1.

Basis of classification
1. Artificial system of classification
The earlier system of classification given by Linnaeus is considered artificial system
because:
1) It used only gross superficial morphological characters like habit, colour, number
and shape of leaves etc.
i) The system was based on vegetative characters or on the strueture of androecium,
(i) This system separated the closely related species since it was based on a few
characteristics that were visible.
(iv) This system gave equal weightage to vegetative and sexual characteristics. This
was not acceptable since often the vegetative characters are more easily affected
by the environment.
2. Natural system of classification
i) It is based on natural affinities among the organisms.
(i) It considers not only the external features but also internal features like
ultrastructure (structures visible under higher magnification and with electron
microscope) and anatomy.
Gi) It also takes into account embryology and phytochemistry
Natural classification for flowering plants was given by George Bentham and Joseph
Dalton Hooker.
3. Phylogenetic system of classification
In the present system of classification the phylogeny of organisms is also taken into
account along with the natural classification. At present we follow the phylogenetic system
of classification.
) It is based on the evolutionary relationships between various organisms.
(i) It assumes that the organisms belonging to the same taxa have a common ancestor.
Other sources used by taxonomists
.Many a times desired information about an organism is not available, then many other
sources are used to collect the same. These sources become more impotant when
there is no supporting fossil evidence. Some of these sources are:
Numerical taxonomy: It is based on all observable characteristics. It is now easily carried
Out using computers.
-
Numbers and codes are assigned to all the characters and data is fed into
the computer.
-This way each character is considered and given equal importance.
It helps to consider hundreds of characters at the same time.
-

Cytotaxonomy: It is based on the cytological information available about the organisms.

 It considers information like chromosome number, structure, behaviour etc.
Chemotaxonomy: It uses the chemical constituents of the plants to classify or group them.

2. Classification of Kingdom Plantae

Classification of Kingdom Plantae is based on the following important features:
.First level of classification depends on whether the plant body is well differentiated
or not.
Next level is based on whether the differentiated body has special tissues for transport
of water and other substances.
Further classification is based on the ability to bear seeds and whether they are naked
or enclosed within fruits.
A summary of classification based on the above features is given below:
Plants

Do not have differentiated Have dilferentiated

plant body plant body

gae
. ithout specia lised With vascular
Thallophyta vascular tissue tissue

2. Bryophyta

Do not produce seedds Produce seeds

phanerogamae)

3.Pteridophyla

Bear naked seeds Bear seeds

inside iruits

4. Gymnosperms 5. Angiospems

Have seeds Have seeds

withi two WIEh one
cotyledons cotyledon

DIcots Monocots

Another way of plant classification

According to Eichler (1883) plant kingdom is divided into two main subkingdoms:
6) Cryptogamae
(ii) Phanerogamae
) Cryptogamae: It is divided into three divisions-thallophyta, bryophyta and
pteridophyta. Thallophyta includes algae. Bryophyta includes mosses and
lichens. Pteridophyta includes the ferns.
 (i) Phanerogamae: It is divided into two subdivisions-gymnosperms and angiosperms.
Gymnosperms include seedless plants like Pinus and angiosperms include
dicotyledons and monocotyledons.

Plant Kingdom (Kingdom plantae)

Cryptogamae Phanerogamae
(Those with hidden reproductive organs) (Spermatophyta)
1. Reproductive organs are inconspicuous I.Have well differentiated
reproductive tissues/organs.
2. Includes lower plants which have naked 2. Includes higher plants which
embryos that are called spores. always bear seeds.

3. Commonly called flowerless or seedless plants. 3. Commonly called seed bearing

plants.
Consist of embryos along with
stored food which serves for
initial growth of embryoduring
germination.
1. Division 2. Division 3. Division
Thallophyta Bryophyta Pteridophyta
e.g. algae e.g. mosses, e.g. ferns
liverworts

Gymnosperms Angiosperms
Seeds are naked and not enclosed Seeds are enclosed in fruits
in fruits e.g. Pinus, Cycas

Group dicotyledonaeGroup monocotyledonae

Have two cotyledons Have one cotyledon in seed
in seed e.g. pea, gramn e.g. wheat, rice

Table 3.1: Comparison amongst thallophyta, bryophyta and pteridophyta

Thallophyta Bryophyta Pteridophyta

) Plant body is thallus like (i) Plant body does not have 1) Plantshave true roots,
which is not differentiated true roots, stems and leaves stem and leaves.
into root, stem and leaves. but may show root-like
and leaf-like structures.
(1i) No specialised system for (i) True vascular system is (i) Vascular system is
conduction. absent. present.
Gii) Includes algae. ii) Includes mosses and liverworts ii) Includes fems.
3.2 ALGAE
You must have noticed a bluish-green scum in a pond, stagnant water or in overhead tanks
that have not been cleaned for long. These are generally algae (singular-alga). Algae can
befound in freshwater, in sea, On dump soil and even in snow.
The term algae has been used in a broad sense to aquatic, photosynthetic organisms. It
is an enornmous group of plants of great biological importance. They are supposed to be the
most primitive plants. They show a great variety. Some are considered to be a link between
prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

1. Important features
1. Algae are chlorophyll-bearing thallophytes. They have a simple, thalloid structure.
They have a green pigment called chlorophyl. In many algae, the green colour is
hidden by other pigments. Thus they may appear blue-green, brown, red or even
purple.
2. They are autotrophic plants, i.e., manufacture their own food with the help of
chlorophyll.
3. Their cell walls are made up of cellulose.
4. The body of a multicellular algae could be simple colonial aggregate of cells or
shaped in the form of filaments and sheets. It lacks specialised tissues and organs
like root, stem or leaves and is referred as thallus (plural-thalli).
5. Distribution: Algae are mainly aquatic (both freshwater and marine) though
some forms grow attached to rocks and some are found on the bark of trees and
on the surface of moist soil. Some even live on the underside of the blue whale or
within other organismslike Hydra and sponges.
6. The form and size of algae is highly variable. They may be unicellular or
multicellular. The simple unicellular algae like Chlamydomonas can be seen only
through the microscope while others like the marine forms are giant kelps and
may be more than 60 metres in length. They are known as seaweeds.
Unicellular microscopic form: Chlamydomonas
Colonial form: Volvox
Filamentous form: Ulothrix, Spirogyra
Giant kelp: Laminaria, Fucus
7. Marine algae are submerged in water and buoyancy makes them float or
move. Whatever may be the size of algae, the vegetative body is a thallus. The
filamentous and sheet like forms exhibit following structures.
) Holdfast: A structure by which filaments and sheets are often held to the
substratum.
(ii) Lamina: The photosynthetic and branching fioating part.
(ii) Stipe: A stem like part attached to the lamina and ending in the holdfast.
8. Algae reproduce by vegetative, asexual and sexual means.
 2. Reproduction
Algae reproduce by vegetative, asexual and sexual means
1. Vegetative reproduction is by fragmentation. When broken or fragmented, each
fragment develops a thallus and grows further.
2. Asexual reproduction is by production of different types of spores, the most
common being the z0ospores. Zoospores are flagellated, hence they are motile.
On germination they give rise to neW plants.
3. Sexual reproduction is by fusion of two gametes. The gametes could be similar
or dissimilar in size.
-
When the gametes are similar, they are called isogametes. The fusion between
similar gametes is called isogamy. They may be flagellated or non-flagellated.
For example, in Chlamydomonas the gametes are similar and flagellated
while in Spirogyra gametes are similar and non-flagellated.
-
When the gametes are dissimilar in size they are called anisogametes and their
fusion is called anisogamy.
Example: Some species of Chlamydomonas have dissimilar gametes.
Sometimes the gametes are dissimilar like female gamete is larger and non
motile whereas the male gamete is smaller and motile. The fusion of the large
ovum with the motile sperms is called oogamy. Examples: Volvox, Fucus.

3. Classification
Red, brown and green algae are distinguished from one another by the kind of pigments
they contain, It is believed that red and brown algae evolved on a different pattern and green
algae are the ones that gave rise to ancestorS of land plants.
Algae

Class Chlorophyceae Class Phacophyceae Class Rhodophyceae

(green algae) (brown algae) (red algae)

Table 3.2: Classes of algae and their main characteristics

Classes Common Major Stored Cell wall Flagellar Habitat
Name pigments ood number
and position
of insertion

Chlorophyceae Green
algae ,
Chlorophyll Starch Cellulose 2-8, equal,
apical
Freshwater,
kish
bracki
water, salt
water

Phaeophyceae Brown Chlorophyll Mannitol, Cellulose 2, Unequal, Freshwater

algae a, C, laminarin and alginic lateral rare), brackish
fucoxanthin acid water,
salt water
Rhodophyceae Red Chlorophyl loridean Cellulose Absent Freshwater
algae a, d, starch (Some), brackish|
phycoerythrin water, salt water
most)
4. Economic importance
1. Algae are the main producers in marine water. At least half of the total carbon
dioxide fixation on earth is carried out by algae through photosynthesis.
2. Being photosynthetic, they increase the level of dissolved oxygen in their
immediate environment.
3. Being the primary producers, they form the basis of food chains of all the aquatic
animals.
4. Many species of Porphyra, Laminaria and Sargassum are among the 70 species
of marine algae that are used as food.
5. Certain marine brown and red algae produce large amount of hydrocolloids, the
water holding substances e.g. algin is produced by brown algae and carrageenins
by red algae that are used commercially.
6. Agar, one of the commercial products used in bacterial cultures and preparation
of ice-creams and jellies is obtained from Gelidium and Gracilaria.
7. Chlorella and Spirullina are unicellular algae, used as food as they are rich in
proteins and are used as food supplements even by space travellers.

3.3 CHLOROPHYCEAE: GREEN ALGAE

(Greek, chloros-green; phyton-plant)
The class chlorophyceae has about 7,000 named species. The characteristic green colour is
due to presence of photosynthetic pigments echlorophylla and b found in their membrane
bound organelles. It is a highly diverse group. They may range from simple unicellular to
complex multicellular organisms.
1. Shape and size
Gireen algae occur in various shapes and sizes.
Chlamydomonas -
Unicellular, flagellated, microscopic
Chlorella -Unicellular, non-flagellated, microscopic

Spiral
chloroplast
Band-shaped i
chloroplast
-Flagella
Eye
Spo
Nucleus

NUceus -Holdtast
Chloroplast cell
Pyreno Surtace

(a) chlamydomonas
Surta oohora
(D} Ulothrix (C)) Cladophora (d) Uiva (e) Spirogyra
(unicelluar alya)

Fig. 3.2 Some green algae

 Volvox -Colonial, flagellated
Ulothrix, Spirogyra -
Filamentous, non-branching
Ulva Thin sheet of cells with a holdfast
Acetabularia -
Umbrella shaped algae, unicellular, measuring up to 6 cm

2. Occurrence
Green algae are mostly freshwater, very few are marine, some are seen on any damp
surface e.g. Protococcus is the most common algae on tree trunks and moist walls.
A few are epiphytic, i.e., live on other plants
-
Green algae are one of the components of lichens
Some are parasitic e.g. Cephaleuros is a parasite on plants.
-
A few are epizoic which grow as symbionts on animals like shells of molluses and
other invertebrates. In the rainforests of South America, colour of sloth's fur is green
due to green algae growing on it. The algae Zoochlorella is found associated with
Hydra.

3. Important features
In spite of wide variation in size, shape and occurrence, all green algae have some basic
common features.
() They all are usually green as they contain chlorophyll a and b and small amounts
of carotenoids in the grana of the chloroplasts as in higher plants.
(i) The chloroplasts may be discoidal, plate like, reticulate, cup shaped, spiral or
ribbon-shaped in different species.
i) Most of the members have one or more storage bodies called pyrenoids located
in the chloroplasts. Pyrenoids contain proteins besides starch.
(iv) They all have a rigid cell wall made up of inner layer of cellulose and an outer
layer of pectose.
(v) They store carbohydrate as starch which is insoluble. Some may store food in the
form of oil droplets.
(iv) They reproduce vegetatively, asexually and sexually.
(a) Vegetative reproduction usually takes place by fragmentation.
(b) Asexual reproduction is by flagellated zoospores produced in zoosporangia.
(c) Sexual reproduction show considerable variation in the type and formation of
sex cells and may be 1s0gamous anisogamous or oogamous.
Examples:
Chlamydomonas, Ulothrix, Spirogyra, Volvox, etc.
3.4 PHAEOPHYCEAE: BROWN ALGAE
(Greek, phaios-brown; phyton-plant)

1. Occurrence
There are about 2,000 species of brown algae, which range from microscopic filaments
to large kelps. Nearly all are marine except three genera.
They occur mainly in cooler seas but one genus Sargassum grows in shallow tropical
water. All are multicellular. No unicellular brown algae is known.

2. Important features
) The plant body may be in the form of a simple branched filament e.g. Ectocarpus
or a complex profusely branched structure in the form of a kelp e.g. Laminaria.
The giant kelps can grow to 30 metres in length.
(i) They have holdfasts that anchor them to the substratum and their large, flattened,
leaf-like photosynthetic organs called fronds are close to the sunlit surface. The
two ends are connected by a stalk called stipe.
(ii) Though they are non-vascular plants they have food-conducting tissues very
similar to higher plants that allow the food to be carried from the frond to the
holdfast.
(iv) The cell wall is cellulosic which also has an outer colloidal covering of algin
consisting of a mixture of polysaccharides, collectively called phycocolloids.
They help the plant in many ways.
(V)The protoplast contains, in addition to plastids, a centrally located vacuole and
nucleus.
(vi) The brown algae contain chlorophyll a and c, xanthophylls and carotenoids. The
brown algae owe their colour to the golden-brown pigment called fucoxanthin
which is found only in this group. Fucoxanthin masks the green colour of
chlorophyll.
(vii) Sugar is the most abundant product of photosynthesis in brown algae. They store
food as complex carbohydrates in the form of laminarin starch or mannitol.
Some store fat as wel1.
Examples: Ectocarpus, Dictyota, Laminaria, Sargassum, Fucus.

3. Reproduction
(a) Vegetative reproduction is by fragmentation. The fragment develops into a new
plant.
(b) Asexual reproduction in most brown algae is by biflagellated zoospores that are
pear-shaped and have two unequal laterally attached flagella.
(c) Sexual reproduction may be isogamous, anisogamous or oogamous. It is by the
formation of flagellated male gamete and non-flagellated female gamete. The
gametes are pyriform, i.e., pear shaped. The adult plant is diploid and the gametes
are haploid as they are produced by meiosis. The release of gametes synchronises
with the tides. The gametes are released as the tide advances. Union of gametes
may take place in water or within the oogonium (in oogamous species).
Fertilisation leads to the formation of zygote which gives rise to a new plant.
The diploid phase may be dominant and there is alternation of generation.
-Antheridium Antherozoids (n)
Gametangium (flagellated
(Gametes producing- male gamete)
structure) Zygote New plant
Oogonium Oosphere (n) 0ospore (diploid)
(Non-flagellated (2n)
ova)
4. Adaptations
1) They attach themselves to the substratum, generally a rock, very firmmly with the
help of holdfast.
(1i) The dichotomous branching reduces the resistance to water

(ii) Some algae like Fucus possess air bladders for buoyancy.
(iv) The photosynthetic pigment fucoxanthin besides chlorophyll a and e helps to
photo-synthesise absorbing blue light which goes to the greater depth in water.
(v) The phycocolloids present in cell wall prevent drying or freezing in winter as they
can retain water. They also protect the cells during low tides and when the large
waves beat them against the rocks.

5. Economic importance
1. The structural polysaccharide alginic acid, a major constituent of phycocolloids,
is extracted from kelps. Algin is used commercially to thicken ice-cream and
frozen custards. It is used in pharmaceutical industry as well.
2. Large seaweeds are used as fertilisers on coastal farms as they are rich in
potassium.
3. Laminaria is used as raw food or is made into laver bread in South wales and
other countries. Sargassum is also used as food.

3.5 RHODOPHYCEAE: RED ALGAE

(Greek, rhodo red; phyton-Plant)
1. Occurrence
There are about 5,000 species and nearly all are marine. They range from microscopic
unicellular forms to flat, ribbon like or finely branched feathery forms which may be more
than a metre in length (Fig. 3.9).
They occur both in well-lighted regions and at great depths in oceans, are abundant in
clear warm tropical water and can be found along rocky coasts. A small number grows in
freshwater and a very few are terrestrial alsSo.

2. Important features
i) They have a typical eukaryotic cell structure.
(i) The cell wall is cellulosie, It also has certain polysaccharides called phycocolloids,
some contain sulphur as well.
(ii) Food is stored as a carbohydrate called floridean starch which is very similar to
amylopectin and glycogen in structure.
(iv) The coralline algae have calcium carbonate in their walls and form coral like
structures. They act as important producers in coral reefs.
(v) The red algae contain chlorophyll and are photosynthetic. They also have a
red pigment phycoerythrin. Some species may even have blue pigment
 anthocyanin. The varying amounts of these pigments produce red, brown, bluish
or green colours.
Examples: Polysiphonia, Porphyra, Gracillaria, Gelidium, Chondrus,
Harveyella, Plumaria.

Chondrus
Main axis the Irish moss)

Porpnyra

Branches

Gracillaria
Polysiphonia Gelidium
Plumara
(Source of agar)

Fig. 3.9 Red Algae

3. Reproduction
They reproduce by fragmentation. When the algae get broken from the holdfast, they
grow and regenerate the full plant.
The red thalli of most of the red algae are multicellular. Some of them have a complex
organisation. Asexually, they reproduce by non-motile spores.
Sexually they produce by forming non-motile male gametes which get carried away by
the water currents and fertilise the female gametes that are attached to the parent plant. Sexual
reproduction is oogamous and accompanied by complex, post fertilisation development.
They have no flagellated cells at any stage. There is alternation of generation in some
algae.
4. Adaptations
(1) The red algae attach themselves to the rough sea floor or to the rocks with finger
like structures ealled holdfasts.
(ii) As they have red and blue pigments, they can absorb the blue-green light that
can go into the water at a much farther depth. Red algae are the deepest growing
algae in the seas.
5. Economic importance
) Gelidium produces polysaccharide agar which is used to form jelly like material.
It is used by scientists to grow bacterial cultures. Some use it to thicken soup as
well.
 Chondrus (lrish moss) contains carrageenin which is used to give fake creaminess
(11)
in chocolate drinks.
(1n) Calcareous red algae accumulate calcium salts as it grows. Their calcium deposits
are used as a good fossil record.

Table 3.4: Comparison amongst green, brown and red algae

Chlorophyta Phaeophyta Rhodophyta
(Green algae) (Brown algae) (Red algae)
(1) Mostly freshwater, some Mostly in cool seas, so far Mostly in warm sea,
marine and terrestrial. only 3 genera are found which some in freshwater
are present in freshwater.
(ii) Unicellular and multicellular No unicellular form. Only Multicellular forms
both. multicellular
(1i1) About 7,000 named species. About 2000 named species. About 5000 named
species.
iv) Chlorophyll a and b like in Chlorophyll a and c Chlorophylla and c, blue
higher plants. fucoxanthin, carotenoids. anthocyanin red
phycoerythrin
(v) Cell wall has cellulose and Cell wall has cellulose and alginic Cell wall has cellulose.
pectose acid.

(vi) Typical plant starch Stores carbohydrate as laminarin Stores carbohydrate as

insoluble). starch and mannitol. Also stores fat.| floridean starch.
(vii) Male gametes may be Flagellated male gamete Non-flagellated male
flagellated. Example: Laminaria, Fucus, gamete Example:
Example: Chlamydomonas, Sargassunm, Macrocystis. Chondrus, Porphyra,
Ulothrix, Uva, Spirogyra |Polysiphonia.

3.6 BRYOPHYTES
(Greek, bryon-moss; phyton-plant)
After some showers of rain, the bark of trees, old damp walls, moist ground and edges of
drains are often covered with a bright green carpet. It looks like algal scum from a distance,
but if you go near and observe carefully, you will find that it consists of tiny green planis.
These are the mosses.

1. Occurrence
1. Bryophytes are considered to be the simplest multicellular land plants. They are
called amphibians of the plant kingdom because these plants can live in soil but are
dependent on water for sexual reproduction.
2. There are about 25,000 species and all of them are mainly confined to the damp, moist
and shady places (commonly found growing in moist and shady areas in the hills) as
they are not well adapted to life on land,
 3. They form a green carpet on damp soil, rocks, walls and barks of trees. They play an
important role in plant succession on bare rock/soil. They flourish during the rainy
season
2. Important Features
1. The plant body is more differentiated than that of algae. It is thallus like. The
plant body could be prostrate (horizontally placed) or erect, and attached to the
substratum by unicellular or multicellular rhizoids.
2. They are very small plants and do not have true roots, stem or leaves. They may
possess root-like, stem-like or leaf-like structures.
3. They have thin root-like structures called rhizoids which anchor them to the
ground.
4. The plant body may be flat as in liverworts (resembling the lobes ofa liver) or tiny
leafy structures on stalks, as in mosses. Moss plant is just about an inch long.
5. They have no specialised tissues like xylem and phloem for conduction of water
and other substance from one part to another, The materials like water and food
are transported from cell to cel1.
6. The main plant body of the bryophyte is haploid. It produces gametes and is
called a gametophyte. The green structure that we see is the gametophyte. It is the
dominant phase of life cycle.
7. The sporophyte is attached and dependent on the gametophyte. Sporophyte
produces spores.
8. Water is extremely important for fertilisation.

3. Reproduction
The bryophytes show alternation of generation between the gametophytic and sporophytic
generation with gametophytie being the dominant phase.
6) The plant body is gametophyte (haploid). It produces gametes.
i) The sex organs in bryophytes are multicellular
(1) The gametophyte bears antheridia (male sex organs) and archegonia (female sex
organs). Archegonia are flask shaped structures. Antheridia produce biflagellated
antherozoids which are released in water where they come in contact with
archegonia containing a single egg
(iv) An antherozoid fuses with the egg to produce the zygote (2n).
(v) Zygote produces a multicellular body called a sporophyte.
(vi) Sporophyte is not free-living but attached to the photosynthetic gametophyte and
derives nourishment from it.
Vin) Some cells of the sporophyte undergo reduction division or meiosis to produce
haploid spores.
(vii) Haploid spores germinate to produce gametophyte.
4. Economic importance
1. Mosses bind soil and hence prevent erosion.
2. The moss Sphagnum is used by gardeners to keep cut plant parts moist during
transportation and propagation as it has been observed that Sphagnum can absorb
the water 18 times more than its weight. It is used as a packing material for trans-
shipment of living material,
3. Peat-fuel contains large amount of moss that has become compact over thousands
of years.
4. Moss is used in the houses asa moss stick to absorb and hold water for the plant.

5. Mosses along with lichens are the first organisms to colonise rocks and hence,
are of great ecological importance. They decompose rocks making the substrate
suitable for the growth of higher plants.

5. Classification
Bryophytes include mosses and liverworts which form its two major classes.
Class Hepaticae includes liverworts.
Class Musci includes mosses.

Table 3.5: Differences between liverworts and mosses

Liverworts Mosses
i) Plant body is the gametophyte which is () Plant body is the gametophyte which
thallus-like and dorsoventrally flattened. is differentiated into stem-like and
leaf-like structures.
(1i) Rhizoids are unicellular, (i) Rhizoids are multicellular.
(ii) The capsule of sporophyte splits into four (ii) The capsule of sporophyte has an
valves for dispersal of spores. elaborate mechanism of spore dispersal.
(iv) Has elaters for the dispersal of spores. (iv) Elaters are absent. Only spores are
produced.
(v The antheridia and archegonia are generally (v) The antheridia and archegonia remain
borm on stalks. In Riccia they are embedded hidden in the leaves.
in the thallus.
(vi) Spores do not form a protonema but directly (vi) Spores fom filamentous protonema
grow into a flat branched thallus. which gives rise to gametophyte.
Example: Riccia, Marchantia Example: Funaria

1. Livervworts
1. They grow usually in moist, shady habitats.
2. The plant body is thalloid. The thallus is dorsiventrally flattened and closely
attached to the substrate.
 3. Some members of the group may have tiny leaf-ike appendages in two rows on
the stem-like structure.

4. Asexual reproduetion takes place by:

i) Fragmentation of the thalli or

() Formation of specialised structures called gemmae (singular-gemma)
-
Gemmae are green, multicellular, asexual buds that develop in small
receptacles called gemma eaps present on the thalli.

The gemmae get detached from the parent body and germinate to form a
new individual,
5. Sexual reproduction occurs by the formation of male and female organs which are
produced either on the same or on different thalli. The organs produce male and
female ganmetes and fiusion of gametes leads to the formation of zygote. Zygote
develops into a sporophyte. The sporophyte is differentiated into a foot, seta and
capsule. Spores are formed by meiosis in the capsule. The spores germinate to
form free-living gametophyte.

Example: Riccia, March

2. Mosses
1. Like all bryophytes, the predominant stage of life cycle in mosses is the
gametophyte which consist of 2 stages
First stage is the protonema stage which develops directly from the spore. It
is a creeping, green, branched and frequently a filamentous stage.

Second stage is the leafy stage which develops from the secondary protonema
as a lateral bud. It consists of upright, slender axis bearing spirally arranged
leaves. It is attached to the soil through multicellular, branched rhizoids. This
stage bears sex organs.
2. The sex organs are antheridia and archegonia that are produced at the apex of
the leafy shoot. After fertilisation, the zygote develops into the sporophyte (as
explained earlier) consisting of foot, seta and capsule. Spores are formed in the
capsule after meiosis. Capsule opens to release spores which on germination give
rise to gametophyte.
3. Vegetative reproduction is by fragmentation and budding of the secondary
protonema.
Example: Funaria, Polytrichum, Sphagnum etc.
 Neck Capsule
(-Egg cell Zygote (2n)
Motile (n Seta
male gamete
Sporophyte
(sperm) (n) G (2n)

eaf Sporophytic Meiosis during

phase
Antheridia formation of spores
Archegonia

Capsule
Gametophytic releasing
phase Spores

Male emale
gametophyte gametophnyre Spore (n)
-
- Protonema
OI.--
Soil level

RhizoiasT

Fig. 3.10 Life cycle of moss

Moss Plant (Funaria)

It is a common plant found on the moist ground under the trees, on rotting logs, in the
fields or on shaded, moist side-walks.

1. Structure
1) Each plant is about an inch long and consists of a slender stem surrounded by
thin, flattened, leaf-like scales containing chlorophyll. These leaves are one cell
thick, except along the centre
(ii) At the base are present a number of multicellular rhizoids (Fig. 3.11) which
absorb the water and minerals and anchor the body.
This is only the gametophyte (gamete bearing). The one bearing a sporophyte (Fig
3.11) would show a seta and a capsule.

2. Reproduetion
The moss plant shows alternation of generation between the gametophytic and
sporophytic generation.

(a) Gametophytic Phase

The gametophyte bears archegonia (female organs) and antheridia (male organs) at
the tip of the leafy stems.
Depending on the species of the moss, they could be on the different branches of the
same plant or on different plants.
 The antheridium opens on maturity and releases flagellated male gametes which swim
in a film of water-it could be rain or even a film of dew. (They cannot move unless there
is some water).

A sperm passes through the neck of archegonium and fertilises the egg cell,
The fertilised egg is called zygote. It is the beginning of sporophytic stage.
(b) Sporophytic Phase
It is an asexual phase of the life cycle
The zygote (diploid) divides mitotically and forms a sporophyte (Fig. 3.11).
- The sporophyte has a stalk and a eapsule (with a hood) at its tip. It remains attached
to the gametophyte so as to obtain nourishment.
In the capsule the diploid cells undergo meiotic division and form haploid single
celled spores.
-
As the capsule dries, the hood falls off, the capsule opens and the spores escape.

Sporophyte Capsule

Gametophyte

perculum
Leaf
Spores
Stem
space

Section o1 capsule
-Rhizoids

Fig. 3.11 Sporophytic phase of Funaria

These spores grow into a new gametophyte on reaching a suitable moist surface. Each
spore produces thread like structures called protonema. They all have chlorophyll. The
protonema produces two kinds of cells, Some form the rhizoids and others produce buds.
The buds grow into a new moss plant.
Alternation of generation in bryophyta
Bryophytes exhibit alternation of generation between a haploid gametophytic
generation and a diploid sporophytic generation (Fig. 3.12).
 Gametophyte (n)
(Sexual stage)

Spore (n) Male gamete Female gamete

n)

Meiosis Fertilisation
-:1::.
Spore mother cell .4ygote (2n)
(Zn
'.
Sporophyte (2n
(asexual stage)

Fig. 3.12 Aternation of generation in bryophytes

Table 3.6: Differences between gametophytic and sporophytic phases

Gametophytic generation/phase Sporophytic generation/phase
i) Haploid phase. ) Diploid phase.
(i) Comprises of the green structure, the (ii) Comprises of spore forming multicellular
sex organs and the gametes. body formed from a zygote.
(i) Involves production of gametes by (ii) Involves production of spores as a
mitosis. result of meiosis.
(iv) Gametophyte is free living. iv) Sporophyte is dependent on gametophyte
(v) This phase occupies most of the life (v) This phase is of shorter duration.
cycle and hence it is dominant.

Table 3.7: Differences between antheridia and archegonia

Antheridia Archegonia
() Club shaped male organs. i) Flask shaped female organs
(ii) No such protective cover. (i) Consists of a jacket of protective cells
in which an egg cell is formed.
ii) Produces a number of flagellated male (ii) Produces only one large single female
gametes (sperm cells). gamete, i.e., the egg.
(iv) Male gametes are released from antheridia. (iv) Female gamete remains attached to
archegonia,
3.7 PTERIDOPHYTES
(Greek, pteris-Fern; phyton-plant)
1. Occurrence
They have well developed stems, roots and leaves and are more advanced than
bryophytes. The most familiar pteridophytes are the beautiful green ferns grown in every
garden. They are abundant in forests and hill stations. They grow best in moist, shady, cool
and humid tropical conditions.
 There are about 12,000 named species of ferns ranging from small aquatic plants to giant
ferns of tropical forest that may grow to over 30-40 feet. Pteridophytes include horsetails
and ferns.

2. Important features
1. They are basically land plants that grow wll in moist, shady and cool places.
2. The plant body is differentiated into true roots, stem and leaves
3. They have well-developed specialised tissues for conduction. Xylem transports
water and phloem translocates food.
4. The main plant body is a sporophyte which has true roots, stem and leaves with
vascular tissue.
5. The gametophyte is reduced to a simple small prothallus.
6. The plants exhibit alternation of generation with the sporophyte being dominant.
7. The stem of most ferns except tree ferns is an underground, horizontally growing
rhizome. As it is underground, ferns are the first plants to appear after the forest
fire.
8. The rhizome produces numerous roots called adventitious roots (Fig. 3.13). In
Adiantum whenever a leaf surface touches the soil surface it gives out adventitious
roots and hence is called a walking fern.
9. The size of the leaves in pteridophytes varies considerably.

in Selaginella-the leaves are very small and are called microphylls.

- in ferns--the leaves are large and are called macrophylls.
10. The ferms may have different types of fronds the leaves (Fig. 3.14).
Simple leaves-Leaves with one blade.
Pinnately compound leaves-The leaf is broken into a number of segments or
leaflets

LE
P inna
Rachis

rond

Young
Young leat sporophyte

-Gametophyte

Rhizome
AdventitiouS
roots
A
Adiantumn Dryopteris Prothallus of Dryopteris

Fig. 3.13 Common ferns

 Unipinnate: When the midrib bears the
leaflets. Midrib

Bipinnate: When the leaflets are further Leaflets

divided.
Tripinnate: When the leaf is thrice pinnate. Unipinnate
Simple
Due to the delicate compound leaves, ferns
are considered to be ornamental plants e.g.
Adiantum
In Dryopteris the young leaves are coiled. They
uncoil like a watch-spring as they grow.
Example: Pteridophytes belong to four
Bipinnate Tripinnate
classes
Fig. 3.14 Types of fronds in fern
i) Psilopsida e.g. Psilotum
(i) Lycopsida e.g. Selaginella, Lycopodium
(1) Sphenopsida e.g. Equisetun
(iv) Pteropsida e.g. Dryopteris, Pteris, Adiantum, commonly called ferns.

3. Life cycle of Selaginella and Equisetum

In Selaginella, the main plant body called sporophyte gives out leaf-like appendages
called sporophylls.
The sporophylls form distinct compact structures called strobili or cones.
These sporophylls bear sporangia that produce spores by meiosis in spore mother
cells. Hence the spores are haploid.
The spores germinate to give rise to an inconspicuous, small but multicellular, free
living, photosynthetic thalloid gametophyte called prothallus. When the spores are
of one kind only, the plant is called homosporous
Genera like Selaginella and Salvinia produce two kinds of spores, megaspores and
microspores, hence these plants are known to be heterosporous.
Megaspores germinate into female gametophyte. lt is retained on the parent sporophyte
for some time.
Microspores germinate into male gametophyte.
Just like in ferns, the gametophytes bear male and female organs called antheridia
and archegonia respectively.
Water is essential for fertilisation. Antheridia released in water, reach up to archegonia
and fuse with the egg cell forming zygote.
Zygote produces a multicellular, well-differentiated sporophyte that is the dominant
phase. The development of zygote into young embryo takes place within the female
gametophyte.

4. Life cycle of ferns

Ferns also exhibit alternation of generation with the sporophytic generation being
dominant. Ferm plant is a diploid sporophyte. It undergoes following sequence of events.
 i) During certain times of year, ferm fronds mature and have small brown dots on the
underside close to the margin. The fronds are called sporophylls and the spots are
called sori (singular-sonus).
- Each sorus consists of several sproangia (singular-sporangium).
Each sporangium contains a number of haploid spores which have been formed
as a result of meiosis (Fig. 3.15).

(1u) On maturity, the ruptures, releasing the spores.

sporangium
11) When the spore falls on moist soil, it germinates into a short green filament.
(iv) This grows into a heart shaped thalloid structure called prothallus which is a
gametophyte.
The haploid gametophyte is inconspicuous, small only about half an inch in
width but multicellular and photosynthetic. It does not contain any vascular
tissue, All its cells contain chloroplast.
Several rhizoids develop on the underside of the prothallus which anchor it
and raise it above the surface.
Sporangia

Sorus Meiosis
One sorus Spores (n)
One pinnule
One sporangia

Germinating
Frond
Rachis CE spore
(leat)Pinna -
Haaploid
Pinnule gametophyte
Archegonia ( prothalus
n
Young Fern plant Ovum
coiled leaf sporophyte (2n)
Spore
Stem
{rhizome) Rhizoids

Roots
Antheridia (n)
Sperm
Young
sporophyte
(2n)
yaote(2n)
-

Gametophyte
(prothallus)

Fig. 3.15 Life cycle of fern

 (V) Male sex organs-antheridia and female sex organs-archegonia develop on the
prothallus.
(vi) Each mature antheridia gives rise to several motile sperms and each archegonia to
one egg.
(vi) The sperms swim in the water film and fuse with the egg forming a diploid zygote.
(vii) The zygote divides repeatedly and forms an embryo which develops into a young
sporophyte. The development of zygote into young embryo takes place within
the female gametophyte. This event is precursor to the seed habit found later, an
important step in evolution.
-
The young sporophyte still draws nourishment from the gametophyte.
(1x) Soon the young sporophyte establishes its own roots and young leaves, and
develops into a fern plant which is independent and may grOw for years. The
gametophyte withers and dies.

Alternation of generation
Ferns exhibit alternation of generation with sporophytic generation being dominant and
gametophytic generation being short lived (Fig. 3.16).
Sporophyte (2n)

Young sporophyte (2n) Sporangia (2n)

Dominant phase
Zygote (2n)
Spore mother cell
(2n)

MeiosisJ
Female gamete (n) Male gamete (n)

Archegonia (n) Antheridia (n) Spores (n)

Gametophyte (n)

Fig. 3.16 Alternation of generation in Dryopteris

Why are mosses and ferns said to be amphibians among plants?

Mosses and ferns are said to be amphibians among plants because both are only partially
adapted to life on land. Both are dependent on water (rain, dew) for the male gamete to
Swim to the female gamete for fertilisation during sexual reproduction.
In the animal kingdom also, amphibians need water for the sperm to fertilise the egg
laid in water
 Table 3.8: Differences between bryophyta and pteridophyta
Bryophyta Pteridophyta
(Liverworts and mosses) (Ferns)
)
Number About 25,000 species. About 12,000 species.
(11) Size Very small, generally not more than Small generally up to 5 ft,
15 cm. Tallest is 60 cm. some may be up to 40 ft,
(ii) Vascular tissue Lacks any vascular tissue. Has vascular tissue-xylem
that help in conduction of materials. and phloem
(iv) Structure of plant| Has only root-like rhizoids, leafy Has true roots, stem and leaves.
body scales and no stem.
(v) Dominant phaseGametophyte (2n) is dominant, Sporophyte (n) is dominant.
(vi) Adult plant | Moss plant is a gametophyte. Fern plant is a sporophyte.
(vii) Mature Simple thallus free living and photo-Prothallus, inconspicuous, free
gametophyte synthetic. Has rhizoids and leaf-likeliving and photosynthetic.
structures.
(Vi) Mature Dependent on gametophyte. Has only Prominent. Has true roots, stem
sporophyte capsule, seta and foot and leaves

3.8 GYMNOSPERMS
(Greek, gymnos-naked; sperma-seeds)
The term gymnosperm means naked seeds that develop in the exposed positions at the
surface of the scales rather than in the protective wall of the ovary.

1. Occurrence
Gymnosperms were abundant in the Mesozoic era especially during the Jurassie period.
Now only about 900 species are left of which S00 species are of conifers (one of the groups).
They are present all over the world and account for about 1/3rd of the world's forests.
Major groups seen nowadays are eycads and conifers.
They maintain their dominance only in the colder region of the world where snow rather
than rain is the source of water.
2. Characteristics
) The ovules are not enclosed in an ovary wall and remain exposed, both before
and after fertilisation. Hence after fertilisation the seeds that are fomed are not
enclosed in an ovary or fruit and remain exposed.
(i) They do not bear fruits as there is no ovary.
(ii) All have well developed xylem tracheids.
iv) All are perennials living for many years and grow to fornm woody trees or bushy
shrubs. None are herbs or annuals (life cycle for one year).
One of the gymnosperms-the giant redwood tree (Sequoia) is known to be one
of the talest tree species.
 (v) Gymnosperms generally have tap roots. Roots of some genera have fungal
associations.
Roots of Pinus have symbiotie association with fungi called mycorrhiza.
-
Roots of Cycas have small specialised roots called coralloid roots which are
associated with nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria.
(vi) The stem may be unbranched as in Cycas or branched as in Pinus or Cedrus etc.
(vii) The leaves may be simple or compound. Cycas has pinnate leaves that persist for a
few years. The leaves in gymnosperms are well-adapted to withstand extremes of
temperature, humidity and wind. Conifers like Pinus have needle-like leaves that
reduce the surface area which reduces transpiration. They also have thick cuticle
and sunken stomata to reduce the water loss.
(vin) The plant is heterosporous means gives rise to two types of spores-microspores
and megaspores.
(1x) Generally cones bear the sporophylls which bear sporangia in which spores
develop.
(x)The sexual reproduction does not require water as pollen grains are carried away
by Wind.
Examples: Cycads Ceus, Cedrus, Conifers-Pinus.
Cycads:They grow mainly in the tropical and subtropical regions of world. They have huge
palm like leaves and are often mistaken for palms.
Conifers:1They thrive well in the cold climates of the earth, but some can be seen in
warm regions as well. They include pines, firs, spruces, redwoods, larches,
cedars and eypresses. They form vast and dominant woodlands in the cooler
northern regions of Europe, Asia and North America and mountain ranges like
Himalayas.
Pinus, a kind of conifer is commonly seen in the hill stations all over India.
Araucaria, a tall majestic conifer from South America thrives well at lower elevations and
in warmer climates.
3. Reasons for the success of gymnosperms
() The development of secondary growth in the vascular tissue led to the growth of
root and stem in diameter and hence enabled the plant to form extensive network
of root system under the soil and shoot system above the ground.
() The evolution of dry, wind blown pollen grain that does not require water can
travel for miles and withstand severe drying as well.
(1i) The most important was the evolution of the seed, A typical seed is an embryo
plant which is surrounded by an endosperm and is covered in protective seed
coats. It has all the food necessary for the young plant. A seed has number of
advantages.
(a) A seed is a fertilised ovule which is well protected by many layers of cells.
(b) The food stored around the seed can be used by the developing zygote at the
time of gemination.
 (c) A seed can remain dormant till the conditions are Suitable.
(d) Seed is modified in many ways to bring about the dispersal.

(a) Cycas (b) Coniferous tree

Fig. 3.17 Some gymnosperms

4. Formation of the seed

-
All gymnosperms produce two types of spores-microspores and megaspores and
hence termed as heterosporous.
-
Spores are produced by sporangia formed on special leaf-like structures called
sporophylls. Sporophylls are arranged spirally along an axis to form compact structures
called strobili or cones.
- The strobili or cones bearing microsporophylls and microsporangia are called
male strobili or male cones. The strobili or cones bearing megasporophylls and
megasporangia are called female strobili or female cones.
- The male and female strobili or cones could be present on the same tree as in Pinus
or on different trees as in Cycas.
Sporophylls

Microsporophyll Megasporophyll

Bears microsporangium called Bears megasporangium called ovule in

pollen sac in a seed plant. a seed plant.

Each pollen sac produces a number of micro Each ovule has a megaspore mother cell
or male gametophytes called pollen grains. which divides meiotically to give rise
Each pollen grain contains 2 male gametes to 4 megaspores. One of the megaspores
in it (Fig. 3.18a). develops into a multicellular female
gametophyte called embryo sac. Each
embryo sac has one or more female
gametes or ova (Fig. 3.18b).
 Microsporangium (polen sac) Megasporangium (Ovule)

Megaspore-g (gametophyte or
Microspores d (gametophyte or embryo sac)
pollen grain)

Ova in an
Male gamete embryo sac
In a pollen
grain Megasporophyll
Microsporophyl

(a} Microsporophyll: Parent sporophyte (b) Megasporophyli: Parent sporophyte

Fig. 3.18 Types of sporophylls

The pollen grains are carried by wind in gymnosperms. On reaching stigma the pollen
grain germinates into a pollen tube carryng male gametes, lt passes through a pore called
micropyle and fertilises the egg cell. The water is not requred at any stage.
The fertilisation leads to the formation of a zygote which develops within the ovule.
A seed is a fertilised ovule. The ovule wall forms the seed coat. During the development,
nutrition is taken from the parent plant, i.e., the sporophyte, to which it is still attached.
On maturity the seed is shed. It remains inactive or dormant till it gets suitable conditions
for germination, On germination it gives rise to a seedling which gets nourishment from
stored food of the seed.

5. What is a seed?
fertilised ovule. It has a complex structure since it contains cells from three
A seed is a
generations (Fig. 3.19).
) A parent sporophyte Megasporangium or ovule ... **********. (2n)
(i) Female gametophyte Megaspore or embryo sac . . (n)
formed by meiosis)
i) Embryo of next sporophyte Zygote-formed by fertilisation.. (2n)
generation in an embryo sac

ZYgote-Embryo of next sporophyte (2n)

Embryo sac-Female gametophyte (n)

Ovule-Parent sporophyte (2n)

Fig. 3.19 Three generations in a seed

Since conifers form the largest group of gymnosperms, we will study more about them.
6. Important features of conifers e.g. Pinus
1) The pine tree has one main axis of growth caled monopodial growth. As the
main axis, the trunk grows taller and increases in diameter
i) The branches or shoots are of two types.
(a) Long shoots: These are the main shoots of unlimited growth having apical buds,
(b) Dwarf shoots: Small branches of limited growth covered with small scale
leaves. They lack the apical bud and bear needle-like leaves.
(1i) The lower branches are longer than upper branches and so the tree (Christmas
tree) has characteristic conical shape.
(iv) The wood and the bark of the tree have special channels filled with resin. It is an
aromatic sticky material that seals damaged areas of the trunk and protects the tree
from insects or bacterial attack.
(v) The needle-like leaves reduce the surface area. They are covered with a thick,
waxy cuticle and have sunken stomata. All these are adaptations to conserve water.
(vi) The roots have symbiotic association with fungi. These are called mycorrhiza.

Microspores

Microsporangia
Male cone

Microsporophyll

L.S. of male (3) cone

(a) Pine with male cone

I year coneT
year cone year cone
Ovuliferous
Scale
Wings
of seedsS

Mature
aves seeds

D#ari shoot
-
Long shoot An ovuliferous scale of a female (2) cone
of 3 year

(b) Pine with female cones

Fig. 3.20 Pine tree with male and female cones

7. Reproduction in Pinus
The pine tree is heterosporous. It bears male and female cones on the same tree during
the spring season.
Table 3.9: Differences between male and female pine cones
Male pine cone Female pine cone
() Approximately 0.5 cm in diameter. (1) Seen in various sizes from 0.5-6 cm as
they take 3 years to grow.
(ii) Rounded and found in clusters behind (1i) More scattered arrangement.
the apical buds of new shoots.
(iii) Develops in the axil of scale leaves in (ii) Develops in the axil of scale leaves at the
place of dwarf shoots. tip of new strong shoot.
iv) Appears yellow when mature. (iv) Looks green when young and brownish
when mature.

Male and female cones bear spirally arranged closely packed sporophylls around a
central axis.
Sporophyll of a male cone: It has two microsporangia or pollen sacs. Each pollen sac
has a number of pollen grains or microspores produced as a result of meiosis.
Each pollen grain has two large air sacs for dispersal by wind (Fig. 3,21).
Sporophyll of a female cone: It has a lower bract and a larger bract scale. The larger
ovuliferous scale bears two ovules side by side. The ovules produce 4
megaspores by meiosis but only one develops (Fig. 3.21).
Changes in the female cones till the dispersal of seeds
1st year cone- Pollination occurs but pollen tube is not formed. The female cones look
green.
2nd year cone- Development of pollen tube leads to fertilisation. The fertilised ovules
become winged seeds.
3rd year cone-The seeds mature and the scales bend outwards to expose the seeds. Seeds
are dispersed by wind. The female cones look woody and brown.
Ovuliferous
Ovule Scale Embryo sac

One megaspore Fertilised ovule

develops
rd Megasporophyl
year
Temale Cohe
2

Pollen sac Cell

Wings
Male cone MIcrospore ollen
Microsporophyll Seed
grain

Develops into
a new plant
Fig. 3.21 Life cycle of Pinus
8. Economic importance of conifers
() They provide large amount of softwood for construction, packing, paper industry,
plywood and particle board.
) From the pine resin, the chemical turpentine is prepared which is used in paint
and wood industry.
(1i) Pine seeds e.g. chilgozas, the seeds of Pinus gerardiana, are eaten as dry fruits.
(iv Ephedrine-a drug from conifer Ephedra 1s used for respiratory ailments and
asthma.
(V) Cycads have palm like leaves. These are grown for ornamental purpose.

3.9 ANGIOSPERMS-THE FLOWERING PLANTS

(Greek, angion-vessel; sperma-seed)
Angiosperms, the flowering plants began their appearance about 135 million years ago
and have dominated the earth for the last 70 million years due to number of successful
evolutionary changes. There are about 2,50,000 named species.
Unlike gymnosperms where the ovules are naked, in angiosperms, the pollen grains and
ovules develop in special structures called flowers. The seeds are enclosed in the fruit.
1. Evolutionary changes that led to their success
) The seeds are enclosed in an ovary.
(i) Presence of flowers instead of cones. Flowers have developed number of
adaptations to utilise wide variety of mechanisms for efficient dispersal of pollen
grains. They have utilised insects, birds or bats as agents of pollination. They are
brightly coloured and scented. The insects take the pollens or nectar as food also.
All this led to the evolution of insects as well.
(1i) They have adapted to different habitats. So they are found all over the earth, some
in freshwater and a few in salt water also.
-
Some are found at an altitude of 6,000 m in the Himalayas.
-
A few are found in Antarctica.
The deserts bloom with flowering plants after a shower.
-
Some like Zostera thrive in shallow seas.
-
At least one species lives in hot springs at 60°C.
-
A small orchid lives underground surviving as a saprophyte on decaying
matter along with fungus.
- Various types of epiphytes in rainforests. They live on other plants but do not
obtain food and are not parasites.
(iv) Well developed conducting tissue. Xylem contains vessels and phloem has
companion cells.
 (v) Formation of fruit-The ovule forms the seed and the ovary fornms the fruit,
The fruit habit also helps in seed dispersal. Fresh, ripe fruits are eaten by animals
and then either seeds are thrown or seeds in half eaten fruits get passed out intact.
Some dry fruits adhere to the animal fur. All this leads to the dispersal of seeds.

Node

Leaves
7
Stem
CProp roots

Cactus
Banyan tree a xerophyte

Fig. 3.22 Angiosperms

2. Variations in angiosperms
Smallest angiosperm: Wolfia is Imm in diameter (microscopic). Has a tiny flat oval
green stem with a few small roots. Found floating in ponds.
Tallest angiosperm: Eucalyptus is about 100 m tall.
Largest angiosperm: Banyan tree-Ficus bengalensis in Kolkata. Its prop roots support
the branches and it spreads in a large area.
Growth of the trees
Most of the trees have an indefinite growth, They have secondary growth every year
and the tree increases in girth, causing the old bark to peel off. They keep growing year
after year adding a new layer of wood all over. Some trees like coconut grow in height and
not in girth. Their trunk does not increase as no new rings are added.
3. Economic importance
(1)Source of food for animals. Various parts of plants like roots, stems, leaves
flowers, fruits, seeds etc. are used for nutritional value.
(i) The hard wood is used as timber for various purposes.
1) Many plants have medicinal value and are used to cure diseases.
(iv) Flowering plants are grown as ornamental plants for aesthetic beauty.
(v) Many kinds of perfumes and essences are extracted from flowers.
4. Structure of a flower and formation of seeds
The flower is a distinct reproductive structure of the angiosperms. The male sex organ in
a flower is the stamen, while the female sex organ is the pistil or carpel. A complete flower
has four parts (Fig. 3.23).

Stame Stigma

Carp
Petal
- Style

Ovary
Sepal
( Ovule (megasporanga)
Egg cell
(a) Parts of flower (b) A carpel (rmegasporophyll)

Anthers Follen sac

microsporangia)
Pollen grains
(microspores)
Microspores
Filament in pollen sacs
of anthers

(c)A stamen (microsporophyll)

Fig. 3.23 Structure of a flower
(1) Sepals are coloured outer parts.
(1) Petals have various functions. Most important being to help in pollination.
(ii) Stamen is the male sex organ of a flower
(iv) Carpel or pistil is the female sex organ of a flower.
Astamen has a slender filament with anther at its tip. The anthers after meiosis produce
pollen grains.
A carpel or pistil has an ovary that encloses one or nmore ovules.
- Within an ovule is present a highly reduced gametophyte termed embryo sac.
Formation of seed
Each of the cells of the embryo sac is haploid. Each embryo sac has 8 cells.
i) A three-celled egg apparatus has one egg cell and 2 synergids at the micropylar end.
(i) 3 antipodal cells are at the opposite end. Antipodal
Polar nuclel
(i) 2 polar nuclei are in the centre. Synergid
The polar nuclei eventually fuse to produce diploid
secondary nucleus. Eg9

Pollen grains after dispersal from the anthers get

carried by wind, water, insects or other agencies to
the stigma of a pistil. It is called pollination. Integuments

After pollination, thee pollen grain germinates on the Micropyle

stigma and forms a pollen tube. The pollen tube passes Fig. 3.24 An embryo sac
through the style and reaches the ovule present in the
ovary.
 Each pollen tube has two male gametes. Pollen tube enters the ovule through the
micropyle.
On reaching the ovary the pollen tube releases
two male gametes into the embryo sac of ovule

One male gamete fuses with the Another male gamete fuses with the
egg cell of the ovule diploid secondary nucleus

It produces diploid zygote It produces triploid primary endosperm

and the process is called syngamy nucleus (PEN)

Together, it is called double fertilisation

Double fertilisation: Since the process of fertilisation occurs twice in the embryo sac,
it is called double fertilisation. It is a unique event of angiosperms.
.The zygote develops into an embryo (with one or two cotyledons).
.The PEN develops into endosperm which provides nourishment to the developing
embryo.
The synergids and antipodals degenerate after fertilisation.

Changes after fertilisation

) The ovules develop into the seeds. The seed contains the enmbryo or the
potential plant. During the formation of fruit, rest of the flower withers away.
(i) The ovary develops into the fruit.
1) The ovary wall forms the fruit wall called pericarp.
Anther Microspore
mother cell
Stigma
Filament
VlICrosporangium
Megaspore
mother Gel
Ovay
Flow er Microspore
Megasporangium-
(ovule)
Gametophytic
Sporophytic
Sporophyte (2n) Generation
Generation

Microspore
Embryo (pollen grain)

Zygote
Male gametophyte
Eg9 Gametes

Fig. 3.25 Life cycle of an angiosperm

 Gymnosperms Angiosperms
) The seeds are naked meaning not (i) Seeds are enclosed in an ovary.
enclosed in an ovary.
(ii) As there is no ovary, there is no fruit. (i) The ovary develops into a fruit.
(ii) Produce cones (usually) on which (ii) Produce flowers in which sporangia and
sporangia and spores develop. spores develop.
iv) Xylem vessels are absent, only (iv) Xylem consists of vessels and tracheids
tracheids are present. both.
(v) Phloem lacks companion cells. (v) Phloem contains companion cells.

3.10 PLANT LIFE CYCLE AND ALTERNATION OF GENERATION

Plants have haploid and diploid phases in their
life cycle Haploid pla nt body
(gametophyte)
) The haploid plant body represents the Mitosis Mito sis

gametophyte.
(v) Haploid spores (n) i) Gametes (n)
(i) The haploid plant body produces gametes
by mitosis. Meiosis
Fertilisation
(iv) Diploid
plant body
ii) Following fertilisation, the zygote is (sporophyte) (2n)
formed. (ili)a
Zygote (2n)
sis Mito
(iv) Zygote divides by mitosis to produce a
Fig. 3.28 Diagram showing alternation
diploid sporophytic plant body. of haploid and diploid generation

It is interesting to note that most algae are haplontic but some

like Ectocarpus,
Polysiphonia, kelps are haplo-diplontic. Fucus, an alga is diplontic.
ygote Meiosis
Sporophyte
gamy (2n)
Sporophyte
Spores Zyggte (2n) (2n)
(n) Syngamy
Gametogenesis Diplontic
B
A Meiosis
Haplontic
Zygote (2n).
amy Gametpeneaplo-diplontic
Gametogenesis
Spores
Gametophyte(a) Meiosis
n) Gametophyte
(b) (n) (c)

Fig. 3.29 Life cycle patterns: (a) Haplontic (b) Diplontic (c) Haplo-diplontic

Sporophyte

Carpels
Stamen
Zygote
Pollen sacs Ovules

Pollen
Ovum Male gamete cell Embryo saac
Gametophyte

9 Gametcphyte.

Fig. 3.26 Graphical life cycle of angiospermic plant

 (v) Haploid spores are produced by meiosis.
(vi) These in turn, divide by mitosis to producea haploid plant body once again.
Hence we find that there is alternation of generation between the gamete producing
haploid gametophyte and spore producing diploid sporophyte.
Different plant groups-algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and
angiosperms as well as individual plants representing them, differ in the pattern of
alternation of generation, as to which phase is dominant and which one is dependent.

1. Haplontie life cycle

It occurs in many algae like Volvox, Spirogyra and some species of Chlamydomonas.
In these the dominant phase in life cyele is a photosynthetic free living gametophyte
Sporophyte generation is represented only by one-celled zygote. There are no free-
living sporophytes.
Meiosis in the zygote results in the formation of haploid spores.
-
Haploid spores divide mitotically and form the gametophyte.
Gametophyte is a dominant free-living, photosynthetic phase.
In this the plant is basically in the haploid gametophytic phase, hence it is called
haplontic life cycle.

2. Diplontic life cycle

It occurs in seed-bearing plants-gymnosperms and angiosperms.
In these the dominant phase in life cycle is a diploid sporophytic phase. It is the other
extreme of haplontic life cycle.
-The sporophyte is the dominant, photosynthetic, independent phase of the plant.
- The ganmetophyte phase is represented by single to few-celled haploid gametophyte.
This kind of life cycle in which the plant is basically in the diploid sporophytie phase
is called diplontic life cycle.

3. Haplo-diplontic life cycle

It occurs in all bryophytes and pteridophytes.
It is an intermediate condition between haplontic and diplontic condition. Both the
phases are multicellular, however, they differ in their dominant phases.
In bryophytes: A dominant, independent, photosynthetic, thalloid or erect phase is
represented by a haploid gametophyte.
-
It alternates with the short lived multicellular sporophyte totally or
partially dependent on the gametophyte for its anchorage and nutrition.
In pteridophytes: A dominant, independent, photosynthetic, vascular plant body is
represented by a diploid sporophyte.
-It alternates with the short-lived, multicellular, gametophyte that is
saprophytic or autotrophic independent phase.