General Zoology (lec)

Cell theory  No direction.

 Gives support and protection.
 Cell is the functional unit of living things.
 Cytology is the study of cells. Cytoplasm
 3 Main Parts, these are the:
 Responsible for metabolic activities.
(1) Cell Membrane
 Contains chemical elements and tiny
(2) Cytoplasm
structures (organelles)
(3) Nucleus.
 Gel-like material.
Theodore schwann (zoologist) & Mathias Sol: semi-liquid.
schleiden (botanist) Gel: semi-solid.
 Proposed that cells are the basic  Contains organelles that performs the
building blocks of all living things. physiological properties of the cell.

Rudolf Virchow Organelles

 Cells produce new cells through cell  Performs the physiological activities if
division and proposed that living cells the cells.
arise only from other living cells (pre- 1. Centriole in Centrosome
existing cells). - Produces microtubules (skeletal system of
the cell.
Cell membrane/Plasma Membrane - Formation of spindle fiber.
 Controls the moving materials in and out
of the cell. 2. Endoplasmic reticulum “circulatory
 Semi-permeable membrane. system”
- Rough er (w/ribosomes) - distribution of
Envelope proteins only.
- Covers and protect the cell. - Smooth er (no ribosomes) – transport not
- Gives cells shapes. only proteins but carbohydrates and lipids.

Semi-permeable 3. Golgi Complex

- Regulates material movements. - Packaging and secretory vesicle.
- Select materials that passes through. - Collects materials to be disposed through
secretory vesicles at cell membrane.
Bilayer Phospholipid
- Phosphate: polar heads hydrophilic. 4. Lysosome
- Lipid: non-polar hydrophobic. - Suicide sacs
- Secrete “lysozymes” (for digestion).
Fluid Mosaic Model
- Contains materials/molecules. 5. Mitochondria
Phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins. - Powerhouse of the cell.
- Produces ATP – adenosine triphosphate as
Cell wall energy resource.
 Non animal cells. - Double membrane organelles
 Free permeable.
 General Zoology (lec)
- Aerobic respiration (break down nutrients - Unicellular.
to produce energy.) - Organisms & Bacteria.

6. Ribosome
- Spherical,non-membranous organelle for
protein synthesis.
Free ribosomes: (70s)
Polysosome/Polyribosome: (80s)

7. Vacuole
- Storage of materials.
Nucleus- Brain of the cell that controls
metabolic activities
Nucleoplasm- cytoplasmic content
Nuclear membrane- chromosomes are
found.
Nucleolus- formation of ribosomes.

Cell cycle
3 parts of Interphase
G1
- The organelles are busy performing their
metabolic activities,
- organelles increase/duplicate in number.
2 basic cell types
- cell is also increasing in size.
1. Eukaryotic cell
- Multicellular.
S phase
- Plants & Animals.
- DNA synthesis where the genetic materials
replicate.
- DNA replication.
- Each chromosome consists of two (2) sister
chromatids.
G2
- This is a checkpoint to determine if the cell
2. Prokaryotic cell is ready for the next process.
 General Zoology (lec)
- cell division, either mitosis or meiosis.  Chromosomes reached the opposite
 Protein synthesis is also done in

preparation for cell division.

poles.
 Spindle fibers break.
M-phase  Nuclear envelope begin to appear.
Mitosis Cytokinesis
 Mitosis is a type of cell division for  Cell membrane starts to appear.
somatic cells and for the asexual  Cleavage furrow is evident
reproduction of unicellular eukaryotic
 2 daughter cells are present.
cells
 In plant cells, plate is formed to
Prophase separate 2 daughter cells.
 Centrioles move to the opposite poles
 Spindle fibers are formed by the
centrioles.
 Nuclear envelope disintegrates and
nucleus disappears.
 Chromosomes become visible.
Metaphase
 Chromosomes are arranged at the
equator/center of the cell.
 Each sister chromatids are attached to
the spindle fibers
Anaphase
 Chromosomes separate and move to
opposite poles.
Telophase
 General Zoology (lec)
- Completion of cross-over of chromosomes.
Diakinesis
- Formation of 4 sister chromatids.
Metaphase I
- Tetrad chromosomes attached to the
spindle fibers and aligned in the equator.
Anaphase I
- The separation of homologous
chromosomes.

Meiosis II
is exactly the same as mitosis, where both the
two (2) daughter cells produced in Meiosis I
divide and each form (two) 2 haploid daughter
cells. So that, total of four (4) cells are produced
in the entire Meiosis.

Meiosis
 The development of gametes, with the
same stages as mitosis, but has two main
divisions, Meiosis I and Meiosis II.
 sexual reproduction.
Prophase I
Leptotene
- The beginning if chromosome
condensation.
Zygotene
The Genetic Material
- Homologous chromosomes pair
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
Pachytene
- A molecule that contains the genetic code
- Complete condensation of chromosomes. of organisms.
Diplotene
 General Zoology (lec)
- A biological macromolecule with structural
unit.
Nucleotide
- Composed of sugar, phosphate group and
nitrogenous base.
Double Helix
1. DNA REPLICATION
- 2 twisted strands (antiparallel, run opposite
direction). - DNA makes new DNA
 wherein the 5’ end of one strand 4 steps:
matches with the 3’ end of the
other. 1. FORK FORMATION

 permits base pairing by providing

complementarity for DNA
replication.
- Twisted ladder.
Deoxyribose- Sides of ladder that is made
up of phosphate and sugar.
 Covalent bonds join the sugar of
one nucleotide to the phosphate
 2 strands splits, single strand
group of the next nucleotide
becomes new template strand adenine
forming sugar-phosphate
(A) with thymine (T)/ guanine (G)
backbone.
with cytosine (C).
2. PRIMER BINDING
Rungs
 Base pairing starts the replication
- Composed of from 18 to 24.
 nitrogenous bases, adenine and
3. ELONGATION
guanine of purine group.
 pyrimidine group cytosine and  Lengthening of DNA addition of
thymine. nucleotide to the end of 3’ (ATCG)
 General Zoology (lec)
4. TERMINATION PHASE
 Gaps are filled
2. TRANSCRIPTION
- DNA makes new RNA
- DNA is copied into RNA
- mRNA then leaves the nucleus and goes to
cytoplasm to direct protein synthesis.
- Thymine is replaced by uracil.
3. TRANSLATION
- proteins are made from RNA
- mRNA acts as template in synthesis protein.
3. Law of Dominance
- Two copies of genes that are dominant ex:
INHERITANCE PATTERNS YY, HH
1. Law of Segregation - Dominant traits are inherited.
- everyone has 2 versions (alleles). - Recessive traits are masked and unexpressed.
- when an egg is joined by a sperm, new
organism is produces with genotype consisting
of the allele contained in the gametes.
- Homozygous pair ay naghihiwalay to form
new organism (heterozygous)

2. Law of Independent Assortment

- 2 or more different genes are categorized into
gamete independently means that they do not
influence the gene of another gene.

3 Non-Mendelian Laws of Inheritance

1. Law of Incomplete Dominance
- This occurs when the dominant allele does not
completely mask the recessive allele, so an
intermediate phenotype is observed and this
results to the blending of the two alleles.
 General Zoology (lec)

2. Law of Co-Dominance
The genetic traits of different alleles of the same
gene-locus are both expressed phenotypically.
This means that both alleles are seen in the
phenotype at the same time.

3. Law of Multiple Alleles

- This means that genes exist in several different
forms. An individual has only two copies of
each gene, but many different alleles are within
a population.
General Zoology (lec)