the plant per min
106
= 6.7::;8 = 722 min = 12.03h

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PSYCHROMETRY

Psychrometry is that branch of science which deals with the study of moist air ie dry
mixed with vapour or humidity.

Psychrometric Terms

1. Moist air:- It is a mixture of dry air and water vapour.

2. Saturated air:- It is a mixture of dry air and water vapour when the air has
diffused the maximum amount of water vapour in it.

3. Degree of saturation:- It is the ratio of actual mass of water vapour in a unit

mass of dry air to the mass of water vapour in the same mass and pressure of
dry air when it is saturated at the same temperature.

4. Humidity:- It is the mass of water vapour present in 1Kg of dry air, and is
generally expressed in terms of gm per kg of dry air. It is also called specific
humidity or humidity ratio.

5. Absolute Humidity:- It is the mass of water vapour present in 1m 3 of dry air, and
is generally expressed in terms of gm per cubic metre of dry air.

6. Relative humidity:- It is the ratio of actual mass of water vapour in a given

volume of moist air to the mass of water vapour in the same volume of saturated
air at the same temperature and pressure.

7. Dry Bulb Temperature (1<1):- It is the temperature of air recorded by a

thermometer, when it is not affected by the moisture present in the air.

8. Wet bulb temperature (tw or twb):- It is the temperature of air recorded by a

thermometer when its bulb is surrounded by a wet cloth exposed to the air.

9. Wet bulb depression:- It is the difference between dry bulb temperature and wet
bulb temperature at any pOint. The wet bulb depression indicates relative
humidity of the air.

10. Dew point temperature (1<Ip):- It is the temperature of air recorded by a

. . -. - thermometer, when moisture (water vapour) present in it begins to condense.
Or, the dew point temperature is the saturation temperature corresponding to the
partial pressure of water vapour.

For saturated air, the dry bulb temperature, wet bulb temperature and dew point
temperature is same.

11. Dew point depression:- It is the difference between the dry bulb temperature and
dew point temperature of air.

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Psychrometric Relations
1. Humidity, specific or absolute humidity, humidity ratio or moisture
content
W = 0.622 x Py = 0.622Py
p.. Pb -Py
Py = Partial pressure of water vapour
P, = Partial pressure of dry air
Pb = Barometric pressure
for saturated air,
P
Ws = Wm..x = 0.622x-_s-
Pb -Ps

2. Degree of saturation or percentage humidity:-

W Py [
1
::l
~~W, =P'[l-::]
for dry air, degree of saturation, J.L =0
so, 0 ~ J.L ~ 1

3. Relative Humidity:-
Ij> = my = Pv
ms Ps

4. Pressure of water vapour:-

p =p = (P b -Pw)(td -tw)

( y w 1544-1.44~

Pw = Saturation pressure corresponding to wet bulb temperature.

Pb = Barometric pressure

5. Vapour density or absolute humidity:-

WP W(Pb - Py)
P = - - ' = -'--"----''-'-
y R,Td R,Td
p.. = Pr essure of air in KN / ITt
W = Humidity ratio
R, = Gas constant for air = 0.287KJ/ Kg - K
Td = Dry Bulb Temperature
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Enthalpy (Total heat of Moist Air)

The enthalpy of moist air is numerically equal to the enthalpy of dry air plus the
enthalpy of water vapour associated with dry air.

Psychrometric chart
It is a graphical representation of the various thermodynamic properties of moist air.
This is drawn between dry bulb temperature and specific humidity.
(a) Dew pOint temperature lines:- These are horizontal and non-uniformly spaced.

// 1
.--.......:::::::::::=:======:fsp. humidity

Dry Bulb Temperature

(b) Wet bulb temperature lines:- These are inclined straight lines and non-uniformly
spaced.

(c) Relative humidity lines:- These are curved and follows the saturation curve.

Psychrometric Process
1. Sensible cooling
2. Sensible heating
3. Humidification and
Dehumidification

Sensible cooling
The cooling of air, without
any change in its specific
humidity is known as
sensible cooling. The
process of sensible cooling
on the psychrometric chart,
is shown by a horizontal line
1-2 extending from right to
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left. The point 3 represents the surface temperature of the cooling coil.
Heat rejected by air during sensible cooling
= hl - h2 = cpm (tdl - td2 )
Cpm = humid specific heat = 1.022 KJ/ Kg - K
By pass factor in sensible cooling
B.P.F. = td 2 - td 3
td1 - td3

coil effiCiency, lle = 1- BF.F. = 1- td 2 - td 3

td1 - td3

Sensible heating
The heating of air without any change in its specific humidity is known as sensible
heating. The process of sensible heating, on the psychrometric chart, is shown by a
horizontal line 1-2 extending from left to right. The point 3 represents the surface
temperature of the heating coil.

Heat added during sensible heating,

h = h2 - hl = ~m (td2 - td1)
h= 1.022 (td2 -td1)KJ/Kg
By pass factor in sensible heating
B.P.F = td3 - td 2
t~ -td1

and coil efficiency, lle = 1- BF.F. = 1- t~3 - t~2

t 3 - t 1

Humidification and Dehumidification

The addition of moisture to the air, with out change in its dry bulb temperature is known
as humidification. Similarly, removal of moisture from the air, without change in its dry
bulb temperature is known as dehumidification .

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')f-----~Wl Y------IWI

Humidification Dehumidification

Humidification
Change in enthalpy per Kg of dry air is the latent heat of vaporization of the increased
moisture content equ al to (W2~Wl) Kg per Kg of dry air.
Mathematically,
(~ -~) = hffd (W2 - w1 )
hfgd = Latent heat of vaporisation at dry bulb temperature(td )
for dehumdification,
. (h2 -~) = hffd (W 2 -w1 )
Absolute humidification and dehumidification processes are rarely found in practice.
These are always accompanied by heating or cooling process.

Sensible Heat Factor

The heat added during a psychrometric process may be split up into sensible heat and
latent heat. The ratio of the sensible heat to the total heat is known as sensible heat
factor or sensible heat ratio.
Mathematically
SHF = sensible heat = SL ./
Total heat SH + LH ______
SH = Sensible heat
LH = Latent heat

Cooling and Dehumidification

'1
",' 1
i
SP. humidity
_ ....:: - - 4 - - - - - - W2
I
I
I

td2 =tdA tdl

Dry Bulb Temperature ~

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Total heat removed from the air during the cooling and dehumidification process is
h = ~ - ~ = (hi - hA) + (hA - ~) = SH + LH
Sensible heat factor is,
SHF = SH = hi - hA
SH + LH hi - h2

Heating and Humidification

----- Wl

Total heat added to the air during heating and humidification is

h = h2 - hi = (~ - gA) + (hA - hi) = LH+ SH
SHF = SH _ hA - hi
SH+LH h2-~

Adiabatic Mixing of Two air streams

When two quantities of air having different enthalpies and different specific humidities
are mixed, the final condition of the air mixture depends upon the massed involved, and
on the enthalpy and specific humidity of each of t he constituent masses which enter the
mixture. Assuming no loss of enthalpy and specific humidity during the air mixing
process, '----
For mass balance, I'T\ + m2 = ~ ...... (i)
For energy balance, ml~ + ~h2 = ~~ ...... (ii)

and for the mass balance of water vapour,

I'T\w1 + ~W2 = ~W3 ...... (iii)
ml = mass of air entering at 1
h1 = enthalpy of air entering at 1
m2, h2' W2 = corresponding values of air entering at 2
m3, h3' W3 = corresponding values of the mixture leaving at 3.
From (i), (ii) and (iii)
I'T\ h3 - h2 W3 - w 2
~ = ~ - ~ = WI - W3
The adiabatic mixing process is represented on the psychrometric chart as shown below .

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Wl
11
I
I
W2

WJ
r
Sp. humidity

tdJ td2 td 1
Dry Bulb Temperature

Air Conditioning System

Factors affecting comfort air conditioning:-
1. Temperature of air
2. Humidit'1: of air
3. Purity of air
4. Motion of air
Air conditioning system is the system which effectively controls these condition to
produce the desired effects upon the occupants of the space.

Classifications of Air conditioning System

1. According to the purpose
A. Comfort air conditioning system
B. Industrial air conditioning system

2. According to season of the year

A. Winter air conditioning system
B. Summer air conditioning system
C. Year-round air conditioning system

3. According to the arrangement of equipment

A. Unitary air conditioning system and
B. Central air conditioning system
Human being feels comfortable when the air is at 21 0 C with 56% relative
humidity .

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en
I-
u
E Topics Covered
CI
c • Thermo-Dynamic Processes

>- • Behavior of Ideal and Real Gases

"0 • Laws of Thermo-Dynamics

• Entropy

E
I.
I»
.c
I-

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Level - 1

1. A thermodyn amics is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space

upon wh ich attention is concentrated in the analysis of problem
(A) System (B) Surrounding (C) Boundary (C) None of these

2. Everything extern al t o system is called _ __

(A) Environ ment
(B) Boundary

3. In a closed syst em
(A) Mass and heat can cross the boundary of the system
(B) Only mass ca n cross the boundary
(C) Only heat can cross the boundary
(D) Neither heat nor mass can cross the boundary

4. Air cooler can be considered as

(A) Ope n system (B) Closed system (C) Isolated system (D) None of
these

S. Properties which do not depend on the mass is called

(A) Intensive property (B) Extensive property

6. Extensive property is one which is

(A) Dependent on t he mass
(B) Independent of th e mass

7. Which of th e following is not an extensive property?

(A) Enthalpy (B) Specific enthalpy (C) Volume (D) Entropy

8. Which of t he following is an extensive property?

(A) Enthalpy (B) Pressure (C) Temperature (D) Density

9. Which of th e following is an intensive property?

(A) Volu me (B) Specific volume (C) Enthalpy (D) Mass

10. Heat and work are

(A) Int ensive properties (B) Extensive properties
(C) I ndependent properties (D) None of these

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. 11. A system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium when

(A) There is no work transfer
(6) There is no heat transfer
(C) Internal energy of the system is zero
(D) No change in macroscopic property is registered

12. A body would be in thermodynamic equilibrium when it is in

(A) thermal equilibrium (6) chemical equilibrium
(C) mechanical equilibrium (D) all of these

13. Match List A and List 6

A B
(I) Intensive property (i) Volume
(II) Extensive property (ii) Heat
(III) Path function (iii) Specific volume
(IV) Isolated system (iv) Thermal flask
(A) (I) - (i), (II) - (ii). (III) - (iii), (IV) - (iv)

(6) (I) - (ii), (II) - (i) . (III) - (iv) , (IV) - (iii)

(C) (I) - (iii), (II) - (i). (III) - (ii), (IV) - (iv)

(D) (I) - (iii), (II) - (i). (III) - (iv), (IV) - (ii)

14. A process which is a locus of all equilibrium point is called as

(A) reversible process (6) irreversible process
(C) quasi-static process (D) poly-tropic process

15. Which of the following is not a property?

(A) heat (6) volume (C) pressure (D) temperature

16. Which of the following is a basic unit?

(A) mole (6) ohm (C) volt (D) Pascal

17. Which of the following is the basis of temperature measurement?

(A) First law of thermodynamics (6) Kelvin-Planck statement
(C) Clausius statement (D) Zeroth law of thermodynamics

18. Which of the following thermodynamic property is used in thermocouple?

(A) pressure (6) volume (C) resistance (D) emf

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19. Volume is used as thermometric property in which of the following thermometer?

(A) constant volume gas thermometer
(6) constant pressure gas thermometer
(C) thermocouple
(D) mercury-in-glass thermometer

20. Which of the following is correct?

(A) Absolute pressure = gauge pressure + atmospheric pressure
(6) Gauge pressure = absolute pressure + atmospheric pressure
(C) Atmospheric pressure = absolute pressure + gauge pressure
(D) None of these

21. On a piston of 10cm diameter a force of 1000N is uniformly applied. Pressure on

the piston will be
(A) 1.273Pa (6) 1.273KPa (C) 1.273bar (D) 1.273atm

22. Fahrenheit scale shows 9S.6oF, corresponding value in °c will be

(A) 42°C (6) 37°C (C) 35°C (D) 36°C

23. An oil of specific gravity O.S is conta ined in a tube to a depth of SOcm. Determine
the gauge pressure at this point.
(A) 6.2SkN/m 2 (6) 6.23Pa (C) 6.2Sbar (D) 6.28atm

24. In the above question, if atmospheric pressure is 760mm of Hg, calculate the
absolute pressure.
(A) 101.3kN/..n2 (6) 95.16kN/m2 (C) 107.6SkN/..n2 (D)none

25. Which of the following is not true?

(A) At constant pressure volume is proportiona l to the temperature
(6) At constant volume, pressure is propo rtiona l to the temperature
(C) At constant temperature PV=C
(D) Universal gas constant R= S.314 ca l/mol k

26. In a constant volume process

(A) Pressure does not depend on temperature

(6) P oc T (C) P oc·.!. (D) none of these

T

27. For a closed system, the difference between the heat added to the system and
the work done by the system is equal to the change in
(A) enthalpy (6) entropy
(C) temperature (D) internal energy

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28. At its critical pOint, any substance will

(A) Exist in all three phase simultaneously
(B) Change directly from solid to vapour
(C) Behave as an ideal gas
(D) Loose phase distinction between liquid and vapour

29. In a cyclic process

(A) Work transfer is zero (B) Heat transfer is zero
(C) Change in internal energy is zero (D) All the three variables are zero

ka
30. If f dk = k2 - kl' which of the following Is not true?
kz
(A) K is a point function
(B) K depends on the path followed by the system
(C) K is the property of the system
(D) None of these

31. For a cyclic process, which is not correct?

(A) ~dV =0 (B) ~dW =0 (D) ~dS =0

32. A control volume refers to

(A) ~8 fixed region in space (B) a specified mass
(C) an isolated system (D) a closed system

33. Internal energy of the perfect gas depends on

(A) Temperature, specific heat and pressure
(B) Temperature and specific heat and enthalpy
(C) Temperature and speCific heat and entropy
(D) Temperature only

34. An isentropic process is always

(A) irreversible and adiabatic (B) reversible and isothermal
(C) frictionless and irreversible (D) reversible and adiabatic

35. First law of thermodynamics for steady flow

(A) Accounts for all energy entering and leaving a control volume
(B) Is an energy balance for a specified mass of fluid
(C) Is an expression of the conservation of linear momentum
(D) Is restricted its application to perfect gases

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36. Gas equation PV=mRT hold good for

(A) mono atomic gases (8) ideal gases
(C) real gases (D) mixture of gases

37. A gas which obeys kinetic theory perfectly is

(A) mono atomic gas (8) diatomic gas
(C) real gas (D) perfect gas

38. In the poly-tropic process PV n =C I if n= 'Y process is

(A) adiabatic (8) isothermal
(C) constant pressure (D) constant volume

39. In the poly-tropic process PV n = C I if n = 1 process is

(A) adiabatic (8) isothermal
(C) constant pressure (D) constant volume

40. During throttling process which of the following property does not change
(A) pressure (8) enthalpy
(C) entropy (D) internal energy

41. Which of the following is not a property?

(A) temperature (8) pressure (C) enthalpy (D) heat

42. Work done in a free expansion process is

(A) zero (8) fDaximum (C) negative (D) minimum

43.

(D) zero , ~.

44. Which of the following will not represent the work done in isothermal process? .:
~
(A) P1 V1 en- ~
(8) P1V1 tn- ~
(C) mRT1 en- ~
(D) mRT2 en-
V1 P1 VI p2
J '

45. Power produced by the engine is given by Pm:oLN KW where N is

(A) Speed of the engine in RPM

(8) Speed of the engine in Hz
(C) Number of power strokes per minutes
(D) Number of power stroke per second

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46. Brake thermal efficiency is defined as

Brake Power
(A) Heat supplied by the fuel
Brake Power
(B)
Power produced by Carnot engine working same temperature limit

(C) Brake Power (D) Brake Power

Indicated Power Frictional power .

47. Mechanical efficiency is defined as

Break Power Break Power
(A) Friction Power (B) Indicated Power
(C) Indicated Power (D) Indicated Power
Break Power Friction Power

48. In a cyclic process heat transfers are 14kJ, -29kJ, 38kJ, -27kJ, what will be the
net work transfer?
(A) 38kJ from the system (B) 38kJ to the system
(C) 4kJ from the system (D) 4kJ to the system

Common Data Questions: 49 & 50

A well insulated chamber containing 1.5kg of liquid having a specific heat of

2.5kJ/kgOC liquid is stirred which causes 150 C increase in temperature.
49. Calculate change in internal energy.
(A) 56.25kJ (B) -56.25kJ (C) 28.2kJ (D) -28.2kJ

50. Calculate work done.

(A) 56.25kJ (B) -56.25kJ (C) 28.25kJ (0)-28.2kJ

51. Heat and work are mutually convertible. This statement in called ..... law of
thermodynamics.
(A) zeroth (B) first (C) second (D) third

52. Perpetual machine of first kind is impossible according to the ..... law of
thermodynamics.
(A) zeroth (B) first (C) second (D) third

53. Heat flows from the hot body to cold body can be explained by
(A) zeroth law of thermodynamics (B) first law of thermodynamics
(C) second law of thermodynamics (D) third law of thermodynamics

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54. Which of the following statement is true?

(A) A machine which violates clausius statement will violate first law of
thermodynamics.
(B) A machine which violates Kelvin Planck statement will violate first law of
thermodynamics.
(C) A machine which violates second law if thermodynamics will violate first law
of thermodynamics.
(D) A machine which violates Kelvin Planck statement will violate clausius
statement.

55. Which of the following is defined by second law of thermodynamics?

(A) Internal energy (B) enthalpy (C) entropy (D) heat

56. For reversible adiabatic process, the change in entropy is

(A) zero (B) maximum (C) minimum (D) negative

57. Which of the following is true?

(A) It is not possible to reduce the entropy of the system
(B) Entropy of the environment always increases
(C) Entropy is the property of the system
(D) None of these

58. A frict"ionless heat engine can be 100% effiCient, if its exhaust temperature
(A) equal to its input temperature (B) less than its input temperature
(C) OOK (D) OOC

59. Efficiency of Camot engine depends on

(A) Working substance
(B) Working substance and sink temperature
(C) Working substance, sink temperature and source temperature
(D) Sink and source temperature only

60. The value of universal gas constant is

(A) 8.314 J/kg mol-k (B) 8.314 cal/kg-mole-k
(C) 8.314 kJ/kg mol-k (D) 8.314 kcal/kg-mol-k

61. If P~ -> 0, the cyclic process is

(A) reversible (B) irreversible (C) impossible (D) none of these

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62. If a fluid expands suddenly into vacuum through an orifice of large dimension,
then such a process is called
(A) free expansion (6) hyperbolic expansion
(C) adiabatic expansion (0) throttling

63. Which of the following processes are thermodynamically reversible?

(A) throttling (6) free expansion
(C) isobaric (0) isothermal & adiabatic

64. Poly-tropic index n is given by

(A) en (P2 / Pd (6) en (PI / P2 ) (0) none of these
en (VI /V2 ) en(V1 /V2 )

65. A gas is compressed adiabatically in a cylinder, if the thermal energy of the gas is
increased by 2kJ; calculate the work transfer during the process.
(A) 6kJ (8) -6kJ (C) -2kJ (0) 2kJ

66. In an isothermal process, internal energy

(A) increases (6) decreases (C) does not change(O)none

Common Data Questions: 67 It 68

Efficiency of a Carnot engine is 40%.

67. If the engine is used as refrigerator what will be the COP of refrigerator?
(A) 1.5 (6) 2 (C) 2.5 (0) 3

68. If it is used as heat pump, its COP will be

(A) 1.5 (6) 2 (C) 2.5 (0)3

69. A refrigerator rejects 240kJ heat per minute to the environment, if the
compressor consumes 3kW power, calculate its COP
(A) 0.25 (6) 0.5 (C) 1 (0) 1.5

70. Equation Tds = du + PdV is valid for

(A) reversible process (6) a closed system process
(C) closed system reversible process (0) any process

71. dQ = du + Pdv is valid for

(A) A reversible process (6) closed system process
(C) closed system reversible process (0) any process

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72. With the increase in pressure,

(A) Boiling point of water increases and latent heat for evaporation does not
change.
(B) Boiling point of water increases and latent heat for evaporation decreases.
(C) BOiling point of water decreases and latent heat for evaporation decreases.
(D) Boiling point of water decreases and latent heat of evaporation increases.

73. Dryness fraction of steam is defined as ratio of

(A) Mass of water vapour to the mass of dry steam and water vapour
(B) Mass of dry steam to the mass of water vapour
(C) Mass of dry steam to the mass of dry vapour and water vapour
(D) Mass of dry vapour to the mass of water vapour

74. Wet steam could have the dryness fraction

(A) 0 (B) 0.37 (C) 1.0 (D) 1.12

75. Specific volume of water when heated at OoC to 100°C

(A) First increases and then decreases
(B) First decreases and then increases
(C) Increases (D) decreases

76. Enthalpy of wet steam can be calculated by

(A) h = hg + xh fg (B) h = hg + xh f (C) h = hf + xhg (D) h = ht + xhfg

77. Enthalpy of superheated steam can be calculated by

(A) h = hf + x(h f - hg ) (B) h = hf + hfg + Cps (T - Tsad

Where T is the temperature of superheated steam. Tsat is saturation temperature

at that pressu reo

78. Entropy of the superheated steam is given by

(A) 5 = 5 f + Cps (T - Tsat ) (B) 5 = 5 f + cp~en(~)

Tsat Tsat

t
(C) 5=Sf+cPSen(TTt) (D)5=5g +cps cn(TT )

79. Entropy of wet steam is given by

(A) 5 = 5 f + X~fg (B) 5 = 5 g + X~fg (D) 5 = 5f + Shfg

s 5

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80. Which of the follo wi ng will give the volume of wet steam?
(A) xVf (8) Vf + xVfg (C) Vfg + xVf (O)none

81. Real gas obeys the ideal gas equation at

(A) High pressure & low temperature
(8) High pressure & high temperature
(C) Low pressure & high temperature
(0) Low pressure & low temperature

82. Van der Walls equation (p+ :2 }v -b) = RT, :2 and b introduced in ideal gas

equation 0 compensate respectively

(A) Force of cohesion, volume of molecules
(8) Volume of molecules, force of cohesion
(C) Force of cohesion velocity of molecules
(0) Velocity of molecules, force of code number

83. Joule Thomson co-efficient III is given by

(C) III = (aT)

ap s (0) III =(ap)
aT 5

84. The region where ).J.l is positive is called

(A) Cooling region (8) Heating region (C) Inversion curve (0) None of these

85. Locus where the III =0 is

(A) Cooling region (8) Heating region
(C) Inversion region (0) None of these

86. The zeroth law of thermodynamics gives the concept of

(A) Heat and Work (8) Heat and Temperature
(C) Temperature only (0) Open and Closed systems

87. A CARNOT cycles consists of

(A) 5 processes of which two are reversible and three are irreversible processes
(8) 4 processes all of which are reversible processes
(C) 5 processes all of which are reversible processes
(0) 4 processes of which two are reversible and other two are irreversible
processes

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88. Select the TRUE statement about First Law of thermodynamics and Second Law
of thermodynamics (FLTD & SLTD)
(A) While FLTD gives the idea of enthalpy, the second i.e. SLTD gives the
concept of entropy.
(6) While FLTD gives the idea of entropy, the SLTD also gives the concept of
enthalpy.
(C) While FLTD gives the idea of enthalpy, the SLTD gives the concept of mutual
transfer or convertibility of heat and work.
(D) While FLTD gives the idea of mutual convertibility of heat and work, the SLTD
gives the concept of entropy.

89. The higher temperature limit of a Carnot engine is 773°K while its lower
temperature limit is 4000K less than this. The efficiency of the Carnot engine is
(A) 48.25% (6) 42.85% (C) 51.75% (D) 57.15%

90. When pressure is maintained constant, the volume of an ideal gas at a

temperature of 400°C is Vi' The volume of the gas when the temperature is
increased to 550°C is
(A) 1.223 V1 (6) 1.322 Vi (C) 1.232 V1 (D) 1.213 V1

91. For any reversible process, the area under the T-S diagram represents the
(A) Heat transfer in the process
(6) Enthalpy change in the process
(C) Work transfer in the process
(D) Internal energy change in the process

92. Consider the following thermodynamic processes

(A) Throttling process (6) Isothermal process
(C) Isobaric process (D) Adiabatic process
Now the set of irreversible processes among these are
(A) A and D (B) A and C (C) Band D (D)6 and C

93. A steel flask of 0.05 m 3 capacity stores N2 at 125 bar and 27°(, At this condition
the mass of the N2 stored is (For N2 R = 297 J / kgok) approximately
(A) 4 kg (6) 5 kg (C) 6 kg (D)7 kg

94. An isolated system (thermodynamic)

(A) Always reaches the thermodynamic equilibrium
(6) Never reaches the thermodynamic equilibrium
(C) Mayor may not reach the thermodynamic equilibrium depending on the
surroundings.
(D) Always reaches only mechanical and thermal equilibriums

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95. 200 kJ of work is done on a system. If the final internal energy of the system is
to be 100 kJ less than the initial internal energy of the system then
(A) a heat quantity of 300 kJ is t o be transferred into the system
(6) a heat quantity of 100 kJ is to be transferred out of the system
(C) a heat quantity of 300 kJ is to be transferred out of the system
(0) a heat quantity of 100 kJ is to be transferred into the system

96. The numerical value of =c~~ for a real gas is

(A) 0.375 (6) 0.333 (C) 0.357 (0)0.350

97. The sink temperature of a Carnot engine is 7°C and its efficiency is 70%. To
make its efficiency 77% , the sink temperature should be
(A) 215°K (6) 215°C (C) 933°K (0)933°C

98. The energy of an isolated system

(A) is always constant (6) decreases continuously
(C) increases continuously (0) is always zero

99. For a perfect gas, the Cv , Cpand R, r are related as

(A) Cp = ~ and Cv = (r-l)R

(6) Cp
R
= r(r- 1) andCv = Rr
r- 1 r r- 1
(C) C = -
Rr and C =-
R R R
p r- 1 v r- 1 (O)Cp = r(r+l) and Cv = r(r- 1)

100. A heat pump works between the sink and source temperatures of 303°K and
363°K. The COP of the pump is equal to
(A) 5.05 (6) 4.05 (C) 5.55 (0)4.44

101. In throttling process

(A) pres~ure increases and enthalpy remains constant
(6) pressure decreases and enthal py remains constant
(C) pressure and enthalpy both remain constant (0) None of these

102. A cycle on pressure volume diagram is shown in the figure. The same cycle on T-
5 diagram will be represented by

v
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(A)
T
(8)
T B[/ C

C
A

5 5
B

(C)
T

LJc (0)
T \:IB
A

5 5

103. For an irreversible process, entropy change is

(A) greater than °i (8) equal to °i (C) less than °i (0) zero

104. The slope of constant pressure line on T-S diagram is given by

(A) 5 (8) T (C) ~ (0) Cp
T 5 Cp T

105. An inventor claims to have developed an engine that operates on a cycle that
consists of two reversible adiabatic processes and one reversible isothermal heat
addition process. The engine violates
(A) First law (8) second law
(C) first and second law (0) zeroth and first law

106. The isothermal heat rejection process in a Carnot cycle takes place at a
temperature 200K and V3
V4
=.!.
2
The heat rejected is

(A) 1500 W (8) -1500 W (C) 1152 W (0) -1152 W

107. Three heat interactions in a limited pressure cycle are 120kJjkg, 280kJjkg and
-180 kJjkg. The air standard efficiency of cycle is
(A) 65.1 (8) 49.6 (C) 55 (0) 59

108. Work done in a non-flow process is given by the area under

(A) T-S diagram (8) PV diagram (C) P-T diagram (O)T-V diagram

109. O.ll'1f of air at a pressure of 1.5 bar is expanded isothermally to 0.5 bar, heat
supplied during the process would be
(A) 23.2 kJ (8) 232 kJ (C) 24.1 kJ (0)241 kJ

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110. Which of the following is true?

111. Which of the following expression gives work done during expansion in an
adiabatic process?

(A) Pi Vi [ 1- P2V2] (C) both (A) and (6) (D) none

'Y -1 Pi Vi

112. Latent heat of vaporization can be increased by

(A) Increasing pressure and saturation temperature
(6) Decreasing pressure and saturation temperature
(C) Decreasing pressure and increasing saturation temperature
(D) Pressure and temperature has no effect on latent heat of vaporization

113. During throttling which of the following property remains constant?

(A) Pressure (6) Volume (C) Entropy (D) Enthalpy

114. For constant volume process on a gas, the value of index n for the path followed
on P-V diagram is equal to
(A) zero (6) 1 (C) 1.4 (D) 00

115. A closed system undergoes a process 1-2 for which the Q=O and W=100kJ, then
system returns to initial state in another process for which W=-80kJ. The heat
transfer for the second process will be )
(A) 20kJ (6) -20kJ (C) zero (D) 100kJ

116. Helmholtz function is expressed as

(A) u-TS (6) u+ TS (C) u+PV (D)u-PV

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Level - 2

Common Data Questions: 1 to 4

Convert the following in kPa.

1. SOcm of Hg
(A) 98.6 (B) 106.7 (C) 111.2 (D) 121.2

2. O.OlAtm Pressure
(A) 0.01 (B) 0.1 (C) 1.013 (0)1

3. Absolute pressure of 30cm Hg vacuum, when the atmospheric pressure is 1 Atm.

(A) 61..3 (B) 101.3 (C) 40.02 (D) none

4. Absolute pressure when pressure gauge indicates 1.2 bar and barometer shows
730 mm of Hg.
(A) 221.3 (B) 217.4 (C) 201.3 (0)207.4

Common Data Questions: 5 & 6

If the specific heat capacity of the gas is given as:

Cv = (0.4 + 0.0004t) kJ / kg _0 C
6 kg of a gas is heated in a container from 25 to 125°C.
s. Compute the heat transfer.
(A) 210kJ (B) 220kJ (C) 380k] (0)420k]

6. What would be net change in heat transfer?

(A) 210kJ (B) 220kJ (C) 380k] (0)420k]

7. Which of the following is not properly matched?

(A) Intensive property - temperature
(B) Extensive property- Heat
(C) Path function - does not depend on the end conditions only
(D) QuaSi-static process- locus of equilibrium point

S. Which of the following statement is false?

(A) Heat transfer and work transfer are the energy interactions
(B) Both work transfer and heat transfer are boundary phenomenon
(C) Heat transfer and work transfer depends on the end state
(D) Heat transfer is the energy interaction due to temperature difference

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9. A mass of 1.5 kg of air is compressed in a quasi-static process from O.lMPa to

0.7MPa, according to the law PV=constant, initial density of air is 1.16kg/m 3 • Find
the work done by the system.
(A) -377.5KJ (8) 377.5KJ (C) 251.6KJ (0)-251.6KJ

10. A mass of gas is compressed in a quasi-static process from SOkPa, 0. lm 3 to

O.4MPa, 0.03 m 3. Assuming PV n = constant, find the poly-tropic index n.
(A) 1.12 (8) 1.14 (C) 1.4 (D) 1.34

11. Compute the work done for question no. 10.

(A) 21.1kJ (8) -21.1kJ (C) 11.SkJ (D) -l1.SkJ

12. Which of the following is not properly matched?

(A) Free expansion - zero work done
(8) Cooking rice in cooker - work done by cooker is equal to heat transfer
(C) Flow work in isobaric process - P (V2 - Vd
(D) Flow work in close system - zero

13. Which of the following is not properly matched?

Process Pdv work
(A) Isobaric process P(V2 - Vd

(8) Isochoric process V(P2 - Pd

(C) Isothermal process V

PiVi cn - 2
Vi
(D) Poly-tropic process Pi Vi - P2V2
(n -1)

14. Which of the following is not true?

(A) Heat transfer in adiabatic process is zero
(8) Free expansion is a irreversible process
(C) Work transfer for a closed system adiabatic process is equal to change in
internal energy
(D) Internal energy is the function of temperature and pressure

15. If in poly-tropic process PVn=constant, n = 1, the process would be

(A) adiabatic (8) isobaric (C) isochoric (D) isothermal

16. For isobaric process, n would be

(A) 0 (8) 1 (C) 7 (D) 00

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17. A gas system following an expansion

process is shown in figure, pressure at C
50 "~T'§~j pv1 .3 = c P -+ in bar
I i
V -+ in rrJ3
would be p ._.•.1.......1-... __ ....... c
i i
(A) 15.2 bar (8) 17.2 bar
!
I
!I !.
(C) 20.31 bar (D) 22.42 bar I .
0.2 0.4
v, m3
18. Compute the work done in question 17.
(A) 1000kJ (8) 1250kJ (C) 250kJ (D)2250kJ

19. An engine cylinder has a piston of area 0.12m2 and contains gas at a pressure of
1.5MPa. Gas expands according to a process which is represented by a straight
line on a pressure-volume diagram. Final pressure is 0.15MPa and length of the
cylinder and stroke length are 0.35m and 0.30m respectively. Find the pressure-
volume relationship.
(A) P = (-37.5V + 1.725)MPa (8) P = (1.725V + 37.5)MPa

(C) P=(37.5V+1.725)MPa (D) P=(-1.725V+37.5)MPa

20. Find the work done in question no. 19.

(A) 11.2kJ (8) 14.7kJ (C) 21.6kJ (D)29.7kJ

21. Consider the following statements for isothermal process

(i) Change in internal energy is zero
(ii) Heat transfer is zero
(iii) Work done is equal to heat transfer
(iv) Work done is zero
The correct statement(s) is/are
(A) only (i) (8) only (ii) (C) (i) & (ii) (D) (i) & (iv)

22. Consider the following statements for reversible adiabatic process

(i) Heat transfer is zero
(ii) Work done is zero
(iii) Entropy is zero
(iv) Change in internal energy equals to work done
The correct statement(s) is/are
(A) only (i) (8) (i) & (iii) (C) (i), (iii) & (iv) (D)all

23. Which of the following is not true for isobaric process?

(A) Work done for closed system is P (V2 - Vi)
(8) Poly-tropic index n =0
(C) Volume is proportional to temperature (D) Change in internal energy is zero

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24. Which of the following is not true for isochoric process?

(A) Work done in closed system is zero
(B) Change in internal energy is equal to heat transfer
(C) Pressure is proportional to temperature
(D) Heat transfer is zero

25. A mixture of gas expands at constant pressure from 1MPa, O.03m 3 to O.06m 3
with 84kJ positive heat transfer; find the change in internal energy.
(A) +54kJ (B) -54kJ (C) +114kJ (0)-114kJ

26. Which of the following will be considered a system rather than a control volume?
(A) a pump (B) a jet nozzle
(C) a turbine (D) a pressure cooker

27. Match the list

(1) Internal energy (i) Heat supplied at constant volume
(2) Enthalpy (ii) High grade energy
(3) Mechanical work (iii) Heat supplied at constant pressure
(4) Open system (iv) Thermal flask
(v) Compressor
(A) 1- (i), 2 - (iii), 3 - (ii), 4 - (iv) (B) 1- (i),2 - (iii),3 - (ii) ,4- (v)
(C) 1-(iii),2-(i),3-(ii),4-(v) (D) 1- (iii),2 - (i),3 - (ii),4 - (iv)

28. Match the list

A Intensive Property (i) Density

B Extensive Property (ii) Specific volume

(iii) Mass

(iv) Volume

(A) A - (i), (ii), B - (iii), (iv) (B) A - (iii), (iv), 8 - (i), (ii)

(C) A-(i),(iii),B-(ii),tiv) (D) A - (ii), (iv), 8 - (i), (iii)

29. Which of the following is not true for enthalpy h?

(A) h = u + PV
(8) heat supplied at constant pressure is equal to change in enthalpy
(C) h = f(T)
(D) none

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Common Data Questions: 30 to 34

v
When a system is taken from state a to state b along path acb, 80kJ heat flow
into the system and the system does 30kJ of work.
30. What will be the heat flow, if the system is taken from a to b along path adb?
Work done by the system during the process is 15kJ.
(A) 35kJ (B) -35kJ (C) 65kJ (D) -65kJ

31. If the system is taken from b to a along the path ba, work done on the system is
21kJ. ,Compute the heat flow during the process.
(A) 71kJ heat flow into the system (8) 71kJ heat flow from the system
(C) 29kJ heat flow into the system (D) 29kJ heat flow from the system

32. What will be work done during the process bd?

(A) zero (B) 35KJ (C) 71KJ (D) none of these

33. ' If Us and Ud are 0 and 40kJ respectively, heat flow in the process ad would be
(A) 52kJ (B) -52kJ (C) 57kJ (D) -57kJ

34. Compute the heat flow in the process db.

(A) 10kJ (B) 50kJ (C) 22kJ (D) 8kJ

35. In a steady flow process,

(i) Amount of heat entering the control volume is equal to amount of heat
leaving the control volume.
(ii) Properties at any point of control volume does not cha nge with time.
(A) Only (i) is true
(B) Only (ii) is true
(C) (i) is the correct explanation for (ii)
(D) Both are false

36. Steady flow energy equation can not be applied to

(A) I.C. engine (8) Steam nozzle (C) Gas turbine (D) Steam t urbine

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Common Data Questions: 37 to 40

A reciprocating air compressor takes in 2m 3/min at O.l1MPa, 20°C which it

delivers at 1. 5 MPa and 111 Dc.

37. What would be the mass flow rate?

(A) 2.616 kg/sec (8) 2.616 kg/min
(C) 2.616 kg/hr. (D) None of these

38. What would be the compressor work, if there is no loss of heat?

(A) 3.987kW (8) 3.987kJ/min (C) 3.987kJ/hr (D) none of these

39. Determine the heat transfer if compressor consumes 4.15kW of power.

(A) 0.16kJ/s of heat from the system
(8) 0.16 kJ/s of heat into the system
,(C) 0.16kJ/min of heat from the system
(D) 0.16kJ/min of heat into the system

40. If after leaving the compressor air enters the intercooler where it is cooled at
constant pressure to 25 DC. Compute the heat transfer in intercooler.
(A) 2.88kJ/s from the system (8) 2.88 kJ/s to the system
(C) 3.77kJ/s from the system (D) 3.77kJ/s to the system

41. If two liquids at different temperature are mixed, then the final temperature of
the liquids can be obtained by using
(A) zeroth law of thermodynamics (8) first law of thermodynamics
(C) second law of thermodynamics (D) third law of thermodynamics

42. A refrigerator is placed in a room, if the door of the refrigerator is open then, it
will
(A) Not affect the temperature of room
(8) Increase the temperature of room
(C) Decrease the temperature of room
(D) Initially increase then decrease

43. A system undergoes a change of state during which 120kJ of heat is transferred
to it and it does 80kJ of work. The system is brought back to original state
through a process during which 80kJ of heat flows from the system. The work
done
(A) on the system is 10kJ (8) by the system is 10k]
(C) on the system is 150kJ (D) none of these

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44. A engine working on carnot cycle has efficiency of 30%, if it is reversed and used
as refrigerator, its COP will be
(A) 1.33 (8) 2.33 (C) 3.33 (0)4.33

45. A cyclic heat engine operates between a source temperature of BOOoC and a sink
temperature of 30°C. What is the least rate of heat rejection per kW net output of
the engine?
(A) lkW (8) O.BkW (C) 2kW (0) O.4kW

46. A domestic food freezer maintains a temperature of -15°C. The ambient air
temperature is 30°C. If heat leaks into the freezer at the continuous rate of
1.75kJ/s, what is the least power necessary to pump the heat out?
(A) 0.31kW (8) 0.7kW (C) 1.5kW (0)2.13kW

47. It is impossible by any procedure to reduce any system to the absolute zero of
temperature in finite number of operations is
(A) zeroth law of thermodynamics (8) first law of thermodynamics
(C) second law of thermodynamics (0) third law of thermodynamics

4B. Third law of thermodynamics can be proved by

(A) It is a thermodynamics law based on observations and can not be proved
(8) First law of thermodynamics
(C) Second law of thermodynamics
(0) Zeroth law of thermodynamics

49. Flow of heat from the hot body to cold body can be explained by
(A) zeroth law of thermodynamics (8) first law of thermodynamics
(C) second law of thermodynamics (0) third law of thermodynamics

50. Which of the following statement is not true?

(i) The efficiency of all reversible heat engines operating between the same
temperature limits has same efficiency.
(ii) No heat engine can have efficiency higher than a reversible engine for same
temperature limit.
(iii) Efficiency of reversible heat engine is independent of working substance.
(A) only (ii) (8) (i) & (ii) (C) (i), (ii) & (iii) (0) (i) & (iii)

51. The work done by 0.07kg of air when expands according to PV n = constant is
7.6KJ. The temperature of air falls from and initial value of 1050 C to a final
volume of 130 C during the process. The change of entropy during the process is
(A) 0.00926 KJ/K, decrease (8) 0.00926 KJ/K, increase
(C) 0.00629 KJ/K, decrease (0) 0.00629 KJ/K, increase

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Common Data Questions: 52 to 56

Two reversible heat engines A and 6 are arranged in series. A is rejecting heat
directly to 6. Engine A receives 200kJ at a temperature of 421°C from a hot
source, while engine 6 is in communication with a cold sink at a temperature of
4.4°C; the work output of A is twice that of 6.
52. Heat rejected to cold sink is
(A) 40kJ (6) 60kJ (C) 80kJ (D) 100kJ

53. Heat received by engine 6 is

(A) 60kJ (6) 80kJ (C) 100kJ (D) 120kJ

54. Efficiency of engine A is

(A) 33.3% (6) 50% (C) 40% (D)47%

55. Efficiency of engine 6 is

(A) 33.3% (6) 50% (C) 40% (D)47%

56. Intermediate temperature between two engines is

(A) 123.2°C (6) 143.4°C (C) 167.1 0C

Common Data Questions: 57 to 60

One kg of ice at -5°C is exposed to the atmosphere which is at 20°e. The ice
melts and comes into thermal equilibrium with the atmosphere.
57. The change in entropy of ice when temperature changes from -5°C to OOC is
(A) 0.0389kJ/k (6) 0.0287kJ/k (C) 0.0177kJ/k (D) none

58. The change in entropy of ice in complete process is

(A) 0.127kJ/k (6) 0.296kJ/k (C) 0.324kJ/k (D) 1.5549kJ/k

59. The change in entropy of environment during the process is

(A) -1.46kJ/k (6) 1.46kJ/k (C) 2.67kJ/k (D)-2.77kJ/k

60. Change in the entropy of environment is

(A) -0.0949kJ/k (6) 0.0949kJ/k (C) -0.136kJ/k (D) 0.136kJ/k

61. The compressibility factor and the Joules Thomson coefficient for an ideal gas are
respectively .
(A) zero and unity (6) unity and zero
(C) zero and zero (D) unity and unity

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62. The compressibility factor for a real gas is

(A) :~ and should always be a fraction only

(8) ::. and should always be unity only

(C) :~ and should always be more than unity

(D) ~~ and should always be more than unity

63. Consider the three systems

a. An electric heater
b. A gas turbine
c. A reciprocating compressor.
Now the steady flow energy equation can be applied to the set of
(A) a, and b (8) band c (C) a, band c (D) a and c

64. The energy is an X property and the temperature is an Y property. The words X
and Y respectively are
(A) intensive and extensive (8) intensive and intensive
(C) extensive and extensive (D) extensive and intensive

65. The systems A and 8 recorded an increase in their entropies of

(AS)A and (As)Bdue to some process. It is given that (AsB) < (AS)A' From this it
may be conclude that
(A) System A is less irreversible than system 8
(8) System 8 is less irreversible than system A
(C) Systems A and 8 are equally irreversible.
(D) None of these

66. The sink temperature of a Carnot engine is 17°C and its efficiency is 60%. The
percent decrease in the temperature of the sink required keeping the source
temperature constant to make the efficiency 65% is
(A) 22.5% (8) 12.5% (C) 32.5% (0)42%

67. 10 kg of oxygen (02 ) is heated in a non-flow reversible constant volume process

from a temperature of 67°C till its pressure is doubled. The speCific heat at
constant volume of the gas is 0.652kJ/kg-K. The heat added and the final
temperature attained in the process is
(A) 2271 kJ and 860 0 K (8) 2217 kJ and 680 0 K
(C) 2750 kJ and 680 0 K (D) 2570 kJ and 860 0 K

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68. A perfect gas is heated at constant pressure from an initial volume of 2 m 3 to a

final volume of 4 m 3 • If the final temperature of the gas after heating is 567°C,
the initial temperature of the gas from which the heating has taken place is
(A) 174°C (B) 174°K (C) 147°K (D) 147°C

69. For Ethane, the molecular weight is 30 and its r

is 1.188. Its C p and Cv values
are (take universal gas constant as 8314 J/kg-K) respectively
(A) 1.5 and 1.345 (B) 1.345 and 1.5
(C) 1.75 and 1.473 (D) 1.473 and 1.75

70. There are two Carnot engines A and B. They work in series between a sink and
source whose temperatures are 370 0 K and 650 0 K. If engines A and B develop
equal power, the intermediate temperature is
(A) the geometric mean of source and sink temperatures and is equal to 490 0 K
(B) the arithmetic mean of source and sink temperatures and is equal to 237°C
(C) the harmonic mean of the source and sink temperatures and is equal to
235.78°K
(D) the harmonic mean of the source and sink temperatures and is equal to
237°C

71. Two spheres of each 3.0 meters in diameter are connected to each other by a
valve. The first sphere contains 20 kg of air and the second one 10 kg of air,
when the valve is in closed condition. What will be the pressure in the spheres
when the system attains the equilibrium after opening the valve? (Take the
temperature of both spheres as 27°C)
(A) 0.91535 bar (B) 0.93135 bar (C) 0.93315 bar (0)0.91355 bar

72. A perfect gas has Cp value of 1.967kJ/kg-K and Cv value of 1.507kJ/kg-K. Its
reversible adiabatic index (r) and molecular weight respectively are
(A) 1.3 and 18 (B) 0.766 and 28
(C) 0.766 and 18 (D) 1.3 and 28

73. For a closed system, the maximum useful work is X than/to the maximum work
and for steady flow system the maximum useful work is Y than/to the maximum
work. The words X and Y that fill up the blanks are respectively
(A) Less, equal (B) Equal, less (C) Equal, more (D) More, equal

74. Choose the correct statement among these

(A) As both heat an work are mutually convertible, they both accompany the
flow of disorder.
(B) As both heat and work are mutually convertible, they both do not accompany
the flow of disorder.
Cq Work together accompanies the flow of disorder.
(D) Heat transfer accompanies the flow of disorder.

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75. A refrigerator operating between temperature limits Tl (source) and T2 (sink) has
a COP value equal to the efficiency of a heat engine working between the
reservoirs and rejecting only 50% of the heat received from the source to the
sink. The ratio of (~ )for this device is
(A) 3 (B) 2 (C) 1 (D).!.
3 2

76. Let 'T' and 'P' are the temperature of a real gas and pressure. The real gas will
start behaving like an ideal gas when
(A) P and T both tends to be infinitesimally small
(B) P tends to be infinitesimally small and T tends to be infinitely large
(C) P and T both tend to be infinitely large
(D) P tends to be infinitely large and T tend to be infinitesimally small

77. Consider the equations

oQ = Tds - (I) and Tds = du + pdV - (II).
Now TRUE statement about them is
(A) Both the equations are valid only for reversible thermal processes.
(B) Neither of equations is valid for reversible thermal processes.
(C) Equation (First) is valid for reversible thermal processes and second equation
is valid for reversible or irreversible thermal processes.
(D) Second Equation is valid for reversible thermal processes while first equation
is valid for reversible or irreversible thermal processes.

78. Vander wall's constant of a real gas relate to its P and Q while compressibility
factor of a real gas is a function of X and Y. The blanks P, Q, X, Y respectively are
(A) Pressure, volume, pressure and temperature
(B) Pressure, volume, pressure and volume
(C) Pressure, temperature, pressure and volume
(D) Temperature, volume, pressure and temperature

79. 4 kg of air is cooled at constant pressure from 800 0 K to 450 o K. The available and
unavailable energies for this process are respectively (Assume surroundings at
300 0 K)
(A) 694 kJ and 713 kJ (B) 713 kJ and 694 kJ
(C) 731 kJ and 649 kJ (D) 649 kJ and 731 kJ

80. A vessel contains 2.5m 3 0f N2 (perfect gas) at 10 bar and 370 o K. This is cooled
and brought to 8 bar and 290 o K. Calculate change in enthalpy and entropy
(Cp for N2 is 0.04kJ/kg-K). .
(A) 83.2kJ/kg and 0.181 kJ/kg-K (B) 83.2kJ/kg and 0.253kJ/kg-K
(C) -83.2kJ/kg and -0.181 kJ/kg-K (D) -83.2kJ/kg and-0.253kJ/kg-K

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8.1, Two Carnot engines are working witll a SOl/rce temperatllre 600°K. Tlte sink or
temperature for first Carnot engine is 310 0K and that for the second is 330 0K.
The efficiency of the second engine compared to first engine is
(A) 3.33% more (6) 3.33% less (C) 6.66% more (D) 6.66% less

82. A 2 m3 tank is filled with air at 5 bar and 123°C. Now the air is released to
atmosphere by means of a valve. Assume for air C p = 1.005 kJ/kg-K ,
Cv = 0.72 kJ/kg-K and atmospheric pressure to be 1 bar. The initial mass of air
and final temperature of the air due to the operation are
(A) 8.8 kg and 2500K (6) 8.8 kg and 23°K
(C) 8.8 kg and -23°K (D) 8.8 kg and 250°C

83. Air enters a reciprocating compressor at 2 x 105 Pa and 27°C having a specific
volume of 1.8 m 3 /kg and it is compressed to 6 x 105 Pa isothermally. For this
system
(A) Work is done on the system and heat is added to system and is equal to
359.5 kJ/kg.
(6) Work is done on the system and heat is rejected by the system and is equal
to 395.5 kJ/kg.
(C) Work is done by the system and heat is rejected by the system and is equal
to 359.5 kJ/kg.
(D) Work is done by the system and heat is rejected by the system and is equal
to 395.5 kJ/kg.

84. The availability of a system will be more when the heat loss is taking place at
(A) A lower temperature than the same loss occurs at a higher temperature
(6) A higher temperature than the same loss occurs at a lower temperature
(C) The temperature at which heat loss occurs is not at all a criteria in fixing the
availability
(D) It is difficult to predict the availability of a system based on the loss
occurring at a certain temperature only

85. "It is impossible to construct an engine which while operating in a cycle produces
no other effect except to extract heat from a single reservoir and do equivalent
amount of work" - the statement is known as the
(A) Clausius statement (6) Kelvin Planck statement
(C) Clausius inequality (D) Carnot's Hypothesis

86. A reversible engine between temperature limits of Tl and T2 drives a reversible

pump. It absorbs a heat quantity of Q1 at Tl and rejects a heat quantity of

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~ at T2 • The heat pump abstracts a heat of ~ from sink at T4 and discharges a

heat of Q3 at T3 • The ratio of (~ )Will be equal to

87. Air suffers expansion in a turbine from pressure 360 KPa to 90 KPa due to which
its temperature falls from 750 0 K and 550 0 K. In the expansion process it looses 9
kJ/kg of heat to surroundings which are at 22°c' The irreversibility for the
process is (For airCp = 1.005 kJ/kgoK)
(A) 43.3 kJ/kg (8) 74.5 kJ/kg (e) 91.95 kJ/kg (0)95.4 kJ/kg

88. A vessel of 0.03m3 capacity contains gas at 3.5 bar and 35°e temperature. What
will be the temperature of the gas if the pressure is increased to 14 bar? Also
calculate mass of the gas in the vessel (for gas R = 290 J/kg-K)
(A), 0.1175 kg and 959°C (8) 0.1715 kg and 995°e
(C) 0.1175 kg and 959°K (D) 0.1715 kg and 995°K

89. The compressibility factor for Nitrogen (N2 ) is 1.08 the density of N2 at 275 bar
and 17°C is equal to
(A) 320 kg/ m3 (8) 269 kg/ m3 (C) 300 kg/ m3 (D) 296 kg/ m 3

90. Nitrogen gas behaving as perfect gas is compressed from "l bar, 290 0 K to 5 bar
290 0 K. Due to this process, the change in entropy of the gas and the heat
rejected are (R = 297 J/kgoK for N2 gas)
(A) 0.487 kJ/K and 136.8 kJ (8) 0.478 kJ/K and 138.6 kJ
(<:;) 0.456 kJ/K and 132.5 kJ (D) 0.465 kJ/K and 135.2 kJ
91. Specific heat for liquids is
(A) Function of temperature and depends upon the process
(8) Function of temperature and does not depend upon the process
(C) Neither function of temperature nor depends upon the process
(D) Not function of temperature but depends upon the process

92. A domestic refrigerator is loaded with food and the door is closed. In 3 hours,
refrigerator consumes energy at the rate of 212 kW/hour and internal energy of
system drops by 600 kJ. The net heat transfer for the system is:
(A) 1236 kJ of heat flows into the system
(8) 1236 kJ of heat flows out of the system
(C) 821 kJ of heat flows into the system
(D) 812 kJ of heat flows out of the system

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93. If a system goes from state a to state c through curved path ac, work done by
the system is 50 kJ and heat supplied to the system is 70 kJ. If the system takes
the path c - band b - a for returning from c to a. what will be the amount of heat
interaction? Work done by the system during process b - a is 15 kJ.
(A) 5 kJ
(8) 105 kJ
(C) -105 kJ
(D) -5 kJ v

94. Which of the following is correct for a non-flow process in which heat transfer and
internal energ are given by the relation Q = 20 + 3; and du =25dT. (T is in 0C).
The system is changing its temperature from 150°C to 200°C.
(A) Work done by the system is 239.95 J
(8) Work done on the system is 239.95 J
(C) No work is done
(D) None of these

95. A heat engine is supplied with 500 kJ of heat at 352°C and heat rejection by the
engine is 50 kJ. If T is the temperature at which heat rejection takes place then
which of the following relation will make above system impossible.
(A) T = 62.5 (8) T < 62.5 (C) T> 62.5
(D) system is independent of temperature

96. The enthalpy change during a steady flow process is 50 kJ while the pressure
changes from 25KPa to 35KPa and volume changes from 8m 3 to 2.5m 3 • If the
process follows the law pv n = constant then which of the following is true?
(A) 4.55 kJ of heat is rejected by the process
(8) 4.55 kJ of heat is taken into the process
(C) Heat transfer is zero
(D) None of these

97. An ideal gas undergoing an isobaric process changes its volume from 17 m3 to
35 m 3 when 400 kJ of heat is supplied to the gas. The change in temperature
being 150K and process is carried out at a pressure of 20 KPa. What will be the
final velocity of gas if change in velocity of gas during the process being 50 m/s
and mass of gas is 10 k~ Cv = O. 728kJ / kg - K.
(A) 52.816 m/s (8) 62.858 m/s (C) 102.816 m/s (D) 112.858 m/s

98. What will be the specific heat of the gas which undergoes the process shown in
the P-V diagram?

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~ = 5KPa
1 2
p
• • Wi-2 = 25kJ
V2 = 10nT
T2 =327°C
v u2 -u1 = 20kJ
(A) 50 J/K (8) 50 kJ/K (C) 150 J/K (D) 150 kJ/K

99. What will be the value of specific heat at constant pressure if gas constant is 287
J/kg K and adiabatic index is 1.6?
(A) 478.33J/kgK (6) 765.33J/kgK (C) 107.625J/kgK (D) 75.625J/kgK

100. What will be the entropy at the point 3 if entropy at point 1 is 2.25 kJ/K kg?

(4 /5)

p( bar 1 C, - 1.005 kJ/kg K

Cv ,. 0.712 kJ/kg K

o~-------------
----+ 1 (4 / 2)
V-+ m 3

Figure in the bracket shows the co-ordinate of respective pOint.

(A) 2.5835 kJ/kg K (6) 1.9165 kJ/K kg (C) 3.8853 kJ/kg K (D) None of these

101. In a cyclic heat engine operates between a source temperature of 600°C an'd a
sink temperature of 20°c' The least rate of heat rejection per KW net outpu'f''()f
the engine is: '
(A) 0.460 KW (6) 0.650 KW (C) 0.588 KW (D) 0.505 KW

102. A gas under goes a non-flow process according to the law P = (0:5 + 2) bar,
where 'Viis volume in m3 , calculate the change in enthalpy during the process if
20 kJ of heat is rejected from the system. The initial volume is 0.8m3 and at the
end of the process the volume is 0.3m 3 •
(A) 5.21 J (8) -5.21 J (C) -5.21 kJ (D) 5.21 kJ

Common Data Questions: 103 " 104

An insulated vessel of capacity 0.056m 3 is divided into two compartments 1 and

2 by a conducting diaphragm. Each compartment has a capacity of 0.028 m 3 • The
component 1 contains air at a pressure of 1.5bar and 25°C and the compartment
2 contains air at a pressure 4.2bar and 175°C.
103. Find equilibrium temperature in compartment 1.
(A) 410 K (6) 395.5 K (C) 385.5 K (0)374 K

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104. Change of entropy of the system in (kJ/k)

(A) 0.0098 (8) 0.0081 (C) 0.0017 (D)0.0179

105. Three identical bodies at temperatures of 200K, 250K and 540K all having
internal energy=8.4xT kJ. What is the maximum amount of internal energy
change that . can be obtained from a process during which all the bodies are
brought to a common final temperature.
(A) 720 kJ (8) 684 kJ (C) 824 kJ (D) 756 kJ

106. A reversible heat engine operates between 600°C and 40°C and drives a
reversible refrigerator operating between 40°C and -18°e. Still there is net
output of work equal to 370kJ, while the heat received by the engine is 2100 kJ.
Determine the cooling effect.
(A) 4.3 MJ (8) 3.2 MJ (C) 4.8 MJ (D) 3.8 MJ

107. A spherical balloon has a diameter of 0.3 m and contains air at a pressure of 1.5
kg/cm 2 • The diameter of the balloon increases to 0.4 m due to heating and during
this process the pressure is proportional to diameter. Calculate the work done
during the process.
(A) 320.6kgm (8) 343.6kgm (C) 268.7kgm (D) 289.5kgm

108. Check whether it is possible or not

(A) possible

(8) not possible

(C) some t imes it is poss ible and some times not

700kJ

(D) None

109. A cyclic heat engine operates between a source temperature of 10000C and a
sink temperature of 40°C. Find the least rate of heat rejection per kW net output
of the engine
(A) 1 kW (8) 1.326 kW (C) 2.326 kW (D) 0.326 kW

110. If P = pressure, T = temperature, v = specific volume, which one of the following

can be considered as property of a system.

(A) JPdv (8) Jvdp

111. A series combination of two Carnot engines operates between the temperatures
of 180°C a 20°e. Calculate the intermediate temperature, if the engines produce
equal amount of work.
(A) 100°C (8) 91.3°C (C) 95°C (D)373°C

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112. Nitrogen is heated from 7 bars and 27°C to 6.2 bars and 227°c' Calculate the
3
change in entropy assuming Cp = 39.65 - 7.66; 10 kJ / kg /K and R = 0.297
kJ/kg K. Molecular weight = 28.016.
(A) 2.205 kJ/kg K (B) 2.1689 kJ/kg K (C) 2.24 kJ/kg K (0) 1.919 kJ/kg K

113. Two reversible engines A and B take 2400 kJ per minute from a reservoir at 750
K and reject heat to two reservoirs at 650 K and 550 K respectively. Net power
produced by the engines 400 kJ/min. Find the ratio of heat rejected to each sink
by each engines 'B' and 'A'
(A) 2.545 (B) 3.545 (C) 1.282 (0) 0.282

114. A tank containing air is stirred by paddle wheel. The work input to the paddle
wheel is 9000 kJ and the heat transferred to the surrounding from the tank is
3000 kJ. The external work done by the system is.
(A) Zero (B) 3000 kJ (C) 6000 kJ (0) 9000 kJ

115. A heat pump operating on Carnot cycle pumps heat from a reservoir at
temperature 300 K to a reservoir at 600 K. The coefficient of performance is
(A) 1.5 (B) 0.5 (C) 2 (0) 1

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Level - 3

1. If a gas of volume 6000cm 3 and at a pressure of 100kPa is compressed according

to PV2 = constant until the volume becomes 2000cm 3 , determine the work done
during the process.
(A) -1.2kJ (8) 1.2kJ (C) 2.8kJ (D) -2.8kJ

Common Data Questions: 2 to 4

One kg of ideal gas is heated from 18°C to 93°C. Assum ing R = 0.264kJ/kgk and
y=1.18 for the gas and heat transfer is 160kJ.

2. Cp and Cvare
(A) 1.00SkJ/kgk,O.718kJ/kgk (8) 1.062kJ/kgk, 0.798kJ/kgk
(C) 1.00SkJ/kgk, 0.287kJ/kgk (D) 1.731kJ/kgk, 1.467kJ/kgk

3. Change in internal energy of the system is

(A) 170kJ/kg (8) 110kJ/kg (C) 8SkJ/kg (D) 78kJ/kg

4. Work done by the system is

(A) 78kJ (8) 110kJ (C) SOkJ (0)98kJ

Common Data Questions: 5 to 9

A perfect gas for which the ratio of specific heats is 1.4 occupies a volume of
O.3m 3 at 1bar and 27°C, The gas undergoes a compression to 0.06m 3. What will
be the work transfer, if

5. Compression is adiabatic
(A) -68kJ (8) -24kJ (C) -48kJ (D) -S8kJ

6. Compression is isothermal
(A) -68kJ (8) -48kJ (C) -24kJ (D) -62kJ

7. Compression is isobaric
(A) -98kJ (~) -48kJ (C) -24kJ (D) -68kJ

8. Compression follows the linear law and pressure at the end of compression is
Sbar
(A) -68kJ (8) -48kJ (C) -24kJ (D) -43kJ

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9. What will be heat transfer during the compression, if compression follows the law
PVl.l = C; R = O.287kJ/kgk
(A) 84kJ (8) -48kJ (C) -90kJ (D) -40kJ

Common Data Questions: 10 to 17

A mass of air initially at 260 0e and 700kPa, occupies 0.028m 3 • The air IS
expanded at constant pressure to 0.084m 3. A poly-tropic process with n=1.5 is
then carried out, followed by a constant temperature which completes a cycle.

PlI?:
10. Which of the following will represent P-V diagram of the cycle?
(A) (8)

pl~
v v
(e)

pLs;l (D)

v v

11. Which of the following will represent T-S diagram of the cycle?

(A) T~ (6) T~

5 S

ce) CD) none

T~
S

12. What is the mass of air?

(A) 0.128kg (8) 0.158kg (C) 0.218kg (D)0.229kg

13. What is the maximum temperature in the cycle?

(A) 533K (8) 780K (C) 1160K (D)1599K

14. Heat transfer in the process 1-2 is

CA) 81.2kJ (8) 99.021kJ (C) 137.13kJ (D) none of these
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15. Heat transfer in the process 2-3 is

(A) 19.59kJ (8) -19.59kJ (C) 28.2kJ (0)-28.2kJ

16. Heat transfer in the process 3-1 is

(A) -64.53kJ (8) 64.53kJ (C) 87.28kJ (D) -87 .28kJ

17. Efficiency of the cycle is

(A) 32.5% (8) 35.6% (C) 38.7% (0)41.2%

Common Data Questions: 18 &. 19

Air flows steadily at the rate of 0.5kg/s through an air compressor, entering at
7m/sec velocity, 100kPa pressure and 0.95m 3/kg volume and leaving at 5m/sec
700kPa and 0.19m 3/kg. The internal energy leaving air is 90kJ/kg greater than
that of the air entering. Cooling water in the compressor jacket absorbs heat
from the air at the rate of 58kW.

18. Determine the ratio of the inlet pipe diameter to outlet pipe diameter.
(A) 3.21 (8) 2.22 (C) 2.09 (D) 1.89

19. Compute the rate .of shaft work input.

(A) 68kW (8) 108kW (C) 122kW (D) none

Common Data Questions: 20 to 23

A gas undergoes a thermod yn amic cycl e consisting of three processes beginning

at an initial state whe re P1 = 1 bar,V1 = 1. 5m3 and u1 = 512kJ. The processes are as
fo ll ow
(i) Process 1-2: compression with PV=constant, P2 = 2 bar, u2 = 690kJ
( ii) Process 2-3: W23 = 0, Q23 = -1 s0kJ
(iii) Process 3- 1: W3 1 = sOkJ

20. Which of the followi ng is P-V diagram for the cycle?

(A)

P~
v
(8)

PlJ2: v

(C)
PlS}: (D) none

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21. Heat interaction Ql-2 is

(A) -74kJ (8) 74kJ (C) 68kJ (O)none

22. Heat interaction Ql-3 is

(A) -74kJ (8) 74kJ (C) 22kJ (0) 150kJ

23. Work done in the cycle is

(A) 54kJ (8) -54kJ (C) -246kJ (0) 246kJ

24. In an oil cooler, oil flows steadily through a bundle of metal tube submerged in a
steady steam of cooling water. Under steady flow conditions, the air enters at
900C and leaves at 30°C, while the water enters at 25°C and leaves at 70°e. The
enthalpy of oil at tOC is given by h = 1.68t + 10.5 x 10-4t2 kJ / kg. Calculate the
amount of heat given by if the mass flow rate of air is 2.78kg/s.
(A) 210.2kJ (8) 301.2kJ (C) 337.2kJ (0)410.5kJ

25. Calculate mass flow rate of water in question no. 24.

(A) 1.6kg/sec (8) 2.1 kg/sec (C) 2.8kg/sec (0) 3.5kg/sec

Common Data Questions: 26 • 27

A reversible heat engine operates between two reservoirs at temperature of

600°C and 40°C. The engine drives a reversible refrigerator which operates
between reservoirs at temperature of 40°C and -20°e. The heat transfer to the
heat engine is 2000kJ and the net work output of the combined engine
refrigerator plant is 360kJ.

26. What will be the heat transfer to the refrigerant?

(A) 3892kJ (8) 3622kJ (C) 3242kJ (0) 2864kJ

27. Net heat transfer to the reservoir at 40°C is

(A) 4000kJ (8) 5532kJ (C) 6650kJ (0) 3360kJ

Common Data Questions: 28 to 30

Three carnot engines 1,2 and 3 work in series between the temperature limits of
1000k and 300k. The amount of work developed is in proportion of
W1 : W2 : W3 = 4: 3 : 2" the heat supplied by the source is 1000kW

28. Heat rejected to the sink at 300k is

(A) 300K (8) 400K (C) 450K (0)510K

29. Power produced by the engines 1,2,3 are

(A) 200kW, 150kW, 50kW (8) 268kW, 201kW, 1354kW
(C) 311kW, 233kW, 158kW (0) none of these

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. 30. Intermediate temperature between engine 1 and engine 2 is

(A) 780K (6) 740K (C) 689K (D)627K

31. A heat source at 1000k transfers heat at the rate of 2000kJ/s to a system at
400k. Ambient temperature is 300k. Compute the decrease in available energy
after heat transfer. .
(A) 600KJ (6) 7S0KJ (C) 900KJ (D) 10SOKJ

Common Data Questions: 32 & 33

A single stage air turbine is to operate with an inlet pressure and temperature of
6 bar and 900K. Outlet pressure and temperature are 1 bar and 600K. Ambient
conditions are 1 bar and 300K. During expansion turbine looses 20kJ/kg to the
surrounding.

32. Calculate maximum work obtainable.

(A) 290.SkJ (6) 313.SkJ (C) 333.SkJ (D) none

33. What will be change in availability?

(A) UOkJ (6) 8SkJ (C) 6SkJ (D)S2kJ

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Answer Keys
Level - 1
--- ." - - - ~. - -.
--
1 A 2 A 3 C 4 A 5 A 6 A 7 B
8 A 9 B 10 D 11 D 12 D 13 C 14 C
15 A 16 A 17 D 18 D 19 B 20 A 21 C
22 B 23 A 24 C 25 D 26 B 27 D 28 C
29 C 30 B 31 B 32 A 33 D 34 D 35 A
36 B 37 D 38 A 39 B 40 B 41 D 42 A
43 A 44 B 45 C 46 A 47 B 48 D 49 A
50 B 51 B 52 B 53 C 54 D 55 C 56 A
57 C 58 C 59 D 60 C 61 C 62 A 63 D
64 A 65 C 66 C 67 A 68 C 69 B 70 D
71 C 72 B 73 C 74 B 75 B 76 A 77 B
78 D 79 A 80 B 81 C 82 A 83 A 84 A
85 C 86 C 87 B 88 D 89 A 90 A 91 . A
92 B 93 D 94 A 95 C 96 A 97 A 98 A
99 C 100 A 101 B 102 D 103 A 104 C 105 B
106 D 107 C 108 B 109 C 110 C 111 C 112 B
113 D 114 D 115 B 116 A
Level - 2
1 B 2 C 3 A 4 B 5 D 6 D 7 B
8 C 9 D 10 D 11 D 12 B 13 B 14 D
15 D 16 A 17 C 18 D 19 A 20 D 21 C
22 C. 23 D 24 D 25 A 26 D 27 B 28 A
29 D 30 C 31 B 32 A 33 C 34 D 35 B
36 A 37 B 38 A 39 A 40 C 41 B 42 B
43 A 44 B 45 D 46 A 47 D 48 A 49 C
50 C 51 B 52 C ~3 D 54 C 55 A 56 B
57 A 58 D 59 A 60 B 61 B 62 A 63 C
64 D 65 B 66 B 67 B 68 D 69 C 70 A
71 D 72 A 73 B 74 D 75 A 76 B 77 C
78 D 79 B 80 C 81 C 82 A 83 B 84 B
85 B 86 C 87 C 88 A 89 D 90 B 91 B
92 B 93 D 94 B 95 B 96 B 97 C 98 C
99 B 100 B 101 D 102 C 103 B 104 C 105 D
106 A 107 B 108 A 109 D 110 D 111 A 112 C
113 D 114 C 115 C

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Level - 3
1 A 2 D 3 B 4 C 5 A 6 B 7 C
8 D 9 D 10 B 11 A 12 A 13 D 14 C
15 B 16 A 17 C 18 D 19 C 20 A 21 B
22 C 23 B 24 B 25 A 26 A 27 B 28 A
29 C 30 C 31 C 32 B 33 D
Explanations:-
Level - 1
10. Heat and work are path function and not the properties
15. Heat is path function

21. P = Force = 1000 = 127307N/m2 = 1.273 bar

Area ~(O 1)2
4 .

22. c= F - 32 C = 98.6 - 32 C = 3'flC

5 9 '5 9'
2
23. P = pgh = 800x 9.81x 0.80 = 62784 N/m2 = 6.28 kN/ m

24. Atmospheric pressure = 13.6xl000x9.81xO.76= 101396N/m2 = 101.39kN/m2

Absolute pressure = 6.28 + 101.39 = 107.68kN / m2
25. R= 8.314kJ/mol k
PV
26. T = C, :. for constant volume P oc T

27. dQ = du + dw :. du = dQ - d w
39. n=l:. PV=constant or mRT=const ant :. T is consant

48. The cyclic p rocess f dQ = ~ d w : . dw = 14 - 29 + 38 - 27 = 4kJ => 4kJ to the system

49. ~E = m.c.~T = 1. 5 x 2 .5 x 15 = 56.2 5kJ

50. For insulated chamber, dQ = 0 :. 0 = dw + dE :. dw = -56.25kJ
57. a) False because if heat flows from the system entropy of the system will
decrease
b) False, because if heat flows environment to system, entropy of environment
will decrease

58. 1'\ = 1- ~ :. if T2 = 0, 1'\ = 100

1

61. According to clausivs inequality for any process ~~~0

n.en(VII)
n n (P2 ) (Vl)n, (P2 ) en(P /Pd 2
64. P1 V1 = P2V2 , P = V
2
, en P1 = lV :. n = en(VI / V )
2 2
1

65. dQ = du + dw, for adiabatic process dQ=O :. dw=-du=-2kJ

66. du = CvdT, during isothermal process dT=O

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67. Efficiency of carnot engine TIc = 1- T2 = 0.4

T1

:. T2 = 0.6, (CO,P')R = T2 = T2/T1 = 0.6 = 1.5

T1 T1 - T2 1 _ T2 1- 0.6 ":1.
. Tl
68. (CO,P')HP. = (CO,P')R + 1 = 1.5 + 1 = 2.5
.-
69. Heat rejected by refrigerator Q1 = 240kJ I min = 240 I 60kW = 4kW
W = 3kW, Heat received in Qz = Q1 - W = 4 - 3 = lkW

:. CO.P. = Heat received = 1: = 0.5

Work 2
T
89. 1'\ = 1- -1.. = 0.4825 = 48.25%
Tl
V2 T2 V2 (550 + 273)
90.
V1 = Tl 'Vl = (400 + 273)

93. PV=-mRT,125xlOSxO.05=mx297x300 .. m=7.01kg

95. dQ = du + dw , du = -100 kJ, dw = -200 kJ:. dQ = -300 kJ:. 300 kJ
T2 280 T '
97. 1'\ = 1--,0.7 = 1- - , Tl = 933K,0.77 = 1- 9323' T2 = 215K
Tl Tl

99. Cp-C y =R-(i),Cp/C y =y-(ii),from (i) and (ii),C

y
=~,c' =' R.y
y-l p y-l
T 303
100. COP = Tl ~ T2 = 363 _ 303 = 5.05

105. Since two reversible adiabatic never intersect each other, the cycle Is not possible
as there is no heat rejection Q2=0. violates second law.

RTln(~) = 8.314x 200In (~) = -l1S2W

.'
106. q=

107. AM 55 = Ql = 120 + 280, Q2 = 180, n = Q1 - Q2 = 55%

Q1
Level - 2

1. aOem of Hg= 80 x13,600x9.81xl0-3 = 106.7KPa

. 100
2. 0.01 atm = 1.013 x 105 x O.Olx 10-3 = 1.013kPa
3. 1 atm = 1.013x 105 x 10-3 = 1.013x 102kPa
30
30cm Hg = 13600x 9.81x 100 x 10-3 = 40.02kPa
:. the absolute pressure = gauge pressure + atm. pressure
= 101.3 - 40.02 = 61.28kPa = 61.3kPa
Note: minus sign is taken because vacuum pressure is given so the pressure
would be less than Atm .

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4. 1.2bar = 1.2 x 105 x 10-3 = 120kPa

730mm of Hg = 13600x9.Bl X 730 x 10-3 = 97.4kPa

1000
:. the absolute pressure = 97.4+120
125
5. dQ = mCvdt, dQ = m f (0.4 + 0.004t) dt
25

= 6 x ( 0.4t + 0.004 ~ IS = 6 x ( 0.4(125 - 25) + 0.~04 (1252 - 252 )) = 420kJ

6. dQ = du + dw, dw = 0, :. du = 420
7. Heat is not a property. It is path function.
8. Heat and work are path function, so it depends on path rather than end states.
v, v' d
9. dw = pdv, Given that PV=C :. P1V1 = P2V2 = C :. dw = f pdv = c f :
v, v,
V2 V2 m
w=c.en v
=P1 1cn :. W= P1 P1 cn 71 =1.16xO.1xl0
1.5 6 1
cn =-251.63kJ
7
V1 V1

10. PV n = C :. P V n = P V " :. P1 = (V2)" ,:. n = en (PI /P2) = en(BO/400) = 1.337 "" 1.34
1 1 2 2
P2 VI en(V2 /V1 ) Cn(0.1/0.03)

V, v, C v C
11. dw = fv PdV = Cvf v-n .dV = -l-n [ v-n+1] v,' ,W = -(V2
l-n
-n+1 - v/- n)
, ,
n1 1
= P2V/V2- + - P1VI V1 -" = P2V2 - PI Vl = (400 x 0.03 - BOx 0.1) = -11.76kJ
1-n 1-n 1-1.34
12. There is no change in system boundary so flow work is zero
13. For isochoric process dv = 0 :. PdV =0
14. Internal energy is the function of temperature only u = CvdT
n
15. PV = C, if n = 1:. PV = C,According to Gas law PV=nRT
:. nRT=C :. the process woul~ be isothermal
16. For isoba ric process P = C:. n =0
17. For the process 8-C, PV1.3 =C
1.3
:. PsVs = PcVc1.3 :. Pc = Ps (VS)1.3
Vc = SOx (0.4)1.3
O.B = 20.31 bar
. p.~ -P.V
18. Work done In the process = WAS + Wsc = PA (Vs - Va) + S S C c
n-1

= 50(0.4- 0.2) x 100 + (SOx 0.4- 20.31x O.B) x 100 = 2250kJ

1.3-1

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19. Given that, P = aV + b P1 = l.5MPa P2 = 0.15MPa

VI =0.12x(0.35-0.3) =6xlo-3 nT,V2 =0.12xO.35=0.042Sl'T

:.1.5x1~ =a6x1o-3 +b,O.15x1~ =aO.042+b

a = -3.75x107 , b = 1.725x1~ :. P = (-37.5V +1.725)x1~ ,or P = (-37.5V +1.725)MPa

v. v.
20. dw= JPdV, dw= J(-37.5V + 1.725)x106 xdV
V, v,
,
w = [-37.5 (V,' ; v ') + 1.725(V, - V.l] x lcrkJ = 29.7kJ

21. du = CvdT, for isothermal process dT=O:. du=O

dQ = du + dw :. for isothermal process ,dQ = dw

22. For adiabatic process dq = 0, For reversible adiabatic process ds = 0

dq = du + dw :. (du) = (dw)

25. dq = du + dw, dw = P (V2 - Vd = 1(0.06 - 0.03) x 106 x 10-3 = +130kJ

dq = +84:.84 = 30 + du:. du = 54kJ

30. Qacb = ut, - ua + Wacb I 80 = ~ - ua + 30

:. Ub - ua = 50kJ, in the process adb

Qadb = Ub - ua + Wadb = 50 + 15 = 65kJ :. 6SkJ heat flows into the system

31. ~a = ua - Ub + ~a' Wba = -21kJ(Work done on the system)

ua - Ub = -50 :. Qba = -50 - 21 = -71kJ :. 71kJ of heat flows from the system

32. Process bd is isochoric process :. Wbd = 0

Wabd = 15kJ, ~d = 0:. Wad = 15kJ, Ud - ua = 42

:. ~d = 42 + 15 = 57kJ :. 57kJ of heat flows into the system

34. Qadb = Qad + ~d :. ~b = Qadb - Qad = 65 - 57 = 8kJ

35. (i) is false because amount of energy entering the control volume is equal to
amount of energy leaving the control volume and not heat. Heat can be
converted in work
36. I.e. engine is not a steady flow device because properties changes inside the
cylinder with respect to time

37. PV=mRT =0.l1x106 x2=mx287x293,m=2.616kg/min

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38. mh1 = W + mh2, W = mCp (Tl - T2) = 2.61x 1.005x 91 = 239.246kJ/min = 3.987kW
39. Considering the heat loss, Q + mh1 = W x mh2
2.616
Q = -4.15+ 601.005x (111- 20) = -0.16kJI sec

So 0.16kJ of heat leaves the system per sec.

40. Q + mhl = mh2, Q = m(h2 - hd = 2.616 x 1.005 x (25 -111)

= -226.1kJ I min = -3. 77kJ Is:. 3. 77kJ I s heat leaves from the system

42. Heat taken from the room = Ql' Work done on the compressor = W
Heat given to the room = Q1 + W :. Heat taken from the room is lower
than the heat given to it, thus temperature increases.
43. It is cyclic process
:. ~dQ = ~dw + 120 - 80 = 50 + W -10kJ = W :. Work done on the system = 10kJ
66. ~ = 1- ~: ' 0.6 = 1- 2~0 , Tl = 725k,again 0.65 = 1- i5' T2
7
= 253.75

% change in temp = 290;~~3.75 x 100 = 12.5%

T P
67. T2 = p2 , T2 = (67 + 273) x 2 = 680k,Q = mCy ~T = lOx 0.652x(680 - 340) = 2216.8kJ
1 1

68. Tl
- = -,
V1 Tl 2 :. Tl = 420K ~ 1470 c
T2 V2 (273 + 367) 4
8.314
69. Cp -Cy = ~' Cp IC y = 1.188, Cy = 1.473, Cp = 1.75 kJ/kg
...c
72 . y = - p = 1.305, R = - C. = 0.46kJI kgOk
C.
R = Universal Gas Constant :. molecular weight = 8 .3. 16 = 18
molecular weight 0 46

"'Ie =1_ Q2
75 . Q
1
I ST" I
0}w
Sink I

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1
dT 800
79. 51 - 52 = mc
T
pT JT1
= 4x 1.005x (n 450 = 2.313kJ/k
T

Unavailable energy = ToL\5 = 300 x2.313 = 694kJ T. ...................................

o
Heat transfer in process 1-2 5
Ql-2 = mcp (Tl - T2) = 1407kJ, Available energy = 1407-694=713 kJ
T
81. C " = 1- -1..,,, = 48.33% when sink temp. = 310 K
Tl
,,= 45% when sink temp. = 330K
% change in efficiency = 48.33-45 x 100 = 6.8% more
48.33

83. W = Pl Vl fn Pl = 2x lOS x 1.8(n(~) = -395.5kJ

P2 6
W is negative so the work done as the system is 395.5 kJ/kg

86. = 1- T2
c. T1
"

W(1- ~: ) Ql
=

~ = T4
W T3 - T4
~ T4 (Tl - TJ
Ql = Tl (T3 - T4)

87. T

To ...........................................

Change in eRtropy in process 1-2 = c/ n Tl = 0.3117kJ/kgk

T2
Unavailable energy = 0.3117 x (22 + 273) = 91.95kJ / kg
0.03 x 3.5 x 105
88. PlVl = mRTl'm = 290x(273+ 35) = 0.1175kg

14
T2 = P2 , T2 = 3 5 x (273 + 35) = 1232 k = 959°C
Tl Pl .

94. L\u = 25(7; -~) = 25x50 = 1250)

L\Q = Q2 = 1. ( 2 + ~ ) dT = [20T + 351nTt = 1000 + 35x 0.287 = 1010.45

1st law of thermodynam ics, L\Q = L\u + L\w, L\w = L\Q - L\u = -239.95

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en PI 2
96. n :;: ~ :;: 0.288, For steady flow -J v.dp :;: Q- All
in v2 1
v1
n'
:. Q:;: All - Jv.dp:;: Ah + n (n-1
2

1
•.
) (P1V1 - P V 2 2 ):;: +4.55kJ

97. -Aw:;:P(~-~):;:360x103kJ

AU:;: mCy (7; -~) = 10 x 0.728 x 150 = 1.092 x ~03

AQ = Awl + AU + .!m~2 - 1
-2 mV12
. 2
AQ-AIl1-AIl = ; (~2 - ~2):. ~ - Vi = 50ml 5:. ~ = 102.816ml 5

98. Specific heat at constant pressure.cp =, ~h = -t;

ut
i2 - Ti
C = P2V2 + V2 - ~"1 - Vi = (P2V2 - J1Vd + (V2 - Vd
p
T2 -7i T2 -7i
C = P (V2 - Vd + (V2 - Vd = 25 x 103 + 20 X 103
p ~-7i ~ - 7i

from J1"1 = P2V2 ~ 7i = 300K :. Cp = 45x loJ = 150 J/K

7i ~ 300

99. Cp - Cv = Rand Cp = y, Cp = -Y- R = 765.33 ) I kg - K

Cv y-1

100. 52 - 51 P2
= 2.3Cv log-,5 V3
52 = 2.3Cp log-
3 -
Pi V2

~ -~ = 2.3[Cp log \.) + Cv 109P2],~ = ~ + 2.3[Cp log \.) +Cv 10g'&] = 1.9165kJ I kgK
~ A ~ A
· ff' . ~ -7; 873- 293 580
101. MaXlmum e IClency = T. ' = 293 = 293
1

Word done 580 . . 293

I h . . = 293 ' Least heat rejection per kW
east eat rejection
= 580 x 1kW = 0.505kW

102. dH = dQ + Vdp, p = (0.15 + 2),dP = -0.;5 dv bar

. V V

dH = dQ - 0.15x 10-2 d: = -20 - 0.15x 102 {logV)~:~ = -20+ 14.7 = -5.2165

M = ~Vi = 0.15x10 xO.028 =0.049 k
6
103.
1 R~ 287x 298 g
P'\I.
~ = -Ll. = 0.09 kg,M1CV (TF -71) = M2CV (T2 - TF), TF = 395.5K
RT2

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104. Change of entropy of the system = (dS)1 + (dS)2

(dS)1 = 2.3M1 xCv XIOg(~) = 2.3XO.049XO.712.I09(3i:s5 ) = 0.0098
(dS)2 = 2.3M2 X Cv x IOg(~) = -0.0081, (ds) = 0.0098 - 0.0081 = O'.0017kJ / K
105. Let final temperature = 'T
Heat removed, Q1 = C (200 - T), Q2 = C (250 - T), Q3 = C (540 - T)
W = 8.4(200 + 250 + 540 - 3T) = 8316 - 25.2T
T T T
~1 = Cln 200 ;~2 , = Cfn 250;~ = Cfn 540
. T3
For maximum work, ~ = ~1 + ~2 +~ = a = Cf n 27xl06 = a

l
T3
=
a =f 1
~
T3 = 27 X 106 ~ T = 300K
n 27xl06 n W = 8316- (25.2x300) = 756kJ
,
106. ~ = 873K
7; = 313K
7; = 255K 2100 kJ

T" = 313K
TJe
= 873873
- 313 = 64 1501.
. 10

Q1 = 2100kJ

=Ql-Q2=2100-Q2.n =7529kJ
TJE Q 2100 '''<2 •
1

W = Q1 - Q2 = 1347kJ = Qs + 370kJ
:. C2s = 977.1kJ

For the refrigerator, ~n = Q. - Q3' C;OPR = Q3 = Q3 = _1_ = _1_ = 4.4

~n Q.-Q3 £4_ 1 T"_l
~ 7;
~ = 4.4x~n = 4.4xQs = 4299kJ, Cooling effect = 4299kJ- 4.3MJ
107. Let d, and d2 be the initial and final diameters of the balloon.
~ = Kd~ (As pressure at any time is proportional to the diameter)
~ =Kd2

~ = 1.5kg / crrt ,d1 = 0.3m,d2 = O.4m

K = 1.5xl0" kg
0.3 ~

Work done = f pdv; p = Kd

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wllhoUlIhe wrtllen permilSion, 1.5
 I ME I Corresponden'c e Course

0.4 4
Work done = JKd -l(d
0.3 8
2dd = 343.6kgm

108. From Calus ius- sequat ion, If, ~ d~ > 0, system is possible

J. dQ 1000 400 700 "

'fT = 2000 + 500 - 800 = 0.425 > 0, It IS possible.

109. '!max
7; -- 1 - 1273
= 1 - T. 313 -- 0 . 754, WQnet - -
-'!max -
0 • 75 4
1 1

Q1 = 0~54 = 0.;54 = 1.326kW,Q2 = Q 1 - Wnl!t = 0.326kW

~-------'

111.

>--_...w

112.

= _ 1_ T ( 39.65 _7.66~103 ) dT_R6fdP =2.24kJ/kgK

m.wt· 300 T T 7 P
113. QA + QB = 2400
QA2 + QS2 = 2000
QA + QA2 =? 50...:...650 =0 1333
QA 750 .
QA = 1. 1539QA2
parallely,
Qs 1. 3636QB2
=
i.e, 1. 1539QA2 + 1.3636Qs2 = 2400
QA2 = 2000 - QS2
i.e,1.1539x (2000 - QS2) + 1.3636Qs2 = 2400 ~ QS2 = 440kJ and QA2 = 1560kJ
114. Change in internal energy = network done - net heat lost
= 9000 - 3000 = 6000 kJ
115. COP = Heating effect = 7; = 60~~~00 = 2
Work done T2 - ~

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Level- 3
Vz
1. W= JPdV, according to given law PV2 = PI Vl 2 = P2 vl = C
Vi

w= f~
Vi V
dV = -C [!]Vz
V
= C [~ - ~] = PI VI - P2V2
Vi VI V2

P2 =(~~r PI =90OkPa:. W=(100x60~0-900x2000)X10-6kJ=-1.2kJ

2. Cp -Cy = R = 0.264 ... (i)

~: =r=1.18 ... (ii),from (i) and (ii),Cv =1.467kJ/kgK,Cp = 1.731kJ/kgK

3. AU = mCydT = 1.467x (93 -18) = 110.025kJ

4. dQ = du + dw, 160 = 110 + dW,dw = 50kJ

5. For,adiabatic compression PVY = C :. P2 = ( ~~ r PI = 9.518 bar

For ad ·la bat'IC compression

. W = PI VI -P2V2 = 100xO.3-951.8xO.06 = - 677kJ
kJ .
r-1 1.4-1

6. For isothermal compression W = PI VI en V2 = -48.28kJ

VI
7. In isobaric process W = P(V2 - Vd = 100 (0.06 - 0.3)kJ = -24kJ
8. Compression is following linear law
:. P = mV + C'PI = mVI + Ci 105 = 0.3m + C. .. (i)

P2 = mV2 + C, 5x 105 = 0.06m + C... (ii), fro m (i) and (ii)

v.
m = -16.67x10s , C = 6x10 s :. P = (-16.67V + 6) x lOOkPa:. W = J(-16.67V + 6)10Odv
Vi

V2 jO.03
= 100 [ -16.67 + 6V = 100(0.1725- 0.5994) = -42.69 =-43kJ
2 0.6

9. W = PIVI -P2V2 'P = (Vl)l.l PI = 5.87 bar, W = (l x O.3-5.87xO.06)x100 kJ = -52.2kJ

n-l 2 V2 1.1-1

T2 =(~: f' T, =352.41<, Cp - Cv = 0.287 ... (i), C, / Cv =1.4... (ii~

:. Cy = O. 717kJ / kgk, from the first law,dQ=du+dw,dQ=m.CydT + dw

Now m = PI VI = 0.348kg :. dQ = 0.348 x 0.717 x (352 - 300) - 52.2::::: -39.2kJ

R.TI

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12. PI VI = mRTI , 700 x 0.028 = m x 0.287 x (260 + 273), m = 0.1281<g

13.

T
zJ2
1 3
5

From the T-S diagram, Tmax = T2 , T2 = 15991<

14. In constant pressure process 1-2

Ql-2 = mCp (T2 - Td = 0.128 x 1.005(1599 - 533) = 137.13kJ

15. In poly-tropic process 2-3, Q2-3 = mCv (n -

n-l
1) (T3 - T2), T3 = Tl = 533k
~-3 = 0.128x 0.718(\~5-_\4}533 -1599) = -19.59kJ
16. V P
~-l = du + W3- 1 , ~-l = W3- 1 = mRT1 en -.!.. = mRT1 en-1.
V3 P1

from the process, 2 - 3,J.'= -1.

P (T )n/n-1 = 27,P2 = P . PI - 27
P3 T3 1 .. P -
3

... ~-1 = 0.128XO.287xS33cn(217) = -64.S3kJ

W
17. T) = Cls ' W = Qs - Q"Cls = 137.13,Q, = 19.59 + 64.53 = 84.12~
W = 137.13 - 84.12 = 53.01,T) = 53.01 = 38.7%
137.13

18. m=A1 V1 =A2V2 =>A1 x7 = A2S,~= (dl )2 =3.57143=1.89

v1 v2 0.95 0.19 A2 d2

19. Applying SFEE => Q, + m( P,V, + u,. + 2~~O J= W + m(P,V, + U, + 2~~O J

W=Q, +m({p, V, -P,V,)+{U, -U,)+ V1~~o~,'l
=-58 + 0.5[(100X .95 -700x 0.19) - 90 + 7~0-0~2l = -121.99kJ = -122kW

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:~,
22. ~1 = Ul - U3 + W31
from the process 2-3'~_3 = U3 - U2 + W23
p
2 - 3 is isochoric process :. ~-3 = 0 -150 = u3 - 690
U3 = 540kJ:. Q31 = 512 - 540 + W31
~1 =512-540+50=22kJ
v
23. L W = L Q = 74 + 22 -150 = -54kJ
24. Q + mhta = mk21 , m = 2.78kg / s, h = 1.68t + 10.5 x 10-4t2kJ / kg
ht = 159.7kJ/kg, h2 = 51.34kJ/kg
Q + 2.78x (159.7) = 51.34x 2.78,Q = -301.2kJ
25. Applying SFEE for cooling water
Q + mhtw ± mh2w ,Q± mC pw (T2w - T1w ) ,301.2 = mx 4.18(70 -25),m = 1.6kg/ sec
26. Given Q1 = 2000kJ
W = 360kJ
313
l'\H.f = 1- 873 = 0.6415
:. W1 = l'\H.E.Ql = 0.6415x2000 = 1283kJ
:. W2 = W1 - W = 1283-360 = 923kJ
253
(COP')R = 313-253 = 4.217

(COP)R =~
2
3131<
Q3 = 3892kJ

27. Heat given to reservoir at 40°C

= Q1 - W1 + ~ + W2 = 2000 - 1283 + 3892 + 923 = 5532kJ

28.

Wz - 3x

W, ., 2x

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29. Wnet = Qs - Q, = Q1 - C4 = 700kW I ~et = ~ + ~ + ~/700 = 4x+3x+2x,x= 77.7778

:. WI = 311. llkW, W2 = 233.33kW, W3 = lSS.S6kW

30. Q1 = Q2 Q = Q _ W = 1000 _ 311 = 689 1000 = 689 . T = 689k

Tl T2 I 2 1 1 1000 T2 " 2

31. Change in availability = 1':0 (65) . = 300(_ 1__ _ 1_)X2000 = 9000kJ

universe 400 1000

32. Maximum work = (hi - h2) - To (51 - 52) - Q2

= Cp (Tl - T2) - To (Ren P2 - CpCn T2) - 20 = 313.Skg

PI Tl

33. Decrease in availability = To (cpen T2 - RCn P2 + Q2)

Tl PI To
600 1 20 )
=300 ( 1.00SCn900-0.287Cn6+300 =S2kJ/kg

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CIJ.
U
--
E
CD
I-
-a Topic·s Covered
..
o
E
CD
.&:
• Rankine Cycle

• Steam Turbines

I- • Nozzle
-a
-A.
--CD

a.
C

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Level - 1

1. Flow through the nozzle is regarded as

(A) Constant pressure flow (8) Constant volume flow
(C) Isenthalpic flow (D) Isentropic flow

2. Flow through the nozzle in ideal condition can be represented on mollier diagram
by
(A) A horizontal line (8) A vertical line
(C) An inclined line with positive slope (D) An inclined with negative slope

3. In to flow through nozzle, no heat is supplied to the steam

(A) True (8) False

4. Flow through nozzle can be considered as steady flow process

(A) True (8) False

5. During flow through nozzle, press re of the steam ........ and enthalpy ...... ..
(A) Increases, decreases (8) Increases, also increases
(C) Decreases, also decreases (D) Decreases, increases

6. Critical pressure ratio is given by

" " " "
(A) P2 = (_2_)n+l
PI n-l
(B) P2 = ( _ 2_ )n-l
PI n+ 1
(C) :~ =(n;l)"+l (D)~=(n;lfl

7. In nozzle, frictional loss is assumed to occur at

(A) Convergent portion (8) Divergent portion
(C) Both (A) & (8) (D) None of these

8. Friction in nozzle causes

(A) Decrease in the mass flow rate and increase in dryness fraction
(8) Decrease in the mass flow rate and decrease in dryness fraction
(C) Increase in the mass flow rate and decrease in dryness fraction
(0) Increase in the mass flow rate and increase in dryness fraction

9. Poly-tropic index n is considered as 1.3, and then the critical pressure ratio would
be
(A) 0.546 (8) 0.586 (C) 0.617 (D) 0.831

10. In a convergent-divergent nozzle, the flow of steam is supersonic at

(A) The entrance of nozzle (8) The throat of the nozzle
(C) In the convergent portion (D) In the divergent portion

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11. The difference of supersaturated temperature and saturated temperature at that

pressure called
(A) Degree of super heat (B) Degree of under cooling
(C) Degree of super saturation (D) None of these

12. Nozzle efficiency is defined as

(A) Actual heat drop/isentropic heat drop
(B) Isentropic heat dry/actual heat drop
(C) Actual exit velocity/isentropic velocity at exit
(D) None of these

13. Degree of reaction is defined as the ratio of

(A) Heat drop in fixed blade to the heat drop in moving blade
(B) Heat drop in moving blade to he heat drop in fixed blade
(C) Heat drop in moving blade to total heat drop in three stage
, (D) Heat drop in fixed blade to the total heat drop in stage

14. The isentropic entha lpy drop in moving blade is 60% of isentropic enthalpy drop
in fixed blade, degree of reaction would be
(A) 0.6 (B) 0.5 (C) 0.475 (D) 0.375

15. Diagram efficiency is the ratio of

(A) Work done on the blades to the energy supplied to the blades
(B) Work done on the blade per kg of steam to the total energy supplied per
stage
(C) Energy supplied to the blades to the total energy supplied to the blade
(D) None of these

16. The stage efficiency (TIs) is given by

"
(A) "s = TIs x"N (B) "s = TIs /"N (D) None of these
"N 7 Nozzle efficiency
"s 7 Blading efficiency

17. The compounding of turbine is done in order to

(A) Reduce speed of ro or (B) Improve efficiency
(C) Reduce losses (D) All of these

18. The maximum efficiency of a reaction turbine is

2 2 2 2
(A) 2 sin a (B) 2 cos a (C) 2 sin a (D) 2cos a
1 + sin2 a 1 + cos2 a 1 + cos2 a 1 + sin2 a
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19. Efficiency of impulse turbine is maximum at

(A) Vb = O.SV cos (X (B) Vb = V cos (X
(C) Vb = O.SV COS2 (X (D) Vb = V sinl (X
Vb = Blade speed, V= Absolute velocity of steam entering the blade
(X= nozzle angle

20. Rat~au turbine is a

(A) Simple reaction turbine (B) Velocity compounded turbine
(C) Pressure compounded turbine (D) Pressure-veIodty CDl'1'1JOunded turbine

21. Curtis turbine is a

(A) Simple reaction turbine (B) Velocity compounded turbine
(C) Pressure compounded turbine (D) Pressure-veIodty CDl'1'1JOunded turbine

22. Parson turbine is

(A) 50% reaction turbine (B) Impulse turbine
(C) Francis turbine (D) Propeller Turbine

23. De-level turbine is

(A) 50% reaction turbine
(6) Impulse turbine
(C) '-.'elocity compounded turbine
(D) Pressure-Velocity compounded turbine

24. 0.2m3 of Wet steam is at a pressure of 4bar and a dryness fraction of 0.85. If at
4 bar the specific volume of dry-steam (v g ) is 0.462m3 /kg, the mass of steam
will be
(A) 5.1 kg (B) 0.45 kg (C) 4.5 kg (0)0.51 kg

25. In a steam vapour mixture, the mass of vapour is 12 kg while that of liquid is 8
kg. The quantity of the mixture is

(A) ~ (6) 12 (C) 12 (D) 20

12 8 20 12

26. The triple point is represented on P-T and P-V diagrams for a pure substance
respectively as
(A) Point and triangle (B) Triangle and point
(C) Point and line (D) Line and point

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27. In ideal Rankine cycle, reheating is normally resorted primarily

(A) To limit the quality of steam after expansion
(B) To increase the heat input
(C) To increase the heat rejection
(D) To decrease the work output

28. Of the Rankine cycle (RC) and Brayton cycle (BC),

(A) Both use vapour as the working fluid for them
(B) Both use gas as the working fluid for them
(C) RC uses gas as the working fluid while BC uses vapour as the working fluid
(D) BC uses gas the working fluid and RC uses vapour as the working fluid

29. The flow order of fluid (steam) in an ideal regenerative Rankine cycle is (T -
turbine, B - Boiler, C - Condenser, P - Pump)
(A) C ~ P ~ B (B) P ~ T ~ B (C) T ~ C ~ B (O)T ~ B ~ P

30. The limiting quality of steam after expansion in turbine of a Rankine cycle is
(A) 0.8 dry (B) 0.6 dry (C) 0.75 dry (D) 0.85 dry

31. In the turbine of a steam power plant working on the ideal Rankine cycle, the
process that takes place is
(A) Isentropic expansion (8) Isentropic compression
(C) Free expansion (D) Adiabatic expansion

32. In Carnot and Rankine cycles, the heat addition and heat rejection process take
place at respectively
(A) Constant pressure and constant temperature
(B) Constant temperature and constant pressure
(C) Constant temperature and constant volume
(D) Constant volume and constant temperature

33. Lowering of the condenser pressure in a steam power plant working on idea
Ranking cycle
(A) Decreases the condenser temperature and improves efficiency
(B) Decreases the condenser temperature and reduces efficiency
(C) Increases the condenser temperature and improves efficiency
(D) Increases the condenser temperature and reduces efficiency

34. For a Rankine cycle, the network output is 1000kJ/kg and its efficiency is
35.35%. The heat added in the Boiler is equal to (in kJ/kg)
(A) 2525 (B) 2626 (C) 2727 (D) 2828

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35 . A regenerative steam cycle renders

(A) Increased work output per unit mass of steam
(B) Decreased work output per unit mass of steam
(C) Increased thermal efficiency
(D) Decreased work output per unit mass of steam as well as Increasing thermal
efficiency of cycle

36. Which one of the following P-V diagrams for steam illustrates the Isothermal
process undergone by superheated steam till It becomes wet?

1
(A) (B)
1
p p

v v

(C) (D)
p p
1 1

v v

37. Which of the following line is not present in Mollier Diagram?

(A) Isothermal Lines (B) Throttling Lines
(C) Isentropic Lines (D) None of these

38. The value of dryness fraction (x) of super heated steam is always
(A) x= 1 (B) x> 1 (C) x< 1 (D) x=O

39. Which of the following is water tube boiler?

(A) Lancashire (B) Cornish
(C) Babcock Wilcox (D) Locomotive

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Level - 2

1. Which of the following will represent isentropic efficiency of compressor?

(A) Isentropic heat drop in compression
Isentropic heat drop in expansion
(6) Isentropic heat drop in compression
Actual heat drop in expansion
(C) Actual heat drop in compression
(D) None of these
Isentropic heat drop in expansion

2. Work ratio is defined as

(A) Net work transfer (6) Net work transfer
Compressor work Turbine work
(C) Turbine work
(D) None of these
Compressor work

3. Work ratio is always

(A) Greater than one (6) Greater than two (C) Less than one (O)None of these

Common Data Questions: 4 to 6

Following data is obtained from the Heat Engine Cycle.

Heat supplied 100 kJ
Positive work of the cycle 80 kJ
Negative work of the cycle 49kJ
4. What is the net power output of the cycle?
(A) 80 kJ (6) 31 kJ (C) 51 kJ (D) 20 kJ

5. What is the efficiency of the cycle?

(A) 80% (6) 49% (C) 31% (O)None of these

6. What is the work ratio?

(A) 1.632 (6) 0.612 (C) 0.3875 (D) 2.58

Common Data Questions: 7 to 10

Following data are obtained from the vapour cycle power plant:
Heat supplied = 100 kJ
Isentropic heat drop in compression = 49 kJ
Isentropic heat drop in expansion = 80 kJ
11T =11c = 0.9
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7. Net power output of the cycle is

(A) 31 kJ (6) 27.9 kJ (C) 22.89 kJ (D)17.55 kJ

8. Efficiency of the cycle is

(A) 31% (6) 22% (C) 27% (D)17%

9. Work ratio of the cycle is

(A) 0.219 (6) 0.2438 (C) 4.556 (D)None of these

10. Heat rejected in cycle is

(A) 82.45 kJ (6) 69 kJ (C) 78.2 kJ (D)None of these

11. Which of the following will represent PV diagram of Carnot cycle?

(A) (6)

p
CJ p
tJ
v v

(C) (D) None of these

p
tJ
v

12. Which of the following will represent TS diagram of Carnot cycle?

(A) (6)

CJ
T

5
T
\1 5

(C) (D)

T 0 T
d
5
5
13. Which of the following is not true?
(A) Efficiency of Carnot cycle is higher than Rankine cycle.
(6) In Rankine cycle condensation is extended upto liquid state.
(C) In Rankine cycle pump is used in place of compressor of Camot cycle.
(D) In Carnot cycle condensation is extended upto liquid state .

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14. IruCarnot cycle,

(A) Condensation is extended upto liquid state
(8) Su'per heating ca'n'' be obtained
(C) Heat is supplied upto dry saturated state
(D) Heat is supplied at constant volume "

15. In Rankine cycle,

(A) Heat is added at constant volume
(8) Condensate are fed to the compressor
(C) Condensate are liquid vapour mixture
(D) Superheatin g can be obtained
."
16. Efficiency of ' Rankine cycle is lower than the Carnot cycle because in Rankine
cycle
(A) All heat is supplied isothermally
(8) Only part of heat is supplied isothermally
(C) 'AII heat is supplied isentropically
(D) All heat is supplied at constant volume

17. Work Ratio of Rankine cycle is higher than Carnot cycle because in Rankine cycle
(A) Work done for the compression is larger
(8) Work done for the compression is lower
(C) Work done by turbine is lower
(D) None of these _ /".

18. On Moilier diagram the distance between two isobaric lines, when moving from
left to right
.' "",-'0
(A) Increases
, . (8) Decreases
(C) Initially increases then decreases (D) Remains constant

19. Which of the following will represent hs diagram of Rankine cycle?

(A) . (8)

h
~ h d 22 >1
5 5
;:' :. ....... . ~
;.... • • ·f
"
I

(C)
h 1c)2 2.< 1
(D)
h 1d 2 2-1

5 5

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20. Which of the following is only used to Increase the efficiency of vapour power
cycle?
(A) Inter-COOling (B) Re-heatlng (C) Regeneration (D) All of these
..1'

21. Inter-cooling in vapour power cycle

(A) Shifts the compression process left side on Mollier diagram
(B) Shifts the compression process right side on Motier diagram
(C) Shifts the expansion process left side on Mollier diagram
(D) None of these

22. Inter-COOling is mainly used to ,

(A) Increase the efficiency of cycle (B) Decrease the turbine work
(C) Increase the turbine work (D) Decrease the compressor work

23. /(1)

AIPile ~(2)

Super heat temp.

A - Net Power output

B - Specific steam consumption
C - Efficiency
(A) 1- A,2-C (B) 1-B,2-C (C) i-C,2-B (0)1-C,2 - A

24. Reheating is used to

(A) Increase the compressor work (B) Increase the turbine work
(C) Decrease the turbine work (D) Decrease the compressor work

25. Reheating in vapour power plant

(A) Always increase the efficiency
(B) Increase the dryness fraction at turbine exhaust
(C) Decrease the dryness faction at turbine exhaust
(D) None of these

Common Data Questions: 26 to 34

A power generating plant uses steam as a working fluid and operates at a boiler
pressure of 50 bar, dry saturated and a condenser pressure of 0.05 bar, working
on Rankine cycle

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Pressure t. hf hg Sf S'SI
(bar) (oC) kl/kg kl/kg kl/kgk kl/kgk
50 264.0 1154.2 2794.3 2.92 3.053
0.05 38.9 137.8 2561.5 0.476 7.919
Vf at 0.05 bar = 0.001005 m /kg 3

26. Turbine work of the cycle per kg of steam is

(A) 850kJ/kg (6) 900kJ/kg (C) 974kJ/kg (0)1075kJ/kg

27. Compressor work would be

(A) 5kJ/kg (6) 10kJ/kg (C) 15kJ/kg (0)20kJ/kg

28. Heat supplied in the boiler is

(A) 2020kJ/kg (6) 2100kJ/kg (C) 2450kJ/kg (0) 2651kJ/kg

29. Efficiency of the cycle is

(A) 30.51% (6) 34.6% (C) 36.5% (O)None of these

30. Work ratio of the cycle will be

(A) 1 (6) 0.995 (C) 0.625 (O)None of these

Consider the above problem for Carnot cycle.

31. What would be the turbine output?
(A) 974.5 kJ/kg (6) 707 kJ/kg (C) 767.5 kJ/kg (0) 718.2 kJ/kg

32. Compressor work would be

(A) 974.5 kJ/kg (6) 707 kJ/kg (C) 267.5 kJ/kg (0) 5 kJ/kg

33. Efficiency of the cycle will be

(A) 43% (6) 55% (C) 36.5% (O)None of these

34. Work ratio of the cycle is

(A) 0.995 (6) 0.875 (C) 0.825 (0) 0.725

35. Critical pressure ratio for maximum discharge for nozzle is

n n
=(2...fl
n n

PI
=
(A) Pc (_2_)n+l
n+ 1
(6) Pc (_2_)n-l
P1 n+ 1
(C) Pc =
11 n-l
(0) Pc
PI
=(2.-
n-l
)+1

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36. Maximum mass flow per unit area for nozzle is

1
(A) [n Pi (_2_)(n+1)/(n-1 ) ] 2
(B)
Vi n+ 1

(0)

Common Data Questions: 37 to 41

5 kg/s of air at 10 bar and 200 0C expands in a convergent-divergent nozzle into

space at 1.03 bar. R = 0.287kJ/kg, Cp = 1.005kJ/kgk
37. Pressure at throat will be
(A) 10 bar (B) 1 bar (C) 5 bar (0)5.28 bar

38. Specific volume at throat is

(A) 0.214 m 3/kg (B) 0.54 m 3/kg (C) 0.67 m 3/kg (O)None of these

39. Cross-sectional area at throat will be

(A) 2000mm 2 (B) 2160 mm 2 (C) 2480 m m 2 (0)2690 mm 2

40. Exit velocity of air

(A) 398 m/sec (B) 450 m/sec (C) 673.7 m/ sec (O)None of these

41. Exit area of nozzle is

(A) 2480 mm 2 (B) 2890 mm 2 (C) 5109 mm 2 (0)6120 mm 2

42. On Mollier diagram, flow through nozzle can be represented

(A) By a straight vertical line (B) By a horizontal line
(C) Either by a vertical or a horizontal line (0) By a curved line

43. In an ideal regenerative Rankine cycle, the fluid is supplied as saturated at the
entry to boiler. The heating for this is done in/by means of
(A) A separate heat exchanger (B) Boiler only
(C) Turbine itself (0) External heat source

44. In an ideal Rankine cycle, the enthalpy of steam at the inlet of turbine is 3200
kJ/kg and that at the outlet of pump it is 200kJ/kg. The entropy of steam at the
inlet to boiler is 7.15kJ/kg-K and that at the inlet to turbine it is 0.615kJ/kg-K.
The temperature of heat addition (mean) for the cycle is
(A) 459°C (B) 186°C (C) 186°K (0) 168°K

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45. For a steam power plant working on the Rankine cycle, the enthalpies of working
fluid (steam) are
Before turbine - 3150 kJ/kg, after turbine - 2250 kJ/kg
Before pump - 180 kJ/kg, after pump - 185 kJ/kg
The efficiency of the plant is approximately
(A) 35% (B) 30% (C) 45% (D)37.5%

46. When compared with ideal Rankine cycle, the ideal regenerative cycle is
(A) More efficient but consumes more steam per unit power
(B) More efficient and consumes less steam per unit power
(C) Less efficient and consumes less steam per unit power
(D) Less efficient and also consumes more steam per unit power

47. Consider the following effects of reheating in an ideal Rankine cycle

a. It decreases the steam rate
b. It increases the efficiency of the cycle
c. It improves the quality of steam at turbine outlet
d. It decreases the work output
The CORRECT effects among these are
(A) c and d (B) a, band d (C) b, a and c (D) b, c, and d

48. Steam of quality of 0.09 dryness fraction has an enthalpy of evaporation of 1720
kJ/kg at a certain pressure. If the enthalpy of wet steam is 1190 kJ/kg, the
enthalpy of saturated liquid at that pressure is
(A) 1125 kJ/kg (B) 1544 kJ/kg (C) 1035 kJ/kg(D) 1215 kJ/kg

49. Steam at 20 bar 360°C is expanded in a steam turbine to 0.08 bar and works on
an ideal Rankine cycle. The pump and turbine work in the ideal Rankine cycle are
3kJ/kg and 925kJ/kg. The heat added in the boiler is 2500kJ/kg. Now due to
continuous operation, the efficiencies of pump and turbine fall by 20%. The cycle
effiCiency initially and the percent reduction in work output later are
(A) 38.66% and 15.20% (B) 36.88% and 15.20%
(C) 36.88% and 20.15% (D) 38.66% and 20.15%

50. As compared with Rankine cycle, the ideal regenerative cycle is normally
(A) More effiCient and gives less work output
(B) Less efficient and gives less work output
(C) More efficient and gives more work output
(D) Less effiCient and ives more work output

51. Steam expands in a turbine from 1.5MPa and 250°C, isentropically to 50°C where
its quality is 0.85 dry. If the enthalpy of steam at the entry of the turbine is
saturated liquid - 185kJ/kg; saturated vapour - 2650kJ/kg, then the enthalpy of
steam at the outlet from turbine is
(A) 2437.5 kJ/kg (B) 2347.5 kJ/kg (C) 2067.5 kJ/kg (D) 2437.5 kJ/kg

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52. A steam power plant operates on theoretical 'reheat Rankine cycle. Steam at
boiler at 150 bar, 550 0 e expands through the high pressure turbine. It is
reheated to 550 0 e at a constant pressure of 40bar and expands through a low
pressure turbine to a condenser at 0.1 bar. The enthalpies are
At entry of H.P. turbine - 3445kJ/kg, at exit of H.P. turbine - 3040 kJ/kg
At entry of L.P. turbine - 3550kJ/kg, at exit of L.P. turbine - 2240 kJ/kg
The steam flow rate for KWHr energy generation is
(A) 3.16 kg (6) 4.15 kg (C) 5.15 kg (D)2.16 kg

53. A steam turbine is fed with steam having enthalpy of 3000 kJ/kg. It comes out of
turbine with an enthalpy of 2000 kJ/kg. The condensate enters the feed water
heater with an enthalpy of 150kJ/kg. If the quantity of bled steam is 10500
kg/hour and the feed heating is done at a pressure of 3.0 bar with steam of
enthalpy 2400kJ/kg, the power developed by the turbine is (Take
h'2 = 560 kJ/kg)
(A) 11449KW (B) 11994KW (e) 14119KW (D) 14991KW

54. In a steam power plant working on Rankine cycle with regeneration, in steam
turbines the required blade height
(A) will be less than that with simple Rankine cycle and a small size condenser is
required.
(B) will be more than that with simple Rankine cycle and a bigger size condenser
is required.
(e) will be less than that with simple Rankine cycle and a bigger size condenser
is required.
(D) will be more than that with simple Rankine cycle and a small size condenser
is required.

55. A low reheat pressure in the reheat cycle of Rankine

(A) Brings down the mean temperature of heat addition and hence increases the
cycle efficiency.
(B) Increases the mean temperature of heat addition and hence increases the
cycle efficiency.
(C) Brings down the mean temperature of heat addition and hence decreases the
cycle efficiency.
(D) Increases the mean temperature of heat addition and hence decreases the
cycle efficiency.

56. A high reheat pressure in the reheat Rankine cycle

(A) Reduces the moisture cont nt at turbine exhausts
(B) Does not effect the moisture content at turbine exhausts
(C) Increases the moisture content at turbine exhaust
(D) May increase or decrease the moisture content at turbine exhausts
depending on other operating factors

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57. In the reheat-regenerative Rankine cycle, the reheating is done in (H.P. - High
Pressure; L.P. - low pressure)
(A) H.P and L.P turbines and regeneration by way of sending steam through
. boiler.
(B) Boiler itself and regeneration by way of heating the bled steam in separate
heaters.
(C) Boiler itself and regeneration is achieved by passing the steam through HP
and LP turbines.
(D) and regeneration achieved combined by way of heat in of the bled steam in
separate heaters.

58. The atmosphere air enters a blower at negligible velocity and leaves at 100
m/sec. The blower consumes energy of 15KW. What will be the exit temperature
of air from the blower if its entry temperature is 30°C? (Assume for
airCp = 1 kJ/kgok and m = 1 kg / sec)
(A) 25°C (B) 30°C (C) 35°C (D) 40°C

59. In a steady flow air compressor, the air enters at a velocity of 8 m/second and It
leaves the compressor at 6 m/second. The specific volume of the air at entry is 1
m 3 / kg and its value at exit is 0.2 m 3 / kg. If the inlet diameter of the pipe
carrying the air is 10 cm, the diameter at outlet needed is
(A) 5.164 cm (B) 5.614 cm (C) 4.815 cm (D)4.185 cm

60. For a gas turbine the gas enters at 7.5 bar, 150 m/ second with enthalpy of 1000
kJ/kg and leaves at 2 bar, 300 m/second and an enthalpy of 800 kJ/kg. If the
mass flow of the gas is 4 kg/second and the flow is under adiabatic conditions,
the power developed by turbine is
(A) 556 KW (B) 656 KW (C) 665 KW (D) 454 KW

61. The relationship between the reduced pressure (Pr ) ,the existing pressure (P) and
the critical pressure (Pc) of a real gas among the following is

(A) Pc = Pp,. (8) Pc = ~PPr (e) P = PcPr

62. The latent heat and the saturation pressure of a pure substance, as its
temperature is increased
(A) Decreases and increases respectively
(B) .Increases and decreases respectively
(C) Increases and increases respectively
(D) Decreases and decreases respectively

63. For a pure substance, the correct relation among the following is

(A) (~:)p = T (B) (~:)p = (~) (C) (~:)p = ~ (D) (~:)p = (~)

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64. The working fluids in an ideal Rankine and Brayton cycle are respectively
(A) Liquid and gas (B) Gas and liquid
(C) Gas and gas (D) Liquid and liquid

65. Study the characteristics of a working fluid used in the vapour power cycles. The
wrong characteristic among them is that it should have
(A) The saturation pressure at the temperature of heat rejection that is below
atmospheric pressure
(B) High critical temperature and large enthalpy of evaporation
(C) A freezing point that is below the room temperature
(D) Small specific heat for quick heat transfer

66. The relationship between critical pressure (Pc) I critical temperature (Tc) I a and b
(Vander wall constants) and R (gas constant) is
8 a a 8 a a-
(A) p.
c
=27
- bR
- · rc =-
bR I
(B) p.
c
=--·r =
27 b c b2R
I

(C) p.
a ·r =-
=27b2
-- 8 a
- (D) Pc
a 8 a
c c 27 bR
I = 27b ;Tc = 27 b2R

67. The enthalpy of a fluid changes by 5kJ/kg when it is made to flow through a
nozzle. What will be the final velocity of fluid if the velocity of fluid before
entering the nozzle is 15m/s7
(A) 71.5 m/s (B) 89.67 m/s (C) 100 m/s (D) 101.12 m/s

68. Steam expands in a turbine isentropically from pressure 10 bar and temperature
300°C (enthalpy 3051.2kJ/kg) to 1 bar (enthalpy 2776.4kJ/kg). If the enthalpy of
saturated steam at 1 bar is 2675.5kJ/kg .State of steam after expansion will be
(A) Dry saturated (B) Wet steam
(C) Super heated steam (D) Cannot be determined

69. Determine the correctness or otherwise of the following.

Assertion (A): Net efficienE:Y of Rankine cycle increases with increase of
superheat.
Reason (R): The dryness fraction of steam in Rankine cycle at the end of
isentropic expansion increases.
(A) Both (A) and (R) are true nd (R) is reason of (A)
(B) Both (A) and (R) are false
(C) Both (A) and (R) are true independently without being reason of each other
(D) (A) is true and (R) is false

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70. A superheat Rankine cycle is shown in the given T - S diagram. Starting from
feed pump, the fluid flow up to the boiler exit is represented by

(A) ABCD (B) BCDE (C) ABDEFA (D)ABCDE

J)!

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. . . Level- 3 -,.' "':

Common Data Questions: 1 to 4

I I

Steam at 20 bar, 360 0 C is expanded in a steam turbine to 0.08 bar it enters the
condenser to saturated liquid water. The pump feed the water back into boiler.
Enthalpy and entropy of steam at 360 0 and 20 bar is 3159kJ/kg and 6.9917
kJ/kg k respectively . ~

From steam table

Pressure t- v, Vg ~, hg - sf Sg
3
bar (OC) m /kg m 3 /kg kl/kg kl/kg kJ/kg kl/kg
0.08 41.4 0.0010 18.35 173.4 2576.8 0.5909 8.2311
20 212.42 0.0012 0.0996 908.77 2799.5 2.4473 6.3408

1. What will be the turbine work?

(A) ,950 kJ/kg (B) 972 kJ/kg (C) 1053 kJ/kg (0) 1102 kJ/kg

2. What will be the network done?

(A) 950 kJ/kg (B) 880 kJ/kg (C) 970 kJ/ kg (0) 990 kJ/kg

3. Heat supplied In Boiler is

(A) 1860 kJ/kg (B) 2270 kJ/kg (C) 2788.2 kJ/kg (0) 2983.6 kJ/kg

4. Efficiency of the cycle is

(A) 32.5% (B) 30.2% (C) 28.7% (0)28.1%
Reconsider the question no 1 to 4, if boiler exhaust is dry saturated steam then

5. Turbine work is
(A) 970 kJ/kg (B) 817.4 kJ/kg (C) 880 kJ/kg (0)889.7 kJ/kg

6. Network done of the cycle is

(A) 827.4 kJ/kg (B) 886.2 kJ/kg (C) 8521.1 kJ/kg (0)815.3 kJ/kg

7. Heat supplied in the boiler is

(A) 2624.1 kJ/kg (B) 3011.2 kJ/kg (C) 2865.2 kJ/kg (0)2973.7 kJ/kg

8. Efficiency of the cycle is

(A) 32.5% (B) 31.15% (C) 30.25% (0)32.9%
For 9 to 13 reconsider question no 1 to 4, if turbine and pump has 80%
efficiency, then

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9. Turbine work will be

(A) 775.1 kJ/kg (B) 776.6 kJ/kg (C) 881 kJ/kg (0)876.2 kJ/kg

10. Network of the cycle will be

(A) 889.6 kJ/kg (B) 775.1 kJ/kg (C) 675.2 kJ/kg (D) 633.8 kJ/kg

11. Heat supplied in the cycle is

(A) 2983.6 kJ/kg (B) 2983.1 kJ/kg (C) 2786.2 kJ/kg (D) None of these

12. Efficiency of the cycle will be

(A) 32.5% (B) 36% (C) 26% (D) 22%

13. Dryness fraction at the exit of turbine will be

(A) 0.86 (B) 0.84 (C) 0.92 (0)0.95

Common Data Questions: 14 to 24

A steam power station uses the follow cycle

Steam at boiler outlet is at 150 bar, 550 0 C
Condenser is at 0.1 ba r
Enthalpy and entropy of steam at 150 bar, 550 0 C are 3450 kJ/ kg and 6.52 kJ/kg
K. Neglect the pump work.
From steam table
Pressure t- 3
V, Viii
3
h, hg sp Sg
bar (OC) m /kg m /kg kl/kg kl/kg kl/kgk kl/kgk
0.1 45.81 0.0010 14.674 191.8 2584.6 0.6492 8.1501
40 250.4 0.0012 0.04978 1087.3 2801.4 2.7963 6.0700
14. Dryness fraction at the turbine exit is
(A) 0.7827 (B) 0.8212 (C) 0.8718 (0)0.8878

15. Network done from the cycle per kg of steam is

(A) 1160.2 kJ (B) 1385.3 kJ (C) 1460.7 kJ (D) 1499.8 kJ

16. Heat supplied in boiler per kg of steam is

(A) 3258.2 kJ (B) 3029.8 kJ (C) 2887 kJ (D) 2801.2 kJ

17. Efficiency of the cycle is

(A) 32.5% (B) 36.8% (C) 39.5% (0)42.5%
Reconsider question number 14 to 17 when a reheat cycle is used.
Reheat pressure 40 bar, reheat temperature - 550 0 C
Enthalpy and entropy at 40 bar, 550 0 C are 3559.8 and 7.2244 kJ/kg k

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18. Dryness fraction of steam at the outlet of high pressure turbine will be
(A) 0.72 (6) 0.88 (C) 1.0 (D) None of these

19. Work obtained from high pressure turbine per kg of steam will be
(A) 394.7 kJ (6) 410.2 kJ (C) 470.8 kJ' (D) None of these

20. Dryness fraction of steam at the outlet of low pressure turbine will be
(A) 0.7982 (6) 0.8112 (C) 0.8345 (0)0.8772

21. Network obtained from the cycle per kg of steam

(A) 1663.7 kJ (6) 1582.1 kJ (C) 1462.8 kJ (D) None of these

22. Heat supplied in the cycle is

(A) 3420.1 kJ (6) 3567.4 kJ (C) 3762.7 kJ (D) None of these

23. E~ciency of the cycle is

(A) 40% (6) 42.5% (C) 44.2% (D) None of these

24. Temperature of stream at the exit of high pressure turbine will be

(A) 335.9 0 C (6) 330 0 C (C) 250 0 C (D) None of these

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Answer Keys
Level-1
1 0 2 B 3 A 4 A 5 C 6 B 7 B
8 A 9 A 10 0 11 A 12 A 13 C 14 0
15 B 16 A 17 0 18 B 19 A 20 C 21 D
22 A 23 B 24 0 25 C 26 C 27 A 28 0
29 A 30 D 31 A 32 B 33 A 34 D 35 0
36 0 37 0 38 A 39 C
Level-2
1 B 2 B 3 C 4 B 5 C 6 C 7 0
8 0 9 B 10 A 11 C 12 A 13 0 14 C
15 0 16 B 17 B 18 A 19 B 20 C 21 A 3.
22 0 23 C 24 B 25 B 26 C 27 A 28 0
29 C · 30 B 31 A 32 C 33 A 34 D 35 B
5.
36 A 37 0 38 A 39 0 40 C 41 C 42 A
43 C 44 B 45 B 46 A 47 C 48 C 49 C
6
50 A 51 A 52 0 53 B 54 A 55 C 56 ' A
57 A 58 0 59 A 60 C 61 C 62 A 63 C
7.
64 A 65 A 66 C 67 0 68 C 69 C 70 A
Level-3
1 B 2 C 3 0 4 A 5 B 6 0 7 A
8 B 9 B 10 B 11 B 12 C 13 C 14 A
15 B 16 A 17 0 18 0 19 A 20 0 21 A
22 C 23 C 24 A s.
Explanations:
Level-1

9. P2
P1
= (_2_)n~1
n+ 1
, n =1.3, -P2
P1
=0.546
14. Say enthalpy drop in fixed blade is X :. enthalpy drop in moving blade is O.6X

:. D.R. = 0.6x =0.375

x+ 0.6x

24. o m = ~f = 32kg = 0.85~·~.462 = 0.51 kg

25 . c

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1000
34. o .. Q1 = 0.3535 = 2828kJ/kg
Level- 2

1 - 2s, Isentropic compression

1.
1-2, actual compression

Net work transfer . .

3. Work ratio = T b' k ' turbme work> net work In a cycle
ur me wor
4. net power = (+)ve work - (-)ve work = 80-49=31kJ
5. = Network = 31 =0.31=31%
" Heat supplied 100

6. Work ratio = ~t = ~~ = 0.3875

7. 1'1 - Wldual 0 9 - Wadual W - 72kJ 1'1 _ Wc isentropic

'IT - , . - 'adual - , 'Ie -
Wisentroplc 90 We adual
49
We adull = 0.9 =54.44kJ, Wnet =72 - 54.44 = 17.55kJ

8. = Wnet x 100 = 17, 55 x 100 = 17.55%

" Heat supplied 100

9. Work ratio = 1 ~.;5 = 0.2438

10. Heat rejected = Heat supplied - Wn~ = 100 - 17. 55 = 82.45kJ
13.

Flg.1
Above figure shows T-S diagram of Camot cycle and from the above figure it is
clear in Camot cycle, condensation is not extended upto liquid state
14. From the figure 1, it is clear that in Carnot cycle, heat is supplied upto dry
saturated steam .

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15.

5
Fig. 2

Above is the T-S diagram of Rankine cycle is and it shows that super heating is
possible
16. From Fig. 2, in Rankine cycle only part of heat supplied isothermally
17. Because in Rankine cycle liquid is compressed using pump but in Carnot cycle
compressor is required to compress the wet steam.
18.

5
Fig. 3
Fig. 3, shows that a mollier diagram when moving from left to right, distance
between two isobar increases.
20. Regeneration is used to increase the efficiency. Reheating and inter-cooling
mainly used to improve net work output. These modifications do not have any
significant effect on efficiency.
22. Inter cooling shifts the compression process towards the left side of mollier
diagram hence decreases the work required for compression.
24. Reheating shifts the expansion process towards right and hence increases turbine
output.
25. Reheating do not always increase the efficiency.
WT = h3 - h4' h3 = 2794.3kJ
26.
S3 = 2.92 + 3.053 = ,.973
Process 3-4 is isentropic process
:. S3 = S4
S4= 0.476 + x7.919 = 5.973 = 0.694
h4 = 137.8+0.694{2561.5-137.8) = 1819.8
:. Wr = 2794.3 -1819.8 = 974.5kJ 1kg
27. Compressor work = vdP = 0.001005x(50 - 0.05)x 102 , Wc = 5.02kJ/kg
28. Heat supplied in the bOiler,Ql = h3 - h2 ,h2 = hi + Wc
hi = 137.8kJ/kg, h2 = 13 .8+ 5 = 142.8kJI kg ,Ql = 2794 -142.8 = 2651.2kJI kg

29. = WT - Wc = 974.5 - 5 = 36 501c

11 Q1 2651 . °
W WT-W
30. . Work ratio = ---'!.!!. = c = 0.995
WT WT

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31.

WT = h3 - h4 = same as Rankine cycle = 974.5kJ/kg

32. " Wc = h2 - h1, h2 = 1154.2kJ/ kg, 52 = 51,51 = 0.476 + x.7 .911 = 2.92
x = 0.309 ,h1 = 886.7, Wc = 267.5kJ/kg

33. 11 = WT - Wc = 974.5 - 267.5 = 43%

h3 - h2 2794.3 - 454.2

34. Work Ratio = WTW- W.C = 0.725

T
n

37. Pc
P = (2
n+1 )n-1 ,Cv =C p
Cp =1.4,P =5.28bar
-R=0.718kJ / kg k,n=C c
1 v
. y

38. Vc = -
Pc·Vc = m.TcR,- R.T
-c, -Pc = (Tc
- ) y-1 , Tc = 394k
m Pc P1 T1

Specific volume Vc = 0.287x3;4 x103 = 0.214 m3 /kg

m 5.28x 10

39. m = AcVc, Velocity at throat Vc = ~yR.Tc = 398m/sec. 5 = A.398

Vc 0.214
Ac = 0.00269m2 = 2690mm2
. . Vc 2 V2 2 Vc2 v 2 T2 ()l-1
P y
40. EXit velocity V2, Applymg SFER, hc + - = h2 + - , ~Tc + - =~.li +2- , - = - 2
z z Z 2T1 P1
1.4-1
T2 =(\~3r1.4 x473=247k,v 2 = 673.7m/sec.

41. Exit area. A2,m = A2V2 , v2 = R.T2 = 0.688~ /kg, A2 = 0.005109 = 5109mm2
V2 P2
42. Flow through nozzle assumed to be isentropic, so it can be represented by a
straight vertical line.

44. T = h2 - t\ = 3200 - 200 = 459 K = 1860C

mean 52 - 51 7.15 - 0.615

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45.

J--oI~-t condensor

h3 = 3150 kJ / kg, h4 = 2250 kJ / kg, hi = 180 kJ / kg, ~ = 185 kJ / kg,

Heat addition = ~ - h2 = 3150 -185 = 2965kJ/ kg

Wnet = Wr - Wp = (~ - h4) - (~ - hi) = 895kJ/ kg,,, = Wnet = 0.30 = 30%

Q1
48. h = hf + xh fg ,1190 = hf + 0.09 X 1720, hf = 1035.2 kJ / kg
49. ,,= i et 3
= 9;;0-0 = 36.88%, Wnet initially = 922 kJ/kg

Wr afterreduction in efficiency= 0.8x925=740 kJ/kg

We after reduction in efficiency= ~ = 3. 75kJ / kg
0.8
52. W =~ - ~ +h4 - hs = 3445- 3040+ 3550 - 2240 = 1715kJ/kg
2
m = 3600 = 2 .099 kg
1715
T
3

Vl 2 _ V/ (100)2 5
58. ~ + 2000 - ~ + 2000 +W, hi = h2 + 2000 +(-15),hl -h2 = -10
10
Cp (tl - t 2) = -10,30 - t2 = - 1.005' t2 = 39.95°C
Al VI _ A2 V2 Al _ V2 V I _ 6 1 d2
59. - - - - - , -A - -V x- - -8 x 02 = 3.75' -dl 2 = 3.75,d2 = 5.164 cms
VI V2 2 I V2 . 2
mV 2 mV 2
60. m~ + 20do = w+ m~ + 20~0
2
~ +~ -~) = 4(1000 _ 800 + 1502000
2
W = m(hl - - 300 = 665kW )
2000 2000
Level- 3

1.

condenser
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hi = 3159kJ/kg, SI = 6.9917kJ/kg-K
Process 1-2 is an isentropic process
~ = SI = 6.9917kJ/ kg k,6.9917 = 0.5909 + x(8.2311- 0.5909)
x = 0.8378,~ = 2186.9kJ/kg:. work done in turbine, wT = hi - ~ = 972.1kJ/kg
2. Wp = v f (P2 - PI) = 0.001(20 - 0.08)x 100kJ/ kg = 1.992kJ/ kg
Wnet = wT - wp = 972 -1.992 = 97kJ/kg
3. Q. = ~ - h4, h4 = ~ + Wo = 173.4+ 1.992 = 175.4kJ/kg
Q. = 3159 -175.4 = 2983.6kJ / kg
4. _ Wnet _ 970 _ 32 501
1'\ - Q. - 2983.6 - . 10

5. ~ = 2799.5, ~ = 6.3408kJ/kg
~ = S1 = 6.3408
6.3408 = 0.5909 + x(8.2311- 0.5909)
x = 0.7525
~ = 1982.2kJ/kg s
WT = ~ -h2 = 817.4kJ/kg
6. W net = wT - wp, Vip will be same as was in case-I,V\(, = 1.992kJ/kg, W net = 815.3kJ/kg
7. Q. = ~ - h4, h4 = 175.4kJ / kg, Q. = 2799.5 -175.4 = 2624.1kJ / kg
8. = Wnet = 817.4 = 31 '1 501
TI Q. 2624.1 . 10

9.
T4'~'
~
s
WT = TIT X WTisentropiC = 0.8 x 972 = 777 .6kJ / kg

10. W p = Vipisentropic = 1.992 = 2.49 kJ / kg

TIe 0.8
wnet = w T - we = 777.6 - 2.49 = 775.1kJ/ kg
11. Heat supplied =h~ -h4 = 3154-173.4-2.49= 2983.1kJ/kg
W
12. 1'\=~=26%
Q.
13. ~ = ~ - WT = 3159 -775.9 = 2383.9kJ/ kg, ~ = hf2 + x(h9 2 - hf2)
2383.9 = 173.4+ x{2576.8-173.4) = 0.9197 = 0.92
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1
14.

5 condenser

h1 = 3450kJ / kg, Sl = 6.52kJ / kg k. for process 1- 2

~ = Sl = 6.52 = 0.6492 + x(8.1501- 0.6492), x = 0.7827

15. Wr = h1 - h2' h2 = 191.8 + 0.7827(2584.6 -191.8) = 2064.6kJ/kg

Wr = 3450 - 2064.6 = 1385.3kJ / kg, Wnet = Wr - Wp
as mentioned Wp = 0, Wnet = 1385.3
16. Qs = h1 - h4' h4 = h3 + wp = h3 = 191.8 kJ / kg, Qs = 3540 -191.8 = 3258.2kJ

17. = Wnet = 1385.3 = 42 501

l'\s Q 3258.2 ."10
s
18.

condenser

51 = 6.52kJ/kg k, ~ = S2 = 6.52 kJ/kg k

592 at exhaust pressure of 40bar = 6.07 kJ / kg k.sg2 < S2
:. the H.P. turbine exhaust would be super heated 5team
19. From the super heated steam table at 40 bar
at 52 = 6. 52kJ / kg k, h2 = 3055.3:. (Wr) HP. = 1\ - h2 = 3450 - 3055.3 = 394.7 kJ / kg
20. h3 =3559.8kJjkg, 53 =7.2294kJ/kg-K
54 = S3 = 7.224 = 0.6492+ x(8.1501 - 0.6492),x = 0.8772
21. Wnet = (Wr )HP+ (Wr) LP = 394.7 + (h3 - h4), h4 = 191.8 + x(2584.6 -191.8}
= 2290.8 kJ / kg :. Wnet = 1663.7 kJ
22. Heat supplied in the cycle, Q3 = (h1 - h6) + (h3 - h2)
= (3450 -191.8) + (3559.8 - 3055.3) = 3762. 7kJ / kg
W
23. l'\ = -1!!!.. = 44.2%
~
24. From the super heated steam table at 40 bar t2 = 335.90C

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en
•.-c Topics Covered
m
c
• Offo Cycle

• Diesel Cycle

11.1 • Performance Analysis

U • Gas Turbine

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Level - 1

1. Which of the following is not true?

(A) Theoretically a 2 stroke develops twice power as that of a 4 stroke engine
(8) In four-stroke engine, working cycle is completed in 2 revolutions of
crankshaft
(C) Mechanical efficiency of a 4 stroke engine is higher then the 2 stroke engine
(D) None of these

2. Which of the following is not true?

(A) Petrol engine works on otto cycle
(8) Diesel engine works on Dual cycle
(C) Carburetor is used in petrol engine
(D) None of these

3. Which of the following statement is true?

(A) Fuel injector is used in S.l. engine
(8) Inlet and outlet valves are used in 2-stroke engine
(C) Compression ratio in diesel engine is higher than petrol engine
(D) None of these

4. If diesel is used in petrol engine, it will

(A) Not run (8) Increase knocking
(C) Decrease knocking (D) None of these

5. Stoichoimetric ratio is ~

(A) Chemically correct air fuel ratio by weight

(8) Chemically correct air fuel ratio by volume
(C) Air fuel ratio for maximum efficiency
(D) None of these

6. A petrol engine has compression ratio from

(A) 6 to 10 (8) 10 to 15 (C) 15 to 25 (0)25 to 40

7. Compression ratio of CI engine varies from

(A) 6 to 10 (8) 10 to 15 (C) 15 to 20 (0)20 to 40

8. The process of removing the burnt gases from the computation chamber of the
engine cylinder using fresh charge is called
(A) Scavenging (8) Detonation (C) Super charging (D) Knocking

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9. The correct mixture strength for petrol is about 18 .

(A) 15:1 (8) 18:1 (C) 22:1 (D) 24: 1

10. Which of the following is not true?

(A) Diesel engine is more bulky than petrol engine
(8) Diesel engine is more efficient than petrol engine
(C) Maximum pressure in the diesel engine is higher than petrol engine 19.
(D) None of these

11. Which of the following is not true for Otto cycle?

(A) Isothermal compression (8) Constant volume heat addition 20 .
(C) Isentropic expansion (D) Constant volume heat rejection

21.
12. Which of the following is not true for diesel cycle?
(A) Isentropic compression (8) Constant pressure heat addition
(C) Isentropic expansion (D) Constant pressure heat rejection
22.

13. Air standard efficiency of Otto cycle depends on

(A) Compression ratio (8) Compression ratio and fuel used
(C) Compression ratio and speed of engine (D) None of these

14. The correct sequence of decreasing brake thermal efficiency is 23.

(A) Four stroke CI engine, four stroke 51 engine, two stroke 51 engine
(8) Four stroke 51 engine, four stroke CI engine, 251 engine
(C) Two stroke 51 engine, four stroke 51 eng ine, four stroke CI engine
(D) None of these 24 .

15. Which of the following will increase brake thermal efficiency of engine?
(A) Increasing the temperature of intake air
(8) Decreasing the pressure of intake air 25
(C) Increasing the pressure of intake air
(D) Decreasing the density of intake air

16. Air standard efficiency of Otto cycle as

(A) 1- (retl (8) 1- (r~)' (C) 1- (rJ'

26

17. Compression ratio is defined as the ratio of

(A) Clearance volume to swept volume (8) Swept volume to total volume 27
(C) Swept volume to clearance volume (D) Total volume to clearance volume
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18. Air standard efficiency of Otto cycle can be increased by

(A) increasing the temperat ure of inta ke air
(8) decreasing the temperature of intake ai r
(C) increasing the temperature of exhaust
(D) none of these

19. Efficiency of diesel cycle can be increased by

(A) Decreasing the compression rati o (8) Decre asing th e cut off rati o
(C) Increasing the cut off ratio (D) None of these

20. Which of the following has maxim um efficiency for same maximum pressure?
(A) Otto cycle (8) Diesel cycle (C) Ericsson cycle (D) Dual cycle

21. Which of the following has maximum efficiency for same compression ratio?
(A) Diesel (8) Dual (C) Otto (D) Ericsson cycle

22 . Which of the following is not true for dua l cycle?

(A) Isentropic compression
(8) Heat addition at constant volume and constant pressure
(C) Isentropic expansion
(D) Constant pressure heat rejection

23. Which of the following is an example of IC ENGIN E?

(A) Steam engine (8) St ea m turbine
(C) Open cycle gas turbine (D) Close cycle gas turbine

24. For perfect inter cooling in two stage compressor,

(A) P2 __ P3 (8) PI = P2 (C) P

PI P2 P3 PI
1 = P3

25. Volumetric efficiency of reciprocating compressor is given as

v l

(A) l-K+K(::)" (8) l+ K -K(~:)"

"- 1 " -1

(C) l-K+K(::T' (D) l+K_K(~:)n

26. S.I engine is a steady flow device

(A) True (8) False

27. Gas turbine is a steady flow device

(A) True (8) False
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1
28. Irreversibility in turbine
(A) Decreases the enthalpy drop during expansion
(B) Increases the enthalpy drop during expansion
(C) Does not affect enthalpy drop
(D) None of these

29. Irreversibility is
(A) Decreases the enthalpy drop during compression
(B) Increases the enthalpy drop during compression
(C) Does not affect enthalpy drop
(D) None of these

30. Regenerator is placed

(A) Before combustion chamber (B) After combustion chamber
(C) Between the two compressors (D) Between the two turbines

31. Intercooler is placed

(A) Before combustion chamber (B) After combustion chamber
(C) Between the two compressors (D) Between the two turbines

32. Reheater is placed between

(A) before combustion chamber (8) After combustion chamber
(C) between two compressors (D) Between two turbines

33. Identify the common thermodynamic processes of an Otto cycle and a Carnot
cycle.
(A) Isothermal processes (B) Isentropic processes
(C) Isenthalpic processes (D) Isochoric processes

34. The number of thermodynamic processes involved in completing the cycle is

equal in
(A) Dual and Rankine cycles (B) Rankine and Sterling cycles
(C) Carnot and Dual cycles (D) Diesel and Dual cycles

35. A sterling cycle consist of

(A) Two isothermal and three isochoric processes
(B) Two isothermal and two isochoric processes
(C) Two isobaric and two isochoric processes
(D)Two isothermal and two reversible adiabatic processes

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36. Among the following I.e. engine fuel, properties that is NOT recommended is
(A) Low toxicity
(B) Low deposit forming tendency
(C) Low energy density
(D) High thermal stability

37. An Otto cycle is initially working between the temperature limits of 310 0 K and
3500 o K. If the working temperatures are changed to 300 0 K and 3600 o K, the
efficiency of the cycle
(A) Remains same (B) Increases
(C) Decreases (D) Data insufficient

38. An Otto cycle operates on a compression ratio of 8. Its thermal efficiency will be
very close to
(A) 54% (B) 55% (C) 56% (D) 44%

39. If 7i and T2 are the temperatures before and after compression and T3 and T4 are
the temperatures before and aft . xpansion in a diesel cycle and ris the ratio of
specific heats of air, the efficiency of the cycle in terms of these is

-7i) T
(A) TJd -_11(T
- -
4 (B) -1
TJd - -
(T3- 2)
r-"--'--=-
r (T3 - T2) (T4 -7i)

40. The ratio of temperature before and after compression of an Otto cycle is 2.5. If
for air r = 1.4, the compression ratio used in the cycle is approximately
(A) 8 (B) 12 (C) 10 (0)7

41. Air enters a Brayton cycle operated gas turbine at 303°K and the pressure ratio
of the cycle is 6.2. If the maximum temperature is approximately 2.5 times that
of after compression, the maximum temperature is (r = 1.4 for air)

42. The use of a regenerator in Brayton cycle

(A) Increases the mean temperature of heat addition and decreases the mean
temperature of heat reje tion
(6) Increases the mean temperature of heat rejection and decreases the mean
temperature of heat addition
(C) Increases both the mean temperature of heat addition and heat rejection
(D) Decreases both the mean temperature of heat addition and heat rejection

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43. At the unity pressure ratio of a Brayton cycle, the work output of the cycle is
(A) Zero and efficiency is maximum
(B) Zero and efficiency is zero
(C) Maximum and efficiency is zero
(D) Maximum and efficiency is maximum

44. In case of gas turbines working on Brayton cycles, the net work is
(rPmax - maximum presure, ratio and rPopt - optimum pressure ratio)
(A) Maximum for rpmax and zero for rpopt
(B) Maximum for rPopt and zero for rpmax
(C) Maximum for both rpmax and rpopt
(D) Zero for both rpmax and rPopt

45. An Otto cycle initially has an efficiency of 40%. Now it is desired to increase the
efficiency by 10%. For this to happen, the compression ratio has to be changed
{approximately) as
(A) Increase by unity (B) Decrease by unity
(C) Increase by two (D) Decrease by two

46. The air standard efficiency of a Brayton cycle is 45%. The pressure ratio being
employed in the cycle is nearly
(A) 9 (B) 6 (C) 8 (D)4

47. The maximum and minimum temperatures (not in order) working on a Brayton
cycle are 300 0 K and 927°C, The temperature of air after compression and after
expansion in compressor and turbine are respectively (cycle uses a pressure ratio
of 6)
(A) 500°C and 720°C (B) SOooK and 7200K
(C) 500°C and 720 0K (D) SOOOK and 720°C

48. Which of the following Is not correct?

(A) Diesel engine is more bulky than petrol engine
(B) Diesel engine does not have carburetor
(C) A two stroke engine produces theoretically double the power than a four
stroke engine, if working on same rpm
(D)A two stroke engine has less mechanical efficiency than a four stroke engine

49. Vapour lock is

(A) Seizure of supply of fuel in a diesel engine
(B) Serious restriction to the supply of fuel due to rapid formation if vapour in 51
engines
(C) Blocking of carburetor jets due to impurities
(D) Formation of vapours of lubricating oil due to high temperatures

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50. A 15 kW IC engine works with 30% brake thermal efficiency. If the calorific value
of the fuel is 40,OOOkJjkg, its fuel consumption is
(A) 1.5 kgjhr (B) 3 kgjhr (C) 4 kgjhr (D) 4.5 kgjhr

51. Sterling cycle consists of

(A) Two isothermal and two constant volume processes
(B) Two isothermal and two constant pressure processes
(C) Two adiabatic and two constant pressure processes
(D) Two adiabatic and two constant volume processes

52. In an Otto cycle the temperature at the beginning and end of the isentropic
compression are 316 k and 596 k. The compression ratio is
(A) 2.225 (B) 7.225 (C) 10.995 (D)4.885

53. Diesel cycle is also known as

(A) Constant pressure cycle (B) Constant volume cycle
(C) Constant temperature cycle (D) Constant enthalpy cycle

54. For the same compression ratio, which one has higher efficiency?
(A) Diesel cycle (B) Otto cycle
(C) Both has equal efficiency (D) None of these

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Level - 2

1. A two stroke engine produces twice as power as 4 stroke engine because

(A) In four stroke engine two expansion stroke occurs in one cycle
(8) In four stroke engine four expansion stroke occurs in one cycle
(C) In four stroke engine one expansion stroke occurs in 2 revolutions cif crack
shaft
(D) None of these

2. Which of the following is not responsible for low efficiency of two stroke engine?
(A) Reduction in the effective stroke
(8) Lower compression ratio due to valve ports
(C) Lighter flywheel
(D) None of these

3. ·Which of the following is not true for two stroke engine?

(A) Exhaust is noisy due to short time available for exhaust
(8) Consumption of lubricating oil is greater
(C) Mechanical efficiency is lower as compare to four stroke engine
(D) None of these

4. Which of the following is not an advantage of air cooling system?

(A) Less noisy (8) No water needed
(C) Absence of water freezing (D) Cheaper

5. Which of the following could not be a logical choice for compression ratio fc
petrol engine?
(A) 6 (8) 8 (C) 10 (D) 14

6. To avoid knocking self ignition temperature of

(A) Petrol and diesel engine should be high
(8) Petrol engine should be low and diesel engine should be high
(C) Petrol and diesel engine should be low
(D) Petrol engine should be high and diesel engine should be low

7. Supercharging
(A) Reduces knocking in both diesel and petrol engine
(8) Increases knocking in both diesel and petrol engine
(C) Reduces knocking in diesel engine but increases in petrol engine
(D) Reduces knocking in petrol engine but increases in Diesel engine

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8. Which of the following is not true for C.I. engine?

(A) e.I. engines are more bulky than 5.1. engines
(8) e.I. engines are more efficient than 5.1. engines
(C) Lighter flywheels are required in C.I. engines
(D) Starting of diesel engines are more difficult due to cranking efforts

Common Data Questions: 9 to 22

a if only (i) is true

b if only (ii) is true
c if both (i) and (ii) is true but (iii) is not correct explanation for (i)
d if (I) and (ii) both are true and ((ii) is correct explanation for (i)
9. (i) Diesel engines are bulky
(ii) Higher compression ratio is employed in diesel engines

10. (i) Starting of diesel engine is more difficult

(il) Greater cranking effort required to overcome the higher compression ratio in
C.I. engine

11. (i) Efficiency of diesel engine is higher than Petrol engine

(ii) Exhaust temperature of Petrol engine is lower than Diesel engine

12. (i) Supercharging increases the knocking in Petrol engine

(ii) Higher self ignition temperature required in Petrol engine to reduce knocking

13. (i) Lighter Flywheel is required in Petrol engine

(ii) Petrol engine is less bulky than Diesel engine

14. (i) A two stroke engine produces half as power as by a four stroke engine
(ii) A two stroke engine is less efficient than a four stroke engine

15. (i) A two stroke engine requires higher flywheel

(ii) A two stroke engine is less efficient than a four stroke engine

16. (i) Exhaust in two stroke engine is noisy

(ii) Short time is available for exhaust for in two stroke engine.

17. (i) In two stroke engine number of power strokes are double
(ii) Turning moment diagram is uniform in two stroke engine

18. (i) Open cycle gas turbine plant is consider as I.C. engine
(ii) Product of combustion is used as working substance in open cycle gas turbine

19. (i) Maximum temperature in gas turbine power plant is lower than I.e. engines
(ii) Gas turbine is steady flow device

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20. (i) Low grade fuels can be used in closed cycle gas turbine
(ii) Product of combination is not used for expansion in closed cycle gas turbine

21. (i) Regenerators improve the efficiency of gas turbine power plant
(ii) Regenerators can only used in closed cycle gas turbine

22. (i) Stream turbine power plant can be rapidly started and closed as compare
to gas turbine power plant
(ii) Gas turbine power plant works on Brayton cycle

23. A diesel engine has a brake thermal efficiency of 23% if the calorific value of fuel
is 42000kJ/kg then its b.s.f.c. is
(A) 0.106 kg/kW hr (B) 0.216 kg/kW hr (C) 0.306 kg/kW hr(D) none

Common Data Questions: 24, 2S & 26

A single cylinder four stroke engine having a swept volume of 8S0cm 3 is tested at
Srev/sec. When a braking torque SONm is applied, analysis of indicator diagram
gives mean effective pressure of lObar.

24. Its brake power is

(A) 1.S7kW (B) 2.S8kW (C) 2.12SkW (D)2.67kW

25. Indicated power produced by engine is

(A) l.S7kW (B) 2.S8kW (C) 2.12SkW (D)4.25kW

26. Mechanical efficiency of engine will be

(A) 62.7% (B) 73.8% (C) 84.6% (D)87.2%

27. A certain engine at full load delivers 80kW. It requires 230kW to rotate it without
load, its frictional power is
(A) 100kW (B) 60kW (C) 4kW (D) 20kW

28. What would be mechanical efficiency at full load in question no 27?

(A) 60% (B) 70% (C) 80% (D)90%

Common Data Questions: 29 to 31

The output of an IC engine is measured by a rope brake dynometer. The

diameter of the brake pulley is 7Scm and rope diameter is Scm. The dead load on
the light side of the ro e is 41kg and the spring balance reading is Skg. The
engine consumes 4kg/hr of fuel at rated speed of 1000 rpm. The calorific value of
fuel is 44000kJ/kg.

29. Calculate its Brake power.

(A) 14.33kW (B) 13.87kW (C) lS.6kW (D) 17.21kW

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30. Brake specific fuel consumption would be

(A) 0.38kg/kW hr (B) 0.28kg/kW hr (C) 0.63kg/kW hr (D) 0.21kg/kW hr

31. Find its brake thermal efficiency

(A) 37% (B) 32% (C) 29% (D)22%

Common Data Questions: 32 to 39

Following data are obta ined from the four stroke, 4 cylinder petrol engine
Stroke length = 90mm
Cylinder diameter= 64mm
Clearance volume = 50 c.c.
Fuel consumption = 7.5 Itr/hr
Specific heat of fuel = 47700kJ/kg
Specific gravity of fuel = 0.717
Brake drum diameter = 73.5cm
Rope diameter = 2.5 cm
Speed = 2400 rpm
Load on brake drum running at 1/3 engine speed is 69kg and spring balance
reads 8kg.
Mechanical efficiency = 80%
32. Determine compression ratio of the engine.
(A) 5.62 (B) 6.12 (C) 6.79 (D) 7.21

33. Determine air standard efficiency.

(A) 41% (B) 47.5% (C) 53.5% (D)61.2%

34. Calculate Brake power of the engine.

(A) 15.96kW (B) 14.2kW (C) 13.7kW (D) 11.62kW

35. Calculate break specific fuel consumption.

(A) 0.337kg/kW hr (B) 0.217 kg/kW hr (C) 0.367 kg/kW hr(D) none of these

36. Determine Brake power.

(A) 20% (B) 23% (C) 28% (D)41%

37. Calculate Indicated thermal efficiency.

(A) 15.6kW (B) 16.8kW (C) 20.12kW (D) 19.95kW

38. Find indicated specific fuel consumption in kg/kw hr.

(A) 0.212 (B) 0.227 (C) 0.269 {D)0.317

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39. Relative efficiency of the engine would be

(A) 53.5% (B) 57% (C) 61% (D)67%

40. Which of the following shows the T-S diagram of Brayton cycle used in power
plant?

(A)
T

5
-
6 ;1
.1
(B)
T

Q 5

Q
(C) (D)
T T

5 5

41. Which of the following shows the PV diagram of Brayton cycle with inter-cooling?

(Al

PO (Blp~

v v

(C) (D) none of these

42. Inter-cooler is used to

(A) Increase the turbine power (B) Decrease the turbine power
(C) Increase the compressor power (D) Decrease the compressor power

43. For a gas turbine power lant working on Brayton cycle, pressure ratio for
maximum power should be
_1- 1
(A) Tmin (B) Tmax . (C) (Tmax J1-1
t (D) (Tmax )1+1
Tmax Tmin T min T min

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44. Maximum power obtained from the l ayton cycle from 1kg of air is given by

(A) Cp (Tmax - Tmln ) (B) Cp (& -/f::t

(C) Cv (TmlX - Tmln ) (D) Cv (& -.,Jf;;;)

45.

(A) T t::J
Which of the following shows the TS diagram of Brayton cycle with reheating?

(8) T CJ
5 5

(C) ( D)
T T

5 5

46. Reheating in Brayton cycle

(A) Increases turbine power (B) Increases compression power
(C) Reduces turbine power (D) Reduces compression power

47. Efficiency of Brayton cycle at maximum power output is given by

(A) 1- Tmln (B) 1- JTmin (C) l_(Tnu - Tmn) (D) None of these
Tmax · Tmax T/1'1I)( + Tmn .

48. A gas turbine power plant is working on Brayton cycle with temperature limit of
300k and 1073k. Find the pressure ratio for maximum power
(A) 6.75 (6) 7.82 (C) 8.94 (0)9.3

49. For the question no. 48, find the power produced by the cycle
(A) 240kJ ..; . (6) 280kJ (C) 320kJ (D) 360kJ

50 . Which of ~he following stat ment is not true?

(A) Irreversibility in gas turbine increases compressor power
(B) Irreversibility reduces turbine power
(C) Irreversibility reduces cycle efficiency
(D) None of these

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51. For question no 48, calculate the efficiency of Brayton cycle for maximum power
(A) 70% (B) 47% . (C) 62% (D) 52%

52. Power output of the Brayton cycle if its efficiency is equal to efficiency of Carnot
cycle, which is working between 1100k and 310k
(A) 0 (B) 240kW (C) 360kW (D) None

53. For the same compression ratio, the efficiency of a Brayton cycle is
(A) Equal to that of Sterling cycle and is a function of the pressure ratio only.
(B) Equal to that of Otto cycle and is a function of the pressure ratio only.
(C) Equal to that of Ericson cycle and is a function of the pressure ratio and the
temperature limits.
(D) Equal to that of Otto cycle and is a function of the pressure ratio and the
temperature limits.

54. The efficiency of a Brayton cycle

(A) Reduces with both inter-cooling and reheating
(B) Increases with inter-cooling and reduces with reheating
(C) Increases with reheating and reduces with inter-cooling
(D) Improves both with inter-cooling and reheating

55. In case of gas turbines working on a Brayton cycle, the relationship between the
optimum pressure ratio (rPopt ) and maximum pressure ratio (rPmax ) is given by
1
the expression rPopt = (rPmax}K . Jhe value of 'K' is
(A) ~ (B) 2 (C) .! (0)0.2
2

56. Let r - adiabatic compression index, rk - compression ratio rc - cut-off ratio and
re - expansion ratio used with a diesel cycle. The thermal efficiency of the diesel
cycle is a function of
(A) r, rk and re (B) re, rc and r (C) rk , re and rc (D) r, rk and rc

57. In an Otto cycle: Tl - Temperature before compression; T2 - Temperature after

compression; T3 - Temperature after combustion and T4 - Temperature after
expansion. For a particular S.I. engine working on Otto cycle, the relationship
between them is given as: T4 = 2T, T3 = 2.5T2t Tl = ~ T2 • For this cycle, the thermal
efficiency is
(A) 44.44% (B) 66.66% (C) 55.55% (0)45.54%

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58. Air enters a gas turbine working on Brayton cycle at 1 bar and 27°C. The
pressure ratio of the cycle is 8. If the compressor work is 40% of the turbine
work, the maximum temperature and cycle efficiency of the gas turbine are
(A) 1358°K and 44.75% (B) 1358°C and 44.75%
(C) 1085°K and 44.75% (D) 1358°K and 47.45%

59. A diesel engine has a compression ratio of 16 and cut-off ratio of 1.75. If Cpfor
air is 1.005kJ/kg-K and Cv is 0.72kJ/kg-K, the efficiency of the cycle is nearly
(A) 61 % (B) 59% (C) 60% (D) 62%

60. For some compression ratio and work capacity, a Brayton cycle as compared to
an Otto cycle handles
(A) Small range of volumes and small range of pressures and temperatures
(B) Large range of volumes and large range of pressures and temperatures
(C) Large range of volumes and small range of pressures and temperatures
(D) Small range of volumes and large range of pressures and temperatures

61. In a diesel cycle, the ratio of cut-off and compression ratios gives
(A) Expansion ratio (B) Reciprocal of expansion ratio
(C) Expansion ratio increased by 1 (D) Square of expansion ratio

62. In gas turbines working on Brayton cycle if Tl is the temperature before

compression; T2 - temperature after compression, T3 - Maximum temperature of
cycle; T4 - temperature after expansion, then the maximum pressure ratio is
given by (y - ratio of specific heats)

(A) Prmax = (~ rry-l

T
(C) Prmax = ( ~
)~-:

63. In an Otto cycle, the compression ratio is increased from 6 to 8. Due to this
development, the % increase in its thermal efficiency is
(A) 5.31 % (B) 4.56% (C) 8% (D) 10.33%

64. In a gas turbine workin on Brayton cycle, the maximum and minimum
temperatures are 1050 0 K and 303°K and the pressure ratio is 6. Due to new
developments in the field of materials available for blades, the maximum
temperature that is allowed in the cycle has been increased to 1300 o K. Due to
this the gain in efficiency of the cycle is
(A) 0% (B) 20% (C) 40% (0)4%

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65. A diesel engine initially works with a compression ratio of 14 and a cut-off ratio of
1.6. But it is decided later that the compression ratio be increased to 16 and cut-
off ratio be decreased to 1.5. Due to this change the efficiency of the diesel
engine
(A) Increases by 4.68% (B) Decreases by 4.68%
(C) Increases by 2.65% (D) Decreases by 2.65%

66. For same maximum pressure and temperature,

(A) Diesel cycle is most efficient and Otto cycle is least efficient
(B) Otto cycle is most efficient and diesel cycle is least efficient
(C) Otto cycle is most efficient and dual cycle is least efficient
(D) Dual cycle is most efficient and diesel cycle is least efficient

67. The minimum and maximum temperatures of a gas turbine plant working on
Brayton (Ideal) cycle are 29°e and 817°e respectively. The cycle uses a pressure
ratio of 5. If Cp for air (working fluid) is 1.005 kJ/kg-K and y = 1.4. The work
ratio of the plant is
(A) 0.5216 (B) 0.5162 (C) 0.543 (0)0.578

68. An ideal Brayton cycle has a maximum temperature of 853°e and minimum
temperature of 27°C. If Cp for air is 1.005kJ/kg-K per kg, the maximum net work
of the cycle is equal to
(A) 165 kJ (B) 265 kJ (e) 365 kJ (0)465 kJ

69. The thermal efficiency of an engine working on ideal Otto cycle is 60.2%. If air
has a Cp value of 1.005 and Cv value of 0.718kJ/kg-K, the cylinder and clearance
volume are related as (VCYI Vs Vd )

70. The compression ratio employed with a diesel cycle is 20. The air at the
beginning of compression is at 95KPa and 20 o e. If the maximum temperature of
the cycle is limited to 2200 o K, the mean effective pressure of the cycle is equal to
(A) 924.5Pa (B) 942.4KPa (C) 924.4KPa (D) 942.4Pa

71. The effiCiency of the Brayton in terms of pressure ratio rp ' r and maximum
network output in-terms of Tmax and Tmin are
1 2
(A) " = 1- (r-1 ) and (Wnet )max = Cp (Tmax - Tm1n )
r.p ' r

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(C) ~ ~ 1- , ( ~) and (w"" )mn ~ Cp (~Tmn _ P;;;;;;)'

p

(D) 1] = 1- (;-1) and (Wnet )max = Cp (~Tmax _ ~)2

rp

72. With several stages of inter-cooting, reheating and ideal regeneration, the
efficiency of a Brayton cycle becomes equal to that of
(A) Stirling and Ericsson cycles
(B) Ericsson cycle and Carnot cycles
(C) Carnot and Ericsson cycles
(D) Ericsson and Stirling cycles

73. In case of Brayton cycle, when reheating is employed in addition to regeneration

there will be
(A) Net gain in cycle efficiency
(B) Net drop In cycle efficiency
(C) No change in cycle efficiency
(D) Drop and gain in cycle efficiency alternately

74. The atmospheric air is compressed in the gas turbine working on Brayton cycle
from 27°C and the turbine employs a pressure ratio of S. The heat added in the
heater of the plant is 4S0kJjkg. If for air 'Y = 1.4, the work ratio of the turbine Is
(A) 0.485 (B) 0.756 (C) 0.352 (D) 0.325

75. In a diesel cycle, the ratio of pressure after and before compression is 40. The
. compression of air begins from 27°C and heat added per kg of air is 7S0kJ/kg.
The maximum temperature of the cycle and the compression ratio of the engine
are
(A) 1607°C and 14 (B) 1334°K and 14
(C) 1607°K and 14 (D) 1343°K and 14

76. Two gas turbines working on Brayton cycle have the pressure ratios of 6 and 8
respectively. The thermal. efficiency of gas turbine having more pressure ratio is
nearly
(A) 5% more than the other (B) 5% less than the other
(C) 10.7% more than the other (D) 10.7% less than the other

77. For the same compression ratio, the Brayton cycle efficiency will be equal to the
efficiency of
(A) Sterling cycle (B) Ericsson cycle
(C) Otto cycle (D) Diesel cycle

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78. The efficiency of dual cycle will be higher than Otto cycle when
(A) Working on same compression ratio but different heat rejection amount
(8) Working on same compression ratio and same heat rejection amount
(C) Working on same maximum temperature but different maximum pressure
(D) Working on same maximum temperature and same maximum pressure

79. Which of the following is true?

(A) Compressor in steam turbine is an example of closed system
(8) The efficiency of regenerative Ericsson cycle is same as of stirling cycle.
(C) Inter-cooling in gas turbine power plant increases turbine work.
(D)AII of these

80. Which of the following is not true in context of knocking tendency?

(A) Tendency of knocking increases with increasing compression ratio
(8) Tendency of knocking decreases with decreasing compression pressure
(C) Tendency of knocking decreases with supercharging
(D)AII of the above

Common Data Questions: 81 &. 82

The indicated thermal efficiency of a single cylinder two stroke gas engine
working on Otto cycle is 25%. The engine is running at 150 rpm, indicated mean
effective pressure is 6.5bar and gas consumption is 12.6m3 / hr. Calorific value
of gas used is 16350 kJ/ m 3 •
81. What will be the air standard efficiency of cycle if clearance volume is 3 liters?
(A) 46% (8) 43% (C) 35% (D) 33%

82. What will be the value of normal stress acting on the cylinder if ratio of stroke
length to diameter of cylinder is 1.5?
(A) 12.85 N/mm2 (8) 17.82 N/mm2 (C) 31.25 N/mm2 (D)21.76 N/"""""

83. Match List I with List II

List I ( Cycles) List II (Processes)
(A) Ericsson cycle (1) Two isothermal and two isochoric
(8) Joule's cycle (2) Two isentropic and two isochoric
(C) Stirling cycle (3) Two isothermal and two isobaric
(D) Otto cycle (4) Two isentropic and two isobaric
(A) A - 1 8 - 2 C - 3 D - 4 (8) A - 2 8 - 3 C - 4 D - 1
(C) A - 4 8 - 1 C - 2 D - 3 (D) A - 3 8 - 4 C - 1 D - 2

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84. Efficiency of a stirling air engine fitted with a regenerator is same as that of an
air motor working on Joule's cycle. Stirling engine operates between the
temperature limit of 450°C and 100°c' Expansion ratio in both the cycle is 2.
What will be the efficiency of regenerator fitted in stirling cycle. Take
Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg K and Cv = 0.712 kJ/kg K for air
(A) 25% (B) 35% (C) 45% (D)65%

85. An Otto cycle will close, only when

(A) Expansion ratio is greater than compression ratio
(B) Expansion ratio is equal to compression ratio
(C) Expansion ratio is lesser than compression ratio
(D) Product of expansion and compression ratio is unity

86. Which one of the following is true if work done by an engine is 7.25 kW and it
consumes 1.56 kg of fuel per hour. Calorific value of fuel is 36000kJ/kg. The
engine is working on Otto's cycle and combustion efficiency is only 85%.
(A) Clearance volume is 28% of stroke volume
(B) Clearance volume is 24% of stroke volume
(C) Clearance volume is 21 % of stroke volume
(D) Clearance volume is 17% of stroke volume

87. Determine the correctness or otherwise of the following Assertion (A) and
Reason (R).
Assertion (A): Efficiency of Joule's cycle is higher than that of Carnot efficiency
Reason (R): In Joule cycle heat is not taken in at the highest temperature and
rejected at the lowest temperature.
(A) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the reason for (A)
(B) Both (A) and (R) are true independently without being reason of each other
(C) (A) is true alone and (R) is false alone
(D) (A) is false alone, and (R) is true alone

88. In an ideal air standard gas turbine cycle minimum and maximum temperatures
are respectively 323K and 1100 K. Calculate the optimal pressure ratio of cycle

for maximum out put. (r; 1 = 0.29)

(A) 8.3 (B) 4.2 (C) 6.2 (D)9.6

89. An indicator diagram taken on a diesel engine shows that the compression curve
follows the law PV1.4 = con·stant. At two points on the compression curve at
lth 7 th
8" and 8" of the stroke, the pressure are 16 bar and 1.6 bar respectively. What
is the compression ratio of the engine?
(A) 17 (B) 19 (C) 18 (D)21

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90. A diesel engine has a compression ratio of 15 and heat addition at a constant
pressure takes place at 6% of stroke. Find the air-standard efficiency of the
engine . .
(A) 59% (B) 64% (C) 48.2% (D) 61.2%

91. Which of the thermodynamic cycle shown in the following figures represents that
of Brayton cycle?

(A) (B)

v=c
5 5

(C) (D)
T T

5 5

92. Match the following for performance curves of a constant speed diesel engine
against performance parameters

v (1) Smoke level

(2) Brake specific fuel consumption

(3) Brake thermal efficiency

(4) Brake power

% Load 100

(A) A - 3 B - 4 C - 1 D - 2 (B) A - 3 B - 4 C - 2 D - 1
(C) A - 4 B-3 C - 1 D - 2 (D) A - 4 B-3 C - 2 D - 1

93. In an air standard otto cycle, if the initial temperature and pressure are 300K and
0.1 MPa, the maximum temperature attained in the cycle is 1800K and the
temperature after isentro ic compression is 100 times the increase in
temperature (3.08 K), the pressure value at the end of isentropic expansion for r
= 1.4 is:
(A) 0.74MPa (B) 0.29MPa (C) 0.84MPa (D)O.llMpa

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Common Data Questions: 94 Ie. 95

A large diesel engine runs on a 4-stroke cycle at 2000 rpm. The engine has
displacement of 25litres and 6.M.E.P of 0.6 MN/M2. It consumes 0.018 kg/s of
fuel (Cv = 42000 kJ/kg).

94. The brake power Is given by

(A) 250 kW (6) 360 kW (C) 150 kW (0) 190 kW

95. The brake thermal efficiency is given by

(A) 43.06% (6) 56.72% (C) 72.93% (0)33.07%

.1

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Level- 3

A four cylinder petrol engine has a total swept volume of 2000cm 3 and the
clearance volume in each cylinder is 60cm 3 • Pressure and temperature at the
beginning of compression are 1.02 bar and 240 C and the maximum temperature
is 1400 oC,
1. Air standard efficiency of the cycle wi" be
(A) 34% (B) 52% (C) 59% (D)67%

2. Heat supplied per kg of air is

(A) 538.1KJ/kg (B) 681.2KJ/kg (C) 710.2KJ/kg (D) 750KJ/kg

3. Mass of the air in the cylinder is

(A) 2.28 x 10-3 kg (B) 5.46 x 10-3 kg

(C) 3.28 x lO-4kg (D) 6.701xl0-4kg

4. Work done per cycle per cylinder wi" be

(A) 0.2693 KJ (B) 0.3428 KJ (C) 0.114 KJ (D) 1.214 KJ

5. MEP of the cycle wi" be

(A) 11.678 bar (B) 9.745 bar (C) 7.685 bar (D) 5.386 bar

6. A diesel engine 'has a compression ratio of 14 and cut off takes place at 6% of
the stroke. Determine the cut-off ratio
(A) 2.76 (B) 2.22 (C) 1.98 (D) 1.78

7. In question number 6, what wi" be net work, if maximum temperature after

compression are 1500 0 C and 600 0 C respectively.
(A) 420.2 kJ/kg (B) 460.8 kJ/kg (C) 516.8 kJ/kg (D) 580.6 kJ/kg

Common Data Questions: 8 to 11

An engine working on the otto cycle has a clearance of 17 percent of stroke

volume and initial pressure of 0.95bar and temperature 30 0 C, Pressure at the
end of he constant volume heating is 28 bar. Relative efficiency of the engine in
80% and calorific value of the fuel used is 41900KJ.
8. Air standard efficiency of ttie cycle wi" be
(A) 46.2% (B) 50.9% (C) 53.8% (D) 50.8%

9. The maximum temperature in the cycle is

(A) 1500K (B) 1480K (C) 1378K (D) 1297K

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10. Mean effective pressure is

(A) 6.62bar (8) 5.12bar (C) 3.17bar (D)2.59bar

11. Indicated specific fuel consumption will be

(A) 0.319kg/kWhr (8) 0.371kg/kWhr
(C) 0.422kg/kWhr (D) 0.476kg/kWhr

12. What will be the change in efficiency of diesel engine, if cut off changes from 5 to
15% of the stroke, compression rates of the engine is 15?
(A) 20.2% (8) 15.4% (C) 10.5% (D) 5.14%

Common Data Questions: 13 to 17

In an air standard diesel cycle the compression ratio is 16 and at the beginning of
isentropic compression, the temperature is 15 0 C and pressure is O.lMPa. Heat is
added until the temperature at the end of the constant pressure process is
1480 0 C
13. Compute the cut off ratio in the cycle.
fA) 2 (8) 2.2 (C) 2.4 (D)2.6

14. Heat supplied per kg of air will be

(A) 804.4 KJ (6) 844.4 KJ (C) 884.4 KJ (D) 924.4KJ

15. The cycle efficiency

(A) 56.4% (6) 61.4% (C) 65.4% (D)66.2%

16. Heat rejected in the cycle is

(A) 341.08KJ/kg (8) 380.1KJ/kg (C) 394.1KJ/kg (D)410.2KJ/kg

17. Mean effective pressure of the cycle is

(A) 5bar (8) 6bar (C) 7bar (D)3bar

Common Data Questions: 18 to 21

An air standard dual cycle has a compression ratio of 16, and compression begins
at 1 bar, 50 0 C. The maximum pressure is 70 bar. The heat transferred to air at
constant pressure is equal to that at constant volume
18. Compute the temperature at the end of constant volume heat addition
(A) 1210K (8) 1313K (C) 1413K (D) 1473K

19. Heat supplied per kg of air is

(A) 567.2 KJ/kg (8) 623.2 KJ/kg (C) 677.2 KJ/kg (D) None of these

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20. Maximum temperature in the cycle will be

(A) 1560K (B) 1620K (C) 1690K (0) 1723K

21. Air standard efficiency of the cycle

(A) 56.2% (B) 61.4% (C) 66.4% (0)69.2%

22. Mean effective pressure in the cycle is

(A) 4.25bar (B) 4.76bar (C) 5.23bar (0) 5.76bar

Common Data Questions: 23 to 26

In an ideal Brayton cycle, air from the atmosphere at 1atm, 300k is compressed
to 6atm and the maximum temperature is limited to 1100k.Heat supplied is
100MW.
23. Thermal efficiency of the cycle is
(A) 38% (B) 40% (C) 44% (0)48%

24. Work ratio will be

(A) 0.345 (B) 0.395 (C) 0.464 (0)0.544

25. Power output of the plant is

(A) 80 MW (B) 60 MW (C) 40 MW (0)20 MW

26. Mass flow rate of air is

(A) 166 kg/sec (B) 210 kg/sec (C) 340 kg/sec (0) 360 kg/sec

27. Energy flow rate of the exhaust gas is

(A) 20 MW (B) 40 MW (C) 60 MW (0)80 MW

Common Data Questions: 28 to 32

In a gas turbine plant working on the Brayton cycle the air at inlet is at 270 C.
O.lMPa. The pressure ratio is 6.25 and the maximum temperature is 800 0 C. The
turbine and compressor effiCiencies are 80% each.
28. The compressor work per kg of air is
(A) 150 KJ (B) 217 KJ (C) 259 KJ (0)310 KJ

29. The turbine work per kg of air is

(A) 290 KJ (B) 310 KJ (C) 330 KJ (0)352 KJ

30. Heat supplied per kg of the air is

(A) 470 KJ (B) 510 KJ (C) 517.6 KJ (0)610 KJ

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31. The cycle efficiency is

(A) 18% (6) 20% (C) 25% (0)30%

32. Exhaust gas temperature is

(A) 723K (6) 701K (C) 655K (O)605K

Statement for Linked Answer Questions: 33 & 34

A four stroke engine working on Otto's cycle has one cylinder and running at 500
rpm and fuel consumption is 2.5 kg/hour, having a calorific value of 3600 kJ/kg.
The indicated mean effective pressure is 5.5 bar and mass of charge admitted
per cycle is 0.0002 kg.

33 . What will be indicated power if volumetric efficiency of engine is 55%?

(A) 0.76 kW (6) 1.28 kW (C) 2.34 kW (D) 3.56 kW

34. What will be relative efficiency if clearance volume is 0.018Iitres?

. (A) 51.2% (6) 68.4% (C) 69.85% (D) 74.8%

Statement for Linked Answer Questions: 35 & 36

A brayton cycle is working in the. temperature limit of 1100 K and 300K.

Assuming Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg, r = 1.4, and pressure ratio is chosen to obtain
maximum work.
35. What will be the pressure ratio of gas turbine plant?
(A) 6.2 (6) 9.7 (C) 11.2 (0)13.7

36. What will be the heat added to a combustion chamber?

(A) 638 kJ/kg (6) 602 kJ/kg (C) 528 kJ/kg (D) 468 kJ/kg

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Answer Keys
Level - 1
1 C 2 0 3 C 4 A 5 A 6 A 7 C
8 A 9 A 10 0 11 A 12 0 13 A 14 A
15 C 16 0 17 0 18 D 19 B 20 B 21 C
22 0 23 C 24 A 25 B 26 B l· ..21 A 28 A
29 B 30 A 31 C 32 D 33 B 34 B 35 B
36 C 37 B 38 C 39 A 40 C 41 B 42 A
".
.-
43 B 44 B 45 C 46 :~ C 47 B 48 D 49 B
50 D 51 A 52 D 53 A 54 B
Level 2
l' C 2 C 3 C 4 D 5 D 6 D 7 C
8 C 9 D 10 D 11 A 12 C 13 C 14 B
15 C 16 D 17 C 18 D 19 D 20 0 21 A
22 B 23 C 24 A 25 C 26 B 27 D 28 C
29 A 30 B 31 C 32 C 33 C 34 A 35 A
36 B 37 D 38 C • 39 A 40 A 41 A 42 D
43 C 44 B 45 B 46 A 47 B 48 D 49 A
50 0 51 B 52 A 53 B 54 A 55 B 56 D
57 C 58 A S9 d 60 C 61 B 62 0 63 0
64 A 65 A 66 A 67 D 68 B 69 A 70 C
71 C 72 B 73 A 74 A 75 C 76 C 77 C
78 D 79 B 80 C 81 B 82 B 83 0 84 B
85 B 86 D 87 D 88 A 89 B 90 D 91 "c
92 A 93 B 94 A 95 0
Level-3
1 C 2 B 3 D 4 A 5 D 6 0 7 C

8 C 9 0 10 C 11 A 12 C 13 A 14 C

15 B 16 A 17 C 18 C 19 B 20 0 21 C

22 B 23 B 24 0 25 C 26 A 27 A 28 C

29 0 30 C 31 1\ A 32 A 33 B 34 0 35 B

36 C
Explanation :-
Level- 1
4. Because diesel does not evaporate easily and it will not mix with air in carburetor
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11. I sentropic compression takes place

12. Constant volume heat rejection t akes place
18. Air standard efficiency of Otto cycle only depends an compression ratio
22. Constant volume heat rejection
23. The device which uses the produ ct of combu st ion for expansion is called I.C.
engine so the open cycle gas turbine is exam ple of I.e. Engine.
1
38. 1'\ = 1 - -- - 0.5645 = 56.45% .£
('Yc y-l .J

39.
1-2
2-3
isentropIc compression
isobaric heat addition
. . .
3-4 isentropic expansion
4-1 isochoric heat rej ection

41.

P~ 4

i. = (~)~ , T, = 303(6. 2)::: = 510.32 k, T, = 2.5 T, = 1275 k

1
45. 1'\ = 1- - -r 1 ' for 1'\ = 40%, rc = 3. 59, for 1'\ = 44%, rc = 4. 26
(rcY -
% change in rc = 4.2~.~~.59 x 100 = 18.66%

1
46. 1'\=1-~
(rp) T

47. Tm•n = T1, Tmax = T3 , Temperature of air after compression = T2

T =...l.
...1...
Tl
(P)7
Pi
.4
,T2 = (6)1.4 x300 = OOk

(1)i~
Temperature of air after expansion
. = T4f T (P)
T: = P: = rp
P~
:.
l )i~ = 720k
T4 = (927 + 273) X"6 ( v
4

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p 15 15
50. 1]b~ke = m,.C • = m, x 40000' 0.3 = m, .40000 ~ m, = 4.5kg / hr
r

Level - 2
1. In 2 stroke engine 1 cycle completes in 1 revolution of crankshaft, so 1 power
stroke occurs in 1 revolution of crankshaft whereas in 4 stroke engine 1 power
stroke occurs in 2 revolutions of crankshaft.
3. Mechanical efficiency of 2 stroke engine is higher beCCj'use of its simple
construction
5. Compression ratio of I.e. engine ranges from 6 - 10, Higher compression ratio
leads. to increase ~n knocking ..
9. Higher compression ratio causes higher temperature and pressure, so bulky
engine is required.
11. Efficiency of diesel engine is higher, so exhaust temperature of diesel engine is
lower.
19. It is steady flow device, so the components are subjected to same temperature
and pressure for complete operation.

23. 'I1b = fb P ,BSFC = mf 3600kg / kW.hr

m xCv bp
1 1
= 'I1j3'C x3600kg/kW.hr = 0.2Sx42000 x3600 = 0.306kg/kW.hr
v
24. B.P. = 21tn x T = 21tx 5 x 50 = 1570:SW = 1.57kW

25. IP. = PmLAN = 10 X 105 x 850 X 10-6 X ~ X 10-3 = 2.125kW

(Note: N = % because in four stroke engine in two revolution of crank shaft 1

Power stroke is obtained)

26. _ B.P. _ 1.57 _ 73 801

'11m - - -- - . 10
I.P. 2.125
27. Frictional power is power required at no load to run the engine

2S. IP. = B.P. + F.P. = SO + 20 = 100kW , '11m = B.P. = BoOo = BO%

lP. 1

21tN(F - 5)( 0+ ~)/ 2 x 1.Bl

29. B.P. = 60

21txl000x(41-5)x9.Bl (0.75;0 .0;2)

= 60 = 14330W = 14.33kW

30. bsfc = rl1t = _4_ = 0.279kg / kW hr

BP. 14.33

31. _ B.P. X 3600 _ 0 29 - 2901

'118 - -. - 10
mf·CV

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V, +v,
7t ( 2
-4 8.4) x9+50
32. r. = 5 C = = 679
C Vc 50 .
1
33. 11 =1- =53.5%
II (rc )Y-1

27t x N. (F - 5) ( D + ~) 1 2
34. BP.= 60

21tx 2400/3x (60 - 8) x 9.81x(.735 + 0.025/2) 12

= 60 = 15961W = 15.96kW

35. bsf.c. = B.P~ , m, = 7.5x 10-3 x 717 = 5. 377Skg 1hr., bsf.c. = 5.3775 = 0.3371<gl kW hr
. 15.96

36. = BP.x3600 = 15.96x3600 = 0:229 = 22.901c

11~ lilt xCv 5.3775 x 47700 °
37. 11m -- BP. , IP. -_15.96 -
-19
. 9SkW
lP. 0.8
5.3775
38. Ls.f.c. = 19.95 = 0.2691<g 1kW hr

39. Relative efficiency = ~, 111 = ~ = 28.625%,11r = 2~36~5 = 53.51

11a 11m .
43. W = Cp (T3 - T 2 - T. + Td

Y
T :CJ:
By ddW = 0, We get rp = (Tmax )2(Y-1) 5
rp Tmln

Y
. (Tmu
for maximum power,11p = -:r-
)2(Y-1)
:. Wmax = Cp (~ ~)2
"Tmax -" Tmln
min
Y

48. _ (Tmax
rp _ 9 3
- -- )(Y-1)2 - .
Tmin

51. 11 =1- \-1 ' rp = 9.3 from question no. 48 :·11=47%

(rp)r

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55. k=2

57. -. ' 1

v
~T
TI=l-'4 =1_ (T4 -T1 )=1_ (2T1 -T1 ) =1--.!L=1- 3 2 =0.55=55%
Q1 (T3 - T2) (2.ST2 - T2 ) 1.ST2 1.ST2
:. net output after reduction in efficiency = 740-3.75=736.25kJ/kg
reduction in work output = 922~326.22 xl00 = 20.15%
T ,...1
58. T2 = (rp)l, T2 = 543K
1

Given compressor work= 40% o~ t~rbine work

C, (T, - T,) = O.4x C, (T, - T.), T, - T, = 0.4(1- (:.)7 )T' p ~.

543-300=0.4(1-0.55) xT3/ T3 = 1356k 1
1 v
Tlb = 1 - ,-1 = 0.4479 = 44.79%
(TIp)"7
1 1 rT -1 Cp
59. TId = 1- r T"-l ;e -1 1 "f = C = 1.4, rk = 16, re = 1.75:. TId = 0.626 = 62%
k 1 v

63. TI = 1-_1_/TI = 51.6% at r = 6,TI = 56.47%

(~)T"-1 e

:. change .In effi'

IClency= 56.47-51.16
5 6 x 100 = 10 .34 01fO
1.1

64. TIt, = 1- \:1 1 If rp does not change efficiency will not change
(rp) T .

1 1 (reT -1) . .
65. TId = 1- - - - 1 + ( ) 1 rntlally re = 1.6, rk = 14 :. TId = 61.43%
"f (rkt re -1
now re = 1.5, rk = 16, TId = 64%:. % change in efficiency = 4.68%

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:t:! T
67. T2 = (rp) T1 = 475.1k, T4 = ~ = 711k

P~
T

(rp )r

· Wnat (T3 - T4) - (T2 - T1)

Work ra t 10= - = .:.-.;:.- :-,-,---....:.-=--::.:.. 4
WT . (T3 - T4)
v
=1 - 475.1- 300 =0 578
1126-711 .

68. Wmax =Cp (~Trnax _&,)2 =265

C 1 V V I
69. "(= C p
~ 1.4, TI
y
= 1- (r f 1 ' rc = 10J rC
c
= V: = C: :. V~I = 10Vd

70. T2 = (rcf1 .T1

T2 = 9711(

v
y-1
74. T2 = (rp)r T1 = 475.1K
In process 2-3
Q1 = Cp (T3 - T2), 450 = 1.005(T3 - T2)
T 'J"
P~ 4
T3 = 922.9K, T4 = ~ = 582.7K ~ I\ '
(rp) T
v
T - T
:. Work Ratio = 1- 2 1 = 0.485
T3 -T4

T~
75.

1
:. = (40)1.4 = 13.94
rc
T2 = (rc)Y-1 T1 = 860.7K 5
Q1 = C1 (T3 - T2), 750 = 1.005(T3 - 860.7) , T3 = 16071<
1
76. TI = l--x:!,TI = 40% at rp = 6,TI = 44.8 at rp =8
(rp) T

% change in efficiency = 44.8-40 = 10.7%

44.8

81-82.11, = I.Px3600 ~ I.P = 14.30kW

m,xc
100xPm x Lx Ax n
I.P = 60 LA=Vs = stroke volume, n=N

V. = 8.8 litres,r = 1+ Vs = 1+ 8;8 = 3.93,11 =1- ) -1 = 1- 11.4_1 = 43%

Vc (3.93)

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~ = AxL = 1f x([)2)x2 = 1f x[)2 x1.5xD ~ D= 0.195m

4 4
.. Pm 6.5x10S
SLress = ---~-
~(D)2 ~x(0.195)2

C
84. r=i = 1.41
Cv
R = Cp - Cv = 0.293kJ / kgK
r = expanion ration = 2

Efficiency of Joule's cycle =1- ~1 = 0.247 ...... (1)

(rV-
Efficiency of Stirling cycle with regenerator
= 2.3Rlogr(7i - T2) (2)
2.3RT1 1ogr + Cv (7i - T2)(1- nR ) ......
l1R is efficiency of regenerator
Given (1) = (2)
l1R = 35%

86. Efficiency of engine 11 = work done

heat supplied

11 = 7.25 1 . =0.546 = 54.6%

1.56x36000x 3600 x 0.85

if' r be the compression ratio then " = 1- ~1 ~ r = 6.86

(r)r-

Now, r = lI.+lI.
c
lI. lI.
s:. -L = r-1 ~ -L = 5.86,Vc = 0. 17Vs
Vc Vc Vc
--L-
88. optimal pressure ratio = ( -!!2!!.
T )2Ir-l)= (1100)2xo
- - .29
1

Tm'n 323
Vc = clearance volume
89.
Vs = swept volume
th
At, "87 of the stroke, the volume,

th
Similarly at ~ of the stroke

~=Vc+~
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The law of compression is ~\.'tl.4 =P2~1.4 ~ =l~ )1~4 =5.18

...
~ ~
7
~+-~ v. V.
Hence,
V. + -v.
~ =5.18 ~ 2..
Vc
=18.37, Compression ratio, r =1 +2.. =19.37 -19
Vc
c 8 .s

90. Compression ratio = 15 = ~

~
=r -1]
c' TJd'-l = 1- r(rc)1 r-1 [prp-l

p =. eut off ratio = ~

~,~ - ~
6
=100 V, =0.06(\.'t -~),p =~ =1.84
~

TJdl. =1- 1.4(15)1.4-1 1 [(1.84 t· -1]

4

1 84 1 =61.2%
.-
93. Given, r = 1.4, Tl -= 300K; Pi = O.lMPa, T3 = 1800 K
T2 - Tl = 100 x 3'.08 = 308 => T2 = 608K
Now,
,-1 _1 1
!i =(Yt) ~ Yt =(T2 )'-1 = (608)0.4 =5.84
1i V2 V2 1i 300

~=(~r ~P2=p,.X(~~r =0.lx(5.84)1.4=1.18MPa

Also,
!t =~ D- = Pa xT3 = 1.18x 1800 =3 5ul'Jj
T3 T2 ~ ~3 T2 608 . ,-,r'a

Finally, T:p. = (~)' 1 )1.4

~ ~ p. = 3.5x ( 5.84 = 0.29MPa

94. bp = ~~ONK =250kw

b
95. nbiL = p =33.07%
m, xCv
Leyel-3

1. r
e
=v, v"
+ ve V=2000 =500em' v
4 'e
= 60em' p
e

500+ 60 1
... re = 60 =9.33,"1, =1---y:r =0.59 =59 0Vo
(re) v
2. T1 = 240C = 297k, T3 = 1400+273= 1673<,Q, = Cv (T, - 1;)
'-1
~ = (~ ) = (9.33i1.4-1) , T2 = 725.61< ... Q. = 0.718(1673-725.6) = 681.2KJ/kg

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3. P1V1 ::: mRTlI 1.02 x (500 + 60) x 10-6 x 1()2 ::: m x 0.287 x 97, m ::: 6.701 x 10~kg
4. Heat supplied in the cylinder, ::: 6.701 x 10~ x 681.2::: 0.4565KJ
:. work done per cycle per cylinder::: 0.4565 x TIe ::: 0.2693KJ
2
5. M.EP.::: Wnet ::: 0.2693 x 10- ::: 5.386bar
6
swept volume 500x10-
6. (V3 - v 2) ::: 0.06(V1 - v2)

~:::r ::: 14
V e
2

:. (V3 - V2) ::: 0.06(14v2 - V2)

V
V3 - V2 = 0.78v2 :. _ 3 =1.78::: rk v
V2

7. Heat supplied = Cp (T3 - T2), T3 = Tmax = 1500 + 273::: 1723k

T2 ::: 600 + 273 ::: 873k:. Heat supplied::: 1.005 (1723 - 873)
1 1 (rk Y- 1)
::: 854.25 kJI kg, TIe = 1- ----1 ( ) ::: 0.605
Y(re)Y rk -1
:. Wnet ::: TIe X Oc ::: 0.605 X 854.25::: 416.8kJ 1kg.

2~:
8. V2 ::: 0.17 (v1 -V 2)
1.17v2 ::: 0.17v1 p

:. ~::: r ::: 1.17 ::: 6.88

V2 e 0.17
1 v
TIe = 1- - - 1 ::: 0.5377 = 53.8%
(rJr-
9. Maximum temperatu re = T3
~2 = (ret1 , T2

o
::: (6.88)°·4 x 303::: 655k
1
T
:2 ::: (reY' P2::: (6.88)1.4 x 0.95::: 14.14bar
1
1
in constant pressure process 2 - 3
5
T3 = P3 , T3 = ~x655 = 1297K
T2 P2 14.14

10. M.EP. = Wnet ,P1V1 ::: mRT1 ,v1 ::: RT1 ::: 0.915m3 1 kg, :. V2 = V1 ::: 0.133m3 Ikg
~-~ ~ ~
Wnet = Oc x TleQs ::: c y (T3 - T2) = 0.718 (1297 -
655) ::: 460.9KJ 1 kg
248 X 10-2
:. Wnet = 0.538 x 460.9::: 248KJ:. MEP::: (0.915 _ 0.133) = 3.17bar

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3600 3600
11. is fc = 0.5xO.538x41900 = 0.319kg/kW hr.
12. When cut off takes place at 5% of stroke

cut - off p= 1 + 0.05 (15 - 1) = 1. 7,1'\ 1'\17 = 1- _1_ [pT

-1] = 61.9%
1 . (re t1 p-l

when cut off takes place at 15% of stroke

p = 3.1,1'\31 = 55.4%:. % increase efficiency = 61.9 - 55.4 = 10.5%
. 61.9
13. P1 = O.lMPa, T1 = 288k

T2 = ()1-
T

p
1
re
1
, T2 = 8 73K

in process 2 - 3
= V3 = T3 = (1480 + 275) = 2
T

rJ
1

5
v2 T2 873

14. Heat supplied per kg of air

~ = Cp (T3 - T2) = 1.005(1753 - 873) = 884.4kJ
1 (pY-l) v
15. 1'\8 = 1- y(rJ'-1 (p-l) = 61.4%
1
16. Heat rejected in the cycle, = Cv (T4 _ T1), T3 = (V4 )Y-1 =
T4 V3
(..'V2 XVV32)1- = (re / pt 1

2
T4 = 763k:. Heat rejected = 0.718 (763 - 238), Q,. = 341.08 kJ / kg
17. M.EP = Wnet ,Wnet = C4 - Q,. = 884.4 - 341.08 = 543.3 kJ / kg
v1 -V2
2
V1 = -RT1
p 0827 m3 / kg, V =.
=. 2
0 052 :. M.EP 543.3 x 10- ) = 7bar
= (0.827
1 - 0.052
18.

o·
3 4

P
2~5 1
T 2

1
5

v 5

P1 = lbar, T1 = 273 + 50 = 323K, T2 = (rS'-l , Tl = (16)°.4 x 323 = 979K

P2 = (ref P1 = (16)1.4 xl = 48.5 bar, in process 2 - 3
T3
T2
= P3 , T3 = 48.5
P
70 9 3
x 97 .1 = 141 .1K
2
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19. C4 = c y (T3 - T2 ) + cp (T4 - T3), As given cy (T3 - T2 ) = cp (T4 - T3)

Heat supplied at constant volume
= cy (T3 - T2 ) = 0.718(1413 - 979) = 311.6kJ/kg:. C4 = 2x311.6 = 623.2kJ/kg

20. From the figure

Tmax = T4, As given, cy (T3 - T2 ) = ~ (T4 - T3), 311.6 = 1.005 (T4. -1413) ~ T4 = 1723k

21. -1-<4
11- f'I -C
''<r - y
(T15 _T)
1 ,
Ts -_(V4)Y-1 ,Vs
--
_(p) , p_V4_
- - - - -T4 -
_1723_
- - - 122
.
<4 1
T4 Vs V4 rc V3 T3 1413

"I (1 22)1.4-1 209 7

_s = _._ ,Ts = 615k,Q,. = 0.718{615-323) = 209.7kJ/kg,11 = 1 - - - ' = 66.4%
T4 16 623.2

22. M.EP = Wnet ,Wnet = C4 - Q, = 623.2 - 209.7 = 413.5 kJ / kg

Vi -V2

1
23. 11s = 1- 1:!

r:=P2=6=6
p P1
(rp)

1
Y

P~ 1 4

1 v
11s = 1- -~-,- = 0.400 = 40%
(6), 1.4

24. Work ratio = ~et , Wnet = Qs.11s,Qs = Cp (T3 - T2)

T

y-1
T2 (rp)r .T1 = 500.Sk, T3 = Tmax = 1100k
Wnet= 0.4 x 1.005 (1100 - 500.5) = 241 kJ / kg, WT = Cp (T3 - T4)
T- 1 I:!
4 2
T4 = (P ) T = (P ) T = (6)Y;1 ,T4 = 659.31<
T3 P3 P1

WT = 1.005(1100 - 659.3 = 442.9kJ / kg:. work ratio = 4~~~9 = 0.544

25. Power output = 11a xC4 = O.4x 100 = 40MW

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3
26. mess flow rate m= Heat supplied 100 x 10
Heat supplied per kg of air = 1.005(1100 _ 500.5) = 166kg/ sec

27. Energy flow ratio of the exhaust gas = m.C .T (T4 - 1- t n T4)
pOT T
1 0

= 166 x 1.005 x 300 (6i~o3 -1- t n 6i~07) x 10-3MW = 20.53MW

T I:! .4 3
28. ~s = (rp)., , T2s = (6.25)1.4 X 300 = 506.4K
1
T2.r[\
~
= T2s - T1 08= 506.4- 300 T = 558k
TIe T _ T , . T _ 300 ~ 2
2 1 2
1
we = <;, (T2 - T1) = 1.005 (558 - 300) = 259kJ / kg 5

T ,(-1
29. WT = Cp (T3 - T4), T3 = 800 + 273 = 1073k, - 3 = (rp)r , T4s = 635.61<
T4s

T3 _- TT4 ' T4 = 7 321<, W = 1.005 (1073-723) = 352 kJ/kg

TIT = T T
3 4s

30. Q. = Cp (T3 - T2) = 1.005(1073 - 558) = 517.6 kJ / kg

31. TI = w., - We = 352 - 259 = 0.1797 = 18%

Q. 517.6

32. Exhaust gas temperature = T4 = 7321<

34. Vg = Volume of charge admitted at N.T.P

=mxRxT = 0.0002x287x273 = 0 155xlQ-3 nr

P 1.013x 105 .

17v = ~~ swept volume ~ = ~ ,~ = 0.281xl0-3,I.P = 100xP6;~ xN ,IP = 1.28kW

Indicated thermal efficiency '11= I.P x 3600 =51.2%, Compressor ratio =1+ ~ =16.61
mfxc ~

Air standard efficiency = 1- ~ = 68.40%, Relative efficiency = 51.2 = 0.748

(rt 68.40

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36 . For maximum work output

T )2(:-1)
T=
P (~
Tmin

1.4
11 00 ) 2(1.4-1)
=( 300 = 9.71

Heat addition in Brayton cycle

p
2~4
1
Cp (7;-T2 ) v
= -=
T2 ()
rp 7TY ,7; =300x1.914=574.4
T1
.. Heat addition = 1.005 (1100 - 594.4) = 523.3 kJ/kg .

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-..e
&:
U
0
...
:c Topics Covered
-a
I: • Air Refrigeration Cycles
•
&: • Vapour Compression Refrigeration Cycles

.-
0 • Psychrometric

i.,
at
·c
31
\. I

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Leve. - 1

1. One tonne of refrigerator is defined as the rate of heat removal from the
surrounding equivalent to the heat required for melting .... of ice in .....
(A) lkg, 1hr (6) 1000kg, lhr (C) 1000kg, 24hr (D) lkg, 24hr

2. 1 TR Is equivalent to
(A) 3600kJ/hr (8) 7200kJ/hr (C) 14,OOOkJ/hr (D) None of these

3. C.O.P. of Camot cycle in winter will be .... as compared to summer.

(A) Equal (8) Higher (C) lower (D) None of these

4. A refrigerating unit rejects 6MJ of heat per minute, while Its compressor
consumes 25 kW of power, Its C.O.P. will be
(A) 2 (8) 3 (C) 4 (0)5

5. A heat pump working on a Camot cycle has a C.O.P. of 5, If It consumes 1kW of

power, refrigerant effect by the refrigerator is
(A) 5kJ/mln (6) 300kJ/mln (C) 150kJ/mln (D) None of these

6. Relation between the C.O.P. of refrigerator and Heat Pump Is

(A) (C.OP')R = (C.OP')H.P. + 1 (6) (C.OP')R = (C.OP')H.P. + 2

(C) (C.OP·)R = (C.oP')H.P. - 2 (D) (COP')R = (C.OP')H.P. -1

7. Calculate the C.O.P. of Camot refrigerator world ~ between the temperature limit
of lODC and 30DC.
(A) 7.28 (8) 11.5 (C) 12.6 (D) 14.15

Common Data Que.tlon.: 8 to 11

The following figure shows T-S diagram of vapour compression refrigeration cycle

Find the following process

8. Compression
(A) 2~3 (6) "3-4 (C) 4-1 (D) 1-2

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9. Heat addition
(A) 1-2 (B) 2-3 (C) 3-4 (0)4-1

10. Expansion
(A) 1-2 (B) 2-3 (C) 3-4 (0)4-1

11. Heat rejection

(A) 1-2 (B) 2-3 (C) 3-4 (0)4-1

12. Vapour compression refrigeration cycle is different from reversed Rankine cycle
(A) Statement is false
(B) Isentropic expansion of reversed Rankine cycle is replaced by isenthalpic
expansion in vapour compression refrigeration cycle
(C) Because isentropic compression does not take place in vapour compression
refrigeration cycle
(D) Because heat addition is not isothermal in vapour compression refrigeration
cycle

13. Isenthalplc expansion in VCR in place of isentrop~c expansion of reversed Rankine

cycle
(A) Increases C.O.P.
(B) Increases refrigerating effect
(C) Decreases C.O.P.
(D) Does not have any effect on C.O.P.

14. In the absorption refrigeration cycle, the compressor of vapour compression

refrigeration cycle is replaced by
(A) Liquid pump (B) Generator
(C) Absorber and generator (D) Absorber, generator, liquid pump

15. In VCR, refrigerant has maximum temperature

(A) Between evaporator & compressor
(B) Between compressor & condenser
(C) Between condenser & expansion valve
(D) In evaporator

16. Sub-cooling in refrigeration cycle

(A) Increases C.O.P. (B) Decreases C.O.P.
(C) Does not effect C.O.P. (D) None of these

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17. e.O.P. of vapour compression refrigeration system is defined as
(A) refrigeration effect (8)
I ME I Correspondence Course

refrigeration effect
1
pump work heat rejected in condenser
(C) refrigeration effect (D) refrigeration effect
heat received in generator heat rejected in absorber

18. If at a particular temperature air has maximum amount of water vapour in it,
then it is called
(A) Dry air . (8) Moist air (C) Saturated air (D) None of these

19. The ratio of mass of water vapour to the mass of dry air is called
(A) Relative humidity
(8) Specific humidity or humidity ratio
(C) Degree of saturation
(D) None of these

20. Ratio of mass of water vapour to the mass of water vapour when the air is
saturated at the same temperature is called
(A) Relative humidity (8) Specific humidity
(C) Degree of saturation (D) Humidity ratio

21. Temperature of air recorded by thermometer, when it is not affected by water is

called
(A) Dry bulb temperature (8) Wet bulb temperature
(C) Dew point temperature (D) Critical temperature

22. Temperature at which condensation starts is called

(A) Critical temperature (8) Wet bulb temperature
(C) Dew Point Temperature (D) None of these

23. In sensible cooling humidity ratio

(A) Does not change (8) Increases (C) Decrease (D) None of these

24. Match the following:

List I (Refrigerant) List II (Application)
(A) Air (1) Direct contact freezing of food
(8) Ammonia (2) Centrifugal compressor system
(C) CO2 (3) Large industrial temperature installation
(D) Refrigerant 11 (4) Automotive air conditioner
(5) Air craft refrigeration

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(A) A - 4 6 - 3 C - 1 D - 2 (6) A - 5 6 - 3 C - 1 D - 2
(C) A - 2 6 - 4 C - 3 D - 5 (D) A - 5 6 - 3 C - 2 D - 1

25. In a chemical dehumidification process

1. Dew point temperature decreases
2. W6T decreases
3. D6T increases
Of these three statements:
(A) 1, 2, 3 are correct (6) 1 and 2 are correct
(C) 2 and 3 are correct (D) 1 and 3 are correct

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Level - 2

1. During which of following process heat rejection takes place in Camot vapour
cycle?
(A) Isentropic (6) Isothermal (C) Isochoric (D) Isenthalpic

2. When the lower temperature is fixed, COP of a refrigerating machine can be

increased by
(A) Operating the machine at higher speed
(6) Operating the machine at lower speed
,<C) Raising the higher temperature
(D) .~wering !he higher temperature

3. A heat pump working on a reversed Camot cycle has a C.O.P of 5. If it works as a

refrigerator and consumes 2 kW power, heat absorbed by the refrigerator will be
(A) 10kW (6) 12kW (C) SkW (D) 7kW

4. In vapour compression refrigeration plant expansion device is placed between

(A) Compressor and condenser (6) Evaporator and compressor
(C) Condenser and evaporator (D) Oesuperheater and subcooler

5. In vapour compression refrigeration system, expansion process is

(A) Isentropic (6) Isochoric (C) Isenthalpic CD) Isothermal

6. In a vapour compression refrigeration plant, refrigerant leaves the evaporator at

173kJjkg and the condenser at 67kJjkg. Find refrigerating effect of the plant, if
mass flow rate of the refrigerant is 0.02kgjs
CA) 2.12kW (6) 4.SkW (C) 9SkW (D) 106kW

7. The operating temperature of a cold storage is -2°C. Heat leakage from the
surrounding is 30kW. Ambient temperature is 40°C. The C.O.P of the plant is
30% of ideal plant working between same temperature limits. Power required to
drive the compressor would be
(A) 10kW (6) 13.5kW (C) 15.5kW (D) 17.7kW

S. Which of the following will represent the variation of C.O.P with change in lower
temperature TL higher temperature Th is fixed at 310k?
(A) (6)

COP ~ COP

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 I ME I Correspondence Course

(C) (D)
COP COP

9. In vapour compression refrigeration plant, which of the following pipe connection

does not require insulation?
(A) Between expansion valve and evaporator
(B) Between evapor~tor and compressor inlet
(C) Compressor outlet and condenser
(D) Condenser outlet and evaporation valve

Common Data Questions: 10 to 12

In a vapour compression refrigeration plant refrigerant leaves the compression

and condenser with enthalpy of 223kJ/kg and 70kJ/kg. Refrigerating effect
produce, by the refrigerator is 110kJ per kg of refrigerant

10. Enthalpy of the refrigerant leaving the evaporator will be

(A) 153kJ/kg (B) 113kJ/kg (C) 180kJ/kg (0)293kJ/kg

11. C.O. P of the plant will be

(A) 2.56 (B) 3.56 (C) 4.01 (0)4.29

12. Heat rejected in condenser is

(A) 153kJ/kg (B) 113kJ/kg (C) 187kJ/kg (0)70kJ/kg

13. In which section of vapour compression refrigeration cycle, there is abrupt

change in pressure and temperature?
(A) Evaporator (B) Condenser
(C) Compressor (D) Evaporation valve

14. Which of the following is not a desirable property of a refrigerant?

(A) Low boiling point (B) High critical temperature
(C) High specific volume (D) High sensible heat

15. A domestic refrigerator is placed in a closed room and its doors are open,
temperature of room
(A) Will increase
(B) Will decrease
(C) First increases then decreases
(D) Initially decreases and then increases

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16. A refrigerating machine is working on reversed Carnot cycle and between the
temperature limits of 27°C and -73°C. Refrigerator removes 2kJ/s of heat COP of
the refrigerator and power of the compressor will be
(A) 1, 1kW (6) 2, 1kW (C) 1, 2kW (D) 2, 2kW

17. Which of the following will represent the T-S diagram of vapour compression
refrigeration cycle?

(A)

(C)
T
115
(6)

(D)
T~
5

T~ T~
5 5

18.

(A) p 11
p-h diagram of vapour compression refrigeration system is

(6) p a
h h

(C) (D)
p

h h

19. Numerical designation of ammonia is

(A) 717 (6) 718 (C) 729 (0)744

20. Which of the following refrigerant is represented by R-ll?

(A) CCI3F (6) CCI 2 F2 (C) CHCI 3

21.

(A)
T
11
Which of the following will represent vapour compression cycle with expansion
cylinder?
. (6)

5 5
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!
 I ME I Correspondence Course

(C) (D) none of these

22. Vapour compression refrigeration cycle, expansion device Is used in place of

expression cylinder because
(A) It Increases C.O.P of the system
(B) Negligible power can be obtained from the expansion cylinder
(C) It Increases refrigerating effe~, ,
(D) It is safe to use

23. Reversed carnot cycle cannot be used for air refrigeration because
(A) It will be costly
(B) Isentropic compression of air Is not possible
(C) Isothermal heat addition and heat rejection is not possible
(D) C.O.P will be higher but refrigeration effect will be less

24. Which ortne rollow(ng W(r( represent a(r-refrfgerat(on cyc(e?

(A) (B)

T T

5 5

(C) (D)

5 5

Common Data Questions: 25 to 28

T
o5
1

25. Which of the following process Is heat rejection In air refrigeration?

(A) 1-2 (B) 2-3 (C) 3-4 (0)4-1

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26. Compression Is represented by the process

(A) 1-2 (8) 2-3 (C) 3-4 (0) 1-4

27. Which of the following process will represent heat addition?

(A) 1-2 (8) 2-3 (C) 3-4 (0)4-1

28. Which of the following shows expansion?

(A) 4-1 (8) 4-3 (C) 3-2 (0)2-1

29. Sub cooling In vapour compression refrigeration

CA) decrease C.O.P (8) reduces the capacity of piping
(C) reduces the evaporation of refrigerant during throttling
(D) reduces refrigerating effects.

30.
E - heat qlne
R - Refrigerator

It is given that efficiency of engine Is 40% and heat rejected by the combination
of heat engine and refrigerator Is three times heat given to heat engine. Find
C.O.P. of refrigerator.
(A) 2.5 (8) 3.0 (C) 4.0 (D) 5.0

31. Accumulator Is used to collect liquid refrigerant and protect It from entering In
(A) Compressor (8) Condenser
(C) Evaporator (0) expansion valve

32. For saturated air, specific humidity will be

CA) Zero (8) One (C) Maximum (0) Minimum

33. Relative humidity of saturated air Is

(A) One (8) Maximum (C) Minimum (D) Zero

34. If the atmospheric temperature Increases, saturated specific humidity will

(A) Decrease (8) Increase
(C) does not change (C) None of these

35. For saturated air, the difference between dry bulb temperature and wet bulb
temperature Is
(A) Maximum (8) Minimum
(C) Zero (0) Half Dry bulb temperature

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 I ME I Correspondence Course
~ ... . .r'~

: ,~)6~ ~ ; ' For dry air the difference between dry ' bulb temperature and wet bulb
, i::. ~' +. ' : '.' temperatu re is
'.::~:. :~ '.>: (A): ~aximum (6) Minimum
>':/" '.'... : . . (CFz.ero.,. (D) Half Dry bulb temperature
.' .;: : . "~' ..' -<. .\ :.' . . ' '; .
. . :;. . ' : ..: " ': " .. ..
'

':'~ .<,:
. '~
r·:·. ':; .' '..' "
.. ,
.: , '.
.... '
. ,:.'
Common Data Questions: 37 to 40

i spedfic
humidity

Half[)y~

37. Process 0-1 represents

(A) Heating and humidification (6) Cooling and dehumidification
(C) Sensible heating (D) Sensible cooling

38. Process 0-2 represents

(A) Heating and humidification (6) Heating and dehumidification
(C) Sensible heating (D) Sensible cooling

39. Process 0-3 represents

(A) Cooling and dehumidification (6) Heating and humidification
(C) Evaporative cooling (D) Chem ical dehumidification

40. Process 0-4 represents

(A) Cooling and dehumidification (6) Heating and humidification
(C) 'Adiabatic evaporative cooling (D) Chemical dehumidification

41. Psychometry process used in Dessert cooler is

(A) Cooti.ng and dehumidification (6) Adiabatic evaporative cooling
.. . . (C) S~nsjal.e cooling (D) Chemical dehumidification
.' :: . '. ' ' ,' ,

:~. '. : ' . \~~':. . ' . Ice is t()~:b~ made from water supplied at 15°C by the process shown in figure .
. " ,~. .. . ... :. The 'fi'nat temperature of tli ice is -10°C and the final temperature of the water
that is u~ed as cooling water in the condenser is 30°e.

Cw = 4198-)-,C,CfI = 2070-)-. Latent heat of ice = 335 kkJ

~C ~~ 9
Determine the minimum amount of work required to produce 1000 kg of ice.

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I ME I Correspondence Course

L..--t-\JI,{\/'----+-+--Ice,-lOOC

(A) 30 MJ (8) 35 MJ (C) 32 MJ (0)28 MJ

43. For moist air at 30°C, calculate relative humidity and degree of saturation. Dew
point temperature is 15°C and total pressure is 1 bar.
Data from steam tables at 30°C Ps = 0.04246 bar
At 15°C Pv = 0.01705 bar.
(A) 2.4903, 0.3911 (8) 0.4016, 0.3911
(C) 0.3911, 0.4016 (D) 0.3911, 2.4903

44. A stream of wet air with Wl = 5.5 gm/kg of dry air mixes with another stream of
wet air with W2 = 8.7 gm/kg of dry air in the miss ratio 1.5:1. The specific
humidity of the mixture is
(A) 6.78 gm/kg of dry air (8) 6.78 x10- 3 gm/kg of dry air
(C) 5.24 gm/kg of dry air (D) 7.89 gm/kg of dry air

45. In an ammonia vapour compression system, the pressure i n the evaporator is 2

bars. Ammonia at exit is 0.9 dry and at entry its dryness fraction is 0.2. During
compression, the work done/kg of ammonia is 160 kJ. Calculate the C.O.P. if the
latent heat at 2 bars is 1325 kJ/kg.
(A) 4.5 (8) 5.8 (C) 6.8 (D) 0.58

46. Air at 20° C dry bulb temperature and 40% relative humidity is heated up to 40°
C using an electriC heater, whose surface temperature is maintained uniformly at
45° C. The bypass factor of the heater is.
(A) 0.20 (8) 0.25 (C) 0.88 (D) 1

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~ ... .

'. Level - 3

Common Data .Q uestions: 1 to 5

In 'a Bell-coleman 'r efrigerating plant, air is drawn into cylinder of compressor at
atmospheric pressure .of .1 bar and temperature -70C and it is compressed
adiabatically to 5.5bar. At ~hat pressure, it is cooled to 180e. It is then expanded
in an e?<pansion 0'linder -to atmospheric pressure and discharged into the
refrigerating chamber.

1. What will be the maximum temperature in the cycle?

(A) !lO.loC (B) 127.3 0C (C) 159.9 0C (D) 187.20C

2. Heat rejected in the condenser is

(A) 1l0.6KJ/kg (B) 142.6KJ/kg (C) 152.8KJ/kg (D) 188.6KJ/kg

3. Minimum temperature in the cycle is

(A) -94.20C (B) -80.20C (C) -67.10C (D) -7 0 C

4. .Refrigerating effect pr<?duced by the cycle per kg of air

(A) 50.2 KJ (B) 55KJ (C) 68.1 KJ (0)87.6 KJ

5. C.O.P of the cycle

(A) 1.59 (B) 1.27 (C) 1.1 (D) 1.92

Common Data Questions: 6 &. 7

In Bell Coleman cycle maximum and minimum temperature are 1500C and -
900°C respect.vely. Temperature of air at the inlet of compressor is OOC. Assume
adiabatic compression and expansion.

6. What will be the pressure ratio?

(A) 6.23 (B) 6.01 (C) 5.56 (0)4.63
.
~ 7. C.O.P. of the cycle is
(A) 3.5 (B) 2.18 (C) 1.92 (D) 1.82

Common Data Questions: 8 to 10

A simple. R-12 plant is to develop 5 tones of refrigeration, the condenser and

evaporatcir't~mperature are 10 and -40C respectively
TemperatuTe 0C
Tempera- Vf V,g h, hg s, Sg
ture °C crri 3 /g m 3 /kg Kl/kg Kl/kg Kl/kg K Kl/kg K
-40 0 C 0.659 0.,2419 0.00 169.5 0.00 0.7269
100 0.733 0.0409 45.337 191.6 0.1750 0.6916
Refrigerant is dry saturated at the inlet of compression

8. What will be refrigerating effect produced per kg of refrigerant?

(A) 124.163KJ (B) 160.27KJ (C) 210.184KJ (D)None of these

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9. Mass flow rate of refrigerant per second is

(A) 0.01561<g/ sec (6) 0.15661<g / sec
(C) 0.2134kg/sec (0) 0.312161<g / sec

10. Volume flow rate handled by the compressor is

(A) 0.0124m3 /sec (6) 0.0281m 3 /sec
(C) 0.0379m3 / sec (0) None of these

Common Data Questions: 11 to 15

A refrigerating plant operates on vapour compression cycle. The refrigerant R 12

is used. Saturation temperature in the evaporator and condenser are -5 0C and
40 0C. Vapour enters the compressor as a saturated vapour and is sub-cooled to
20 0C before entering the throltle va!ve. Use table for refrigerant R12,
CpF = 0.9857KJ/kg

11. The refrigerant temperature leaving the compressor is

(A) 40 0C (6) 42.5 0C (C) 45.5 0C (0)46.75 0C

12. Work done per kg of refrigerant will be

(A) 67.123KJ/kg (6) 43.029KJ/kg
(C) 23.079KJ / kg (0) 13.123KJ/kg

13. The refrigerant effect per kg of refrigerant is

(A) 130.5KJ/kg (6) 120.1KJ/kg (C) 112.5KJ/kg (0) 103.2KJ/kg

14. The coefficient of performance is

(A) 3.52 (6) 4.1 (C) 5.25 (0)5.65

15. The compressor displacement per kW of refrigeration is

(A) 0.2m3 /sec (6) 0.35m3 /sec (C) 0.5m 3 /sec (0)0.65m3 /sec

Common Data Questions: 16 to 22

Atmospheric air at 1.0132 bar has a 06T of 32 0C and a W6T of 26 0C

From the steam table

Temperature pressure h, , hg
(0C) (bar) KJ/kg (KJ/kg)
26 0.034 109.1 2549
32 0.048 133.3 2559.8
also extraction temperature at 0.03 bar = 24.10C
16. The specific humidity is
(A) 0.019 (6) 0.011 (C) 0.005 (0)0.0042

17. Partial pressure of the vapour is

(A) 0.03bar (6) 0.04bar (C) 0.045bar (0) 0.048bar

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I ME I Correspondence Course

18. The relative humidity is

(A) 37.5% (B) 50% (C) 62.5% (D)75%

19. Degree of saturation will be

(A) 0.314 (B) 0.424 (C) 0.614 (D)0.662

20. The density of the air in the mixture

(A) 0.98m3 /kg (B) 1.0m3 /kg (C) 1.12m3 / kg (D) 1.22~ / kg

21. The dew pOint temperature is

(A) 30 0 C (B) 25.1oC (C) 22.00C (D)24.1 oe

22. The enthalpy of the mixture is

(A) 62.1KJ/kg (B) 65.0KJ/kg (C) 72.2KJ/kg (D) 80.5KJ/kg

Statement for Linked Answer Questions: 23 & 24

A vapour compression refrigerator uses methyl chloride (R-40) and operates

between temperature limits of -10 0 e and 45°e. At entry to compressor, the
refrigerant is dry saturated, after compression it acquires a temperature of 60 0 e.
The relevant properties of methyl chloride are as follows:
..

Saturation.' temperature Enthalpy In kJ/kg Entropy in ~/kg K

- ..
in °e Liquid Vapour Liquid Vapour
-10 45.4 460.7 0.183 1.637
45 133 483.6 0.485 1.587

23. Find the refrigerant effect (kJ/kg)

(A) 328 (B) 334 (C) 342.6 (D)289

24. Find the eop of refrigerator

(A) 3.38 (B) 8.33 (C) 5.47 (D) 10.08

Statement for Linked Answer Questions: 25 & 26

An air handling unit in air conditioning plant supplies a total of 4,500 m 3/s of dry
air which comprises by weight 20% fresh air at 40 0 e DBT and 27°e WBT and
80% re-circulated air at 25°e DBT and 50% RH. The air leaves the cooling coil at
13 °e satu rated.
Specific volume of air entering the coil = 0.869 m 3/kg d.a .

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Sp. Humidity
Enthalpy
Condition D6ToC W6ToC RH % (9m of water vapour) kJ/kg d.a.
kg of dry air

Outside 40 27 -- 17.2 85
Inside 25 -- 50 10.0 50.87
ADP 13 -- 100 9.4 37.05

25 . Calculate the total cooling load.

(A) 106.9KJ/s (6) 118.7KJ/s (C) 118.7MJ/s (D) 106.9MJ/ s

26. Calculate room heat gain.

(A) 71.56KJ/s (6) 35.34MJ/s (C) 86.23KJ/s (D) 71. 56MJ/s

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Answer Keys
Level-1
1 C 2 C 3 B 4 B 5 B 6 D 7 D
8 C 9 C 10 B 11 A 12 B 13 C 14 D
15 B 16 A 17 C 18 C 19 B 20 A 21 A
22 C 23 A 24 B 25 B
Level - 2
1 B 2 D 3 C 4 C 5 C 6 A 7 C
8 B 9 C 10 C 11 A 12 A 13 D 14 C
15 A 16 B 17 C 18 B 19 A 20 A 21 B
22 ' B 23 C 24 A 25 B 26 C 27 D 28 D
29 C 30 D 31 A 32 D 33 A 34 B 35 C
36 B 37 A 38 C 39 C 40 D 41 B 42 A
43 B 44 A 45 B 46 A
Level-3
1 C 2 B 3 A 4 D 5 A 6 D 7 D
8 A 9 B 10 C 11 D 12 C 13 A '14 D
15 C 16 A 17 A 18 C 19 C 20 C 21 D
22 D 23 B 24 B 25 D 26 D
Explanation: -

Level -1

2. lTR= 1000x336 =14 OOOkJ/kg

24 '

3. C.O.P. = T ~T ' where T is the temperature of refrigerated space and Ta is

a
ambient temperature In winter Ta will be low so C.O.P. would be high

~ = 6MJ/min = 100kJ/s = 100kW

4. Q1 = ~ - W = 100 - 25 = 75kW

:. CO.P. = Q1 = 75 = 3
W 25

5. C.OP. = ~ , Q1 = 5x 1 = SkW = 300kJ/min

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6. (C.OP')R = T. T2 T ... (i) , (C.O'P·)H.P, = T. T1 T ... (iI), Performing (ii) - (i)

1- 2 1- 2

(C.O,P·)HP, - (C.OP·)R = 1 :. (C.O,P')R = (C.OP')HP, - 1

T2 283
7. C.OP.= T -T = 303-283 = 14.15
1 2
Level - :2

2. C.OP = Tmin :. if Tmin is fixed, COP ca n be Increased by lowering Tmax

Tm1x - Tmln

3. C.O.P of refrigerator = COP of Heat Pump - 1 = 5 - 1 = 4

, Heat absorbed
C.O.P of refrigerator = W k d :, Heat absorbed = 4x2=8kW
or one
4.
Expansion Compressor
device

FIg. 1

5.
P ~24 1

h h
Process 1-2 is expansion process which Is Isentropic

6. ~ = 173kJ/ kg
~ = 67kJ/kg p
30r-,2
h. = h3 f1----{
Refrigerating effect = {h3 - h.).m = {173- 67}x 0.02 = 2.12kW
h

7. C.O.P. of Ideal plant - T. T2T. ,T2 = 271k, T1 = 3131<:. C.O.P. of Ideal plant = 6.45
. 1- 2
:. the C.O.P. of actual plant = 6.45xO.3=1.936
Compressor Power = Refrlge~~~g effect = 15.5kW

9. After compression the temperature of refrigerant would be higher so the heat will
flow from refrigerant to the environment, which Is required after compression
3 2
10. on en r

h ~ =2231<3/lkg, h3 =n. =70kJ/kg

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Refrigerating effect = h1 - h4 :. h1 = 70 + 110 = 180kJ / kg

110
11. Compressor work = h2 - h1 = 223 -180 = 43, CO.P. = 43 = 2.56
12. Heat rejected in compressor = h2 - h3 = 223 - 70 = 153kJ / kg
14. High specific volume will increase the size of compressor
15. Heat is absorbed from the room and including the compressor work, it is rejected
in the room, so the temperature will increase.
16. T2
COP. = T T' T2 = -73 + 273 = 200k, Tl = 27 + 273 = 300k :. CO.P. = 2
1 - 2

Compressor work = Refreigerating effect = lkW

C.O.P.
23. Any heat addition or rejection to or from air will increase or decrease its
temperature

. 29.
p ~'
H---¥
h
From the figure it is clear that Refrigerating effect increased by 1-1'
30. According to given condition Q2 + ~ = 3Q1".(i)
Efficiency of engine = 40%,50 W = 0.4Q1".(ii) ,and Q2 = 0.6Q1 ... (iii)

~ = 2.4Q1 ... (iv), W + ~ = ~, 0.4Q1 + Q3 = 2.4Q1' Q3 = 2Q1,e.O.P. = ~

= 2~ = 5
W O.4Q1
31. Accumulator is used to prevent liquid refrigerant from entering to compressor to
protect it from slag.
31. Specific hunidity= I1'\v , I'T\v = rrass of water, 111= ITE5S a dy air, for saturated air rT\v = rl\
rT\
that is maximum at particular temperature so as the specific humidity

33. ,= rT\v , for saturated air rT\v = ms :. , = 1

ms
. 15 + (-10)
42. Tina = mean temperature of Ice bath = 2 = 2.5°C

Q2 = 1000 x 4198(15 - Tm) + 335 X 103 x 1000 + 1000x 2070 (Tm - (-10)) = 413.35mJ

T =15+30=22.5°C
'"-'- 2

Q1 = Q2 (~:) = 443.36MJ
Minimum work required = Q1 - Q2 = 443.36 - 413.35 = 30.01MJ

43. . h 'd'
ReIatlve Pv 0.01705 04016
uml Ity = P = 0.04246 = .
s

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Degree of saturation = Pv [1-

Ps 1-2:.
p.p.~ 1
= 0.3911

Pb

44. Mass of dry air in stream - 1 ml =~= 1.5 3 = 1.49kg

l+Wl 1+5.5x10-

Mass of dry air in stream - 2 m2 =_ 1_ = 1 3 = 0.9913kg

1+w2 1+S.7x10-
3 3
Specific humidity of mixture W3 = 1.49x5.5x10- +0.9913xS.7x10-
1.49 + 0.9913
= 6.78x10· 3 kg/kg of dry air
= 6.78 gm/kg of dry air
45.
Condo
f
p T
f Compo

--- - ----~- .........Jl

4 Evap.

h -+ 5 -+

Given P1 = P4 = 2 bar, Xl = 0.9, X4 = 0.2

W = 160 kJ/kg, hfO = 1325 kJ/kg
From P - hand T - S diagram
h4 = X4 X hfo = 0.2x1325 = 265 kJ/kg
hl = Xl X hfg = 0.9x1325 = 1192.5 kJ/kg
heat extracted = hl - h4 = 1192.5 - 265 = 927.5 kJ/kg.
Word done = 160 kJ/kg, C.O.P. = Heat extracted = 927.5 = 5.S
Work done 160
45-40
46. Bypass factor = 45 _ 20 = 0.2

Level-3 2
3\,\
1. p

~1
v
T

o 4 .
5
.. Maximum temperature occurs at 2. givenT1 = -70 +273 = 2661<, P1 = 1 bar

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2. Heat rejected in the condenser

Q.. = Cp (T2 - T3), T3 = 18 + 273 = 2911<, Q.. = 1.005(T2 - T3 ) = 142.6KJ / kg
3. Minimum temperature at 4

4.
~: = (:: f = (::
Refrigeration effect, Q.
t' T, = 178.81< = -94.21<° C
= Cp (Tl - T4) = 1.005(266-178.8) = 87.6KJ/kg
5. W = Q.. - Q. = 142.6 - 87.6 = 5SKJ,C.OP = Q. = 1.59
W

TO
2
6.
p 3c-\
4
~1

7.

8. :31---4-04~_2 3 Condenser

4 Evaporator
v

t\ = 169.SKJ / kg, h4 = ~ = 45.337KJ / kg, refrigerating effect

hl - h4 = 169.5 - 45.337 = 124.163 KJ / kg
9. mass flow rate W = required refrigeration effect
refrigerating effect produced per kg of steam
Re quired refrigerating effect = 5tonn = 5 x 14, 0000 / hr = 70, OOOkl / hr
:. mass flow rate = 7~,0~~ = 583.775 kl/hr = 0.1566 kg/sec
1 4.1
10. Volume handled by compressor = vl xw = 0.1566xO.2419 = 0.037m3 /sec
11.

p T

4 1

h 5
For R-12
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 I ME I Correspondence c~Jt~':

temper
ature 0C P{bar) hr hg Sf . Sg . Vg
KJ/kg KJ/kg KJ/kgK KJ/kgK m3 /kg
40 9.6065 238.535 367.15 1.1298 1.54051 18.1706
-5 2.6096 195.395 349.32 0.9831 1.55710 64.9629

h1 = 349.32, Sl = 1.5571 KJ/kg k

~ = S2 = 1.5571 kJ/kg
From superheated refrigerant table at saturation temperature of 40 0 C and
entropy 1.5571, t2=46.75 0 C (By interpulating)
12. From superheated refrigerant table at saturation temperature of 40 0 C and
entropy 1.5571 kJ/kg k. ~ = 372.4kJ 1kg. (By inter-pulating)
from the figure
Compressor work Per kg of refrigerant
= ~ - ~ = 372.4 - 349.32 = 23.079 kJ 1 kg
13. h3 = h~oc - Cpt (ho - 20) = 238.535 - 0.9857 (40 - 20) = 218.8 kJ 1 kg
Re frigerating effect = 130.5kJ 1 kg
14. C.OP = ~ - h4 ~ 130.8 = 5.65
h2 - h1 230.8
15. Compressor displacement
( ) refrigeration required
= m Vg -soc' m = refrigeration effect produced by per kg of refrigerant

= 13~.5' compressor work = 13~.5 x 64.9629 = 0.5m31sec

16. w2 = 0.622 P ~s P 'Ps at 260 C = 0.034bar, P = 1.0132 bar, w2 = 0.0216
s
for aduabatric saturation

w = Cpa (T2 - T1 ) + w2 ·hfQ,

1
hW1 - hf2
hfg2 = (2549 -109.1) = 2439.9 kJI kg,hf2

= 109.1kJ/kg,hw1 = h91 = 2559.8kJ/kg

. = 1.005{26-32)+0.0216x2439.9 =0 019
.. w1 2559.8-109.1 .

17. w1 = 0.622x~, 0.019 = 0.622x Pw 'P = O.03bar

P - Pw 1.0132 - Pw w

18. Relative humidity ~ = ~,Pset = saturation p-essureat 32'C=O.048l:Ir ... ~=.625=62.5%

Psat
19. Degree of saturation

~ = w~~ ,w-. = 0.622 x 1.01~i~.048 = 0.031,~ = ~:~~~ = 0.614

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20. PalVal =m~ RT1, Pal =P - PW1 = 1.0132 - 0.03 = 0.9832 bar
:. ~ = mal = Pal = 0.9832 x 100 = 1. 12m3 / kg
val RTl 0.287 X (32 + 273)
21. Dew pOint temperature = saturation temperature at Pw = 0.03 bar = 24.1oC
22. Enthalpy of the mixture = c; + ta + w (hg + 1.88 (tdb - tdP)) = 80.5 kJ / kg.

23. ~ = 273 -10 = 263°K, 7; = 45 + 273 = 318°K, hI = 460.7kJ / kg, ~ = h4 = 133kJ / kg

~ = 1. 637kJ / kg, s" = 1.587 + 2.3C p log t

llJp
= 1.587 + 2.3Cp IOg(333)
tsar 318
333
~ = 5 2 ,1.637 = 1.587 + 2.3Cp log 318 ,Cp = 1.08
~ = 483.6 + 1.08(333 - 318) = 500k) / kg

Refrigerant effect = hI - h4 = 460.7 -133 = 328

24. Cop of refrigerator = ~ - ~ = 460.7 -133 = 8.33
- 500- 460.7
25. Condition of air entering the cooling coil
~ = 0.2(17.2) + 0.8(10) = 11.44 gr. of w.v./kg d.a.
hl = 0.2(85) + 0.8(50.87) = 57.7/(J / kg d.a.
SpeCific volume of air entering the cooling coil = mot
4500 .
mal = 0.869 = 5,178 kg of dry air/sec.

Total cooling load = Q= mal (h1 -~) = 106900 KJ/sec.

26. Fresh air load =
Q, = mao (h1 - h2 ) = (0.2)(5,178)(85 - 50.87) = 35345 KJ/sec.
Room heat gain = Q - Q, = 71565 /(J / sec

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 '.

'.

.',
, ~ .

Reference Books

Thermal Science

• Engineering Thermodynamics by P.K.Nag

• Power Plant Engineering P K Nag

• I C engine by Ganeshan

• Thermodynamics by Mathur ,Mehta and Tiwary

• Thermodynamics by R.K.Rajput

• Refrigeration and Air Conditioning by C.P.Arora

• . Power Plant Engineering by R.Yadav

• Thermodynamics by Turner Boles

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