CHAPTER 5

MARKETING
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Business firms and non-profit organizations engage in marketing. Products marketed include
goods as well as services, ideas, people, & places. Marketing activities are targeted at market
consisting of product purchasers who may be individuals and groups that influence the success of
an organization.
The foundation of marketing is exchange. In which one party provides to another party
something of value in return for something else of value. In a broad sense, marketing consists of
all activities designed to generate or facilitate an exchange intended to satisfy human needs. The
concept of market is very important in marketing. The American marketing Association defines a
market as “The aggregate demand of the potential buyers for product or a product or services “.
Philip Kotler defines “A market as an area of potential exchanges”. Thus, a market is a group of
buyers and sellers interested in negotiating the terms of purchase/sale for goods or services. The
negotiation work may be conducted face-to-face at a certain place or it may be done through
other means of communication, such as correspondence, phone, cable, or it may be done through
business middlemen, e.g., brokers and commission agents. This chapter discusses about
marketing and its basic components.
5.2 Meaning and Definitions of Marketing
Marketing can occur any time with one social unit (person or organization) who strives to
exchange something of values with another social unit. Thus, the essence of marketing is a
transaction or exchange. In this broad sense, marketing consists of activities designed to generate
and facilitate exchange intended to satisfy human needs or wants.
Business firms and non-profit organization engaged in marketing. Products marketed include
goods as well as services, ideas, people and places. Marketing activities are targeted at market
consisting of product purchasers and also individuals and groups that influence the success of an
organization. Marketing has been defined in various ways. The definitions that serve our purpose
best are as follows:
1. Marketing is a social and managerial process by which an individual or group obtain
what they need and want through creating, offering and exchanging of product of values
with others (Philip Kotler,2012).
2. Marketing is the total business activity designed to plan, price, promote and distribute
want satisfying products to target market to achieve organizational goal (William
J.Stanton, 1984).
3. Marketing is the creation and delivery of standard of living to society (Paul. Mazor,
2005).
4. Marketing management is the process of planning and executing, the conception, pricing,
promoting and distributing of ideas, goods and services to create an exchange that satisfy
individual or group objectives (American marketing Association, 2015).
5. Marketing is the effort to identify and satisfy customers’ needs and wants. It involves
finding out who your customers are, what they need and want, the prices, the level of
competition. It involves the knowledge and all the processes you undertake to sell your
product.

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The above definitions of marketing reset on the following core concepts: needs, wants and
demands; products (Goods, Services and Idea), value, cost and satisfaction: exchange and
transaction; Relationship and Networks; market; and marketers and prospects. Marketing
answers the following questions:
 Who are my customers?
 What are my customer’s needs and wants?
 How can I satisfy my customers’?
 How do I make a profit as I satisfy my customers?
Who are your customers?
Your customers are the people or other businesses that want your products/ services and are
willing to pay for them. They include;
 People who are buying from you now.
 People you hope will buy from you in the future.
 People who stopped buying from you but you hope to get them back.
What are my customer’s needs and wants?
An important point to note is that customers want to look at different products so that they can
choose what they like best. Some customers want a different design and others want high quality
and are willing to pay extra for that.
How can I satisfy my customers’?
You need to do everything to find out who your customers are and what they need and want in
order to satisfy them improve your sales and make a profit. You need to find out;
 Products/services your customers want.
 Price your customers are willing to pay.
 Location of your business in-order to reach your customers (Place).
 Promotion to use to inform your customers and attract them to buy your products or
services.
5.3 Core Concepts of Marketing
5.3.1 Needs, Wants and Demand
A person at any given time has a need. This need arises out of physical or psychological
imbalances. Marketing starts with human needs and wants. People need food, air, water, clothing
and shelter to survive. Beyond this, people have a strong desire for recreation, education and
other services. Let see terms related with this as follow:
F Need: - Human Need is a state of deprivation of some basic satisfaction. People require
food, clothing, shelter, safety and belonging and esteem.
F Wants: - Wants are desires for specific satisfiers of needs. Human wants are continually
shaped and reshaped by social forces and institutions including churches, schools,
families and business cooperation. Eg. A person needs food but wants spaghetti
F Demands: - Demands are wants for specific products that are backed by ability and
willingness to buy them. Wants become demand when supported by purchasing power.
Companies must therefore measure not only how many people want their product but,
more importantly how many would actually be willing and able to buy it.
F Product: - is anything that can be offered to satisfy a need or want. Products broadly
classify as tangibility and intangibility features.
F Value: - is the consumer’s estimate of the products overall capacity to satisfy his or her
needs.

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 F According to DeRose, value is “the satisfaction of customer requirement at the lowest
cost of acquisition, ownership and use”.
F Cost: - is the amount of money that are going to be expended or already incurred to
acquire a product.
F Exchange: - is the act of obtaining a desired product from someone by offering
something in return.
F Transaction: - is the trade of values between two parties.
F Market: - consists of all the potential customers sharing a particular need or want who
might be willing and able to engage in exchange to satisfy their need or want.
5.4 Importance of Marketing
On the average, about 50 cents of each dollar we spend as consumers goes to cover marketing
costs. The money pays for designing the products to meet our needs, making products readily
available when and where we want them, and informing us about producers. These activities add
want satisfying ability or what is called utility, to products.
A customer purchases a product because it provides satisfaction. That something that makes a
product capable of satisfying want is its utility. And it is through marketing that much of a
products utility is created. Then potential buyers must be informed about the products existence
and the benefits it offers through various forms of promotion. The kinds of utility that marketing
provides in the process are as follows:
1. Form Utility: Form utility is associated primarily with production- the physical or chemical
changes that make a product more valuable. When timber is made into furniture, form utility is
created. This is production, not marketing. However, marketing research may aid in decision
making regarding product design, color, quantities produced, or some other aspect of a product.
All of these things contribute to the product’s form utility.
2. Place Utility: Place utility exists when a product is readily accessible to potential customers.
So physically moving the products to a store near the customers add to its value.
3. Time Utility: Time utility means having a product available when you want it. Having a
product available when we want it is very convenient but it means that the retailer must
anticipate our desires and maintain an inventory. Thus, there are costs involved in providing time
utility.
4. Information Utility: Information utility is created by informing prospective buyers that a
product exists. Unless you know a product exists and where you can get it, the product has no
value. Advertising that describes a sales person answering a customer questions about the
durability of a product creates information utility. Image utility is a special type of information
utility. It is the emotional or psychological values that a person attaches to a product or brand
because of its reputation or social standing.
5. Possession Utility: Possession utility is created when a customer buys the product-that is,
ownership is transferred to the buyer. Thus, for a person to consume and enjoy the product, a
transaction must take place. This occurs when you exchange your money for a product.
5.5 Marketing Philosophies
Large-scale marketing activities in the world did not take shape until the industrial revolution is
the latter part of the 1800s. Clearly, marketing activities should be carried out under a well-
thought out philosophy of efficient, effective and socially responsible marketing. There are five
competing concepts under which organizations can choose to conduct their marketing activities:

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namely, the production concepts, the product concept, the selling/sales concept, the marketing
concept, the societal marketing concept and the Relationship Marketing Concept.

1. The Production Concept

The production concept is one of the oldest concepts in business. The production concept holds
that consumers will favor products that are widely available and low in cost. Managers of
production-oriented organization concentrate on achieving high production efficiency and wide
distribution. The assumption that consumers are primarily interested in product availability and
low price holds in at least two situations. The first is where the demand for a product exceeds
supply, as in many developing countries. Here consumers are more interested in obtaining the
product that in its fine points, and supplies will concentrate on finding ways to increase
production. The second situation is where the product’s cost is high and has to decrease to
expand the market.
2. The Product Concept
Other businesses are guided by the product concept. The product concept holds that consumers
will favor those products that offer the most quality, performance or innovative features.
Managers in product oriented organization focus their energy on making superior products and
improving them over time. Under the concept, mangers assume that buyers admire well-made
products and can appraise product quality and performance. In such situation, customers are
ready to pay high prices for product extra features. Product-oriented companies often design
their products with little or no customer input. They trust that their engineers will know how to
design or improve the product.
3. The Selling Concept/Sales Concept
The selling concept (or sales concept) is another common approach. The selling concept holds
that consumers, if left alone, will ordinarily not buy enough of the organization product. The
organization must therefore undertake an aggressive selling and promotion effort. This concept
assumes that consumers typically show buying inertia or resistance and must be coaxed into
buying. It also assumes that the company has made available a whole battery of effective selling
and promotion tools to stimulate more buying.
The selling concept is practiced more aggressively with unsought goods, those goods that buyers
normally do not think of buying, such as insurance, encyclopedia, and funeral plots. Most firms
practice the selling concept when they have over capacity. Their aim is to sell what they make
rather than make what the market wants. Therefore, people are surprised what they are told that
the most important part of marketing is not selling; selling is only the tip of marketing iceberg.
4. The Marketing Concept
The marketing concept is a business philosophy that challenges the three concepts we just
discussed. Its central tents crystallized in the mid-1950s.
The marketing concept holds that the key to achieving organizational goals consists of being
more effective than competitors in integrating marketing activities toward determining and
satisfying the needs and wants of target markets.
The marketing concept has been expressed in many colorful ways:
“Meeting needs profitably”
“Find wants and fills them”
“Love the customers, not the product etc.”

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Table 5.1 Selling and Marketing Concept Contrasted
Point of Difference Selling Marketing
Starting point Factory Market place
Focus Existing product Customer need
Means Selling and promotion Integrated marketing
End Profit through Volume Profit through satisfaction

5. The Societal Marketing Concept

The societal marketing concept holds that the organization should determine the needs, wants
and interests of target markets. It should then deliver the desired satisfactions more effectively
and efficiently than competitors in a way that maintains or improves the consumers and the
society’s well-being. The societal marketing concept holds that the organization’s task is to
determine the needs, want, and interests of target markets and to deliver the desired satisfactions
more effectively and efficiently than competitors in a way that preserves or enhances the
consumers and the society’s wellbeing.
The societal marketing concept questions whether the pure marketing concept is adequate in an
age of environmental problems, resource shortages, rapid population growth, worldwide
economic problems, and neglected social services. It asks if the firm that senses, serves and
satisfies individual wants is always doing what’s best for consumers and society in the long run.
According to the societal marketing concept, the pure marketing concept overlooks possible
conflicts between short-run consumer wants and long run consumer welfare.
Table 5.2: Summary of the Evolution of Marketing
Production  Consumers favor products that are available and highly affordable
 Improve production and distribution
 ‘Availability and affordability is what the customer wants’
Product  Consumers favor products that offer the most quality, performance and
innovative features
 ‘A good product will sell itself’
Sales  Consumers will buy products only if the company promotes/ sells these
products
 ‘Creative advertising and selling will overcome consumers’ resistance
and convince them to buy’
Marketing  Focuses on needs/ wants of target markets and delivering satisfaction
better than competitors
 ‘The consumer is king! Find a need and fill it’
Relationship  Focuses on needs/ wants of target markets and delivering superior
marketing value
 ‘Long-term relationships with customers and other partners lead to
success’
6. Relationship Marketing
Relationship marketing is the practice of building long term satisfying relations with key parties-
customers, suppliers, distributors- in order to retain their long term preferences and business. The
ultimate outcome of relationship marketing is the building of a unique company asset called a
marketing network. In this case, customer experience rather than customer satisfaction is the
most critical component in relationship marketing.

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5.6 Marketing Information Systems
Every firm must organize the flow of information to its marketing managers. Companies are
studying their manager’s information needs and designing marketing information system to meet
these needs.
A marketing information system consists of people, equipment and procedure to gather, sort,
analyze, evaluate and distribute needed timely and accurate information to marketing decision
makers. The marketing information system is illustrated as fig 5.1 below:

Figure 5.1 Marketing information systems

The marketing managers to carry-out their analysis, planning, implementation, and control
responsibilities, they need information about development in the marketing environment. The
role of the information system is to assess the manager’s information needs, develop the needed
information, and distribute the information is a timely fashion to the marketing managers. The
needed information is developed through internal company records, marketing intelligence
activities, marketing research, and marketing decision support analysis.
5.6.1 Marketing Research
Marketing research is the systematic and objective identification, collection, analysis, and
dissemination of information for the purpose of assisting management in decision making related
to the identification and solution of problems and opportunities in marketing. Thus, systematic
planning is required at all the stages of the marketing research process. The procedures followed
at each stage are methodologically sound, well documented, and, as much as possible, planned in
advance. It uses the scientific method in that data are collected and analyzed to test prior thinking
or hypotheses.
Marketing research is objective. It attempts to provide accurate, impartial information.
Accordingly, marketing research involves the identification, collection, analysis, and
dissemination of information.
5.6.1.1 The Role (Significance) Of Marketing Research In Decision Making
There are three Functional Roles of Marketing Research. These are:
 Descriptive Function - the gathering and presentation of statements of fact.
 Diagnostic (analytical) Function - The explanation of data.
 Predictive Function - Specification of how to use the descriptive and diagnostic research
to predict the result of a planned marketing decision.
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5.6.1.2 Marketing Research Components
Marketing researchers deal with many aspects of a market including the following:
F Market size: this deals with the number or value of units sold to a market in a given
period.
F Market Share: this one is about a specific corporation’s share of the market size out of
the whole market of a product or products of the same purpose.
F Market penetration: this is a marketing strategy which is used to know when a company
enters/penetrates a market with current products to get better market share by lowering the
price of a product.
F Brand equity research – this research is conducted to know how favorably consumers
view the brand.
F Buyer decision processes research – this part of marketing research activity is used to
determine what motivates people to buy and what decision-making process they use.
5.6.1.3 Customer Satisfaction Research
In this type of research there are different types of research that are used to assess about
customers.
F Distribution channel audits - to assess distributors’ and retailers’ attitudes toward a
product, brand, or company.
F Marketing effectiveness and analytics - Building models and measuring results to
determine the effectiveness of individual marketing activities.
F Mystery Consumer or Mystery shopping – here the researcher acts as a shopper. This
is often used for quality control or for researching competitors' products.
F Positioning research – this research is mostly conducted to answer questions like
 How does the target market see the brand relative to competitors?
 What does the brand stand for?
F Price elasticity testing – here the objective of the research is to determine how sensitive
customers are to price changes
F Sales forecasting - to determine the expected level of sales given the level of demand
with respect to other factors like advertising expenditure, sales promotion etc.
F Segmentation research – this type of research helps to determine the demographic,
psychographic, and behavioral characteristics of potential buyers.
F Test marketing – this is a small-scale product launch used to determine the likely
acceptance of the product when it is introduced into a wider market.
5.6.1.4 Marketing Research Process
Since research is a process which consists of a number of steps to be accomplished in a logical
and systematic manner marketing research consists of the following related phases:
Step 1: Define the research purpose or objectives
The following questions help to establish objectives:
 Where potential customers buy the product?
 Why they purchase there?
 What is the size of the market? How much of it can your business capture?
 How does your business compare with competitors?
 The impact of promotion on customers.
 What types of products are desired by potential customers?
Step 2: Research Design Formulation

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The research design is a blueprint for conducting the marketing research. More formally,
formulating the research design involves the following steps:
 Study period and place determination.
 Qualitative data collection methods.
 Methods of collecting quantitative data (survey, observation, and experimentation).
 Definition of the information needed.
 Questionnaire design.
 Measurement and scaling procedures.
 Sampling process and sample size.
 Plan of data analysis.
Step 3: Gather at this stage secondary data,
A data which is originally collected by others for their own purpose, but such data can be used
by the researcher when it is relevant to the current study. Secondary data:
 Is less expensive.
 Can be acquired within or outside the venture.
 But, may be out-dated and less valid.
Step 4.Gather Primary Data
Primary data collection techniques can be categorized as;
 Observational techniques-do not involve contact with respondents.
 Focus groups.
 Experimentation-investigates cause and effect relationships.
 Survey techniques- generate data by asking people questions and recording their
responses.
The following are examples of survey techniques.
A. Mail questionnaires: The researcher may send the questionnaires to research
Participants.
B. Telephone interviews: Using the telephone numbers from telephone directory, the
researcher may ask research participant via the telephone.
C. Personal interviews. The researcher may go to the research participants’ address and
may drop and pick the questionnaire or may interview the research participants.
Step 5: Data Processing and Analysis
Data processing includes the editing, coding, transcription, and verification of data. And data
analysis, guided by the plan of data analysis, gives meaning to the data that have been
collected.Research results should be evaluated and interpreted in response to the research
objectives.
Step 6: Report Preparations and Presentation
At the end the research results will be written in a report form and presented to the concerned
parties. The report includes:
 The specific research questions identified,
 Describes the research approach,
 The research design,
 The data collection methods, and sampling procedures,
 The data processing and analysis procedures,
 The major findings and suggestions for actions.
 In addition, an oral presentation should be made to management using tables, figures, and
graphs to enhance clarity and impact.

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5.6.2 Marketing Intelligence
Market intelligence is the systematic process of gathering, analyzing, supplying and applying
information (both qualitative and quantitative) about the external market environment.
Intelligence is evaluated information. Marketing intelligence is used to determine:
 Current and future market needs,
 Changes in the business environment that may affect the size and nature of the market
in the future.
 Environment that may affect the size and nature of the market in the future.
5.6.2.1 The Importance of Marketing Intelligence
Marketing intelligence provides the following benefits;
 Market and customer orientation – promote external focus.
 Identification of new opportunities.
 Smart segmentation.
 Early warning of competitor moves.
 Minimizing investment risks.
 Quicker, more efficient and cost-effective information.
5.6.2.2 Ways to Undertake Marketing Intelligence
i. Unfocused scanning: Any information that may be useful is gathered without any
specific purpose in mind.
ii. Semi-focused scanning: no specific purpose. The manager is not in search of particular
pieces of information that he/she is actively searching but does narrow the range of media
that is scanned. For instance, the manager may focus more on economic and business
publications, broadcasts etc. and pay less attention to political, scientific or technological
media.
iii. Informal search: - limited and unstructured attempt to obtain information for a specific
purpose. For example, entering the business of importing frozen fish from a neighbouring
country may make informal inquiries as to prices and demand levels of frozen and fresh
fish.
iv. Formal search: - this is a purposeful search for information in some systematic way.
Marketing intelligence is carried out by the manager him/herself rather than a professional
researcher. Scope of the search in this case is likely to be narrow and far less intensive (less
rigorous) than marketing research.
5.6.3 Competitive Analysis
Competitive analysis refers to determining the strengths and weaknesses of competitors and
designing ways to take opportunities or tackle threats posed by competitors.
5.6.3.1 Uses of Competitive Analysis

Competitive analysis is important for businesses since it has the advantages stated as follow:
F It helps management understand its competitive advantages/ disadvantages relative to
competitors.
F It generates understanding of competitors’ past, present (and most importantly) future
strategies.
F It provides an informed basis to develop strategies to achieve competitive    advantage in
the future (e.g. how   will competitors respond to a new product or pricing strategy?)

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 F It helps forecast the returns that may be made from future investments.
Competitive analysis is a method of gathering data about competitors from different sources. It
should answer the following questions:
 Who are your competitors?
 What customer needs and preferences are you competing to meet?
 What are the similarities and differences between their products/services and yours?
 What are the strengths and weaknesses of each of their products and services?
 How do their prices compared to yours? How are they doing overall?
 How do you plan to compete? Offer better quality services? Lower prices? More
support? Easier access to services? How are you uniquely suited to compete with them?
5.6.3.3 Steps of Competitive Analysis
Every business owner should have a complete understanding of the competitive landscape in the
market. Competition is defined as any business that provides a similar service or product in the
same market, region or industry. A strategic business owner not only knows who its competitor
is but also understands the best way to position ahead of its competitor. The following provides a
step-by-step process in creating your competitive analysis.
1) Identify your competitors: Determine both local and international competitors.Be sure to
define the competitive landscape broadly. Your competitor includes anything that could draw
customers away from your business.
2) Gather information about competitors: At this stage you need to know; what markets or
market segments your competitors serve; what benefits your competitors offer; why customers
buy from them; and as much as possible about their products and/or services, pricing, and
promotion strategies.
1) Gathering Information on Competitors
To gather information about your competitor you can go either to your competitors’ company
site or to the company's Web site (if any) using which you can learn about;promotion strategies
by visiting their business site; prices; your competitors’ customers; vendors or suppliers, and
their employees; trade shows; and publicly available information - from Newspapers, magazines,
press releases and online publications.
2) Analysing the Competition
After studying the information you have gathered about each of your competitors, ask yourself
these primary questions:
F How are you going to compete with that company?
F Is there a particular segment of the market that your competitor has overlooked?
F Is there a service that customers or clients want that your competitors do not supply?
3) Develop a pricing: The last step in the process is to develop a pricing model that represents
what you are offering the market and the value you bring to your target buyers. There are
many factors that go into designing the appropriate pricing structure so you will need to do
some research and evaluate what price levels your market will bear, your cost basis for the
development of your product, how much you need to cover overhead and marketing costs
and lastly how much profit you think is appropriate for what you are offering. Do not
immediately think you have to price your products below your competition, people
appreciate the value in your product and set your price accordingly.
The goal of your competitive analysis is to identify and expand upon your competitive
advantage. To make your competitive analysis effective, transfer the weaknesses of your
competitors into potential strengths for your business.

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5.7 The Marketing Mix and Marketing Strategies
5.7.1 The 4 P’s Of Marketing/The Marketing Mix
These are marketing variables that the marketing manager can manipulate as controllable
variables. They include product, pricing, place (channel) and promotion.
1. Product: refers to goods/services produced for sale, the product /service should relate to the
needs and wants of the customers. Some important questions you need to ask yourself include:
a) What products/services do I sell?
b) Why did I decide to sell these products?
c) Do I have the products customers want?
d) Do any of my products not sell well?
e) Do I stock products that do not sell well?
 Always listen to what your customers like and don’t like. When their needs change,
change your products and services to satisfy the new needs.
 Do more market research in order to provide those products or services and increase
your sales.
 If your product is not selling well, think of new ideas like finding new customers.
2. Pricing: refers to the process of setting a price for a product/service. Your prices must be low
enough to attract customers to buy and high enough to earn your business a profit.To set your
price you need to:
 Know your costs.
 Know how much customers are willing to pay.
 Know your competitors price.
 Know how to make your prices more attractive
3. Place: means the different ways of getting your products or services to your customers. It is
also referred to as distribution. If your business is not located near your customers, you must find
ways to get your products/services to where it is easy for customers to buy. You can distribute
your products to your customers through:
• Selling directly to the consumers of the products.
• Retail distribution and wholesale distribution.
4. Promotion: Refers informing your customers of your products and services and attracting
them to buy them. Promotion includes advertising, sales promotion, publicity (non-paid
promotion) and personal selling. Use advertising to make customers more interested in buying
your products or services. Some useful ways of advertising include signs, boards, posters,
handouts, business cards, pricelists, photos and newspapers.
You can use sales promotion (short term incentives) to make customers buy more when they
come to your business, you could also:
 Ensure you maintain attractive displays.
 Let customers try new products.
 Have competitions.
 Give demonstrations.
 Sell complementary products (products that go together)
5.7.2 What Is Marketing Strategy?
A marketing strategy is a process that can allow an organization to concentrate its limited
resources on the greatest opportunities to increase sales and achieve a sustainable competitive
advantage.

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Marketing strategy is a method of focusing an organization's energies and resources on a course
of action which can lead to increased sales and dominance of a targeted market.
A marketing strategy combines product development, promotion, distribution, pricing,
relationship management and other elements; identifies the firm's marketing goals, and explains
how they will be achieved, ideally within a stated timeframe. Marketing strategy determines the
choice of target market segments, positioning, marketing mix, and allocation of resources. It is
effective when it is an integral component of the overall firm strategy, defining how the
organization will successfully engage customers, prospects, and competitors in the market arena.
1. Pricing Strategy
Price is the value placed on what is exchanged. Something of value is exchanged for satisfaction
and utility, includes tangible (functional) and intangible (prestige) factors. It can even be barter.
Price is often the only element the marketer can change quickly in response to demand shifts.
It relates directly to total revenue TR = Price * Quantity
Profit = TR – TC
Where, TR=Total Revenue, TC=Total Cost
Pricing strategies are subject to incredibly complex environmental and competitive forces. A
company sets no single price, but rather a pricing structure that covers different items in its line.
This pricing structure changes through time as products pass through their life cycles.
To come up with this situations marketers use dynamic pricing strategies. The following   are
some of pricing strategies mostly applicable in the real world scenario.
i) Price Skimming: this is a type of marketing strategy that firms use by charging the
highest possible price that buyers who most desire the product will pay. It attracts a
market segment that is more interested in quality, status, uniqueness etc. In this case,
consumers’ demand must be inelastic.
ii) Penetration Pricing: In this strategy, prices of products are reduced compared to
competitors’ price for the same product to penetrate into markets and to increase sales.
However, the quality of the product should not be lower as compared to other
competitors’ product. It should be again noted that the cost of production should be
lower to the extent that can enable the firm to get the desired profit. This isappropriate
when the demand is elastic.
iii) Cost-plus pricing: Any amount that is above unit cost may be considered.
iv) Mark-up pricing: A certain percentage of the selling price is added to unit cost.
v) Competition Oriented Pricing: Considers competitors prices primarily; but the
market type matters.
vi) Odd-even pricing: This is Psychological pricing method based on the belief that
certain prices or price ranges are more appealing to buyers. This method involves
setting a price in odd numbers (just under round even numbers) such as $49.95 instead
of $50.00. Although not supported by any research findings, its proponents claim that
the consumers see a $49.95 price as 'just in the price range of $40’rather than in the
$50.
2. Promotion Strategies
Promotion is the communication of the company and its products to customers. Promotional
strategy is choosing a target market and formulating the most appropriate promotion
mix to influence it. An organization’s promotional strategy can consist:
i) Advertising: It is any paid form of non-personal, one-way, mass communication about an
organization, good, service, or idea by an identified sponsor.

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ii) Personal selling: This is the two-way flow of communication between a buyer and seller,
often in a face to face encounter, designed to influence a person’s or group’s purchase
decision.
iii) Public relations: Public relation is a form of communication that seeks to change the
perceptions of customers, shareholders, suppliers, employees and other publics about a
company and its products.
iv) Sales promotion: This promotion type involves short term incentives of value such as
discounts, free samples, and prizes to be offered to arouse interest of customers in buying
the good/service. Businesses may use one of the above promotional mix elements to arouse
the interest of customers and make them take action by informing, persuading and
reminding about the goods and services that they provide to the market.
3. Distribution Strategies
A successful product or service means nothing unless the benefit of such a service can be
communicated clearly to the target market. For product-focused companies, establishing the
most appropriate distribution strategies is a major key to success, defined as maximizing sales
and profits. Unfortunately, many of these companies often fail to establish or maintain the most
effective distribution strategies. Problems that researchers identified include:
F Unwillingness to establish different distribution channels for different products,
F Fear of utilizing multiple channels, especially including direct or semi-direct sales,
due to concerns about erosion of distributor loyalty or inter-channel cannibalization
F Failure to periodically re-visit and update distribution strategies.
F Lack of creativity, and
F Resistance to change.
As can be noted from the above points marketing channels are the most important actors for the
effective and efficient distribution of products.
Marketing Channels are individuals/organizations involved in the process of making the product
available for use or consumption by consumers.Channels are used toimprove exchange
efficiency. It is divided into Direct and Indirect channels.
 Direct channels: In this type of channel, producers and end users directly interact.
 Indirect channels: In this type of channel intermediaries are inserted between seller and
buyer. Intermediaries include Merchant Wholesalers, retailers, dealers, agents, brokers;
and manufacturer’s branches and offices.
Decisions about marketing channels, which help producers deliver goods and services to their
target markets, are among the most critical tasks facing management-because the channels that
are chosen intimately affect all of the other marketing decisions. For example, the company’s
pricing depends on whether it uses a direct channel, discount merchants, or high-quality
boutiques. Also, the firm’s sales force and advertising decisions depend on how much training
and motivation its dealers need.
The following factors should be considered to select the best channel under the condition of
using best distribution strategy.
 Company Factors: financial, human and technological capabilities of a company to do
its business activities.
 Market Characteristics: Geography, market density, market size, target market
 Product Attributes: perishability, value and sophistication of the product
 Environmental Forces: those forces that affect the business like competition,
technology and culture.

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5.8 Selling and of Customer Service
Many employees have unclear understanding of what customer service really is. There are
indications everywhere that there are customer service problems that demand solutions. How
service providers do their jobs, how fast and accurately they process paper works, how
successfully they pursue accounts, and how effective they are in taking the next step to develop
customer loyalty, will determine an organization's success in serving customers. It is because of
these reasons that customer service delivery improvement programs fail in some instances.
Customer service is what happens between the customer determining his/her needs and receiving
the desired benefits. However, most service providers do not appropriately understand what
service delivery really means. For this reason, many organizations fail to improve the level of
their customer service delivery.
5.8.1 The Concept of Service
Service refers to any activity undertaken to fulfil customer’s needs. It is any act or performance
that one party can offer to another that is essentially intangible and does not result in the
ownership of anything. Its production may or may not be tied to a physical product. Distinctive
features of services include intangibility, inseparability, variability, and perishability as opposed
to goods.
The feature of intangibility shows that pure services cannot be defined in terms of the physical
dimensions; or the customer cannot see or feel them before purchase. The concept of
inseparability, on the other hand, refers that production and consumption of services are
inseparable; the 'sale' occurs just before both.
There are also features of variability and perishability associated in service. Services are highly
variable, because they depend on who provides them, and when and where they are provided. In
addition to this, services are produced and consumed at the same point, and are totally perishable
right after use. Service cannot be reproduced as a concert object and it can vary from one
moment to the next. Based on this concept, service is characterized as; situational, difficult to
measure, subjective and influenced by the service provider.
Service is situational in the sense that what is good for one customer one day may be perceived
differently by the same customer another day. There is also difficulty associated in measurement
of service. This is because the higher one sets expectation by delivering service, the more the
customers expect the next time they deal with the service provider.
Service is also subjective in the sense that an acceptable service for one customer may not be
equally or totally acceptable by another customer. Finally, service is influenced by the service
provider. If the service provider sets expectations effectively, the customer will probably be
satisfied.
5.8.2 The Concept of Customer
Customer is a person or organization that buys a product or service either for use or for resale.
Customers can be internal (e.g. member of the organization) or external (customers coming from
outside). A thorough understanding of the concept of customer service enables organizations to
provide quality service by using proper service management approaches.

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5.8.3 Strategic Activities needed for Quality Customer Service Delivery
Organizations should identify important strategic activities to ensure consistent, efficient and
excellent customer service delivery using continuous improvement philosophy. Especially, the
following specific areas should be considered:
1. Establishing a clear customer service strategy.
2. Ensuring that correct people are in place, with the correct skills to deliver outstanding
personal service.
3. Establishing clear material service delivery processes.
4. Improving in terms of process improvement, quality monitoring and recovery
continuously.
5. Participatory Management.
5.8.4 Customer Handling and Satisfaction
Customer handling and satisfaction is a key for successful organizations. Managers and
employees should work hand-in-hand to improve their service delivery programs. Existing
customers must be satisfied with the existing service. Existing customers are also means of
potential customers. What is expected from successful service providers in this regard are the
following.
Poor service/defective service is the causes of loss and bankruptcy for many organizations. Many
organizations, especially business organizations worried about the reduction of sales or
profitability due to lost customers/ or gradual reduction of customers. Organizations invest huge
cost to increase market share by using advertisement or different sales promotion techniques. But
the first most important principle here is not losing a single customer.
Retaining existing customers, however, requires systematic handling. You have to make
customer satisfaction your religion. Understand the importance of satisfying existing customers.
Usually, organizations tried to increase sales by a much larger percentage than what they had
planned, because of sales lost due to defecting customers.
In addition to retaining existing customers, originations should also strive to increase the number
of customers. Organizations could possibly increase their market share by getting new
customers. Attracting new customers is directly related to keeping existing customers satisfied.
The consequence of poor customer handling, therefore, is losing existing customers. Again,
organizations invest huge resources to acquire new customers, who are later lost, resulting in a
total loss of investment. There is unnecessarily spending money on advertising and marketing to
get customers. Customer retention and satisfaction comes not from words, but from putting time,
effort, and money to satisfy customers. Establish an information system to track lost customers
and record your day-to-day progress. Also take into account that the major reasons to lose
customers are:
o Poor service,
o Poor quality and
o Rude behaviour.
There are organizations that tend to lose a very high percentage of their customers every year.
The majority of these customers are not even aware of this phenomenon. But we have to
consider the fact that when we lose a customer, we don’t loose revenue and profits for just one
year, but for a number of years, that is for the lifetime of the customer. Organizations should
make the effort to retain every single customer. It is understandable when you lose a customer

pg. 15
because of reasons that are beyond your control, but unpardonable when you lose one for poor
service and an uncaring attitude towards the customer.
5.8.4.1 Considering Customers as an Invaluable Asset
The value of one customer is infinite, and you cannot possibly calculate it. This includes, sales to
him in his lifetime as well as to customers he generates for you through word of mouth. This
means, your most precious asset is your customer. We think of the immediate profit and ignore
the future profits expected over the lifetime of the customer.
5.8.4.2 Reducing Customer Complaints
Every single complaint should be treated as an opportunity to improve the quality of your
products and services. A complaining customer is a very fair person. Turn customer discontent to
your advantage. Consider also the following research findings about customer satisfaction:
 91% of customers who have major complaints decide they will never come back. But if
the complaint is resolved quickly, 82% of them will return.
 Quick complaint resolution drops customer defection rate from 91% to 18%. It is better
to have a complaining customer than no customer at all. It pays to resolve complaints
quickly.
 There is no investment like investment in customer satisfaction.
 Treat the cost of satisfying a customer as an investment rather than as an expense. You
will get unmatched returns through referrals, repeat purchases decreased operational costs
and increased profits.
 In the customer’s benefit lies our benefit.
Therefore, organizations should start tracking the cost of customer dissatisfaction to convince
employees and management about the importance of keeping customers satisfied. Your
competitive advantage will lie in retaining the customer longer than your competition. Because
of a few disloyal customers, you cannot lose your faith in all your customers.
5.8.4.3 Place Yourself in The Customer’s Shoes
You have the right to choose your customers but not the luxury to compromise on your level of
service. Get rid of the unwanted customer but do it with tact. Part with the unwanted customer
with a smile and a handshake. Place yourself in the customer’s shoes. ‘Do unto your customer as
you would have done unto you’.

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