PH 217: Quantum Physics

The beginning of Quantum Mechanics

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 1.Waves versus particles

(a) Suppose a disturbance propagates from one point to another in

space, what is propagating, waves/particles

(b) A distinguishing characteristic is that waves exhibit

interference, particles do not

(c) Consider a two-slit experiment shown below, particles are fired

from a source S

(d) The particles pass through slits, A and B

An intensity 𝐼1 (number/unit area.sec) emerges from A and an

intensity 𝐼2 from B
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Particle double-slit experiment: Particle intensities

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(e) The two streams of particles superimpose and net intensity
measured is 𝐈 = 𝐈𝟏 +𝐈𝟐

(f) Consider a similar experimental set up as shown below, using

waves.

(g) If S is a source of water waves. Waves are characterized by an

amplitude function, 𝝍, such that intensity 𝑰 = 𝝍 𝟐

(h) Let the two propagating waves have complex scalar amplitudes
𝜓1 𝑟, 𝑡 and 𝜓2 𝑟, 𝑡 respectively which are represented as:

(i) 𝝍𝟏 = 𝝍𝟏 𝒆𝒊𝜶𝟏 and 𝝍𝟐 = 𝝍𝟐 𝒆𝒊𝜶𝟐 α is the phase of the wave

(j) At a point r, the waves superimpose to give a resultant

amplitude, 𝜓 John Kondoro 4
Wave double-slit experiment: wave intensities

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(k) The corresponding resultant intensity I is as:
2 2 ∗
𝑰= 𝜓 = 𝜓1 + 𝜓2 = 𝜓1 + 𝜓2 𝜓1 + 𝜓2
2 2
= 𝜓1 + 𝜓1 + 𝜓1 𝜓2 𝑒 𝑖 𝛼1 −𝛼2
+ 𝑒 −𝑖 𝛼1 −𝛼2

= 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 + 𝟐 𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶𝟏 − 𝜶𝟏

(l) Comparing intensity particles Vs waves, wave intensity has

an additional term ∆≡ 𝟐 𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶𝟏 − 𝜶𝟏

The term is an interference term

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 2.The De Broglie hypothesis and Davisson-Germer
experiment
(a) Energy of a photon of frequency ν is E=hν. Its momentum, p is
𝐸 ℎ𝜈
given as 𝑝 = = but 𝜆𝜈 = 𝑐
𝑐 𝑐

(b) In terms of the wave number k (𝑐𝑚−1 ) and angular frequency

2𝜋
𝜔, 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜈 ⟹ 𝑘 . Therefore, we have
𝜆

ℎ
𝐸 = ℏ𝜔, 𝑝 = ℏ𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔 = 𝑐𝑘 ℏ= . It shows that:
2𝜋

(c) There is a linear dependence between ω and k

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(d) Photons are identified by 2 wave parameters: wave number
k and frequency ω

(e) A photon is special, has zero rest mass and travels at speed
𝑝2
of light. For a particle of K.E 𝐸 = and the wavelength for
2𝑚

ℎ
the corresponding “matter” is 𝜆 = or 𝑝 = ℏ𝑘 relevant to
𝑝

photons too.

(f) That is Debroglie’s hypothesis that ascribes wave property

to particles.

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(g) De Broglie hypothesis suggests that the electron has
something “wavy” associated with it.

(h) The essence of the Davisson-Germer experiment to reflect a

beam of electrons with defined momentum off a crystal
surface separated by a distance a was to see if interference
was there

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Electron Reflection – Constructive interference

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 3. Compton effect

(a) A.H Compton applied the photon concept of electromagnetic

radiation to explain scattering of x-rays from electrons in fig
below.

(b) It is assumed that a photon of energy ℎ𝜈 and momentum

ℎ𝜈 ℎ
p= = is incident on a stationary free electron
𝑐 𝜆

(c) ℎ
The scattered photon moves away with new momentum P’=
𝜆′

at an angle θ wrt to old momentum

(d) Let the e- recoil with momentum P

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Compton scattering

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(e) Conservation of momentum gives

𝑝 = 𝑝′ + 𝑃 ⟹ 𝑷2 = 𝑝 − 𝑝′ 2
= 𝑝2 + 𝑝′2 − 2𝑝𝑝′

𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏:
ℎ𝜈 + 𝑚𝑐 2 = ℎ𝜈 ′ + 𝑚2 𝑐 4 + 𝑃2 𝑐 2 1 2

𝑚2 𝑐 4 + 𝑷2 𝑐 2 = ℎ𝜈 − ℎ𝜈 ′ + 𝑚𝑐 2 2

2
= ℎ𝜈 − ℎ𝜈′ + 2𝑚𝑐 2 ℎ𝜈 − ℎ𝜈′ + 𝑚2 𝑐 4

(f) From conservation of energy

ℎ𝜈 2 ℎ𝜈′ 2 ℎ𝜈 ℎ𝜈′
𝑷𝟐 = + −2 cos 𝜃
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐

𝑷𝟐 𝑐 2 = ℎ𝜈 − ℎ𝜈′ 2 + 2 ℎ𝜈 ℎ𝜈′ 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝜆′ − 𝜆 John
= Kondoro
𝜆𝑐 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 13
Combining the eqn in conservation of energy/ momentum

ℎ𝜈 ′ 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑚𝑐 2 𝜈 − 𝜈′

ℎ
𝜆′ −𝜆 = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑚𝑐

ℎ
𝜆𝑐 ≡ 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = = 2.43 𝑥10−10 𝑐𝑚
𝑚𝑐

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 4. The essence of determinism

Classical Physics

(a) 2nd Newton’s Law: Given initial coordinates and velocity of

particle and all forces⟹ the orbit is uniquely determined

(b) In 18th Century: Laplace: once the interaction between

different bodies is precisely known and the position and
velocities of those bodies at any given instant are known,
these coordinates and velocities are determined (2nd
Newton’s Law) for all time.

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 5. Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
(a) If the momentum of a particle is known precisely, it follows that
the position (location) of that particle is completely unknown

(b) Or if an identical experiment involving an electron is performed

many times, in each run the position (x) of electron is measured,
the average = 𝑥
2 2
(c) ∆𝑥 ≡ 𝑥− 𝑥 ∆𝑥=uncertainty in x

(d) Heisenberg uncertainty principle: ∆𝑥∆𝑝𝑥 ≥ ℏ

(e) If position is completely known, ∆𝑥 =0, the momentum is

completely unknown, ∆𝑝𝑥 = ∞
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(f) Observable parameters obeying the principle are called
complementary variables

(g) Examples of complementary variables are

(i) Coordinates and momenta (𝑥, 𝑝𝑥 )

(ii) Energy and time (E,t)

(iii) Any two Cartesian components of angular momentum

(𝐿𝑥 , 𝐿𝑦 )

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 6. Probability waves/ Wave functions

(a) Recall the amplitude function 𝜓 in the Davisson-Germer

experiment. The intensity of the wave was set to 𝜓 2

(b) The function 𝝍 is called wave function, state function

(c) With reference to propagation of particles, Born referred 𝝍 𝟐

to probability density.

(d) The wave function for a particle is such that

𝝍 𝟐 𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚𝒅𝒛 = 𝑷 𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚𝒅𝒛 where P dxdydz is the

probability that measurement of the position of the particle
at time t finds it in a volume element about the point x,y,z
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For problems where the particle is somewhere in a given

volume V, 𝑽
𝝍 𝟐 𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚𝒅𝒛 = 𝟏

Example: Consider a particle known to be on x-axis with

𝑖𝜔𝑡 −𝑥 2 2𝑎2
wave function 𝜓 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑒
∞ ∗ 2 ∞ −𝑖𝜔𝑡 𝑖𝜔𝑡 −𝑥 2 𝑎2
Then, 1 = −∞
𝜓 𝜓 𝑑𝑥 =𝐴 −∞
𝑒 𝑒 𝑒 dx

∞ −𝜂2
= 𝐴2 𝑎 −∞
𝑒 𝑑𝜂 = 𝐴2 𝑎 𝜋 where 𝜂 ≡ 𝑥 𝑎

1
∴𝐴= ⟹ 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑑 wavef unction
𝑎1 2 𝜋1 4

1 𝑖𝜔𝑡 𝑒 −𝑥 2 2𝑎2
𝜓= 𝑒
𝑎1 2 𝜋1 4
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