2 Maps

2.1 What is a map?

Norman Thrower, an authority on the history of cartography, defines a map as, "A representation,
usually on a plane surface, of all or part of the earth or some other body showing a group of
features in terms of their relative size and position.

Cartography is the art and science of expressing the known physical features of the earth
graphically by maps and charts

This seemingly straightforward statement represents a conventional view of maps. From this
perspective, maps can be seen as mirrors of reality. True, a map is an image of a place at a
particular point in time, but that place has been intentionally reduced in size, and its contents
have been selectively distilled to focus on one or two particular items. The results of this reduction
and distillation are then encoded into a symbolic representation of the place. Finally, this
encoded, symbolic image of a place has to be decoded and understood by a map reader who may
live in a different time period and culture. Along the way from reality to reader, maps may lose
some or all of their reflective capacity or the image may become blurred.

So what is a map? A map is text. John Pickles, a geographer with interests in social power and
maps, suggests: “maps have the character of being textual in that they have words associated with
them, that they employ a system of symbols within their own syntax, that they function as a form
of writing (inscription), and that they are discursively embedded within broader contexts of social
action and power.”

In this view, maps are a form of symbolization, governed by a set of conventions, that aim to
communicate a sense of place. To fully understand a map we need to know how to decode its
message and place it within its proper spatial, chronological, and cultural contexts. Maps, even
modern maps, are historic. They represent a particular place at a particular point in time. This
definition of a map (although, like the mirror image idea, is also problematic) suggests that maps
can afford the viewer a great opportunity to gain insights into the nature of places.

Why do relatively few scholars outside of geography use maps and why do maps intimidate
people? Michael Peterson, a cartographer and professor of Geography at the University of
Nebraska, Omaha, raises a critical issue that may also help to explain why maps are not utilized.
He asserts that even highly educated people have trouble using maps and that more than half lack
"basic" map competency. Peterson concludes that, "Most people are essentially map illiterate."
(See Michael P. Peterson's article, "Cartography and the Internet: Implications for Modern
Cartography"). Students often lack the basic skills necessary to read maps, much less the
analytical skills needed to grasp the insights that maps can afford. This course aims to help
provide those basic skills.

2.2 Classifying Maps

Being a representation of the real world on a limited size of paper means that a map is restricted
as to what can be shown. The map maker (cartographer) has to select what to show and what to
leave off. The map maker is guided by what the main purpose of the map is, such as a road map,
a topographical map or a thematic map. A road map emphasizes the roads and towns but little
else, while a topographic map, also called a general map, shows as much of the landscape,
elevations, roads, towns etc. as possible. A thematic map is designed to depict a specific theme
such as the population of various magisterial districts, the occurrence of crime in different
districts, or annual rainfall.

It is important to know the different map types as it gives an insight on the display types, source
of data, and how to collect data. In practice we normally think of two types of map: topographic

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Drawing and Use of Maps Page 1 of 9 geolecturer@gmail.com
and thematic maps, which can be presented as line or photo maps. Maps can be classified
according to their purposes, method of production, and the scale of map

2.3 Types of Maps: Purpose

2.3.1 Topographic maps

This is a large scale general map of land areas, produced by either photogrammetric or ground
survey methods, it has the objective to portray the ground relief (land forms and terrain),
drainage (rivers and lakes), forest cover, administrative areas, populated areas, transportation
routes and facilities (including roads and railways), and other man-made features. The vertical
positions, or relief, are normally represented by contour lines, on maps showing relief, the
elevations and contours are measured from a specific vertical datum plane, usually mean sea
level, shows a typical topographic map.

In summary, topographical maps: -

 Are large-scale general maps of land areas.
 Generally, maps have the objectives to portray the spatial relationship of different
geographical features e.g. roads, water bodies, boundaries, etc.
 They are made in series of individual sheets with high accuracy by photogram metric
means
 Since they have positional accuracy, they are required for site location, engineering
purposes, and they have the validity of legal documents and basis for boundary
determination, transfer of ownership, tax assessment, tourism, representation of relief,
etc.

 The vertical positions, or relief, are normally represented by contour lines

 A unique characteristic that distinguishes topographical maps from other kinds of maps
is the fact that they show the topography or shape of the land in addition to other
features such as roads, rivers, lakes, etc. Because topographical maps show the shape of
the land, they are the most suitable type of map for most outdoor activities that take
place in areas that are not heavily populated.

 They act a reference tool, showing the outlines of selected natural and man-made
features of the Earth. often acts as a frame for other information. "Topography" refers to
the shape of the surface, represented by contours and/or shading, but topographic maps
also show roads and other prominent features

2.3.2 Thematic maps

As general maps attempt to portray the positional relationships of different attributes on a map,
thematic maps concentrate on spatial variation of a single attribute or relationship among the
many of a general map. There is no limit to subject matter and they are commonly small-scale
maps. They help in understanding a specific attribute e.g. roads of Uganda

These are more specific than topographical maps. Thematic maps depict information that may or
may not be directly observable such i.e. a tool to communicate geographical concepts such as the
distribution of population densities, climate, movement of goods, land use, forest type, amount
of rainfall, political parties, income distribution, etc. Specific thematic maps include

A Choropleth map uses reporting zones such as counties or census tracts to show data such as
average incomes, percent female, or rates of mortality. The boundaries of the zones are
established independently of the data and may be used to report many different sets of data.
Rule of the Choropleth map - Only use one colour to show differences in intensity or density e.g
number of health worker in districts of Uganda in 2014 below

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Drawing and Use of Maps Page 2 of 9 geolecturer@gmail.com
An area class map shows zones of constant attributes, such as vegetation, soil type, or forest
species. The boundaries are different for each map as they are determined by the variation of the
attribute being mapped, e.g. breaks of soil type may occur independently of breaks of vegetation

An isopleth map shows an imaginary surface by means of lines joining points of equal value,
"isolines" (e.g. contours on a topographic map). used for phenomena which vary smoothly
across the map, such as temperature, pressure, rainfall or population density

A Dot maps show the distribution of actual numbers of items, they they are mainly used to
show population distribution; for example

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Drawing and Use of Maps Page 3 of 9 geolecturer@gmail.com
Above one dot equals 1 million people. The map overall gives a good impression of the world
population distributions but it is difficult to obtain accurate figures.

2.4 Types of Maps: Method of Production

2.4.1 Line maps
These are maps that are produced using points, lines and polygons. They can be any of the above
but the end product should be in vector format i.e. features composed of lines, points and areas

Advantage: they are neat

Disadvantage: they leave attribute which are not line e.g. relief

2.4.2 Image maps

These are maps that have an image as the background. They are some times referred to as photo
maps or space maps or satellite maps or Photomosaic.

It is a reproduction of an aerial photograph upon which grid lines, marginal data, place names,
route numbers, important elevations, boundaries, and approximate scale and direction has been
added.

These can be used as map supplements or substitutes to help you analyze the terrain, plan your
route, or guide your movement.

This is a combination of controlled Photomosaic and map detail (enhancement); it contains

aerial photo or a satellite image. This is an assembly of aerial photographs that is commonly
called a mosaic in topographic usage. Mosaics are useful when time does not permit the
compilation of a more accurate map. The accuracy of a mosaic depends on the method
employed in its preparation and may vary from simply a good pictorial effect of the ground to
that of a planimetric map.

Advantage: they are quicker to produce and may show detail of other areas that a line map cannot
show

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Drawing and Use of Maps Page 4 of 9 geolecturer@gmail.com
Disadvantage: high buildings in urban areas, shadow, relief inversion and scale limits for detail.
They are rarely completely free of distortions. Since they are a direct representation, contains
more information, needs a specialist and has direct information on ground.

2.4.3 Field Sketches

These are preliminary drawings of an area or piece of terrain.

2.5 Types of Maps: Storage

2.5.1 Softcopy Map
Softcopy (digital map) can be topographic or thematic in digital format or computer compatible
format. Digital map is limited with screen size: but zoom and pan are available if required to
increased resolution. Number of screen colors (usually a minimum of 256). They are easy to
change scale and correct errors.

2.5.2 Hardcopy Map

Under hardcopy, the output can be printed on plain paper, Plane bond, Glossy paper, Clear Mylar,
etc. using Laser printers, Ink-jet (and wax) printer, design jets, pen plotters, etc and quality is
determined in dot per inch (dpi); 300, 600 and 1200 are commonly available, and useful for
photographic type output and sharper text.

2.6 Types of Maps: Theme

a) Terrain Model - This is a scale model of the terrain showing features, and in large-scale
models showing industrial and cultural shapes. It provides a means for visualizing the
terrain for planning or indoctrination purposes and for briefing on assault landings.

b) Planimetric Map - This is a map that presents only the horizontal positions for the
features represented. It is distinguished from a topographic map by the omission of relief,
normally represented by contour lines. Sometimes, it is called a line map. The attributes of
this map should be points and lines; it’s a vector product.

c) Climate maps - Give general information about the climate and precipitation (rain and
snow) of a region. Cartographers, or mapmakers, use colors to show different climate or
precipitation zones.

d) Economic or resource maps - Feature the type of natural resources or economic activity
that dominates an area. Cartographers use symbols to show the locations of natural
resources or economic activities. For example, oranges on a map of Uganda tell you that
oranges are grown there.

e) Physical maps - Illustrate the physical features of an area, such as the mountains, rivers
and lakes. The water is usually shown in blue. Colors are used to show relief—differences in
land elevations. Green is typically used at lower elevations, and orange or brown indicate
higher elevations.

f) Political maps - Do not show physical features. Instead, they indicate state and national
boundaries and capital and major cities. A capital city is usually marked with a star within a
circle.

g) Road maps - Show major—some minor highways—and roads, airports, railroad tracks,
cities and other points of interest in an area. People use road maps to plan trips and for
driving directions.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Drawing and Use of Maps Page 5 of 9 geolecturer@gmail.com
h) Relief maps - Include contour lines to show the shape and elevation of an area. Lines that
are close together indicate steep terrain, and lines that are far apart indicate flat terrain.

i) City/Utility Maps - These are maps of urban areas showing streets, water ducts, electricity
and telephone lines, and sewers. They delineates streets and shows street names, important
buildings, and other elements of the urban landscape

j) Foreign Maps - These are maps that have been compiled by nations other than our own.
When these must be used, the marginal information and grids are changed to conform to
our standards if time permits. The scales may differ from our maps, but they do express the
ratio of map distance to ground distance and can be used in the same way. The legend must
be used since the map symbols almost always differ from ours. Because the accuracy of
foreign maps varies considerably, they are usually evaluated in regard to established
accuracy standards before they are issued.

k) Military maps - They are topographic maps produced for military operations. If military
maps are not available, use substitute maps. The substitute maps can range from foreign
military or commercial maps to field sketches. The military can provide black and white
reproductions of many foreign maps and can produce its own maps based upon intelligence.
The scale of a military city map depends on the importance and size of the city, density of
detail, and available intelligence information.

l) Joint Operations Graphics - These maps are based on the format of standard 1:250,000
medium-scale topographic maps, but they contain additional information needed for
specific purpose like miltary. Along the north and east edges of the graphic, detail is
extended beyond the standard map sheet to provide overlap with adjacent sheets.

m) Atlases - These are collections of maps of regions, countries, continents, or the world. Such
maps are accurate only to a degree and can be used for general information only.

n) Tourist Maps - These are maps of a region in which the main means of transportation and
areas of tourist interest are shown. Some of these maps show secondary networks of roads,
historic sites, museums, and beaches in detail. They may contain road and time distance
between points, distance between citieis/towns. Careful consideration should be exercised
about the scale when using these maps.

o) Birdseye Views are illustrated maps of towns or cities showing an angled, almost
overhead view of the city. Buildings are drawn and other features are illustrated. These maps
date predominately from the last quarter of the 19th century.

p) Geologic Maps - These generally show rivers, creeks, geologic rock formations and other
substructural features, and sometimes diagrams of specific formations.

q) Historic Maps generally show the same features as general maps but were done at a later
date than the period covered on the map. For example, a replica map of the Galveston -
Houston area covers the period from 1800 to present day, focusing on features present in
the area during the early to mid 1880s. It also shows some current features, such as
highways.

r) Highway Maps –they include Country Highway Maps by the Highway Department
generally show roads, highways, water features, cities, towns, small communities; outlying
buildings-- such as schools, post offices, churches, and ranch houses; cemeteris, oil and gas
fields, parks and other recreational features, railroads, airports, utility lines, military bases,
and other features. Many of the cities and towns are further detailed on supplemental
sheets. These sheets provide a street map of the area, along with the details listed above.
State Highway maps show roads, highways, water features, counties, cities, towns, and
often show state and national parks and forests, wildlife refuges and other preserves. Maps

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Drawing and Use of Maps Page 6 of 9 geolecturer@gmail.com
 done by the State Highway Department generally show more detail than those done by
commercial publishers.

s) Nautical Carts are detailed maps of bays and other coastal bodies of water, generally done
by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. In addition to water features, other items shown
include islands, points, jetties, shoals, reefs, buoys, shipwrecks, submerged pipes and other
items, bridges, dikes, pilings, soundings, canals, political boundaries, highways, and
railroads. Navigational information is usually provided.

t) Oiland Gas Maps focus on oil and gas features, such as wells, fields, or pipelines. Often
these maps are layouts or plans of a particular field. Water features and political boundaries
are usually included.

u) Ownership Maps show boundaries of land owners, generally overlaid on a survey map.
Political boundaries and water features are often included.

v) Plans show the layout (location of buildings, streets, artillery, troops, etc.) of an area,
usually a mission, fort, military base, or battlefield. There are a few plans for some smaller
cities or parts of larger cities.

w) Plats show the layout of cities or towns, generally showing streets, lots, blocks, alleys,
perhaps a few public and private buildings, and date through the early 20th century,
predominately pre 1900. Later maps which show streets and public areas, but not lots and
blocks are know as street maps.

x) Railroad Maps focus predominately on railroads and/or railroad systems, also showing
water features and political boundaries. These were usually done by the Texas Railroad
Commission or a particular railroad line. After 1850, most general maps show railroads. In
additional to maps providing large scale coverage of railroads, maps focusing on routes of
particular railroad lines are also present.

y) Soil Maps show water features, political boundaries, ranches, roads, highways, railroads,
and types of soils. Some maps will also show outlying buildings, mines, etc.

z) Street Maps generally show streets, roads and highways, railroads, water features, parks
and other recreational facilities, cemeteries, and subdivisions. Other features often shown
are public buildings, schools and universities, bus or trolley lines, military bases, and
airports. The Highway Department's city supplements to the county highway maps generally
show more detail within and without the city than do maps by commercial publishers.

aa) Survey Maps focus on the original land grants awarded by the Mexican and Texas
governments, generally done by the General Land Office. Water features, political
boundaries, and railroads are usually also shown.

2.7 Map Functions

Traditionally, maps are used as aids to navigation, as reference documents, and as wall
decorations. Maps have four functions/roles:

a) Data display: maps provide useful ways of displaying information in a meaningful

way in practice, the cost of making and printing a map is high, so its contents are
often a compromise between different needs
b) Data stores: as a means of storing data, maps can be very efficient, high density
stores, a typical 1:50,000 map might have 1,000 place names on it. The distances
between all possible pairs of these 1,000 places would run to (1,000 x 999 / 2) or
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Drawing and Use of Maps Page 7 of 9 geolecturer@gmail.com
 499,500 numbers if stored in a table instead of scaled off the map when needed.
The information printed on the typical 1:50,000 topographic map sheet requires
25 million bytes (25 MB) of storage when it is converted to digital form, equivalent
to one standard computer tape
c) Spatial indexes: a map can show the boundaries of areas (e.g. land use zones, soil
or rock types) and identify each area with a label. a separate manual with
corresponding entries may provide greater detail about each area
d) Data analysis tool: maps are used in analysis to make or test hypotheses, such as
the identification of cancer clusters and examine the relationship between two
distributions using simple transparent overlays

2.8 Uses/Importance of maps

A map provides information on the existence, the location of, and the distance between
ground features, such as populated places and routes of travel and communication. It also
indicates variations in terrain, heights of natural features, and the extent of vegetation
cover. Traditionally, maps are used as aids to navigation, as reference documents, and as
wall decorations.

 The most important use of the maps is in orientation and navigation i.e.
people use maps for getting from one place to one another along a plotted route,
and want to be able to check with the help of the map whether they are still on
course during their trip.
 Maps are used for physical planning: - i.e. maps inventorize the present
situation; define development process, propositions of the future situations
(future land use).
 Maps are used for management tasks or monitoring: - they are large scale
maps e.. road maintenance maps, canals and airport.
 For education objectives, special purpose map are produced- school atlases,
wall maps workbooks.
 Codification: show legal situation as regards property rights e.g. cadastral
maps with function of codifying land ownership.
 Maps with interfaces like databases. Maps have been used as graphical
interfaces to the data banks in which the spatial information was stored.

2.8.1 Position (location)

A map gives the location or position of places or features. The positions are usually given by the
co-ordinates of the place, either as the cartesian co-ordinates (x,y) in metres or as geographical
co-ordinates (latitude and longitude) in degrees, minutes and seconds. The co-ordinates can be
measured using the co-ordinate grid shown at set intervals along the borders of the map. The
map user can, for example, find out that the position of Cape Town is 33º56' South latitude,
18º25' East longitude.

2.8.2 Spatial relationships

A map gives us the spatial relationship between features. For example: What district is the
neighbor of another district? Which side of the road is the river on? Is there a dam on the farm?
Where is the nearest railway station?

2.8.3 Distance, Direction, Area

We can determine a lot of information from a map such as distances, directions and areas. We
can measure the distance from Kampala to Jinja, determine that Gulu is to the north of

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Drawing and Use of Maps Page 8 of 9 geolecturer@gmail.com
Kampala, or calculate the size of the Luwero district. In determining distances and areas the
scale of the map has to be taken into consideration.

Directions are based on true north, but if you are using a magnetic compass then it must be
remembered that the compass needle points to magnetic north, which is different from true
north. The difference between magnetic north and true north is called the magnetic declination.

2.8.4 Data display

Maps provide useful ways of displaying information in a meaningful way in practice, the cost of
making and printing a map is high, so its contents are often a compromise between different needs

2.8.5 Data stores

As a means of storing data, maps can be very efficient, high density stores, a typical 1:50,000 map
might have 1,000 place names on it. The distances between all possible pairs of these 1,000 places
would run to (1,000 x 999 / 2) or 499,500 numbers if stored in a table instead of scaled off the
map when needed. The information printed on the typical 1:50,000 topographic map sheet
requires 25 million bytes (25 MB) of storage when it is converted to digital form.

2.8.6 Spatial indexes

A map can show the boundaries of areas (e.g. land use zones, soil or rock types) and identify each
area with a label. A separate manual with corresponding entries may provide greater detail about
each area

2.8.7 Data analysis tool

Maps are used in analysis to make or test hypotheses, such as the identification of cancer clusters
and examine the relationship between two distributions using simple transparent overlays

2.8.8 Others
 Maps can be an important source of primary information for historic
investigation.
 The media uses them to pinpoint the location of the latest international crisis
 many textbooks include them as illustrations
 we consult maps to help us navigate from place to place
 the idea of a map as a mirror image makes maps appear to be ideal tools for
understanding the reality of places at different points in time

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Drawing and Use of Maps Page 9 of 9 geolecturer@gmail.com