PHYSIO 101 (Chapter 2)

Major Parts of the Cell:

- Nucleus (separated from the cytoplasm by a nuclear membrane)
- Cytoplasm (separated from the surrounding fluids by the plasma membrane)

Protoplasm
- different substances that make up the cell
- composed mainly of five basic substances: water, electrolytes, proteins, lipids, carbohydrates

Water
- 70% to 85% of the cells

Ions
- include potassium, magnesium, phosphate, sulfate, bicarbonate, and smaller quantities of sodium,
chloride, and calcium
- provide inorganic chemicals for cellular reactions and are necessary for the operation of some cellular
control mechanisms

Proteins
- most abundant substances in most cells
- 20% of the cell mass

Two Types of Proteins

1. Structural
- present in the cell mainly in the form of long filaments that are polymers of many
individual protein molecules
2. Functional
- composed of combinations of a few molecules in tubular-globular
- are mainly the enzymes of the cell and, in contrast to the fibrillar proteins, are often
mobile in the cell fluid
- adherent to membranous structures inside the cell and catalyze specific intracellular
chemical reactions

Microtubulues
- provide the cytoskeletons of cellular organelles such as cilia, nerve axons, the mitotic spindles of cells
undergoing mitosis, and a tangled mass of thin filamentous tubules that hold the parts of the cytoplasm
and nucleoplasm together in their respective compartments

Fibrillar Proteins
- are found outside the cell, especially in the collagen and elastin fibers of connective tissue, and
elsewhere, such as in blood vessel walls, tendons, and ligaments

Lipids
- several types of substances that are grouped together because of their common property of being
soluble in fat solvents

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Important Lipids (2% of the cell mass)
A. Phospholipids
B. Cholesterol
** both are insoluble in water and used to form the cell membrane and intracellular membrane barriers that
separate the different cell compartments

Triglycerides
- neutral fats
- (in fat cells/adipocytes) often account for as much as 95% of the cell mass.
- the fat stored in these cells represents the body’s main storehouse of energy-giving nutrients that can
later be used to provide energy wherever it is needed in the body

Carbohydrates
- 1% of their total mass but increases to as much as 3% in muscle cells and, occasionally, to 6% in liver
cells
- in the form of dissolved glucose is always present in the surrounding extracellular fluid so that it is
readily available to the cell

Glycogen
- insoluble polymer of glucose that can be depolymerized and used rapidly to supply the cell’s energy
needs

Intracellular Organelles
- cell contains highly organized physical structures

Membranes Composed of Lipids and Proteins

- Cell Membrane - membranes of the Mitochondria
- Nuclear Membrane - membrane of the Lysosomes
- membrane of the Endoplasmic Reticulum - membrane of the Golgi Apparatus

Lipids in Membranes
- provide a barrier that impedes movement of water and water-soluble substances from one cell comp

Enzymes
- catalyze a multitude of different chemical reactions

Cell Membrane
- or plasma membrane
- envelops the cell and is a thin, pliable, elastic structure only 7.5 to 10 nanometers thick
- entirely of proteins and lipids
- 55% proteins, 25% phospholipids, 13% cholesterol, 4% other lipids, and 3% carbohydrates

Lipid Bilayer
- a thin, double-layered film of lipids (each layer only one molecule thick) that is continuous over the
entire cell surface.
- Interspersed in this lipid film are large globular proteins composed of:

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 A. Phospholipids (most abundant cell membrane lipids)
a. Hydrophilic (soluble in water; phosphate)
b. Hydrophobic (soluble in fats; fatty acid)
i. because the hydrophobic portions of the phospholipid molecules are repelled by water
but are mutually attracted to one another, they have a natural tendency to attach to one
another in the middle of the membrane
ii. the lipid layer in the middle of the membrane is impermeable to the usual water-soluble
substances, such as ions, glucose, and urea.
B. Sphingolipids
- sphingosine (amino alcohol) also have hydrophobic and hydrophilic groups and are present in
small amounts in the cell membranes, especially nerve cells.

a. Complex Sphingolipids
i. to serve several functions, including protection from harmful environmental factors,
signal transmission, and adhesion sites for extracellular proteins

C. Cholesterol
- are also lipids because their steroid nuclei are highly fat-soluble
- are dissolved in the bilayer of the membrane
- help determine the degree of permeability (or impermeability) of the bilayer to water-soluble
constituents of body fluids
- controls much of the fluidity of the membrane

Glycoproteins
- membrane proteins

Two Types of Membrane Proteins

1. Integral Proteins
- protrude all the way through the membrane
- provide structural channels (or pores) through which water molecules and water-soluble
substances, especially ions, can diffuse between extracellular and intracellular fluids
- have selective properties that allow preferential diffusion of some substances over others
- act as carrier proteins for transporting substances that otherwise could not penetrate the lipid
bilayer
- act as enzymes, and as receptors for water-soluble chemicals that do not easily penetrate the
cell membrane
- integral proteins spanning the cell membrane provide a means of conveying information about
the environment to the cell interior
- most of the integral proteins are glycoproteins, and about a tenth of the membrane lipid
molecules are glycolipids

2. Peripheral Proteins
- attached only to one surface of the membrane and do not penetrate all the way through
- are often attached to integral proteins
- function almost entirely as enzymes or as controllers of transport of substances through cell
membrane pores

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Active Transport
- carrier proteins transport substances in the direction opposite to their electrochemical gradients for
diffusion

Membrane Carbohydrates
- occur almost invariably in combination with proteins or lipids in the form of glycoproteins or glycolipids

Proteoglycans
- mainly carbohydrates bound to small protein cores—are loosely attached to the outer surface of the cell

Glycocalyx
- loose carbohydrate coat

Carbohydrate Moieties Functions

1. Many of them have a negative electrical charge, which gives most cells an overall negative surface
charge that repels other negatively charged objects.
2. The glycocalyx of some cells attaches to the glycocalyx of other cells, thus attaching cells to one
another.
3. Many carbohydrates act as receptors for binding hormones, such as insulin. When bound, this
combination activates attached internal proteins that activate a cascade of intracellular enzymes.
4. Some carbohydrate moieties enter into immune reactions.

Cytoplasms
- filled with small and large dispersed particles and organelles
- dispersed in the cytoplasm are neutral fat globules, glycogen granules, ribosomes, secretory vesicles,
and five essential organelles—the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, mitochondria,
lysosomes, and peroxisomes.

Cytosol
- jelly-like fluid portion of the cytoplasm in which the particles are dispersed
- contains mainly dissolved proteins, electrolytes, and glucose

Endoplasmic Reticulum
- helps process molecules made by the cell and transports them to their specific destinations inside or
outside the cell
- walls are constructed of lipid bilayer membranes that contain large amounts of proteins, similar to the
cell membrane

Cisternae
- a network of tubular structures

Endoplasmic Matrix
- watery medium that is different from fluid in the cytosol outside the endoplasmic reticulum

Ribosomes
- large numbers of minute granular particles

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Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
- particles are present

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

- no attached ribosomes
- synthesis of lipid substances and for other processes of the cells promoted by intrareticular enzymes

Golgi Apparatus
- has membranes similar to those of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum
- usually composed of four or more stacked layers of thin, flat, enclosed vesicles lying near one side of
the nucleus
- prominent in secretory cells, where it is located on the side of the cell from which secretory substances
are extruded
- functions in association with the endoplasmic reticulum

** substances entrapped in ER vesicles are transported from the endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi apparatus
** transported substances are then processed in the Golgi apparatus to form lysosomes, secretory vesicles,
and other cytoplasmic components

Lysosomes
- are vesicular organelles that form by breaking off from the Golgi apparatus; they then disperse
throughout the cytoplasm
- provide an intracellular digestive system that allows the cell to digest the following:
- damaged cellular structures
- food particles that have been ingested by the cell
- unwanted matter such as bacteria
- 250-750 nanometers in diameter
- surrounded by typical lipid bilayer membranes and are filled with large numbers of small granules, 5 to
8 nanometers in diameter, which are protein aggregates of as many as 40 different hydrolase
(digestive) enzymes

Hydrolytic Enzyme
- capable of splitting an organic compound into two or more parts by combining hydrogen from a water
molecule with one part of the compound and combining the hydroxyl portion of the water molecule with
the other part of the compound
- highly concentrated in lysosomes

Membrane Surrounding The Lysosome

- prevents the enclosed hydrolytic enzymes from coming into contact with other substances in the cell
and therefore prevents their digestive actions
** some conditions of the cell break the membranes of lysosomes, allowing release of the digestive enzymes
** these enzymes split the organic substances with which they come in contact into small, highly diffusible
substances such as amino acids and glucose

Peroxisomes
- similar to lysosomes
- formed by self-replication
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 - contain oxidases rather than hydrolases

Oxidases
- capable of combining oxygen with hydrogen ions derived from different intracellular chemicals to form
hydrogen peroxide

Hydrogen Peroxide
- highly oxidizing substance and is used in association with catalase (oxidase enzyme present in large
quantities in peroxisomes) to oxidize many substances that might otherwise be poisonous to the cell

Secretory Vesicles
- formed by the ER–Golgi Apparatus system and are then released from the Golgi apparatus system into
the cytoplasm in the form of storage vesicles

Mitochondria
- powerhouse of the cell
- present in all areas of each cell’s cytoplasm
- concentrated in those portions of the cell responsible for the major share of its energy metabolism
- varies in size and shape
- self-replicative
- composed mainly of two lipid bilayer– protein membranes:
- inner membrane
- outer membrane

Cristae
- infoldings of the inner membrane form shelves and tubules which oxidative enzymes are attached
- provide a large surface area for chemical reactions to occur

Inner Cavity of the Mitochondrion

- filled with matrix that contains large quantities of dissolved enzymes necessary for extracting energy
from nutrients
- these enzymes operate in association with oxidative enzymes on the cristae to cause oxidation of
nutrients, thereby forming carbon dioxide and water, at the same time, releasing energy

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

- high energy substance
- transported out of the mitochondrian and diffuses throughout the cell to release its own energy
wherever it is needed for performing cellular functions

DNA of the Mitochondrion

- controlling replication of the mitochondrion

Cytoskeleton
- network of fibrillar proteins organized into filaments or tubules
- originate as precursor proteins synthesized by ribosomes in the cytoplasm
- precursor molecules then polymerize to form filaments
- provide rigid physical structures for certain parts of cells
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 - participates in cell divisions, allow cells to move, and provides a tracklike system that directs the
movement of organelles in the cells
- serve as conveyer belts for the intracellular transport of vesicles, granules, and organelles such as
mitochondria

Ectoplasm
- outer zone of the cytoplasm to form an elastic support for the cell membrane

Muscle Cells
- actin and myosine filaments are organized into a special contractile machine that is the basis for
muscle contraction

Intermediate Filaments
- generally strong ropelike filaments that often work together with microtubules, providing strength and
support for the fragile tubulin structures
- intermediate because of their average diameter; between that of narrower actin microfilaments and
wider myosin filaments found in muscle cells

Microtubules
- strong tubular structures
- a special type of stiff filament composed of polymerized tubulin molecules

Nucleus
- control center of the cell and sends messages to the cell to grow and mature, replicate, or die
- contains large quantities of DNA which comprises the genes

Genes
- determine the characteristics of the cell’s proteins, including the structural proteins, as well as the
intracellular enzymes that control cytoplasmic and nuclear activities
- control and promote cell reproduction

Mitosis
- genes reproduce to create two identical sets of genes; then the cell splits to form two daughter cells,
each of which receives one of the two sets of DNA genes
- chromatin material organizes in the form of highly structured chromosomes

Nuclear Membrane
- nuclear envelope
- two separate bilayer membranes

A. Outer Membrane
- continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum of the cell cytoplasm
B. Inner Membrane
- space between the two nuclear membranes is also continuous
- penetrated by several thousand nuclear pores

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Nucleoli
- nuclei of most cells contain one or more highly staining structures

Nucleolus
- does not have a limiting membrane
- accumulation of RNA and proteins of the types found in ribosomes
- enlarges considerably when the cell is actively synthesizing proteins

Formation of the Nucleoli

- begins in the nucleus
- (1) specific DNA genes in the chromosomes cause RNA to be synthesized
- used in conjunction with specific proteins to assemble “mature” ribosomes that play an important role in
forming cytoplasmic proteins

Microorganisms
a. smallest known virus
b. large virus
c. Rickettsia
d. Bacterium
e. nucleated cell

** The cell has a diameter about 1000 times that of the smallest virus and therefore a volume about 1 billion
times that of the smallest virus.

Nucleic Acid
- embedded in a coat of protein
- composed of the same basic nucleic acid constituents (DNA/RNA) found in mamallian cells and is
capable of reproducing itself under appropriate conditions

Nucleus
- control center for all cellular activities for reproduction of new cells generation after generation, with
each new cell having almost exactly the same structure as its progenitor

Diffusion
- simple movement through the membrane caused by the random motion of the molecules of the
substance

Endocytosis
- large particles enter the cell

A. Pinocytosis
- ingestion of minute particles that form vesicles of extracellular fluid and particulate constituents
inside the cell cytoplasm
- occurs continually in the cell membranes of most cells, but is especially rapid in some cells
- cell drinking
- most large macromolecules can enter cells

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Coated Pits
- the outer surface of the cell where the receptors generally are concentrated in small pits

Clathrin
- a latticework of fibrillar protein on the inside of the cell membrane beneath the pits

A. Phagocytosis
- ingestion of large particles
- cell eating
- involves large particles rather than molecules
- initiated when a particle binds with receptors in the surface of the phagocyte

Opsonization
- intermediation of antibodies

Phagocytosis Occurs in the Following Steps:

1. The cell membrane receptors attach to the surface ligands of the particle.
2. The edges of the membrane around the points of attachment evaginate outward within a fraction of a
second to surround the entire particle; then, progressively more and more membrane receptors attach
to the particle ligands. All this occurs suddenly in a zipper-like manner to form a closed phagocytic
vesicle.
3. Actin and other contractile fibrils in the cytoplasm surround the phagocytic vesicle and contract around
its outer edge, pushing the vesicle to the interior.
4. The contractile proteins then pinch the stem of the vesicle so completely that the vesicle separates from
the cell membrane, leaving the vesicle in the cell interior in the same way that pinocytotic vesicles are
formed.

Lysosomes
- digest pinocytotic and phagocytotic foreign substances inside the cell
- can contain bactericidal agents that can kill phagocytized bacteria before they cause cellular damage
- agents:
a. lysozyme (dissolves the bacterial cell wall)
b. lysoferrin (binds iron and other substances before they can promote bacterial growth)
c. acid at a pH about 5.0 (activates the hydrolases and inactivates bacterial metabolic systems)

Digestive Vesicle
- formed inside the cell cytoplasm in which the vesicular hydrolases begin hydrolyzing proteins,
carbohydrates, lipids, and other substances in the vesicle

Residual Body
- what is left of the digestive vesicle
- represents indigestible substances

Exocytosis
- residual body is finally excreted
- secretory vesicles first diffuse to the cell membrane and then fuse with it and empty their substances to
the exterior
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 - stimulated by entry of calcium ions into the cell

Digestive Organs of the Cells

- pinocytotic and phagocytic vesicles containing lysosomes

Special Role of Lysosomes

- removal of damaged cells or damaged portions of cells from tissues

Autolysis
- if the damage is severe and the entire cell is digested
- the cell is completely removed, and a new cell of the same type is formed, ordinarily by mitotic
reproduction of an adjacent cell to take the place of the old one

Autophagy
- to eat oneself
- a housekeeping process whereby obsolete organelles and large protein aggregates are degraded and
recycled
- contributes to the routine turnover of cytoplasmic components
- key mechanism for tissue development, cell survival when nutrients are scarce, and maintenance of
homeostasis

Autophagosomes
- double-membraned structures where worn-out cell organelles are transferred to lysosomes which are
formed in the cytosol

Endoplasmic Reticulum
- products formed are then passed on to the Golgi apparatus where they are further processed before
being released into the cytoplasm

Rough ER
- characterized by large numbers of ribosomes attached to the outer surfaces of the endoplasmic
reticulum membrane

Protein Molecules
- synthesized within the structures of the ribosomes

Ribosomes

A. Protein Synthesis
- extrude some of the synthesized protein molecules directly into the cytosol
- also extrude many more through the wall of the endoplasmic vesicles and tubules into the
endoplasmic matrix
B. Lipid Synthesis
- synthesizes phospholipids and cholesterol
- lipids are rapidly incorporated into the lipid bilayer of the endoplasmic reticulum, thus causing
the endoplasmic reticulum to grow more extensive

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ER (or Transport) Vesicles
- small vesicles that break away from the smooth reticulum
- most of these vesicles then migrate rapidly to the Golgi apparatus

Other Functions:
- It provides the enzymes that control glycogen breakdown when glycogen is to be used for
energy.
- It provides a vast number of enzymes that are capable of detoxifying substances, such as
drugs, that might damage the cell. It achieves detoxification by processes such as coagulation,
oxidation, hydrolysis, and conjugation with glucuronic acid.

Golgi Apparatus Functions

- provide additional processing of substances already formed in the endoplasmic reticulum
- can synthesize certain carbohydrates that cannot be formed in the endoplasmic reticulum
- true for the formation of large saccharide polymers bound with small amounts of protein
- compact the endoplasmic reticular secretions into highly concentrated packets
- both small and large vesicles continually break away from the Golgi apparatus, carrying with them the
compacted secretory substances and diffusing throughout the cell

Functions of Hyaluronic Acid and Chondroitin Sulfate

- major components of proteoglycans secreted in mucus and other glandular secretions
- major components of the ground substance, or nonfibrous components of the extracellular matrix,
outside the cells in the interstitial spaces, which act as fillers between collagen fibers and cells
- principal components of the organic matrix in both cartilage and bone
- important in many cell activities, including migration and proliferation

Transport Vesicles
- composed of small envelopes of smooth endoplasmic reticulum that continually break away and diffuse
to the deepest layer of the Golgi apparatus
- fuse with the Golgi apparatus and empty their contained substances into the vesicular spaces of the
Golgi apparatus

Secretory Vesicles
- vesicles formed by the Golgi Apparatus
- containing proteins that are secreted through the surface of the cell membrane

Calcium Ions
- interact with the vesicular membrane and cause its fusion with the cell membrane, followed by
exocytosis—opening of the membrane’s outer surface and extrusion of its contents outside the cell

Intracellular Vesicles
- formed by the Golgi Apparatus fuse with the cell membrane or with the membranes of intracellular
structures
- fusion increases the expanse of these membranes and replenishes the membranes as they are used
up

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** In summary, the membranous system of the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus are highly
metabolic and capable of forming new intracellular structures and secretory substances to be extruded from
the cell.

Foods that React Chemically with Oxygen

- Carbohydrates, Fats, and Proteins
- principal substances from which cells extract energy

** carbohydrates are converted into glucose by the digestive tract and liver before they reach the other cells of
the body
** proteins are converted into amino acids, and fats are converted into fatty acids
** they react chemically with oxygen under the influence of enzymes that control the reactions and channel the
energy released in the proper direction

ATP is a Nucleotide Composed of:

- the nitrogenous base adenine
- pentose sugar ribose
- three phosphate radicals

** last two phosphate radicals are connected with the remainder of the molecule by high-energy phosphate
bonds
** high-energy bonds contains about 12,000 calories of energy per mole of ATP, which is many times greater
than the energy stored in the average chemical bond, thus giving rise to the term high-energy bond
** ATP releases its energy, a phosphoric acid radical is split away, and adenosine diphosphate (ADP) is formed
** released energy is used to energize many of the cell’s other functions, such as syntheses of substances and
muscular contraction

Energy Currency
- ATP
- can be spent and reformed continually, having a turnover time of only a few minutes

Glycolysis
- glucose is converted by enzymes in the cytoplasm into pyruvic acid
- about 95% of the cell’s ATP formation occurs in the mitochondria

Pyruvic Acid
- derived from carbohydrates, fatty acids from lipids, and amino acids from proteins is eventually
converted into the compound acetyl-coenzyme A (CoA) in the matrix of mitochondria ( Krebs Cycle)

Acetyl-CoA
- component parts: hydrogen atoms and carbon dioxide
- Carbon Dioxide: diffuses out of the mitochondria and eventually out of the cell; finally, it is excreted from
the body through the lungs
- Hydrogen Atoms: are highly reactive; they combine with oxygen that has also diffused into the
mitochondria
- releases a tremendous amount of energy, which is used by mitochondria to convert large amounts of
ADP to ATP
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 - complex, requiring the participation of many protein enzymes that are integral parts of mitochondrial
membranous shelves that protrude into the mitochondrial matrix

ATP Synthetase
- terminal event is the combination of hydrogen ions with oxygen to form water and the release of large
amounts of energy to globular proteins that protrude like knobs from the membranes of the
mitochondrial shelves
- the enzyme ATP synthetase uses the energy from the hydrogen ions to convert ADP to ATP
- newly formed ATP is transported out of the mitochondria into all parts of the cell cytoplasm and
nucleoplasm, where it energizes multiple cell functions

Chemiosmotic Mechanism of ATP Formation

- overall process for the formation of ATP

Uses of ATP for Cellular Function

- transport of substances through multiple cell membranes
- synthesis of chemical compounds throughout the cell
- mechanical work

** In summary, ATP is readily available to release its energy rapidly wherever it is needed in the cell. To replace
ATP used by the cell, much slower chemical reactions break down carbohydrates, fats, and proteins and use
the energy derived from these processes to form new ATP. More than 95% of this ATP is formed in the
mitochondria, which is why the mitochondria are called the powerhouses of the cell.

Two Types of Movement

1. Ameboid Locomotion
- a crawling-like movement of an entire cell in relation to its surroundings, such as the movement
of white blood cells through tissues
- begins with the protrusion of a pseudopodium from one end of the cell
- projects away from the cell body and partially secures itself in a new tissue area; then the
remainder of the cell is pulled toward the pseudopodium

Types of Cells that Exhibit Ameboid Locomotion

- white blood cells
- cancer cells (sarcomas)

Metastasis
- partially accounts for their relatively rapid spreading from one part of the body to another

Chemotaxis
- important initiator of ameboid locomotion

Chemotactic Substance
- any chemical substance that causes chemotaxis to occur

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Positive Chemotaxis
- locomotion move toward the source of a chemotactic substance—that is, from an area of lower
concentration toward an area of higher concentration

Negative Chemotaxis
- cells move away from the source

2. Ciliary Movement
- a whiplike movement of cilia on the surfaces of cells
- occurs mainly in two places in the human body: on the surfaces of the respiratory airways and
on the inside surfaces of the uterine tubes (fallopian tubes) of the reproductive tract

Two Types of Cilia

1. Motile
- undergo a whiplike movement on the surfaces of cells
- occurs mainly in two places in the human body, on the surfaces of the respiratory
airways and on the inside surfaces of the uterine tubes (fallopian tubes) of the
reproductive tract

Basal Body of the Cillium

- structure that lies immediately beneath the cell membrane

Mechanism of Ciliary Movement

1. The nine double tubules and two single tubules are all linked to one another by a complex of protein
cross-linkages; this total complex of tubules and cross-linkages (axoneme)
2. Even after the removal of the membrane and destruction of other elements of the cilium in addition to
the axoneme, the cilium can still beat under appropriate conditions.
3. Two conditions are necessary for the continued beating of the axoneme after the removal of the other
structures of the cilium: (1) the availability of ATP; and (2) appropriate ionic conditions, especially
appropriate concentrations of magnesium and calcium.
4. During the forward motion of the cilium, the double tubules on the front edge of the cilium slide outward
toward the tip of the cilium, whereas those on the back edge remain in place.
5. Multiple protein arms composed of the protein dynein, which has adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase)
enzymatic activity, project from each double tubule toward an adjacent double tubule.

2. Nonmotile/Primary

Primary Cilia
- primary cilia generally occurs only as a single cilium on each cell

Polycystic Kidney Disease

- defects in signaling by primary cilia in renal tubular epithelial cells are thought to contribute to various
disorders, including the development of large fluid-filled cysts

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