Number Theory

Introduction:
Number theory is the branch of mathematics that studies the properties and the
relationships between particular type of numbers.
Of the sets of numbers studied in Number Theory, the most important is the set of
positive integers and primes.
A key result of Number Theory shows that the primes are the multiplicative building
blocks of the positive integers. This result called the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic,
tells us that every positive integer can be uniquely written as the product of primes in non-
decreasing order.
Integer Numbers:
The integers are the numbers in the set {…..-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,……}
Well-ordering principal:
Every non-empty set of positive integers has a least element.
Example:
1. The set of positive integers is well-ordered.
2. The set of all integers is not well-ordered.
Rational Number:
The real number r is rational, if there are integers p and q with 𝑞 ≠ 0 such that
𝑟 = 𝑝⁄𝑞 . If r is not rational, it is called as an irrational number.
12 2 0
Example: − , 17 , 1 are rational and √2 is irrational.
7

Note: The set of integers, positive integers, rational numbers and real numbers are denoted by
𝑍, 𝑍 + , 𝑄, 𝑅 respectively.
Divisibility:
If a, b are integers with 𝑎 ≠ 0, we say that a divides b, if there is an integer c such
that 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑐. If a divides b, we also say that a is a divisor (or) factor of b and that b is multiple
of a.

If a divides b we write 𝑎|𝑏 and a does not divides b we write

Results:
1. If a, b, c are integers with 𝑎|𝑏, 𝑏|𝑐 then 𝑎|𝑐.
2. If a, b, m, n are integers and if 𝑐|𝑎 and 𝑐|𝑏 then 𝑐|(𝑚𝑎 + 𝑛𝑏)
Division Algorithm:
 If a and b are integers such that b>0 then there are unique integers q and r such that
𝑎 = 𝑏. 𝑞 + 𝑟 with 0 ≤ 𝑟 < 𝑏.
We call q is the quotient, r is the remainder, a is the dividend and b is the divisor.
Note: If a is divisible by b iff the remainder in the division algorithm is zero.
Greatest Common Divisors:
The Greatest Common Divisor of two integers a and b not both zero denoted by
(𝑎, 𝑏), is the largest integer that divides both a and b.
Relatively prime:
The integers with 𝑎 ≠ 0 and 𝑏 ≠ 0 are relatively prime if a and b have the greatest
common divisor (𝑎, 𝑏) = 1.
Example: (15,81) = 3 and (2,7) = 1
Results:
1. If a and b are integers with (𝑎, 𝑏) = 𝑑 then (𝑎⁄𝑑 , 𝑏⁄𝑑 ) = 1
In other words 𝑎⁄𝑑 , 𝑏⁄𝑑 are relatively prime.
2. Let a, b, c are integers then (𝑎 + 𝑐𝑏, 𝑏) = (𝑎, 𝑏)
Definition:
If a and b are integers then a linear combination of a and b is a sum which is of the
form 𝑚𝑎 + 𝑛𝑏, where both m and n are integers.
Theorem:
The GCD of the integers a and b (not both zero) is the least positive integer that is a
linear combination of a and b.
Berzout’s theorem: If a and b are integers then there are integers m and n such that
𝑚𝑎 + 𝑛𝑏 = (𝑎, 𝑏)
Result: The integers a and b are relatively prime integers iff there are integers m and n such
that 𝑚𝑎 + 𝑛𝑏 = 1.
Theorem: If a and b are integers (not both zero), then a positive integer d is the GCD (a, b)
iff 1) 𝑑|𝑎 and 𝑑|𝑏
2) If c is an integer with 𝑐|𝑎 and 𝑐|𝑏 then 𝑐|𝑑.
Definition: Let 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … . . , 𝑎𝑛 be integers not all zero. The GCD of these integers is the
largest integer that is a divisor of all integers in the set. The GCD of 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … . . , 𝑎𝑛 is
denoted by (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … . . , 𝑎𝑛 ).
Lemma: If 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … . . , 𝑎𝑛 be integers not all zero then (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … . . , 𝑎𝑛−1 , 𝑎𝑛 ) =
(𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … . . , 𝑎𝑛−2 , (𝑎𝑛−1 , 𝑎𝑛 )).
Problems:
1. Find the GCD of 5,35
Sol: The positive divisors of 5 are 1 and 5 and
the positive divisors of 35 are 1, 5, 7 and 15.
Therefore, the greatest common divisor of 5 and 35 is 5.

2. Find the GCD of -27, -45

Sol: The positive divisors of −27 are 1, 3, 9, and 27.
The positive divisors of −45 are 1, 3, 5, 9, 15, and 45.
It follows that the greatest positive divisor of −27 and −45 is 3.
3. Find the GCD of 0, 111
Sol: Every positive integer is a divisor of 0.
Hence the greatest common divisor of 0 and 111 is 111.
4. Show that the greatest common divisor of two even numbers is even.
Sol: Let a, b are two even integers then 𝑎 = 2𝑘, 𝑏 = 2𝑙 for some 𝑘, 𝑙
Let (𝑎, 𝑏) = 𝑑
Then by Berzout’s theorem, there exist integers m and n such that 𝑑 = 𝑚𝑎 + 𝑛𝑏
𝑑 = 𝑚(2𝑘) + 𝑛(2𝑙)
𝑑 = 2(𝑚𝑘 + 𝑛𝑙), an even number
Clearly 2|𝑑 and so 𝑑 is even
Hence (𝑎, 𝑏) is also an even number.
5. If a and b are relatively prime then prove that the GCD (𝑎 + 𝑏, 𝑎 − 𝑏) = 1 or 2
Sol: Given that a and b are relatively prime then (𝑎, 𝑏) = 1
Let (𝑎 + 𝑏, 𝑎 − 𝑏) = 𝑑
Then there exists two relatively prime integers 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 such that
𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑑𝑥1 ……. (1)
𝑎 − 𝑏 = 𝑑𝑥2 ……. (2)
From (1) + (2), 𝑑𝑥1 + 𝑑𝑥2 = 2𝑎
𝑑(𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ) = 2𝑎
From (1) - (2), 𝑑𝑥1 − 𝑑𝑥2 = 2𝑏
𝑑(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 ) = 2𝑏
Then 𝑑|2𝑎 and 𝑑|2𝑏
⇒ (2𝑎, 2𝑏) = 𝑑
Consider 𝑑 = (2𝑎, 2𝑏)
 = 2 × (𝑎, 𝑏)
=2×1=2
(or) (2𝑎, 2𝑏) = 1
Hence (𝑎 + 𝑏, 𝑎 − 𝑏) = 1 or 2
6. Find the GCD of 15,21,35
Sol: The positive divisors of 15 are 1, 3, 5 and 15
The positive divisors of 21 are 1, 3 and 7
The positive divisors of 35 are 1, 5 , 7 and 35

From the Lemma, (15,21,35) = (15, (21,35))

= (15,7)
=1
7. Find the GCD of 105,140,350
Sol: The positive divisors of 105 are 1,3,5,7,15,21,35,105
The positive divisors of 140 are 1,2,4,5,7,10,14,20,28,35,70,140
The positive divisors of 350 are 1,2,5,7,10,14,35,70,350

From the Lemma, (105,140,350) = (105, (140,350))

= (105,70)
= 35
8. Show that 8a+3 and 5a+2 are relatively prime for all integers a
Sol: By a known theorem, Let a, b, c are integers then (𝑎 + 𝑐𝑏, 𝑏) = (𝑎, 𝑏)
Consider (8𝑎 + 3, 5𝑎 + 2) = (8𝑎 + 3 − (5𝑎 + 2), 5𝑎 + 2) [For 𝑐 = −1]
= (3𝑎 + 1,5𝑎 + 2)

= (3𝑎 + 1, 5𝑎 + 2 − (3𝑎 + 1))

= (3𝑎 + 1,2𝑎 + 1)
= (3𝑎 + 1 − (2𝑎 + 1), 2𝑎 + 1)
= (𝑎, 2𝑎 + 1)
= (𝑎, 2𝑎 + 1 − 2(𝑎))
(8𝑎 + 3, 5𝑎 + 2) = (𝑎, 1) = 1
Thus 8a+3 and 5a+2 are relatively prime.
The Euclidean Algorithm:
 We are going to develop a systematic method, or an algorithm to find the greatest
common divisor of two positive integers. This method is called the Euclidean algorithm.
Theorem: The Euclidean Algorithm:
Let 𝑟0 = 𝑎 and 𝑟1 = 𝑏 be integers such that 𝑎 ≥ 𝑏 > 0. If the division algorithm is
successively applied to obtain 𝑟𝑗 = 𝑟𝑗+1 𝑞𝑗+1 + 𝑟𝑗+2 with 0 < 𝑟𝑗+2 < 𝑟𝑗+1 for j = 0, 1, 2, ...n-2
and 𝑟𝑛+1 = 0, then (𝑎, 𝑏) = 𝑟𝑛 , the last nonzero remainder.

Problems:

1. Find the GCD of 252,198 by Euclidean Algorithm.

Sol: Let us consider 252 = 1 × 198 + 54
198 = 3 × 54 + 36
54 = 1 × 36 + 18
36 = 2 × 18 + 0
Last non-zero remainder is 18
Thus (252,198) = 18.

2. Find the GCD of 34,55 by Euclidean Algorithm.

Sol: Let us consider 55 = 1 × 34 + 21
34 = 1 × 21 + 13
21 = 1 × 13 + 8
13 = 1 × 8 + 5
8=1×5+3
5=1×3+2
3=1×2+ 1
2=1×2+0
Last non-zero remainder is 1
Thus (34,55) = 1.

3. Using Euclidean algorithm find the GCD of the following

a) (666,1414)
Sol: Consider 1414 = 2 × 666 + 82
666 = 8 × 82 + 10
82 = 8 × 10 + 2
10 = 5 × 2 + 0
Last non-zero remainder is 2
Thus (666,1414) = 2.

b) (20785,44350)
Sol: Consider 44350 = 2 × 20785 + 2780
20785 = 7 × 2780 + 1325
2780 = 2 × 1325 + 130
1325 = 10 × 130 + 25
130 = 5 × 25 + 5
25 = 5 × 5 + 0
Last non-zero remainder is 5
Thus (20785,44350) = 5
c) (34709,100313)
Sol: Let us consider 100313 = 2 × 34709 + 30895
 34709 = 1 × 30895 + 3814
30895 = 8 × 3814 + 383
3814 = 9 × 383 + 367
383 = 1 × 367 + 16
367 = 22 × 16 + 15
16 = 1 × 15 + 1
15 = 1 × 15 + 0
Last non-zero remainder is 1
Thus (34709,100313) = 1.

d) (300,2160,5040)
Sol: First we have to find the GCD of (2160,5040)
Let us consider 5040 = 2 × 2160 + 720
2160 = 3 × 720 + 0
Last non-zero remainder is 720
Thus (2160,5040) = 720.
Next we have to find the GCD of (300,720)
Let us consider 720 = 2 × 300 + 120
300 = 2 × 120 + 60
120 = 2 × 60 + 0
Last non-zero remainder is 60
Thus (300,720) = 60.
Finally Consider (300,2160,5040) = (300, (2160,5040))
= (300,720)
= 60

Expressing GCD as a linear combination:

The Euclidean algorithm can be used to express the GCD of two integers as a linear
combination of these integers.
Example: Express (252,198) = 18 as a linear combination of 252 and 198.
From Euclidean algorithm 252 = 1 × 198 + 54
198 = 3 × 54 + 36
54 = 1 × 36 + 18
36 = 2 × 18 + 0
Last non-zero remainder is 18
Thus (252,198) = 18.
From the next to last division,
18 = 54 − 1(36)
= 54 − [198 − 3(54)]
= 54 − 198 + 3(54)
= 4(54) − 198
= 4[252 − 1(198)] − 198
= 4(252) − 4(198) − 198
∴ 18 = 4(252) − 5(198)
Thus we expressed 18 as a linear combination of 252 and 198.

The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic:

 The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic is an important result that shows that
the primes are the multiplicative building blocks of the integers.
Theorem: The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic:
Every positive integer greater than 1 can be written uniquely as a product of prime
with the prime factors in the product written in non-decreasing order.

Examples: 1) 240 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 5 = 24 × 3 × 5
2) 1001 = 7 × 11 × 13

Note:
Let the prime factorization of a and b be 𝑎 = 𝑝1 𝑎1 𝑝2 𝑎2 … . . 𝑝𝑛 𝑎𝑛 and 𝑏 = 𝑝1 𝑏1 𝑝2 𝑏2 … . . 𝑝𝑛 𝑏𝑛

Then (𝑎, 𝑏) = 𝑝1 min(𝑎1 ,𝑏1) 𝑝2 min (𝑎2,𝑏2 ) … . . 𝑝𝑛 min(𝑎𝑛,𝑏𝑛) where 𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , … . , 𝑝𝑛 are primes
Definition: The least common multiple of two non-integers a and b is the smallest positive
integer that is divisible by a and b.
The least common multiple of a and b is denoted by [a, b].
Note:
Let the prime factorization of a and b be 𝑎 = 𝑝1 𝑎1 𝑝2 𝑎2 … . . 𝑝𝑛 𝑎𝑛 and 𝑏 = 𝑝1 𝑏1 𝑝2 𝑏2 … . . 𝑝𝑛 𝑏𝑛

Then [𝑎, 𝑏] = 𝑝1 max (𝑎1,𝑏1 ) 𝑝2 max(𝑎2 ,𝑏2 ) … . . 𝑝𝑛 max(𝑎𝑛,𝑏𝑛) where 𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , … . , 𝑝𝑛 are primes
Problems:
1. Find the prime factorization of the following
a) 5040
Sol: Consider 5040 = 2 × 2520
= 2 × 2 × 2160
= 2 × 2 × 2 × 630
= 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 315 = 24 × 315
= 24 × 3 × 105
= 24 × 3 × 3 × 35
= 24 × 3 × 3 × 5 × 7
= 24 × 3 2 × 5 × 7
b) 9555
Sol: Consider 9555 = 3 × 3185
= 3 × 5 × 637
= 3 × 5 × 7 × 91
= 3 × 5 × 7 × 7 × 13
 = 3 × 5 × 72 × 13
c) 10500000
Sol: Consider 10500000 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 328125
= 25 × 5 × 65625
= 25 × 5 × 5 × 13125
= 25 × 5 × 5 × 5 × 2625
= 25 × 5 × 5 × 5 × 5 × 525
= 25 × 5 × 5 × 5 × 5 × 5 × 105
= 25 × 5 × 5 × 5 × 5 × 5 × 5 × 21
= 25 × 5 6 × 3 × 7
2. Find the GCD and LCM of the following pairs
a) 28,35
Sol: consider 28 = 2 × 14 = 2 × 2 × 7 = 22 × 7
Also consider 35 = 5 × 7
GCD = 2min{2,0} × 5min{1,0} × 7min{1,1}
= 20 × 50 × 71 = 1 × 1 × 7
∴ (28,35) = 7

LCM = 2max{2,0} × 5max{1,0} × 7max{1,1}

= 22 × 51 × 71 = 4 × 5 × 7
∴ [28,35] = 140
b) 4711 79111 1011001 , 4111 83111 1011000

GCD = 41min{0,11} × 47min{0,11} × 79min{0,111} × 83min{0,111} × 101min{1001,1000}

= 410 × 470 × 790 × 830 × 1011000
∴ (4711 79111 1011001 , 4111 83111 1011000 ) = 1011000

LCM = 41max{0,11} × 47max{0,11} × 79max{0,111} × 83max{0,111} × 101max{1001,1000}

= 4111 × 4711 × 79111 × 83111 × 1011001
∴ [4711 79111 1011001 , 4111 83111 1011000 ] = 4111 × 4711 × 79111 × 83111 × 1011001
c) 5040,7700
Sol: First we consider 5040 = 2 × 2520
= 2 × 2 × 1260
 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 630
= 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 315
= 24 × 3 × 105
= 24 × 3 × 3 × 35
= 24 × 32 × 5 × 7
Also consider 7700 = 2 × 3850
= 2 × 2 × 1925
= 22 × 5 × 385
= 22 × 5 × 5 × 77
= 22 × 52 × 7 × 11

GCD = 2min{4,2} × 3min{2,0} × 5min{1,2} × 7min{1,1} × 11min{1,0}

= 22 × 30 × 51 × 71 × 110 = 4 × 5 × 7
∴ (5040,7700) = 140

LCM = 2max{4,2} × 3max{2,0} × 5max{1,2} × 7max{1,1} × 11max{1,0}

= 24 × 32 × 52 × 71 × 11 = 16 × 9 × 25 × 77
∴ [28,35] = 277200
Fermat Numbers:
𝑛
The integers 𝐹𝑛 = 22 + 1 are called the Fermat Numbers

𝑛
Theorem: Every prime divisor of the Fermat number 𝐹𝑛 = 22 + 1 is of the form 2𝑛+2 𝑘 + 1
𝑘
Lemma: Let 𝐹𝑘 = 22 + 1 denote the kth Fermat number where k is a non-negative integer
then for all positive integers n we have 𝐹0 . 𝐹1 . 𝐹2 … … 𝐹𝑛−1 = 𝐹𝑛 − 2.
Theorem: Let m and n be distinct non-negative integers then the Fermat numbers 𝐹𝑚 and
𝐹𝑛 are relatively prime.
Fermat Factorization Method:
Theorem: If n is an odd positive integer then there is a one-to-one correspondence between
factorization of n into two positive integers and differences of two squares that equal to n.
𝑎+𝑏 𝑎−𝑏
𝑛 = 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑠 2 − 𝑡 2 where 𝑠 = and 𝑡 =
2 2
Problems:
1. Use Fermat’s method to factor 𝑛 = 6077

Sol: we have √𝑛 = √6077 = 77.95 ≅ 78

Now 782 − 6077 = 7
792 − 6077 = 164
802 − 6077 = 323
812 − 6077 = 484 = 222
∴ 6077 = 812 − 222
= (81 + 22)(81 − 22)
∴ 6077 = (103) × (59)
2. Use Fermat’s factorization method to factor 𝑛 = 57306427

Sol: we have √𝑛 = √57306427 = 7570.10 ≅ 7571

Now 75712 − 57306427 = 13614
75722 − 57306427 = 28757
75732 − 57306427 = 43902
75742 − 57306427 = 59049 = 2432
∴ 57306427 = 75742 − 2432
= (7574 + 243)(7574 − 243)
So 57306427 = 7817 × 7331
Congruences:
The language congruences was invented by the great German mathematician Gauss. It
allows us to work with divisibility relationships in much the same way as we work with
equalities.
Definition: Let m be a positive integer. If a and b are integers we say that a is congruent to b
modulo m if 𝑚|(𝑎 − 𝑏).
If a is congruent to b modulo m, we write 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚)

If 𝑚 (𝑎 − 𝑏), then we write 𝑎 ≢ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚) and we say that a and b are incongruent
modulo m. The integer m is called the modulus of the congruence.
Note: 1) If 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚) ⇔ 𝑚|(𝑎 − 𝑏).
⇔ 𝑎 − 𝑏 = 𝑞𝑚, 𝑞 ∈ 𝑧
Example:
1) 22 ≡ 4(𝑚𝑜𝑑9) ⇔ 9|(22 − 4) = 9|18
2) 3 ≡ −6(𝑚𝑜𝑑9) ⇔ 9|(3 + 6)
3) 200 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑9) ⇔ 9|(200 − 2)

4) 13 ≢ 5(𝑚𝑜𝑑9) because 9 (13 − 5) = 8

Theorem: If a and b are integers then 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚) if and only if there is an integer k such
that 𝑎 = 𝑏 + 𝑘𝑚
Ex: we have 19 ≡ −2(𝑚𝑜𝑑7) then 19 = −2 + 3(7)
We now see that some properties on congruences
Theorem: Let m be a positive integer. Congruences modulo m satisfy the following
properties.
i) Reflexive Property: If a is an integer then 𝑎 ≡ 𝑎(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚)
ii) Symmetric Property: If a and b are integers such that 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚) then 𝑏 ≡ 𝑎(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚)
iii) Transitive Property: If a, b and c are integers such that 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚) and 𝑏 ≡ 𝑐(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚)
then 𝑎 ≡ 𝑐(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚)
Note: 1) Suppose that m is a positive integer. Given an integer by the division algorithm,
𝑎 = 𝑏𝑚 + 𝑟 where 0 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑚 − 1. We call r is the least non-negative residue of a modulo
m. Similarly when we know that a is not divisible by m, we call r is the least positive residue
of a modulo m.
2) If 𝑎 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚 = 𝑟 which denotes that r is the remainder obtained when a is divided by m.
Ex: 1) 17(𝑚𝑜𝑑5) = 2
2) −8(𝑚𝑜𝑑7) ≡ −1(𝑚𝑜𝑑7) = 6
Theorem: If a and b are integers and m is a positive integer then 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚) if and only
if 𝑎 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚 = 𝑏 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚
Note: From the equation 𝑎 = 𝑏𝑚 + 𝑟, it follows that 𝑎 ≡ 𝑟(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚)
Definition: A complete system of residues modulo m is a set of integers such that every
integer is congruent modulo m to exactly one integer of the set.
Theorem: If a, b, c and m are integers with m>0 such that 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚) then
i) 𝑎 + 𝑐 ≡ 𝑏 + 𝑐 (𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚)
𝑖𝑖) 𝑎 − 𝑐 ≡ 𝑏 − 𝑐 (𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚)
𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑎𝑐 ≡ 𝑏𝑐(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚)
Ex: 1) we have 19 ≡ 3(𝑚𝑜𝑑8)
Add 7 on both sides, 26 = 19 + 7 ≡ 3 + 7 = 10(𝑚𝑜𝑑8)
∴ 26 ≡ 10(𝑚𝑜𝑑8)
2) subtract 4 on both sides
19 − 4 ≡ 3 − 4 (𝑚𝑜𝑑8)
⇒ 15 ≡ −1(𝑚𝑜𝑑8)
⇒ 15 ≡ 7(𝑚𝑜𝑑8)
3) Multiply 2 on both sides
19 × 2 ≡ 3 × 2 (𝑚𝑜𝑑8)
⇒ 38 ≡ 6(𝑚𝑜𝑑8)
4) since 14 = 7.2 ≡ 4.2 = 8(𝑚𝑜𝑑6)
But we cannot cancel the common factor of 2 because 7 ≢ 4(𝑚𝑜𝑑6)
Theorem: If a, b, c and m integers such that 𝑚 > 0 𝑑 = (𝑐, 𝑚) and 𝑎𝑐 ≡ 𝑏𝑐(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚) then
𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚⁄𝑑 )
Example: since 50 ≡ 20(𝑚𝑜𝑑15) and (10,15) = 5 = 𝑑
50 20 15
We see that 10 = 10 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 )
5

⇒ 5 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑3)
Corollary: If a, b, c and m are integers such that 𝑚 > 0, (𝑐, 𝑚) = 1 and 𝑎𝑐 ≡ 𝑏𝑐(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚)
then 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚)
Example: we have 42 ≡ 7(𝑚𝑜𝑑5) and (5,7) = 1
42 7
⇒ ≡ (𝑚𝑜𝑑5)
7 7
⇒ 6 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑5)
Theorem: If a, b, c, d and m are integers such that 𝑚 > 0 and 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚) and
𝑐 ≡ 𝑑(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚) then
i) 𝑎 + 𝑐 ≡ 𝑏 + 𝑑 (𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚)
𝑖𝑖) 𝑎 − 𝑐 ≡ 𝑏 − 𝑑 (𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚)
𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑎𝑐 ≡ 𝑏𝑑(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚)
Ex: we have 13 ≡ 3(𝑚𝑜𝑑5) and 7 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑5) then 13 + 7 ≡ 3 + 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑5)
13 − 7 ≡ 3 − 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑5) and 13.7 ≡ 3.2(𝑚𝑜𝑑5)
Theorem: If a, b, k and m are integers such that 𝑘 > 0, 𝑚 > 0 and 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚) then
𝑎𝑘 ≡ 𝑏𝑘 (𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚)
Ex: we have 7 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑5) then 73 ≡ 23 (𝑚𝑜𝑑5)
Theorem: If 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚1 ), 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚2 ), … . . , 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚𝑘 ) where
𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , … , 𝑚𝑘 are integers with 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , … , 𝑚𝑘 positive then 𝑎 ≡
𝑏 𝑚𝑜𝑑 ([𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , … , 𝑚𝑘 ]) where [𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , … , 𝑚𝑘 ] denotes the least common multiple of
𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , … , 𝑚𝑘 .
Corollary: If 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚1 ), 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚2 ), … . . , 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚𝑘 ) where a and b are
integers and 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , … , 𝑚𝑘 are pairwise relatively prime positive integers then
𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , … , 𝑚𝑘 ).
Fast Modular Exponentiation: Here we will be working with congruences involving large
powers of integers.
Ex: Find the least positive residue of 2644 modulo 645
Sol: First we compute the least positive residues of 2, 22 , 24 , … . . , 2512 successively squaring
and reducing modulo 645
We have 2 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 645)
22 ≡ 4(𝑚𝑜𝑑 645)
24 ≡ 16(𝑚𝑜𝑑 645)
28 = 24+4 = 24 × 24 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 645)
≡ 16 × 16 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 645)
∴ 28 ≡ 256 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 645)
216 = 28+8 = 28 × 28 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 645)
≡ 256 × 256 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 645) = 65536(𝑚𝑜𝑑 645)
∴ 216 ≡ 391 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 645)
232 = 216+16 = 216 × 216 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 645)
≡ 391 × 391(𝑚𝑜𝑑 645) = 152881(𝑚𝑜𝑑 645)
∴ 232 ≡ 16 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 645)
Similarly 264 ≡ 256 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 645); 2128 ≡ 391 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 645) ; 2256 ≡ 16 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 645)
And 2512 ≡ 256 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 645)
Finally consider 2644 = 2512+128+4 = 2512 × 2128 × 24
≡ 256 × 391 × 16(𝑚𝑜𝑑 645) = 1601536(𝑚𝑜𝑑 645)
2644 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 645)
Thus 1 is the least positive residue of 2644 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 645).
Problems:
1. Show that the following congruences holds or not
a) 13 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 2)
Sol: Clearly 13-1=12 and 2 divides 12
i.e., 2|12
∴ 13 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 2) holds.
b) 69 ≡ 62(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
Sol: Clearly 69-62=7 and 7 divides 7
i.e., 7|7
∴ 69 ≡ 62(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7) holds.
c) −3 ≡ 30(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11)
Sol: Clearly −3 − 30 = −33 and 11| − 33
∴ −3 ≡ 30(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11) holds.
2. For each of these pairs of integers, determine whether they are congruent modulo 7 or not
a) 1, 15
Sol: If 1, 15 are congruent modulo 7 means 15 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7) holds.
Consider 15 − 1 = 14 and 7|(15 − 1)
15 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7) holds.
Thus 1, 15 are congruent modulo 7.
b) 2,99
Sol: If 2, 99 are congruent modulo 7 means 99 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7) holds.

Consider 99 − 2 = 97 and 7 97
99 ≢ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7) holds.
Thus 2,99 are not congruent modulo 7.
c) -1,699
Sol: If -1,699are congruent modulo 7 means 699 ≡ −1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7) holds.
Consider 699 − (−1) = 700 and 7|(700)
699 ≡ −1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7) holds.
Thus -1,699 are congruent modulo 7.
3. For which positive integers m is each of the following statements true
a) 27 ≡ 5(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚)
Sol: we have 27-5=22
The positive divisors of 22 are 1,2,11,22
Thus, the possibility of m are 1,2,11,22.
b) 1000 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚)
Sol: we have 1000-1=999
The positive divisors of 999 are 1,3,9,27,37,111,333,999
Thus, the possibility of m are 1,3,9,27,37,111,333,999.
4. Show that if a is an even integer, then 𝑎2 ≡ 0(𝑚𝑜𝑑 4) and if a is an odd integer then
𝑎2 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 4).
Sol: Suppose that if a is an even integer then 𝑎 = 2𝑘 for some integer k
𝑎2 = 4𝑘 2
⇒ 4|𝑎2
⇒ 4|(𝑎2 − 0)
Thus 𝑎2 ≡ 0(𝑚𝑜𝑑 4).
Suppose that if a is an odd integer then 𝑎 = 2𝑘 + 1 for some integer k
𝑎2 = (2𝑘 + 1)2 = 4𝑘 2 + 4𝑘 + 1
= 4(𝑘 2 + 𝑘 ) + 1
⇒ 𝑎 2 − 1 = 4(𝑘 2 + 𝑘 )
⇒ 4|(𝑎2 − 1)
Thus 𝑎2 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 4).
5. Find the least non-negative residue modulo 13 of the following integers
a) 22
Sol: Dividing 22 by 13 we have 22 = 1(13) + 9
⇒ 22 − 9 = 13
⇒ 22 − 9 is divisible by 13
⇒ 13|(22 − 9)
⇒ 22 ≡ 9(𝑚𝑜𝑑 13)
So 9 is the least non-negative residue of 22.
b) 1001
Sol: Dividing 1001 by 13 we have 1001 = 77(13) + 0
⇒ 1001 − 0 = 77(13)
 ⇒ 1001 is divisible by 13
⇒ 13|(1001 − 0)
⇒ 1001 ≡ 0(𝑚𝑜𝑑 13)
So 0 is the least non-negative residue of 1001.
c) -1
Sol: we write −1 = −1(13) + 12
⇒ −1 − 12 = −1(13)
⇒ −1 − 12 is divisible by 13
⇒ 13|(−1 − 12)
⇒ −1 ≡ 12(𝑚𝑜𝑑 13)
d) -100
Sol: Dividing -100 by 13 we have −100 = −8(13) + 4
⇒ −100 − 4 = −8(13)
⇒ −100 − 4 is divisible by 13
⇒ 13|(−100 − 4)
⇒ −100 ≡ 4(𝑚𝑜𝑑 13)
So 4 is the least non-negative residue of -100.
6. Find the least non-negative residue modulo 28 of the following integers
a) 99
Sol: Dividing 99 by 28 we have 99 = 3(28) + 15
⇒ 99 − 15 = 3(28)
⇒ 99 − 15 is divisible by 28
⇒ 28|(99 − 15)
⇒ 99 ≡ 15(𝑚𝑜𝑑 28)
So 15 is the least non-negative residue of 99.
b) 12345
Sol: Dividing 12345 by 28 we have 12345 = 440(28) + 25
⇒ 12345 − 25 = 440(28)
⇒ 12345 − 25 is divisible by 28
⇒ 28|(12345 − 25)
 ⇒ 12345 ≡ 25(𝑚𝑜𝑑 28)
So 25 is the least non-negative residue of 12345.
c) -54321
Sol: we have −54321 = −1941(28) + 27
−54321 − 27 = −1941(28)
⇒ 28|(−54321 − 27)
⇒ −54321 ≡ 27(𝑚𝑜𝑑 28)
So 27 is the least non-negative residue of -54321.
7. Find the least positive residue of 1! + 2! + 3! + ⋯ + 10! Modulo of the following
a) 3 b) 11 c) 23 d) 4
a) Modulo 3
Sol: Let us compute the factorials
1! = 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 3) ; 2! = 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 3) and 3! = 6 ≡ 0(𝑚𝑜𝑑 3)
4! = 4 × 3! ≡ 0(𝑚𝑜𝑑 3) and so on
Consider 1! + 2! + 3! + ⋯ + 10!
≡ 1 + 2 + 0 + 0 + ⋯ + 0(𝑚𝑜𝑑 3)
≡ 3 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 3)
∴ 1! + 2! + 3! + ⋯ + 10! ≡ 0 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 3)
b) Modulo 11
Sol: Let us compute the factorials
1! = 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11); 2! = 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11) ; 3! = 6(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11); 4! = 24(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11) ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11)
5! = 5 × 4! ≡ 5 × 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11) ≡ 10(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11)
6! = 6 × 5! ≡ 6 × 10(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11) = 60(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11) ≡ 5(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11)
7! = 7 × 6! ≡ 7 × 5(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11) = 35(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11) ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11)
8! = 8 × 7! ≡ 8 × 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11) = 16(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11) ≡ 5(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11)
9! = 9 × 8! ≡ 9 × 5(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11) = 45(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11) ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11)
10! = 10 × 9! ≡ 10 × 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11) = 10(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11) ≡ 10(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11)
Consider 1! + 2! + 3! + 4! + 5! + 6! + 7! + 8! + 9! + 10!
≡ (1 + 2 + 6 + 2 + 10 + 5 + 2 + 5 + 1 + 10)(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11)
= 44(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11)
∴ 1! + 2! + 3! + ⋯ + 10! ≡ 0 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 11)
8. Find the least positive residue of 1! + 2! + 3! + ⋯ + 100! of the following
a) mod 2 b) mod 12 c) mod 25 d) mod 7
Sol: b) Modulo 12
We have 4! = 24 = 12 × 2 ≡ 0 × 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 12) ≡ 0(𝑚𝑜𝑑 12)
5! = 5 × 4! ≡ 5 × 0(𝑚𝑜𝑑 12) ≡ 0(𝑚𝑜𝑑 12) and so on
Consider 1! + 2! + 3! + ⋯ + 100! = 1! + 2! + 3! + 0 + 0 + ⋯ + 0(𝑚𝑜𝑑 12)
≡ 1 + 2 + 6(𝑚𝑜𝑑 12)
≡ 9 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 12)
c) Modulo 25
We have10! = 10 × 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
= 50 × 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 × 4 × 3 × 2
= 50 × 72576
≡ 0(𝑚𝑜𝑑 25) because 50 ≡ 0(𝑚𝑜𝑑 25)
Similarly from 11!, 12!, ….., 100! Are all congruent to 0 modulo 25
Consider 1! + 2! + 3! + ⋯ + 100! = 1! + 2! + 3! + 4! + ⋯ + 10! + 11! + 12! + ⋯ + 100!
≡ 1! + 2! + 3! + 4! + ⋯ 9! + 0 + 0 + 0 + ⋯ + 0 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 25)
= 1 + 2 + 6 + 24 + 120 + 720 + 5040 + 40320 + 362880(𝑚𝑜𝑑 25)
≡ 1 + 2 + 6 + 24 + 20 + (−5) + 15 + (20) + 5(𝑚𝑜𝑑 25)
≡ 88(𝑚𝑜𝑑 25)
≡ 13(𝑚𝑜𝑑 25)
9. Construct a table for addition, subtraction and multiplication modulo 6
Sol: Let 𝐴 = {0,1,2,3,4,5}
𝑎 ⊕6 𝑏 = 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑦 6

⊕6 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 2 3 4 5 0
2 2 3 4 5 0 1
3 3 4 5 0 1 2
4 4 5 0 1 2 3
5 5 0 1 2 3 4
10. Find the least positive residue of the following
a) 232 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 47) b) 247 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 47) c) 2200 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 47)
Sol: b) 𝟐𝟒𝟕 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝟒𝟕)
We have 2 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 47)
22 ≡ 4(𝑚𝑜𝑑 47)
23 ≡ 8(𝑚𝑜𝑑 47)
24 ≡ 16(𝑚𝑜𝑑 47)
25 ≡ 32(𝑚𝑜𝑑 47)
26 = 64(𝑚𝑜𝑑 47) ≡ 17(𝑚𝑜𝑑 47)
27 = 128(𝑚𝑜𝑑 47) ≡ 34(𝑚𝑜𝑑 47)
210 = 25+5 = 25 × 25 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 47)
≡ 32 × 32 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 47) = 1024(𝑚𝑜𝑑 47)
∴ 210 ≡ 37 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 47)
220 = 210+10 = 210 × 210 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 47)
≡ 37 × 37(𝑚𝑜𝑑 47) = 1369(𝑚𝑜𝑑 47)
∴ 220 ≡ 6 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 47)
240 = 220+20 = 220 × 220 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 47)
≡ 6 × 6(𝑚𝑜𝑑 47) = 36(𝑚𝑜𝑑 47)
∴ 240 ≡ 36 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 47)
Finally consider 247 = 240+7 = 240 × 27
≡ 36 × 34(𝑚𝑜𝑑 47) = 1224(𝑚𝑜𝑑 47)
247 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 47)
Thus 2 is the least positive residue of 247 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 47).
c) 𝟐𝟐𝟎𝟎 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝟒𝟕)
Sol: We have 2 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 47)
22 ≡ 4(𝑚𝑜𝑑 47)
23 ≡ 8(𝑚𝑜𝑑 47)
24 ≡ 16(𝑚𝑜𝑑 47)
25 ≡ 32(𝑚𝑜𝑑 47)
210 = 25+5 = 25 × 25 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 47)
 ≡ 32 × 32 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 47) = 1024(𝑚𝑜𝑑 47)
220 ≡ 6 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 47)
240 ≡ 36 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 47)
280 = 240+40 = 240 × 240 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 47)
≡ 36 × 36 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 47) = 27(𝑚𝑜𝑑 47)
280 ≡ 27 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 47)
2160 = 280+80 = 280 × 280 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 47)
≡ 27 × 27 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 47) = 729(𝑚𝑜𝑑 47)
2160 ≡ 24 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 47)
Finally consider 2200 = 2160+40 = 2160 × 240
≡ 24 × 36(𝑚𝑜𝑑 47) = 864(𝑚𝑜𝑑 47)
2200 ≡ 18(𝑚𝑜𝑑 47)
Thus 18 is the least positive residue of 2200 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 645).
11. Find the least positive residue of the following
a) 310 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 11) b) 516 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 17) c) 212 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 13) d) 322 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 23)
Sol: a) To find 𝟑𝟏𝟎 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝟏𝟏)
We have 3 ≡ 3(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11)
32 ≡ 9(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11)
33 ≡ 27(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11) ≡ 5(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11)
34 ≡ 81(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11) ≡ 4(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11)
35 = 33+2 = 33 × 32 ≡ 5 × 9(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11) = 45(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11) ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11)
310 = 35+5 = 35 × 35 ≡ 1 × 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11) ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11)
Thus 1 is the least positive residue of 310 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 11)
b) 𝟓𝟏𝟔 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝟏𝟕)
We have 5 ≡ 5(𝑚𝑜𝑑 17)
52 ≡ 25(𝑚𝑜𝑑 17) ≡ 8(𝑚𝑜𝑑 17)
53 = 52+1 = 52 × 51 ≡ 8 × 5(𝑚𝑜𝑑 17) ≡ 6(𝑚𝑜𝑑 17)
55 = 53+2 = 53 × 52 ≡ 6 × 8(𝑚𝑜𝑑 17) = 48(𝑚𝑜𝑑 17) ≡ 14(𝑚𝑜𝑑 17)
58 = 55+3 = 55 × 53 ≡ 14 × 6(𝑚𝑜𝑑 17) = 84(𝑚𝑜𝑑 17) ≡ −1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 17) ≡ 16(𝑚𝑜𝑑 17)
Finally consider 516 = 58+8 = 58 × 58 ≡ 16 × 16(𝑚𝑜𝑑 17)
= 256(𝑚𝑜𝑑 17) ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 17)
Thus 1 is the least positive residue of 516 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 17)
12. Find the least positive residue of the following
a) 6! (𝑚𝑜𝑑 7) b) 10! (𝑚𝑜𝑑 11) c) 16! (𝑚𝑜𝑑 17) d) 12! (𝑚𝑜𝑑 13)
Sol: To find b) 𝟏𝟎! (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝟏𝟏)
Consider 10! = 10 × 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
= (10 × 1) × (9 × 2) × (8 × 3) × (7 × 4) × (6 × 5) (𝑚𝑜𝑑 11)
≡ 10 × 7 × 2 × 6 × 8 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 11)
= (10) × (7 × 2) × (6 × 8) (𝑚𝑜𝑑 11)
≡ 10 × 3 × 4 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 11)
≡ 10 × 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11)
Thus 10! ≡ 10(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11)
c) 16! (𝑚𝑜𝑑 17)
Consider 16! = 16 × 15 × 14 × 13 × 12 × 11 × 10 × 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
= (16 × 1) × (15 × 2) × (14 × 3) × (13 × 4) × (12 × 5) × (11 × 6) × (10 × 7)
× (9 × 8) (𝑚𝑜𝑑 17)
≡ 16 × 13 × 8 × 1 × 9 × 15 × 2 × 4 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 17)
= (16) × (13 × 4) × (8 × 9) × (15 × 2)(𝑚𝑜𝑑 17)
≡ 16 × 1 × 4 × 13(𝑚𝑜𝑑 17)
= 16 × (4 × 13) (𝑚𝑜𝑑 17)
≡ 16 × 1 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 17)
Thus 16! ≡ 16(𝑚𝑜𝑑 17)
Linear Congruences:
A congruence of the form 𝑎𝑥 ≡ 𝑏 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚) where x is an unknown integer, is called
a linear congruence in one variable.
If 𝑥 = 𝑥0 is a solution of the congruence 𝑎𝑥 ≡ 𝑏 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚) and if 𝑥1 ≡ 𝑥0 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚)
then 𝑎𝑥1 ≡ 𝑎𝑥0 ≡ 𝑏 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚) so that 𝑥1 is also a solution.
Hence if one member of a congruence class modulo m is a solution then all members
of this class are also solutions.

Theorem: Let a, b and m be integers such that 𝑚 > 0 and (𝑎, 𝑚) = 𝑑. If 𝑑 𝑏 then
𝑎𝑥 ≡ 𝑏 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚) has no solutions. If 𝑑|𝑏 then 𝑎𝑥 ≡ 𝑏 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚) has exactly d incongruent
solutions modulo m.
Corollary: If a and m are relatively prime integers with 𝑚 > 0 and b is an integer then the
linear congruence 𝑎𝑥 ≡ 𝑏 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚) has a unique solution modulo m.
Linear Diophantine Equation: Let a, b be integers with (𝑎, 𝑏) = 𝑑. The equation 𝑎𝑥 +
𝑏𝑦 = 𝑐 has no integral solutions if 𝑑 𝑐. If 𝑑|𝑐 then there are many integral solutions.
Ex: 15𝑥 + 6𝑦 = 7

Since (15,6) = 3 but 3 7

There are no integral solutions of the Diophantine equation.
Example: To find all solutions of 9𝑥 ≡ 12(𝑚𝑜𝑑 15)
Sol: Since (9,15) = 3 and 3|12
∴ There are exactly 3 incongruent solutions
To find a particular solution, we consider the linear Diophantine equation 9𝑥 + 15𝑦 = 12
From Euclidean Algorithm,
15 = 9(1) + 6

9 = 6(1) + 3
6 = 3(2) + 0
Consider 3 = 9 − 6(1)
= 9 − [15 − 9(1)]
= 9 − 15 + 9
3 = 9(2) − 15
To get 12, multiply both sides with 4
3(4) = 9(2.4) − 15(4)
⇒ 9(8) + 15(4) = 12 which is given by 𝑥0 = 8; 𝑦0 = 4
∴ The complete set of three incongruent solutions are 𝑥 = 𝑥0 ≡ 8(𝑚𝑜𝑑 15)
And 𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 5 ≡ 8 + 5(𝑚𝑜𝑑 15) ≡ 13(𝑚𝑜𝑑 15)
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 5(2) ≡ 18(𝑚𝑜𝑑 15) ≡ 3(𝑚𝑜𝑑 15)
Note: we can find these solutions by first finding a particular solution and then adding
15
appropriate multiples of =5
3

Modular Inverses:
We now consider congruences of the special form 𝑎𝑥 ≡ 1 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚), there is a
solution to this congruence if and only if (𝑎, 𝑚) = 1 and then all solutions are congruent
modulo m.
Definition: Given an integer a with (𝑎, 𝑚) = 1, an integer solution 𝑥 of 𝑎𝑥 ≡ 1 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚) is
called an inverse of a modulo m.
Ex: 7𝑥 ≡ 1 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 31)
Since 7.9 ≡ 1 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 31) then 7−1 = 9(𝑚𝑜𝑑 31)
Then 𝑥 ≡ 1 × 7−1 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 31) ≡ 1 × 9(𝑚𝑜𝑑 31)
𝑥 ≡ 9(𝑚𝑜𝑑 31)
Ex: To find the solutions of 7𝑥 ≡ 22 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 31)
We multiply both sides with 7−1
Then 𝑥 ≡ 22 × 7−1 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 31) ≡ 22 × 9(𝑚𝑜𝑑 31)
⇒ 𝑥 ≡ 198 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 31)
⇒ 𝑥 ≡ 12 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 31)
Example: To find all solutions of 7𝑥 ≡ 4 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 12)
Sol: we note that GCD (7,12) = 1, there is a unique solution modulo 12.
To find this, we need only the linear Diophantine equation, 7𝑥 + 12𝑦 = 4
The Euclidean algorithm gives,
12 = 7(1) + 5
7 = 5(1) + 2

5 = 2(2) + 1
2 = 1(2) + 0
By reverse process, 1 = 5 − 2(2)
= 5 − 2[7 − 5(1)]
= 5 − 2(7) + 2(5)
= 3(5) − 2(7)
= 3[12 − 7(1)] − 2(7)
= 3(12) − 3(7) − 2(7)
∴ 1 = 3(12) − 5(7)
To get 12, multiply both sides with 4
1(4) = 3(12.4) − 5(4)7
⇒ −20(7) + 12(12) = 4 which is given by 𝑥0 = −20; 𝑦0 = 12
Hence all the solutions of the linear congruence are given by 𝑥 = 𝑥0 ≡ −20(𝑚𝑜𝑑 12)
 ⇒ 𝑥 ≡ −8(𝑚𝑜𝑑 12)
Hence the unique solution is 𝑥 ≡ 4(𝑚𝑜𝑑 12).
Theorem: Let p be prime. The positive integer a is its own inverse modulo p if and only if
𝑎 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑝) (or) 𝑎 ≡ −1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑝)
Problems:
1. Find all solutions of each of the following linear congruences
a) 𝟐𝒙 ≡ 𝟓 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝟕)
Sol: we note that GCD (2,7) = 1, and 1|5
∴ There is a unique solution modulo 7.
To find particular solution, we consider the linear Diophantine equation, 2𝑥 + 7𝑦 = 5
The Euclidean algorithm gives,

7 = 3(2) + 1
3 = 3(1) + 0
By reverse process, 1 = 7 − 3(2)
∴ 1 = 7(1) − 3(2)
multiply both sides with 5
5 = 5(7) − 3(5)(2)
⇒ 2(−15) + 7(5) = 5 which is given by 𝑥0 = −15; 𝑦0 = 5
Hence the solution of the linear congruence is 𝑥 = 𝑥0 ≡ −15(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
𝑥 ≡ −1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)

Thus the solution of the linear congruence is 𝑥 ≡ 6(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)

b) 𝟏𝟗𝒙 ≡ 𝟑𝟎 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝟒𝟎)

Sol: we note that GCD (19,40) = 1, and 1|30

∴ There is exactly one solution exists modulo 40.
To find particular solution, we consider the linear Diophantine equation, 19𝑥 + 40𝑦 = 30
By Euclidean algorithm, Consider 40 = 2(19) + 2

19 = 2(9) + 1
9 = 9(1) + 0
By reverse process, 1 = 19 − 2(9)
= 19 − [40 − 2(19)]9
= 19 − 9(40) + 18(19)
= −9(40) + 19(19)
∴ 1 = 19(19) + 40(−9)
multiply 30 on both sides
30 = 19(30 × 19) + 40(30 × −9)
⇒ 19(570) + 40(−270) = 30 which is given by 𝑥0 = 570; 𝑦0 = −270
So the solution of the linear congruence is 𝑥 ≡ 𝑥0 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 40)
𝑥 ≡ 570(𝑚𝑜𝑑 40)

Hence the solution of the linear congruence is 𝑥 ≡ 10(𝑚𝑜𝑑 40)

c) 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝒙 ≡ 𝟒𝟒𝟒 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝟗𝟗𝟗)

Sol: Since GCD (103,999) = 1, and 1|444

∴ There is exactly one solution exists modulo 999.
To find particular solution, we consider the linear Diophantine equation,
103𝑥 + 999𝑦 = 444
By Euclidean algorithm, Consider 999 = 9(103) + 72
103 = 1(72) + 31
72 = 2(31) + 10

31 = 3(10) + 1
10 = 1(10) + 0
By reverse process, 1 = 31 − 3(10)
= 31 − 3[71 − 2(31)]
= 31 − 3(72) + 6(31)
= 7(31) − 3(72)

= 7(103 − 1(72)) − 3(72)

= 7(103) − 10(72)
= 7(103) − 10[999 − 9(103)]
= 7(103) − 10(999) + 90(103)
= 97(103) − 10(999)
∴ 1 = 103(97) + 999(−10)
multiply 444 on both sides
444 = 103(97 × 444) + 999(−10 × 444)
⇒ 43068(103) + 999(−4440) = 444
∴The particular solution is 𝑥0 = 43068; 𝑦0 = −4440
So the solution of the linear congruence is 𝑥 ≡ 𝑥0 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 999) ≡ 43068(𝑚𝑜𝑑 999)

Hence the solution of the linear congruence is 𝑥 ≡ 111(𝑚𝑜𝑑 999)

d) 𝟗𝟖𝟎𝒙 ≡ 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝟏𝟔𝟎𝟎)

Sol: Since GCD (980,1600) = 20, and 20|1500 = 75

∴ There are 20 incongruent solutions.
To find particular solution, we consider the linear Diophantine equation,
980𝑥 + 1600𝑦 = 1500…..(1)
By Euclidean algorithm,
Consider 1600 = 1(980) + 620
980 = 1(620) + 360
620 = 1(360) + 260
360 = 1(260) + 100
260 = 2(100) + 60
100 = 1(60) + 40

60 = 1(40) + 20
40 = 2(20) + 0
By reverse process, 20 = 60 − 1(40)
= 60 − 1[100 − 1(60)]
= 2(60) − 1(100)
= 2[260 − 2(100)] − 1(100)
= 2(260) − 5(100)
= 2(260) − 5[360 − 1(260)]
= 7(260) − 5(360)
= 7[620 − 1(360)] − 5(360)
= 7(620) − 12(360)
= 7(620) − 12[980 − 1(620)]
= 19(620) − 12(980)
= 19[1600 − 980] − 12(980)
= 19(1600) − 31(980)
∴ 1 = 980(−31) + 1600(19)
multiply 1500 on both sides
1500 = 980(−31 × 1500) + 1600(19 × 1500)
⇒ −46500(980) + 28500(1600) = 1500 ……(2)
∴ from (1) and (2) The particular solution is 𝑥0 = −46500; 𝑦0 = 28500
So the solution of the linear congruence is 𝑥 ≡ 𝑥0 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 1600)
𝑥 ≡ −46500(𝑚𝑜𝑑 1600)

Hence the solution of the linear congruence is 𝑥 ≡ 1500(𝑚𝑜𝑑 1600)

All possible solutions are given by x ≡ 75 + 80k (mod 1600) where k is an integer such that
0 ≤ k ≤ 19.

e) 𝟏𝟐𝟖𝒙 ≡ 𝟖𝟑𝟑 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟏)

Sol: Since GCD (128,1001) = 1, and 1|833

∴ There is exactly one solution exists modulo 1001.
To find particular solution, we consider the linear Diophantine equation,
128𝑥 + 1001𝑦 = 833
By Euclidean algorithm,
Consider 1001 = 7(128) + 105
128 = 1(105) + 23
105 = 4(23) + 13
23 = 1(23) + 10
13 = 1(10) + 3

10 = 3(3) + 1
3 = 1(3) + 0
By reverse process, 1 = 10 − 3(3)
= 10 − 3[13 − 1(10)]
= 10 − 3(13) + 3(10)
= 4(10) − 3(13)
= 4(23 − 1(13)) − 3(13)

= 4(23) − 7(13)
= 4(23) − 7[105 − 4(23)]
= 4(23) − 7(105) + 28(23)
= 32(23) − 7(105)
= 32[128 − 1(105)] − 7(105)
= 32(128) − 39(105)
= 32(128) − 39[1001 − 7(128)]
= 32(128) − 39(1001) + 273(128)
∴ 1 = 305(128) + 1001(−39)
multiply 833 on both sides
833 = 128(305 × 833) + 1001(−39 × 833)
⇒ 254065(128) + 1001(−32487) = 833
∴The particular solution is 𝑥0 = 254065; 𝑦0 = −32487
So the solution of the linear congruence is 𝑥 ≡ 𝑥0 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 1001)
𝑥 ≡ 254065(𝑚𝑜𝑑 1001)

Hence the solution of the linear congruence is 𝑥 ≡ 812(𝑚𝑜𝑑 1001)

f) 𝟏𝟓𝒙 ≡ 9 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 25)

Sol: Since GCD (15,25) = 5 but 5 9

It follows that there are no solutions to this congruences.
2. Find an inverse modulo of the following
a) Inverse of 2 modulo 13:
Sol: To find the inverse of a, we consider 𝑎𝑥 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 13) ⇒ 𝑥 ≡ 𝑎(𝑚𝑜𝑑 13)
Let us take to solve 2𝑥 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 13)
For this we require to solve the Diophantine equation 2𝑥 + 13𝑦 = 1
From Euclidean algorithm, 13 = 6(2) + 1
∴ 1 = 13 − 6(2)
1 = −6(2) + 13(1)
Thus 𝑥 ≡ −6(𝑚𝑜𝑑 13) ⇒ 𝑥 ≡ 7 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 13) is a solution
Hence the inverse of 2 (modulo 13) is 7
b) Inverse of 11 modulo 13:

Sol: To find the inverse of 11, we consider 11𝑥 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 13) ⇒ 𝑥 ≡ 11(𝑚𝑜𝑑 13)
For this we solve the Diophantine equation 11𝑥 + 13𝑦 = 1
From Euclidean algorithm, 13 = 1(11) + 2
11 = 5(2) + 1
2 = 1(2) + 0
∴ 1 = 11 − 5(2)
= 11 − 5[13 − 1(11)]
= 6(11) − 5(13)
1 = 11(6) + 13(−5)
Thus 𝑥 ≡ 6(𝑚𝑜𝑑 13) is a solution
Hence the inverse of 11 (modulo 13) is 6
c) Inverse of 7 modulo 17:

Sol: To find the inverse of 7, we consider 7𝑥 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 17) ⇒ 𝑥 ≡ 7(𝑚𝑜𝑑 17)

For this we solve the Diophantine equation 7𝑥 + 17𝑦 = 1
From Euclidean algorithm, 17 = 2(7) + 3
7 = 2(3) + 1
3 = 1(3) + 0
∴ 1 = 7 − 2(3)
= 7 − 2[17 − 2(7)]
= 5(7) − 2(17)
1 = 7(5) + 17(−2)
Thus 𝑥 ≡ 5(𝑚𝑜𝑑 17) is a solution
Hence the inverse of 7 (modulo 17) is 5.
3. (a) Determine which integers a, where 1 ≤ 𝑎 ≤ 14 have an inverse modulo 14 (b) Find the
inverse of each of the integers from part (a) that have an inverse modulo 14
Sol (a): The integers “a” with inverses modulo 14 are exactly those that are relatively prime
to 14.
i.e,. 1,3,5,9,11,13 are relatively prime to 14
∴ The integers 1,3,5,9,11,13 have inverse modulo 14
To find the inverses of each of the above integers, we consider to solve the congruence
𝑎𝑥 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 14)
For a=1, we have 𝑥 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 14)
For a=3, we have to solve 3𝑥 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 14)
By inspection method, this is possible for 𝑥 = 5
The inverse of 3 is 5 and 5 inverse is also 3 modulo 14.
For a=9, we have to solve 9𝑥 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 14)
We consider Diophantine equation 9𝑥 + 14𝑦 = 1
From Euclidean algorithm, 14 = 1(9) + 5
9 = 1(5) + 4
5 = 1(4) + 1
4 = 1(4) + 0
∴ 1 = 5 − 1(4)
= 5 − 1[9 − 1(5)]
= 2(5) − 1(9)

= 2(14 − 1(9)) − 9

1 = 2(14) − 3(9)
This is same as 9(−3) + 14(2) = 1
Thus 𝑥 ≡ −3(𝑚𝑜𝑑 14) ⇒ 𝑥 ≡ 11(𝑚𝑜𝑑 14)
So, the inverse of 9 (modulo 14) is 11.
Similarly, the inverse of 11 is 9
Finally, for a=13, we have to solve 13𝑥 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 14)
We consider Diophantine equation 13𝑥 + 14𝑦 = 1
From Euclidean algorithm, 14 = 1(13) + 1
1 = 13(−1) + 1(14)
we observe that 𝑥 ≡ −1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 14) ≡ 13(𝑚𝑜𝑑 14)
Thus 13 is the inverse of 13 modulo 14.
Hence 1 and 13 have their own inverses
3 and 5 are inverses of each other modulo 14
9 and 11 are inverses of each other modulo 14
Note: The linear congruence in two variables 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 ≡ 𝑐(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚) where a, b, c, m are
integers m>0 with 𝑑 = (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑚) has exactly dm incongruent solutions if 𝑑|𝑐 and if 𝑑 𝑐
then there are no solutions

The Chinese Remainder Theorem:

In this topic we discuss systems of simultaneous congruences. We will study two
types of such systems. In the first type there are two or more linear congruences in one
variable with different moduli. The second type consists of more than one simultaneous
congruence in more than one variable where all congruences have the same modulus.
First, we consider systems of congruences that involve only one unknown with
different moduli
For example, 𝑥 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 3); 𝑥 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5); 𝑥 ≡ 3(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
The Chinese Remainder Theorem:
Statement: Let 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , … , 𝑚𝑟 be pair wise relatively prime positive integers. Then the
system of congruences 𝑥 ≡ 𝑎1 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚1 ); 𝑥 ≡ 𝑎2 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚2 ); … … 𝑥 ≡ 𝑎𝑟 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚𝑟 ) has a
unique solution modulo 𝑀 = 𝑚1 𝑚2 … . 𝑚𝑟
Example: To solve the system 𝑥 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 3); 𝑥 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5); 𝑥 ≡ 3(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
Sol: we have 𝑀 = 3.5.7 = 105
105 105 105
𝑀1 = = 35; 𝑀2 = = 21; 𝑀3 = = 15
3 5 7
Take 𝑀𝑖 𝑦𝑖 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛𝑖 )
To determine 𝑦1 , we solve 35𝑦1 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 3)
Let us take Diophantine equation, 35𝑦1 + 3𝑡 = 1
From Euclidean algorithm, 35 = 11(3) + 2
3 = 1(2) + 1
∴ 1 = 3 − 1(2)
= 3 − 1[35 − 11(3)]
= 12(3) − 35
1 = 35(−1) + 3(12)
This shows that 𝑦1 ≡ −1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 3) ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 3)

∴ 𝑦1 = 2

To determine 𝑦2 , we solve 21𝑦2 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)

Let us take Diophantine equation, 21𝑦2 + 5𝑡 = 1
From Euclidean algorithm, 21 = 4(5) + 1
∴ 1 = 21 − 4(5)
1 = 21(1) + 5(−4)
This shows that 𝑦2 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)

∴ 𝑦2 = 1

To determine 𝑦3 , we solve 15𝑦3 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)

Let us take Diophantine equation, 15𝑦3 + 7𝑡 = 1
From Euclidean algorithm, 15 = 7(2) + 1
∴ 1 = 15 − 7(2)
1 = 15(1) + 7(−2)
This shows that 𝑦3 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)

∴ 𝑦3 = 1

Now consider 𝑥 = ∑ 𝑦𝑖 𝑀𝑖 𝑎𝑖 = 𝑦1 𝑀1 𝑎1 + 𝑦2 𝑀2 𝑎2 + 𝑦3 𝑀3 𝑎3
= (2 × 35 × 1) + (1 × 21 × 2) + (1 × 15 × 3) (𝑚𝑜𝑑 105)
= 70 + 42 + 45 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 105)
≡ 157 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 105)
Hence the solution is 𝑥 ≡ 52(𝑚𝑜𝑑 105)
Problems:
Using Chinese Remainder Theorem find all the solutions of the following congruences.
1) 𝑥 ≡ 4(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11); 𝑥 ≡ 3(𝑚𝑜𝑑 17)
2) 𝑥 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 2); 𝑥 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 3); 𝑥 ≡ 3(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
3) 𝑥 ≡ 0(𝑚𝑜𝑑 2); 𝑥 ≡ 0(𝑚𝑜𝑑 3); 𝑥 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5); 𝑥 ≡ 6(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
4) 𝑥 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 2); 𝑥 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 3); 𝑥 ≡ 3(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5); 𝑥 ≡ 4(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7); 𝑥 ≡ 5(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11)
Solutions:
3) 𝑥 ≡ 0(𝑚𝑜𝑑 2); 𝑥 ≡ 0(𝑚𝑜𝑑 3); 𝑥 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5); 𝑥 ≡ 6(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
Sol: Here 𝑎1 = 0; 𝑎2 = 0; 𝑎3 = 1; 𝑎4 = 6
we have 𝑀 = 2.3.5.7 = 210
210 210 210 210
𝑀1 = = 105; 𝑀2 = = 70; 𝑀3 = = 42; 𝑀4 = = 30
2 3 5 7
Take 𝑀𝑖 𝑦𝑖 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛𝑖 )
To determine 𝑦1 , we solve 105𝑦1 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 2)
Let us take Diophantine equation, 105𝑦1 + 2𝑡 = 1…..(1)
From Euclidean algorithm, 105 = 2(102) + 1
∴ 1 = 105 − 2(102)
1 = 105(1) + 2(−102) …..(2)
From (1) & (2) This shows that 𝑦1 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 2)

∴ 𝑦1 = 1

To determine 𝑦2 , we solve 70 𝑦2 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 3)

Let us take Diophantine equation, 70𝑦2 + 3𝑡 = 1
From Euclidean algorithm, 70 = 3(23) + 1
∴ 1 = 70 − 3(23)
1 = 70(1) + 3(−23)
This shows that 𝑦2 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 3)

∴ 𝑦2 = 1
To determine 𝑦3 , we solve 42𝑦3 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
Let us take Diophantine equation, 42𝑦3 + 5𝑡 = 1
From Euclidean algorithm, 42 = 5(8) + 2
5 = 2(2) + 1
∴ 1 = 5 − 2(2)
= 5 − 2[42 − 5(8)]
= 5 − 2(42) + 5(16)
1 = 42(−2) + 5(17)
This shows that 𝑦3 ≡ −2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5) ≡ 3(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)

∴ 𝑦3 = 3

To determine 𝑦4 , we solve 30𝑦4 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)

Let us take Diophantine equation, 30𝑦4 + 7𝑡 = 1
From Euclidean algorithm, 30 = 7(4) + 2
7 = 3(2) + 1
∴ 1 = 7 − 3(2)
= 7 − 3[30 − 7(4)]
= 7 − 3(30) + 12(7)
1 = 30(−3) + 7(13)
This shows that 𝑦4 ≡ −3(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7) ≡ 4(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)

∴ 𝑦4 = 4

Now consider 𝑥 = ∑ 𝑦𝑖 𝑀𝑖 𝑎𝑖 = 𝑦1 𝑀1 𝑎1 + 𝑦2 𝑀2 𝑎2 + 𝑦3 𝑀3 𝑎3 + 𝑦4 𝑀4 𝑎4
= (1 × 105 × 0) + (1 × 70 × 0) + (3 × 42 × 1) + (4 × 30 × 6) (𝑚𝑜𝑑 210)
= 126 + 720 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 210)
≡ 846 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 210)
Hence the solution is 𝑥 ≡ 6(𝑚𝑜𝑑 210)
2) Find an integer that leaves a remainder 1 when divided by either 2 or 5, but that is divisible
by 3.
Sol: From the given data, 𝑥 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 2); 𝑥 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5); 𝑥 ≡ 0(𝑚𝑜𝑑 3)
We use Chinese Remainder theorem to solve the given congruences
Here 𝑎1 = 0; 𝑎2 = 1; 𝑎3 = 0
we have 𝑀 = 2.5.3 = 30
30 30 30
𝑀1 = = 15; 𝑀2 = = 6; 𝑀3 = = 10
2 5 3
Take 𝑀𝑖 𝑦𝑖 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛𝑖 )
To determine 𝑦1 , we solve 15𝑦1 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 2)

By inspection method we get 𝑦1 = 1

To determine 𝑦2 , we solve 6𝑦2 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)

By inspection method we get 𝑦2 = 1

To determine 𝑦3 , we solve 10𝑦3 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 3)

By inspection method we get 𝑦3 = 1

Now consider 𝑥 = ∑ 𝑦𝑖 𝑀𝑖 𝑎𝑖 = 𝑦1 𝑀1 𝑎1 + 𝑦2 𝑀2 𝑎2 + 𝑦3 𝑀3 𝑎3
= (1 × 15 × 1) + (1 × 6 × 1) + (1 × 10 × 0) (𝑚𝑜𝑑 30)
= 15 + 6 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 30)
≡ 21 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 30)
Hence 21 is the required integer.
Iterative Method:
There is an iterative method for solving simultaneous system of congruences, we
solve the following. This method is useful when the integers 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , … , 𝑚𝑟 are not pair wise
relatively prime.
For example,
1. Find the solution to the linear congruences 𝑥 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5); 𝑥 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 6); 𝑥 ≡ 3(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
Sol: From the first congruence, we write 𝑥 = 5𝑡 + 1 where 𝑡 ∈ 𝑍
Substitute this x value in 2 nd congruence
5𝑡 + 1 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑6)
⇒ 5𝑡 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 6) …..(1)
To sole this we consider Diophantine equation 5𝑡 + 6𝑥 = 1 …. (2)
From Euclidean algorithm, 6 = 1(5) + 1
⇒ 1 = 6 − 1(5)
⇒ 1 = 5(−1) + 6(1) ….. (3)
From (2) and (3) we get 𝑡 = −1
From (1), ⇒ 𝑡 ≡ −1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 6)
⇒ 𝑡 ≡ 5(𝑚𝑜𝑑 6)
⇒ 𝑡 = 6𝑢 + 5, u is an integer
Since 𝑥 = 5𝑡 + 1 = 5(6𝑢 + 5) + 1
⇒ 𝑥 = 30𝑢 + 26
Substitute this x in the 3rd congruence we get
30𝑢 + 26 ≡ 3(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
⇒ 30𝑢 ≡ −23(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
⇒ 30𝑢 ≡ −2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
⇒ 30𝑢 ≡ 5(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7) …..(4)
To solve this we consider 30𝑢 + 7𝑦 = 5 …..(5)
From Euclidean algorithm, 30 = 7(4) + 2
⇒ 7 = 3(2) + 1
⇒ 1 = 7 − 3(2) = 7 − 3[30 − 7(4)]
= 7 − 3(30) + 7(12)
1 = 30(−3) + 7(13)
Multiply both sides by 5 we get 30(−15) + 7(65) = 5 ….. (6)
From (5) and (6) we get 𝑢 = −15
From (4), ⇒ 𝑢 ≡ −15(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
⇒ 𝑢 ≡ −1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
⇒ 𝑢 ≡ 6(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
⇒ 𝑢 = 7𝑣 + 6, v is an integer
Since 𝑥 = 30𝑢 + 26 = 30(7𝑣 + 6) + 26
𝑥 = 210𝑣 + 206
Translating this equality into congruence 𝑥 ≡ 206(𝑚𝑜𝑑 210) is a solution
2. Find an integer that leaves a remainder of 2 when divided by either 3 or 5 but that is
divisible by 4.
Sol: From the data we have 𝑥 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 3); 𝑥 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5); 𝑥 ≡ 0(𝑚𝑜𝑑 4)
Since the moduli are not relatively prime, so we use iterative method to solve
From 3rd congruence, 𝑥 = 4𝑘
Place this x value in 2 nd congruence,
4𝑘 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5) …..(1)
To sole this we consider, 4𝑘 + 5𝑡 = 2 …..(2)
From Euclidean algorithm, 5 = 1(4) + 1
⇒ 1 = 5 − 1(4)
⇒ 1 = 4(−1) + 5(1)
Multiply both sides with 2 we get 2 = 4(−2) + 5(2) …..(3)
From (2) and (3) we get 𝑘 = −2
From (1), 𝑘 ≡ −2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5) ≡ 3(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
⇒ 𝑘 = 5𝑢 + 3
Since 𝑥 = 4𝑘 = 4(5𝑢 + 3) = 20𝑢 + 12
Substitute this x value in 1 st congruence we get
20𝑢 + 12 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 3)
⇒ 20𝑢 ≡ −10(𝑚𝑜𝑑 3)
⇒ 20𝑢 ≡ −1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 3)
⇒ 20𝑢 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 3)
⇒ 10𝑢 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 3) …..(4)
To sole this we consider, 10𝑢 + 3𝑡 = 1 …..(5)
From Euclidean algorithm, 10 = 3(3) + 1
⇒ 1 = 10 − 3(3)
⇒ 1 = 10(1) + 3(−3) ……(6)
From (5) and (6) we get 𝑢 = 1
From (4), 𝑢 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 3)
⇒ 𝑢 = 3𝑡 + 1
Since 𝑥 = 20𝑢 + 12 = 20(3𝑡 + 1) + 12 = 60𝑢 + 32
𝑥 = 60𝑢 + 32
We write into congruence form 𝑥 ≡ 32(𝑚𝑜𝑑 60)
Hence 32 is such number.
3. Find an integer that leaves a remainder 9 when it is divided by either 10 or 11 but that is
divisible by 13.
Sol: From the data we have 𝑥 ≡ 9(𝑚𝑜𝑑 10); 𝑥 ≡ 9(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11); 𝑥 ≡ 0(𝑚𝑜𝑑 13)
Since the moduli are not relatively prime, so we use iterative method to solve
From 3rd congruence, 𝑥 = 3𝑘
Place this x value in 2 nd congruence,
13𝑘 ≡ 9(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11) …..(1)
To sole this we consider, 13𝑘 + 11𝑡 = 9 …..(2)
From Euclidean algorithm, 13 = 1(11) + 2
11 = 5(2) + 1
⇒ 1 = 11 − 5(2)
= 11 − 5[13 − 1(11)]
= 11 − 5(13) + 5(11)
= 13(−5) + 11(6)
⇒ 1 = 13(−5) + 11(6)
Multiply both sides with 9 we get 9 = 13(−45) + 11(54) …..(3)
From (2) and (3) we get 𝑘 = −45
From (1), 𝑘 ≡ −45(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11) ≡ −1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11) ≡ 10(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11)
⇒ 𝑘 = 11𝑢 + 10
Since 𝑥 = 13𝑘 = 13(11𝑢 + 10) = 143𝑢 + 130
Substitute this x value in 1 st congruence we get
143𝑢 + 130 ≡ 9(𝑚𝑜𝑑 10)
⇒ 143𝑢 ≡ −121(𝑚𝑜𝑑 10)
⇒ 143𝑢 ≡ −1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 10)
⇒ 143𝑢 ≡ 9(𝑚𝑜𝑑 10) …..(4)
To sole this we consider, 143𝑢 + 10𝑦 = 9 …..(5)
From Euclidean algorithm, 143 = 10(14) + 3
10 = 3(3) + 1
⇒ 1 = 10 − 3(3)
= 10 − 3[143 − 10(14)]
= 143(−3) + 10 + 10(42)
⇒ 1 = 143(−3) + 10(43)
Multiply both sides with 9 we get 143(−27) + 10(387) = 9 ……(6)
From (5) and (6) we get 𝑢 = −27
From (4), 𝑢 ≡ −27(𝑚𝑜𝑑 10) ≡ −7(𝑚𝑜𝑑 10) ≡ 3(𝑚𝑜𝑑 10)
∴ 𝑢 ≡ 3(𝑚𝑜𝑑 10)
⇒ 𝑢 = 10𝑡 + 3
Since 𝑥 = 143𝑢 + 130 = 143(10𝑡 + 3) + 130 = 1430𝑢 + 429 + 130
𝑥 = 1430𝑢 + 559
We write into congruence form 𝑥 ≡ 559(𝑚𝑜𝑑 1430)
Hence 559 is such number.
Note: 1) If 𝒙 ≡ 𝒂𝟏 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝒎𝟏 ); 𝒙 ≡ 𝒂𝟐 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝒎𝟐 ) has a solution iff (𝒎𝟏 , 𝒎𝟐 )|(𝒂𝟏 − 𝒂𝟐 ).
If there is a solution then write 𝒙 as 𝒙 = 𝒂𝟏 + 𝒌𝒎𝟏 , 𝒌 ∈ 𝒁 and then insert this into 2nd
congruence.

If (𝒎𝟏 , 𝒎𝟐 ) (𝒂𝟏 − 𝒂𝟐 ) then the solution does not exists.

2) If 𝒙 ≡ 𝒂𝟏 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝒎𝟏 ); 𝒙 ≡ 𝒂𝟐 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝒎𝟐 ) ….. 𝒙 ≡ 𝒂𝒓 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝒎𝒓 ) has a solution iff
(𝒎𝒊 , 𝒎𝒋 )|(𝒂𝒊 − 𝒂𝒋 ) for all pairs of integers (i, j), where 𝟏 ≤ 𝒊 < 𝒋 ≤ 𝒓 and a solution
exists unique modulo [𝒎𝟏 , 𝒎𝟐 , … . 𝒎𝒓 ] where [𝒎𝟏 , 𝒎𝟐 , … . 𝒎𝒓 ] is the LCM of
𝒎𝟏 , 𝒎𝟐 , … . 𝒎𝒓

4 a) Solve 𝑥 ≡ 4(𝑚𝑜𝑑 6); 𝑥 ≡ 13(𝑚𝑜𝑑 15)

Sol: Here 𝑎1 = 4; 𝑎2 = 13; 𝑚1 = 6; 𝑚2 = 15
(𝑚1 , 𝑚2 )|(𝑎1 − 𝑎2 ) = (6,15)|(6 − 15)
= 3|(−9), solution exists
From first congruence we take 𝑥 = 6𝑘 + 4
From second congruence 6𝑘 + 4 ≡ 13(𝑚𝑜𝑑 15)
6𝑘 ≡ 9(𝑚𝑜𝑑 15) ….(1)
We write 6𝑘 + 15𝑡 = 3 …..(2)
From Euclidean algorithm, 15 = 2(6) + 3
3 = 15 − 2(6)
3 = 6(−2) + 15(1)
Multiply 3 on both sides
9 = 6(−6) + 15(3) …..(3)
From (2) and (3) 𝑘 = −6
From (1) 𝑘 ≡ −6(𝑚𝑜𝑑 15) ≡ 9(𝑚𝑜𝑑 15)
𝑘 ≡ 9(𝑚𝑜𝑑 15)
We write 𝑘 = 15𝑢 + 9
Since 𝑥 = 6𝑘 + 4 = 6(15𝑢 + 9) + 4 = 90𝑢 + 54
We write into congruence form 𝑥 ≡ 54(𝑚𝑜𝑑 90)
b) Solve 𝑥 ≡ 7(𝑚𝑜𝑑 10); 𝑥 ≡ 4(𝑚𝑜𝑑 15)
Sol: Here 𝑎1 = 7; 𝑎2 = 4; 𝑚1 = 10; 𝑚2 = 15
(𝑚1 , 𝑚2 )|(𝑎1 − 𝑎2 ) = (10,15)|(7 − 4)

=5 3, solution does not exists.

5 a) Solve 𝑥 ≡ 5(𝑚𝑜𝑑 6); 𝑥 ≡ 3(𝑚𝑜𝑑 10); 𝑥 ≡ 8(𝑚𝑜𝑑 15)
Sol: Here 𝑎1 = 5; 𝑎2 = 3; 𝑎3 = 8 ; 𝑚1 = 6; 𝑚2 = 10; 𝑚3 = 15
LCM (6,10,15) = 30
GCD (6,10) = 2 and 2|(5 − 3)
GCD (10,15) = 5 and 5|(3 − 8)
GCD (6,15) = 3 and 3|(8 − 5)
So there exists a unique solution modulo 30
From 1st congruence, 𝑥 = 6𝑡 + 5
Substitute in 2nd congruence 6𝑡 + 5 ≡ 3(𝑚𝑜𝑑 10)
6𝑡 ≡ −2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 10)
6𝑡 ≡ 8(𝑚𝑜𝑑 10)
Dividing both sides by 2, 3𝑡 ≡ 4(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5) ….(1)
We write 3𝑡 + 5𝑢 = 4 …..(2)
From Euclidean algorithm, 5 = 1(3) + 2
3 = 1(2) + 1
⇒ 1 = 3 − 1(2)
= 3 − 1[5 − 1(3)]
= 3 − 5 + 1(3)
= 2(3) + 5(−1)
∴ 1 = 3(2) + 5(−1)
Multiply both sides with 4, we get 3(8) + 5(−4) = 4 …. (3)
From (2) and (3) we get 𝑡 ≡ 8(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
 ⇒ 𝑡 ≡ 3(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
⇒ 𝑡 = 5𝑠 + 3
Since 𝑥 = 6𝑡 + 5 = 6(5𝑠 + 3) + 5 = 30𝑠 + 23
Write in congruence form 𝑥 ≡ 23(𝑚𝑜𝑑 30)
b) Solve 𝑥 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 14); 𝑥 ≡ 16(𝑚𝑜𝑑 21); 𝑥 ≡ 10(𝑚𝑜𝑑 30)
Sol: Here 𝑎1 = 2; 𝑎2 = 16; 𝑎3 = 10 ; 𝑚1 = 14; 𝑚2 = 21; 𝑚3 = 30
LCM (14,21,30) = 210
GCD (14,21) = 7 and 7|(16 − 2)
GCD (21,30) = 3 and 3|(16 − 10)
GCD (14,30) = 2 and 2|(10 − 2)
So there exists a unique solution modulo 210
From 1st congruence, 𝑥 = 14𝑡 + 2
Substitute in 2nd congruence 14𝑡 + 2 ≡ 16(𝑚𝑜𝑑 21)
14𝑡 ≡ 14(𝑚𝑜𝑑 21)
Dividing both sides by 7, we get 2𝑡 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 3) ……(1)
We write 2𝑡 + 3𝑢 = 2 …..(2)
From Euclidean algorithm, 3 = 1(2) + 1
⇒ 1 = 3 − 1(2)
∴ 1 = 3(1) + 2(−1)
Multiply both sides with 2, we get 2(−2) + 3(2) = 2 …. (3)
From (2) and (3) we get 𝑡 ≡ −2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 3)
⇒ 𝑡 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 3)
⇒ 𝑡 = 3𝑠 + 1
Since 𝑥 = 14𝑡 + 2 = 14(3𝑠 + 1) + 2
⇒ 𝑥 = 42𝑠 + 16
Substitute this in 3rd congruence we get
42𝑠 + 16 ≡ 10(𝑚𝑜𝑑 30)
⇒ 42𝑠 ≡ −6(𝑚𝑜𝑑 30)
⇒ 42𝑠 ≡ 24(𝑚𝑜𝑑 30)
Dividing both sides by 5 we get
⇒ 7𝑠 ≡ 4(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
To solve this we take 7𝑠 + 5𝑦 = 4 …..(4)
From Euclidean algorithm, 7 = 1(5) + 2
5 = 2(2) + 1
⇒ 1 = 5 − 2(2)
= 5 − 2[7 − 1(5)]
= 5 − 2(7) + 5(2)
1 = 7(−2) + 5(3)
Multiply both sides by 4, 7(−8) + 5(12) = 4 ….(5)
From (4) and (5) 𝑠 ≡ −8(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5) ≡ −3(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
⇒ 𝑠 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
⇒ 𝑠 = 5𝑣 + 2
Since 𝑥 = 42𝑠 + 16 = 42(5𝑣 + 2) + 16
𝑥 = 210𝑣 + 100
Write in congruence form 𝑥 ≡ 100(𝑚𝑜𝑑 210)
c) Solve 𝑥 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 9); 𝑥 ≡ 8(𝑚𝑜𝑑 15); 𝑥 ≡ 10(𝑚𝑜𝑑 25)
Sol: Here 𝑎1 = 2; 𝑎2 = 8; 𝑎3 = 10 ; 𝑚1 = 9; 𝑚2 = 15; 𝑚3 = 25
LCM (9,15,25) = 225
GCD (9,15) = 1 and 1|(8 − 2)

GCD (15,25) = 5 and 5 (10 − 8)

So, solution does not exists under modulo 225
Systems of Linear Congruences:
We will consider systems of more than one congruence that involve the same number
of unknowns where all congruences have the same modulus.
Let us take one example, 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 ≡ 5(𝑚𝑜𝑑 13) ……(1)
2𝑥 + 5𝑦 ≡ 7(𝑚𝑜𝑑 13) ……(2)
To eliminate y, we multiply (1) with 5 and (2) with 4
15𝑥 + 20𝑦 ≡ 25(𝑚𝑜𝑑 13) ……(3)
8𝑥 + 20𝑦 ≡ 28(𝑚𝑜𝑑 13) ……(4)
Then subtract (3) and (4) we get 7𝑥 ≡ −3(𝑚𝑜𝑑 13) ≡ 10(𝑚𝑜𝑑 13)
⇒ 𝑥 ≡ 10 × 7(𝑚𝑜𝑑 13)
Since 7 × 2 = 14 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 13) ⇒ 7−1 = 2
∴ 𝑥 ≡ 10 × 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 13) ≡ 20(𝑚𝑜𝑑 13)
𝑥 ≡ 7(𝑚𝑜𝑑 13)
To eliminate x, we multiply (1) with 2 and (2) with 3
6𝑥 + 8𝑦 ≡ 10(𝑚𝑜𝑑 13) ……(5)
6𝑥 + 15𝑦 ≡ 21(𝑚𝑜𝑑 13) ……(6)
Then subtract (6) and (5) we get 7𝑦 ≡ 11(𝑚𝑜𝑑 13)

⇒ 𝑦 ≡ 11 × 7(𝑚𝑜𝑑 13)
∴ 𝑦 ≡ 11 × 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 13) ≡ 22(𝑚𝑜𝑑 13)
𝑦 ≡ 9(𝑚𝑜𝑑 13)

Hence the solution of this system of congruences are 𝑥 ≡ 7(𝑚𝑜𝑑 13) 𝑦 ≡ 9(𝑚𝑜𝑑 13)

Theorem: Let a, b, c, d, e, f and m be integers with 𝑚 > 0 and (𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐, 𝑚) = 1 i.e.,
(∆, 𝑚) = 1. Then the system of congruences 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 ≡ 𝑒(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚); 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 ≡ 𝑓(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚)
Has a unique solution modulo m given by

𝑥 ≡ ∆(𝑑𝑒 − 𝑏𝑓) (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚); 𝑦 ≡ ∆(𝑎𝑓 − 𝑐𝑒) (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚), where ∆ is an inverse of ∆ modulo m.
To study system of n linear congruences involving n unknowns, it is helpful to use the
language of matrices. Before we proceed, we need to define congruences of matrices.
Definition: Let A and B be 𝑛 × 𝑘 matrices with integer entries 𝑎𝑖𝑗 , 𝑏𝑖𝑗 respectively. We say
that A is congruent to B modulo m if 𝑎𝑖𝑗 ≡ 𝑏𝑖𝑗 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚) for 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑛; 1 ≤ 𝑗 ≤ 𝑘, we write
𝐴 ≡ 𝐵(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚).
15 3 ] [ 4 3]
We consider [ ≡ (𝑚𝑜𝑑 11)
8 12 −3 1
4 3
≡[ ] (𝑚𝑜𝑑 11)
8 1
Theorem: If A and B be 𝑛 × 𝑘 matrices with 𝐴 ≡ 𝐵(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚), C is a 𝑘 × 𝑝 matrix and D is a
𝑝 × 𝑛 matrix with all integer entries then 𝐴𝐶 ≡ 𝐵𝐶 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚) and 𝐷𝐴 ≡ 𝐷𝐵(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚)
Now let us consider the system of congruences
𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥𝑛 ≡ 𝑏1 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚)
𝑎12 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥𝑛 ≡ 𝑏2 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚)
… ….. ….. …. ….. ….. ….. ….. …. …..
… ….. ….. …. ….. ….. ….. ….. …. …..
𝑎𝑛1 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑛2 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑛 ≡ 𝑏𝑛 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚)
𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑛
𝑎12 𝑎22 … 𝑎2𝑛
Using matrix notation, we write 𝐴𝑋 ≡ 𝐵(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚) where 𝐴 = [ … … … … ]
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 … 𝑎𝑛𝑛
𝑥1 𝑏1
𝑥2 𝑏
𝑋 = […] 𝐵 = [ 2]
…
𝑥𝑛 𝑏𝑛
The system 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 ≡ 5(𝑚𝑜𝑑 13)
2𝑥 + 5𝑦 ≡ 7(𝑚𝑜𝑑 13)
3 4 𝑥
can be written as [ ] [𝑦 ] = [5] (𝑚𝑜𝑑 13)
2 5 7
we now develop a method for solving congruences of the form 𝐴𝑋 ≡ 𝐵(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚). This method
is based on finding a matrix 𝐴 such that 𝐴. 𝐴 ≡ 𝐼(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚) where I is the identity matrix.

Definition: If A and 𝐴 are 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrices of integers and 𝐴. 𝐴 = 𝐴. 𝐴 ≡ 𝐼(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚) where

1 0 … 0
0 1 … 0
[ ] is the identity matrix of order n then 𝐴 is said to be an inverse of A modulo
… … … …
0 0 … 1
m.
1 3 3 4 6 10 ( 1 0
Example: Given [ ][ ]=[ ] 𝑚𝑜𝑑 5) ≡ [ ] (𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
2 4 1 2 10 16 0 1
3 4 1 3 1 0
And [ ][ ] = [11 25] (𝑚𝑜𝑑 5) ≡ [ ] (𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
1 2 2 4 5 11 0 1
3 4 1 3
We see that [ ] is an inverse of [ ] modulo 5.
1 2 2 4
𝑎 𝑏]
Theorem: Let 𝐴 = [ be a matrix of integers such that ∆= 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝐴 = 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 is relatively
𝑐 𝑑
𝑑 −𝑏]
prime to the positive integer m. Then the matrix 𝐴 = ∆ [ where ∆ is the inverse of ∆
−𝑐 𝑎
modulo m, 𝐴 is an inverse of A modulo m.
3 4
Example: Let 𝐴 = [ ] then ∆= 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝐴 = 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 = 15 − 8 ≡ 7(𝑚𝑜𝑑 13)
2 5
𝑑 −𝑏] 5 −4]
We have 𝐴 = ∆ [ =7 [ (𝑚𝑜𝑑 13)
−𝑐 𝑎 −2 3
W.K.T the inverse of 7 is 2 under modulo 13
5 −4
𝐴 = 2[ ] (𝑚𝑜𝑑 13)
−2 3
10 −8 (
=[ ] 𝑚𝑜𝑑 13)
−4 6
 10 5] (
Thus 𝐴 ≡ [ 𝑚𝑜𝑑 13)
9 6
Definition: The adjoint of an 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix A is the 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix with (𝑖, 𝑗)𝑡ℎ entry 𝐶𝑗𝑖 , where
𝐶𝑖𝑗 is (−1)𝑖+𝑗 times the det of the matrix obtained by deleting the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ row and 𝑗𝑡ℎ column from
A. The adjoint of A is denoted by adj A.
Theorem: If A is an 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix with det A≠0 then 𝐴(𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴) = (𝑑𝑒𝑡𝐴)𝐼 where adj A is the
adjoint of A.
Theorem: If A is an 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix with integer entries and m is a positive integer such that
𝐺𝐶𝐷 (𝑑𝑒𝑡𝐴, 𝑚) = 1 then the matrix 𝐴 = ∆(𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴) is an inverse of A modulo m, where ∆ is an
inverse of ∆= det 𝐴 modulo m.
2 5 6
Example: Let 𝐴 = [2 0 1] then find inverse of A modulo 7
1 2 3
−2 −3 5
Then 𝑑𝑒𝑡 𝐴 = −5 and 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = [−5 0 10 ]
4 1 −10
We have (𝑑𝑒𝑡𝐴, 7) = 1 and the inverse of -5 is 4 modulo 7 because
(−5) × 4(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7) ≡ −20(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)

≡ −6(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7) ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
(−5) × 4(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7) ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)

⇒ 4 is the inverse of -5 modulo 7

Thus 𝐴 = ∆(𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴)(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
−2 −3 5
𝐴 = 4 [−5 0 10 ] (𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
4 1 −10
−8 −12 20
≡ [−20 0 40 ] (𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
16 4 −40
−1 −5 6
≡ [−6 0 5 ] (𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
2 4 −5
6 2 6
Hence 𝐴 ≡ [1 0 5] (𝑚𝑜𝑑 7) is the inverse of A
2 4 2
We can use an inverse of A modulo m to solve the system 𝐴𝑋 ≡ 𝐵(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚) where
𝐺𝐶𝐷 (𝑑𝑒𝑡𝐴, 𝑚) = 1 .

Multiply both sides by 𝐴 (an inverse of A)

𝐴(𝐴𝑋) ≡ 𝐴𝐵(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚)
⇒ 𝑋 ≡ 𝐴𝐵(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚) is the solution of the given system of congruences.
Example: We consider the system of congruences
2𝑥 + 5𝑦 + 6𝑧 ≡ 3(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7); 2𝑥 + 𝑧 ≡ 4(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7); 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑7)
2 5 6 𝑥 3
This is equivalent to the matrix congruence [2 0 1] [𝑦 ] = [4] (𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
1 2 3 𝑧 1
2 5 6 6 2 6
From the last example the inverse of [2 0 1] is [1 0 5] modulo 7
1 2 3 2 4 2
Thus the solution is 𝑋 ≡ 𝐴𝐵(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚)
𝑥 6 2 6 3 32 4
⇒ [𝑦 ] ≡ [1 0 5] [4] (𝑚𝑜𝑑 7) ≡ [ 8 ] (𝑚𝑜𝑑 7) ≡ [1] (𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
𝑧 2 4 2 1 24 3
4
Hence the solution of the given congruence is 𝑋 ≡ [1] (𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
3
Problems:
1) Find the solutions of the following systems of linear congruences
a) Solve 𝑥 + 2𝑦 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5); 2𝑥 + 𝑦 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
Sol: Given system of congruences are 𝑥 + 2𝑦 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5) ….. (1)
2𝑥 + 𝑦 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5) ….. (2)
Multiply (1) with 2 and subtracting from (2) we get
2𝑥 + 4𝑦 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
2𝑥 + 𝑦 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
From (3)-(4), we get 3𝑦 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)

⇒ 𝑦 ≡ 1 × 3(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5) ….(3)

Since 3 × 2 = 6 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5) ⇒ 3−1 = 2

From (3) we get 𝑦 ≡ 1 × 2 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)

⇒ 𝑦 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)

Then from (1), 𝑥 + 2(2) ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)

⇒ 𝑥 + 4 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
⇒ 𝑥 ≡ −3(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)

⇒ 𝑥 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
Hence the unique solution is 𝑥 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5); 𝑦 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
b) Solve 𝑥 + 3𝑦 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5); 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
Sol: Given system of congruences are 𝑥 + 3𝑦 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5) ….. (1)
3𝑥 + 4𝑦 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5) ….. (2)
Multiply (1) with 3 and subtracting from (2) we get
3𝑥 + 9𝑦 ≡ 3(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
3𝑥 + 4𝑦 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
On subtracting we get 5𝑦 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
This is not possible because (5,5) = 5 ≠ 1
The system has no solution.
c) Solve 4𝑥 + 𝑦 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5); 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
Sol: Given system of congruences are 4𝑥 + 𝑦 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5) ….. (1)
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5) ….. (2)
Multiply (2) with 2 and subtracting we get
4𝑥 + 6𝑦 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
4𝑥 + 𝑦 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
we get 5𝑦 ≡ 0(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
The solutions to this are all values of y
i.e., 𝑦 = 0,1,2,3 (or) 4(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
put 𝑦 = 0 then from (1), 4𝑥 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)

⇒ 𝑥 ≡ 2 × 4(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5) ….(3)

Since 4 × 4 = 16 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5) ⇒ 4−1 = 4

From (3) we get 𝑥 ≡ 2 × 4 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 5) ≡ 8(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)

⇒ 𝑥 ≡ 3(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)

put 𝑦 = 1 then from (1), 4𝑥 + 1 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)

4𝑥 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)

⇒ 𝑥 ≡ 1 × 4(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
⇒ 𝑥 ≡ 1 × 4(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5) since 4−1 = 4

𝑥 ≡ 4(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
put 𝑦 = 2 then from (1), 4𝑥 + 2 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
4𝑥 ≡ 0(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)

𝑥 ≡ 0(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)

put 𝑦 = 3 then from (1), 4𝑥 + 3 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)

4𝑥 ≡ −1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
⇒ 4𝑥 ≡ 4(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)

𝑥 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)

put 𝑦 = 4 then from (1), 4𝑥 + 4 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)

4𝑥 ≡ −2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
⇒ 4𝑥 ≡ 3(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)

⇒ 𝑥 ≡ 3 × 4(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
⇒ 𝑥 ≡ 3 × 4(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5) since 4−1 = 4
⇒ 𝑥 ≡ 12(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)

𝑥 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)

Hence the possible solutions are

𝑥 = 3, 𝑦 = 0 ; 𝑥 = 4, 𝑦 = 1; 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 2; 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 3; 𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = 4
d) Solve 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 ≡ 5(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7); 𝑥 + 5𝑦 ≡ 6(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
Sol: Given system of congruences are 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 ≡ 5(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7) ….. (1)
𝑥 + 5𝑦 ≡ 6(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7) ….. (2)
Multiply (2) with 2 and subtracting we get
2𝑥 + 10𝑦 ≡ 12(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 ≡ 5(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
we get 7𝑦 ≡ 7(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7) ⇒ 0𝑦 ≡ 0(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
y takes any residue modulo 7
The possible values of y are
i.e., 𝑦 = 0,1,2,3,4,5,6

put 𝑦 = 0 then from (2), ⇒ 𝑥 ≡ 6(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)

put 𝑦 = 1 then from (2), 𝑥 + 5 ≡ 6(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7) ⇒ 𝑥 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)

put 𝑦 = 2 then from (2), 𝑥 + 10 ≡ 6(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)

𝑥 ≡ −4(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)

𝑥 ≡ 3(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)

put 𝑦 = 3 then from (2), 𝑥 + 15 ≡ 6(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)

𝑥 ≡ −9(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
⇒ 𝑥 ≡ −2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)

𝑥 ≡ 5(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)

Similarly we get the other values

Hence the possible solutions are (6,0), (1,1), (3,2), (5,3), (0,4), (2,5), (4,6)
2 1 4 0
2) Find the matrix C such that 𝐶 = [ ][ ] (𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
4 3 2 1
Definition: A matrix 𝐴 ≠ 𝐼 is called an involutory modulo m if 𝐴2 ≡ 𝐼(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚)
4 11
3) Show that [ ] is involutory modulo 26
1 22
1 2 2 2
4) Find an inverse modulo 5 of the following a) [ ] b) [ ]
3 4 1 2
1 1 0 1 2 3
5) Find an inverse modulo 7 of the following a) [1 0 1] b) [1 2 5]
0 1 1 1 4 6
1 2 3
Sol: 5)b) Given that 𝐴 = [1 2 5]
1 4 6
Then 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝐴 = ∆= 1(−8) − 2(1) + 3(2) = −4 ≠ 0
∴ ∆≡ −4(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7) ≡ 3(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
Now the inverse of 3 is 5 (mod 7) because 3 × 5 = 15 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
−8 0 4
We have 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = [−1 3 −2] (𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
2 −2 0
−1 0 4
⇒ 𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴 ≡ [−1 3 −2] (𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
2 −2 0
6 0 4
≡ [6 3 5] (𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
2 5 0
Hence 𝐴 = ∆(𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴)(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
6 0 4
= 5 [6 3 5] (𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
2 5 0
 30 0 20
≡ [30 15 25] (𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
10 25 0
2 0 6
𝐴 ≡ [2 1 4] (𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
3 4 0
2 0 6
So the inverse of A is [2 1 4] (𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
3 4 0
6) Find all the solutions to the following systems
a) 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7); 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 5𝑧 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7); 𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 6𝑧 ≡ 1 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
b) 𝑥 + 𝑦 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7); 𝑥 + 𝑧 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7); 𝑦 + 𝑧 ≡ 3 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
1 1 0 𝑥 1
Sol: write the matrix notation AX=B where𝐴 = [1 0 1] 𝑋 = [𝑦] 𝐵 = [2] (𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
0 1 1 𝑧 3
1 1 0
To find the inverse of 𝐴 = [1 0 1]
0 1 1
Then 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝐴 = ∆= 1(−1) − 1(1) = −2 ≠ 0
∴ ∆≡ −2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7) ≡ 5(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
Now the inverse of 5 is 3 (mod 7) because 5 × 3 = 15 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
We know that Adj A = Transposed cofactor matrix
−1 −1 1
We have 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = [−1 1 −1] (𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
1 −1 1
−1 −1 1
⇒ 𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴 ≡ [−1 1 −1] (𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
1 −1 1
6 6 1
≡ [6 1 6] (𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
1 6 1
Hence 𝐴 = ∆(𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴)(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
6 6 1
= 3 [6 1 6] (𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
1 6 1
18 18 3
≡ [18 3 18] (𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
3 18 3
4 4 3
𝐴 ≡ [4 3 4] (𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
3 4 3
Thus the solution is 𝑋 ≡ 𝐴𝐵(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚)
𝑥 4 4 3 1
⇒ [𝑦 ] ≡ [4 3 4] [2] (𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
𝑧 3 4 3 3
𝑥 21
⇒ [𝑦 ] ≡ [22] (𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
𝑧 23
𝑥 0
⇒ [𝑦 ] ≡ [1] (𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
𝑧 2
0
Hence the solution is 𝑋 ≡ [1] (𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
2
7) How many incongruent solutions does the following system of congruences
a) 2𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5); 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5); 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
Sol: Given system of linear congruences are 2𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5) ……(1)
𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5) ……(2)
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5) ……(3)
2 1 1
The coefficient matrix is 𝐴 = [1 2 1] whose determinant is 4≠ 0 (mod 5)
1 1 2
So there is a unique solution to the system
From (1)-(2) we get 𝑥 − 𝑦 ≡ 0(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5) ….. (4)
Multiply (2) with 2 2𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 2𝑧 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
and subtract from (3) we get 𝑥 + 3𝑦 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5) …..(5)
from (4) and (5) we get 4𝑦 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
⇒ 𝑦 ≡ 1 × 4−1 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)

⇒ 𝑦 ≡ 1 × 4(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5) [Since 4 × 4 = 16 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5) ⇒ 4−1 = 4 ]

𝑦 ≡ 4(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)

Substitute in (4) we get 𝑥 − 4 ≡ 0(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5) ⇒ 𝑥 ≡ 4(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)

From (2) we get, 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)

⇒ 4 + 2(4) + 𝑧 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
⇒ 12 + 𝑧 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
⇒ 𝑧 ≡ −11(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
⇒ 𝑧 ≡ −1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)

⇒ 𝑧 ≡ 4(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)

Hence the unique solution is 𝑥 = 4; 𝑦 = 4; 𝑧 = 4

b) 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 𝑧 ≡ 3(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5); 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5); 2𝑥 + 𝑧 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
Sol: Given system of linear congruences are 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 𝑧 ≡ 3(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5) ……(1)
𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5) ……(2)
2𝑥 + 𝑧 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5) ……(3)
2 3 1
The coefficient matrix is 𝐴 = [1 2 3] whose determinant is 15 ≡ 0 (mod 5)
2 0 1
So there are 5 incongruent solutions to the system modulo 5
From (1)-(3) we get 3𝑦 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
⇒ 𝑦 ≡ 2 × 3−1 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)

⇒ 𝑦 ≡ 2 × 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5) [Since 3 × 2 = 6 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5) ⇒ 3−1 = 2 ]

𝑦 ≡ 4(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)

Let z takes the values of 0,1,2,3,4

From(3), if 𝑧 = 0 then 2𝑥 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
⇒ 𝑥 ≡ 1 × 2−1 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
⇒ 𝑥 ≡ 1 × 3(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)

⇒ 𝑥 ≡ 3(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)

if 𝑧 = 1 then 2𝑥 + 1 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
⇒ 2𝑥 ≡ 0(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)

⇒ 𝑥 ≡ 0(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)

if 𝑧 = 2 then 2𝑥 + 2 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
⇒ 2𝑥 ≡ −1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
⇒ 2𝑥 ≡ 4(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)

⇒ 𝑥 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)

if 𝑧 = 3 then 2𝑥 + 3 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
⇒ 2𝑥 ≡ −2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
⇒ 𝑥 ≡ −1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
⇒ 𝑥 ≡ 4(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)

And if 𝑧 = 4 then 2𝑥 + 4 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)

⇒ 2𝑥 ≡ −3(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
⇒ 2𝑥 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)

⇒ 𝑥 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)

Hence the 5 incongruent solutions are 𝑥 = 3, 𝑦 = 4, 𝑧 = 0 ; 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 4, 𝑧 = 1;

𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = 4, 𝑧 = 2; 𝑥 = 4, 𝑦 = 4, 𝑧 = 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 4, 𝑧 = 4
c) 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5); 2𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 3𝑧 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)