THE GOVERNMENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE UNION OF MYANMAR MINISTRY OF EDUCATION TEXTBOOK BIOLOGY GRADE 11 2022-2023CONTENTS CRAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY 1) THE IMPORTANCE OF BIOLOGY 11 E Links between Biology and Other Branches of Serence 1D IDENTINICATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS | 2} Comstrxction of Dichotomous Keys for Wdentification 1} MICROSCOPY 14 BIOTECHNOLOGY {4 | What os Biotechnology? radinonal Bootechnology | 43 Mager Biotechnology | 44 Microorganisms and Biotechnology | 4S Maung of Biofuels, Bread, Yoghurt, Cheese, Wine and Beer 46 Fermentanon and Fermenters | S ENZYMES USF IN INDUSTRY olopeal Washing Powders xmactng Frun Juice Review quesnons Concer: map CHAPTER 2 BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES AND MOVEMENT IN AND OUT OF CELL 21) BIOLOX “CAL MOLECULES OF THF CELL 11 Water 12 Carbohydrates 13 Lipds 214 Proteins 215 Eames 2.1 6 Nuclexe Acids 2.2 MOVEMENTS IN AND OUT OF CFLES | © —scture of Cell Membrane 2 Movements of Substances across the Membrane Renew questions Concept map mit ne ee eeCHAPTER 3 PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND RESPIRATION 3.1 PROCESS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS 31 1 Structure of a Leaf 3.12 Light and Dark Reactions of Photosy nthesis 313 Factors Affecting Photosynthests 3.14 Requirements for Photosynthess 3 2 PROCESS OF RESPIRATION 3.21 Structure and Functions of Mitochondna 3.2.2 Acrotvc Respiration 3.23 Anaerobic Respiration 32 4 Formanon of ATP 3.25 Energy Released from ATP 3.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND RESPIRATION Rewrew questions Concept map OMAPTER 4 LIFE SUSTAINING SYSTEMS 4 | MECHANISMS OF BREATHING 411 Breathing Systems tn Aquatic Animals 41 2 Breathing Systems in Terrestrual Animals 41 3 Components of Human Breathing System 41 4 Functioning of the Human Breathing System 415 Venwianon of the Lungs 4 2 EXCHANGE OF GASES 42 | Process of Gas F xchange 422 Transport of Gases tn Plants, Humans and Other Animals 43 HOMBOSTASIS 43 | Homcostams in Plants 432 Homeostasis in Animals 433 Negative Feedback end Positive Feedback Review questions Concesx map HAPTER S CONTINUATION OF LIFE SU MITOTIC AND MEHOTIC OILY OFVIStONS S11 The Cell Cyute 512 Mitosis 313 Meiosis 4 a 2 “ 3 45 “ SI 32 2 3 33 SeSezsesanrsge 2sea$2 PATEERNS OF INHERITANCE $2.1 Mendet’s Laws of Inheritance 2 Codominant Alleles $3 s 3 MUTATION AND VARIATION $3.1 Mutation $3.2 Varianon EVOLUTION AND ADAPTATION $41 Adaptation $4.2 Natural Selection 343 Aruficial Selection $44. Differences between Natural Selection and Artifictal Selection & CHAPTER 6 ENVIRONMENTAL BIOLOGY D1TS COMPONENTS sof Lavirorum RACTIONS WITHIN THE ECOSYSTEM clanonshap 6.2.4 Symbiosts 6.3 POLLUTION 6.4 NUTRIENT CYCLE 64.1 Nitrogen Cycle 6.4.2 Phosphorous Cycle 643 Sulphur Cycle Review questions Concept map GLOSSARY REFERENCES 72 73 ” 7” Ww 79 BI 81 82 83 33 BZZ25 FR F454% 101 102 muTextbook Biology Grade 11 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOG Learning Outcomes expected that students will be able to = lea why knowledge of biology is important for mankind = gain knowledge on how other branches of sciences interrelated to biology and the interdisciplinary of sciences = understand the concept and uses of classification = construct the dichotomous keys based on distinctive characters to identify the organisms = understand the working of the light microscope and electron microscope and explain the differences between them = differentiate the terms magnification and resolution = define biotechnology and the use of microorganisms in bread making, yoghurt, cheese, wine, beer and biofuel production = learn the concept of fermentation and the working of fermenter = know how to produce biological washing powder and fruit juice using enzyme biotechnology Ll THE IMPORTANCE OF BIOLOGY Biology, as most people understand it, is the Science of Life, They regard it as the study of living things, such as plants, animals and microorganisms, What they do not realize is that their very existence depends on their understanding of Biology, So unknowingly they are disturbing the balance of nature. The whole world is now sullering under the impact of infectious disease outbreak and weather chai cause by the effect of global warming, Over fishing, over hunting and deforestation may lead to problems in feeding the world exploding population, Many species of plants and animals have disappeared forever. If people should have more knowledge on biology and understanding of nature, this would never have happened. So it is of utmost importance that mankind should realize that impact of man on nature will always return to them, Nature will give back what it is given to it, Biology is concerned with animal breeding, agriculture and also in the field of medicine just to mention a few, People should realize the importance of biology, for the knowledge of it will help mankind to protect nature, feed the starvi nation and leave the world a better place for our future g LLL Links between Biology and Other Branches of Science Biology is a very fundamental and important natural scie branches of study. Some of these branches study the basic consisting of many disciplines or 1s or principles, such as the study of structure and function of living things, They are regarded as pure science, Examples include morphology, the study of structure and form of organisms and cytology. the study of cell structure and function, Other branches are concerned with applying the basic knowledge to practical application or particular technologies. They are known as applied science, The applied biology includes biotechnology which is application of biologyGrade 11 Biology Textbooks in productive industry, the medicine and veterinary seience-restoration and maintenance of health in human and in animals, agriculture and animal husbandry-farming of crops and breeding of livestock for food. Many branches or disciplines arise within biology due to its close association with other seiene Biology has strong links with physics, chemistry, geolog aphy, mathematics and computer s ete. These sciences help the biologists in their study to understand the vital life processes of the o and gain information on the working of the biological systems. Biophysies, for example, applies the kuws of physies to study the biological processes, like flight of the bird or echolocation in bats. Biochemistry is the study of chemical substances and the chemical processes which occur in the cells and organisms. Biogeography explains how plants and animals are distributed on earth through space and time, These are only a few examples of the link between biolo ences that contribute much to the advances in the field of biology | Pure Biology = | Biophysis| Morphology Biotechnology (BiotPhysics) Anatomy Veterinary Science Biochemistry (Bio+Chemistry) Histology Agriculture | Biometry " (Bio# Statistic) Cytology Animal Husbandry Biogeography ' (Bio+Geography) Figure 1.1 Diagrammatic representations of branches of biology and its link with other seiences 1.2 IDENTIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS Identification in biology is the process in which an organism or specimen is classified and assigned a scientific name. The study and process of classification is known as Taxonomy, Biologists study the differences and unique features of the living things, grouping organisms with similar characters together and placing the dissimilar ones apart. The classification or grouping of living things is arranged in a hierarchical order and is known as hierarchical classification. There are eight tasonomie groups or taxa. At the top of the hierarchical are three domains, Archava, Bacteria and Eukarya. Each of the three domains is subdivided into seven different levels or taxa ~ they are Kingdom, Phylum/Division, Class, Order Family, Genus and Species. Another method of classification known as cladisties is also used by modern taxonomists. In this method of classification many techniques are used including comparing of DNA from different species to find out how closely they are related ‘To carry out the identification of organism, biologists usually use easily identifiable features like morphology and anatomy as keys. Keys provide a simple way to classily organisms, Figure (1.2) represents the processes carried out by biologists using key features in classificationGrade 11 Biology Textbook ofuepy uewny] poypuy viafisuryy suoydos owoyy oyput suaidos _ sappads_ 1 pol Buoyy oon, “snusp | sual sta) | avasmpavseuy ——_aeaaeimyy WOH, -squeg | poos au0 roys poos ajSuis Uueyp suow ji pasa upjduing soomtuey sorepurds, saqenqanan> equidnsseyy P10 I | SIamoy [UnXasIQ [EUS sIaMOY JENXAsIUN — S}EU Y “squint {in stars Apoon prey aan] yA wars Yos —quosqe [te pure yonod ———yttasaud ten pue yonod. ats Apo pay OBE (pA pus yonod ___asald (1% suopsisioaiq Spprd suopaystosouoyy, s[eurlueyy eEUUEYY SPIE S>AY “sti suopa|xi09 om uopatcio9 auo spurs Axounerewt syraq aos uaa pos pure sioqpeay quia S3ut sui WHOMUIE sioasu] avuuadsosuy avuuadsouwss arcydopriayg: epyouuy epodosyry — woystarqyumnpsyg 1 psig YAN squity porutol yt Apoq paiuawies —_-Kpoq paquauias quasqe Uo}2[9ys0x9 yuasaid Uo}2{a4s0x9 Suueoq Sureog Ue eS poos aaods ——sameiqauioa soqeaqauoAut — 1 | Juuamoy Fuuowoy-vou —sauogyseq um souogyseq mnoytn a peg re __ ny sung ended wsHo1g eUD|IEqNG —eLD,ORquaRyDAy WOPRUDY | [Aydouoyy — quasaad [Xydouo yo a quasoid [Jem []99 quosq uasge [fem 119° uasaud snajonue juosqe snojonu —————— aejnjppouun tap BAGrade 1 1.2.1 Construction of Dichotomous Keys for Identi Textbook, Dichotomous keys provide a simple way to put unknown organisms in their proper taxa, Based on easily identifiable characters questions are asked, dichotomous is derived from Greek words meanin; th question having two possible answers. [The word vided imto two parts”). The method of dichotomous keys is to divide the groups of organisms into Wo categories repeatedly. They often begin with general characteristics and then progress to more speci organisms are compared to that given in the dichotomous keys. IP'the ¢ ones step by step. The characteristics of unknown nism fits into one category you have to go on to the next set of statements. By following the sequence of the given dichotomous keys and making the correct choices the unknown organisms can be identified and placed in their proper taxonomic level. Figure 1.3 and Figure 1.4 show how organisms are identified using dichotomous keys. 1. Vaseu Vascular system present... No embryo formation Has spor absent ametes formation and g Spore-bearing Seed-bearing 4, Non-flowering plants Flowering plants Thallophyta Bryophyta Preridophyta a Gymnospermae Angiospermae plant divisions 1. Cold-blooded Warm-blooded animals Body covered with scales Body not covered with seales Feathers present on body Hair present on body 4. Has fins Has four limbs or without limbs nimals Amphibian Bird Mammal Fish Reptile Figure 1.4 A dichotomous keys for vertebrate classesTextbook Biology Grade 11 13 MICROSCOPY The development of new tool: l technology has aided in the advancement of biology. Amon; the most widely used tools in biology are microscopes. Biologists use these to study cells, cell parts and also organisms that are too small to be seen with naked eyes. Bas cally there are two main types of microscope, the light microscope and the electron microseope. The light microscope uses light as a source of radiation to form the image of the specimen being studied while the electron microscope uses electron. Two different types of electron microscopes are commonly used - the transmission electron microscope or TEM and the scanning elvetron microscope or SEM. In the TEM, electron is passed through the specimen and allow us to see thin sections of the specimen, and thus the inside cells, In SEM the electron beam is passed buck and forth over the surface of the specimen. Only the reflected beam is observed and three dimensional appearance is obtained, How the light mi oscope works + Usually substage illumination is the light souree. Light must come only from substage position + By adjusting the iris diaphragm, the amount of light aching the specimen is controlled. + Condenser focuses the light onto the specimen on the slide. + Light passing through the specimen is collected by the objective lens and a magnified image is produced. This lens is responsible for both the magni sation and resolution * Eyepiece lens magnifies but does not resolve the image formed by the objective lens. + Eyepiece lens focuses the image onto the eye, eyepiece lens light beam, objective objective lens cover slip glass slide condenser condenser lens iris diaphragm light source condenser iris diaphragm (pathway of fight) ure 1,5 How the light 1 5 oscope worksGrade 11 Biology Textbook How the electron micro: cope works + The eleetron beam, the spec jen and the fluorescent screen must be in the vacuum, + Electron gun and anode emit high velocity electron beam, + Condenser eleetromagnetie lens ticuses the electron beam onto the specimen + Objective electromagnetic lens focuses and magnified the first image. + Projector electromagnetic lenses focus the m: fied image onto the sereen + The image of the specimen in black and white is recorded on the sereen or phot electron gun and anode electron beam vacuum pathway of electrons aphie plate, condenser ET electromagnetic lens. |— specimen | — objective electromagnetic lens projector —| electromagnetic lenses ~{_|| — sereen or Le photographic plate Figure 1.6 How an electron microscope works Figure!.7 Two different types of electron microscopes Light Microscope Electron Microscope 1. | Uses light as a source of radiation. Uses electron as a source of radiation. 2. | The image is projected on the eye or on The image is projected on a screen or on photographie film, photographic film. 3. Preparation of specimen simple, not Preparation of specimen lengthy and complicated. complicated. 4. | Magnifies up to 2000 X | Magnifies up to 500,000 X 5, Either dead or alive specimen can be Only dehydrated and dead specimen canbe examined. examined, 6. | Inexpensive to purchase and operate Expensive to purchase and operatTextbook Biology Grade 11 Magnification and Resolution Students studying biolc should understand the ma have already learmt how to use a microscope in Grade 10, Now they nification and resolution of the microscope. Magnifie: To magnify means to make things bigger. Hence magnification is the ability to increase the size of the image of the object being studied so that microscopic organisms become visible. Magnification can also be defined as the number of times larger an image is, compared with the real size of the obj tion The Formula for Magnification Observed size of the object Magnification ~ peneation Actual size (OR) M Where =M = Magnification 1 = Observed (image) size of the specimen (it ean be measured with a ruler) A = Actual size (the size of the specimen being studied) IF two of these values are known the third one can be calculated. Resolution Resolution is the ability to distinguish between two objects that are close together. If the wo objects cannot be resolved they will be seen as a single object. Resolving power shows up the smallest detail that a microscope ean resolve when imaging an object. One important fact of difference between magnification and resolution should be noted. An increase ation does not always produce a more detail image. It might increases in size but not in detail In fact the image may become blur. But with resolution, the greater the resolution, the greater the detail. in magn| 14 BIOTECHNOLOGY Biotechnolog isa branch of applied biology which combines biological sciences with ngineering technologies 14.1 What is Biotechnology Biotechnology is a technology which apply the use of living systems and organisms to produce useful chemicals and produets or to carry out industrial work for mankind, Although this branch of biolo is well-known technology of our moder world, our ancestors had been practicing it for hundreds of years making wine, bread, cheese and breeding livestock and erops without any scientific knowledge. Now understanding of scientific basis of the techniques has led to the application of biotechnology in the fi of food animal breeding and medicine ete. elds It can be said that traditional biotechnology unknowingly discovered the usefulness of microor seven thousand years a me into use thousands of years ago when people anisms like bacteria and yeast, It was known that go, people in Mesopotamia used bacteria to convert wine into vinegar, For centuries mankind had been practicing the methods handed down by their forefathers to prepare their meals. Examples of this traditional biotechnology includes making wine, ch wrt, bread and beide 11 Biology Testbook 14.3 Modern Biotechnology The scientific study of the biochemical processes that has developed in the past few decades contributes much to the advancement of the biotechnology. ‘The range of materials produce by modem biotechnology techniques is vast, ranging from medieines like antibiotic penicillin to chemicals like enzymes and fuel, Nowadays, with the development of gene technology scientists are able to modify or manipulate living organisms by transferring genes from one organism to another, usually an unrelated species. In this way genes for herbicides resistance are put into crop plants and human insulin producing genes are put into bacteria and cultured to produce insulin, Genetic engineering earried out on some plants and animals have enabled them to produce substances that are not part of their normal metabolism. They are known as transgenic plants and animals, Transgenic goats produce antibodies and blood clotting agent in their milk and transgenie plants are engineered to produce vaccine, 144° Microorganisms and Biotechnology Microorganisms or microbes are small organisms that ean only be seen with the mieroseope. The term microorganisms inelude protists, archea, fungi, bacteria and viruses. Of these, archea and bacteria are prokaryotes whereas protists and fungi are eukaryotes. The viruses are not cellular and they do not have the characteristic of living things but they can reproduce inside the living cell of other organisms by usin; the genetic materials of the host. Protists are single-celled organisms usually found in the wet surrounding. Fungi have hyphae or filamentous cells but ye 11 family of fungi, have single spherical cells. These microbes are harness by biotechnologists to run their biotechnologiea! processes in manufactur useful produets for man, The advanta microorganism in the industrial field are many. They ean be cultured easily by using fermenters where they can reproduce profusely as they can be kept in optimum conditions. As they are not affected by outside conditions, like climate. they grow rapidly and ean produce large amount of product in a short time. The nutrients they need are quite cheap and sometimes they can be fed with waste products of other industrial processes. They are put to use in food technology, baking and brewing industries, in drug production, testile and mining, and production of biological washing powder and biofuel ges of usit 14.5 Making of Biofuels, Bread, Yoghur ‘The making of biofuel Cheese, Wine and Beer Raw or unrefined sugar obtained from sugarcane or cane wastes are used as nutrient for the anaerobically respiring yeasts. This fermentation process produces ethanol whi illed to obtain pure ethanol. It is then mix with petrol to get gasohol whieh is used for driving cars. In Brazil, Zimbabwe and in USA some cars are already using ethanol and gasohol as energy sourees and the than petrol, Biofuel ean also be produced by using oil from rapeseeds or sunflower s cause less pollution eds. Bread Making Figure 1.8 Carbon dioxide produced by the yeast has caused the dough to riseTestbook Grade 11 The singl celled fungi yeast is used in the making of bread. + First flour, water, oil and yeasts are mixed together and kneaded (iolded and stretch repeatedly). + Water activates the amylase enzymes to act on the starch in the flour breaking it down to sugar. + Then the yeasts ferment (respire anaerobically) the sugar to carbon dioxide and ethanol + The dough is left to ferment at about 27 C for a few hours. + A sticky protein gluten holds the carbon dioxide gas bubbles in the dough and make it rise almost to twice of its or + After that, the dough is baked in the oven at 200 C. Baking kills the yeasts and evaporates the ethanol and the expanding gas bubbles give the bread a light cellular texture nal size. king yoghurt and ches Both yoghurt and cheese are made from milk. First milk is pasteurized at about 90 C degree to kill the bacteria in it. Then it is homogenized to break up the fat globules. At 40 C- 45 C a starter culture of wo species of bacteria ( Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus bulgaricus is added which turn the lactose, milk sugar, in milk to lactic avid, This acid coagulates the milk protein casein and thick creamy yoghurt is produced. In the making of cheese the basic processes are the same as yo milk protein casein, a mixture of enzymes called rennet is added whieh hurt, But after the coagulation of ses further coagulation of the milk casein and solid lumps called curds are formed, The liquid whey is drained off and the solid curds are partially dried and compressed. Then the cheeses obtain are allowed to ripen and mature, king wine and beer To make wine, grapes are crushed and the extracted juice is placed in a large vessel or vat and treated with sulphur dioxide to kill the natural occurring yeast. A starter culture of yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) is added which respire aerobically at first until the oxygen is used up . Then the yeast cells start to respire anaerobically fermenting the arbon dioxide. When the ape sugar (glucose) to aleohol and id the juice become wine. Beer is made from barley grains, The seeds are wetted and allowed to germinate thus activating the starch-digesting enzymes. Then the seeds are dried at temperature which kill the seed but do not destroy the enzymes. The dried grains known as malted barley are crushed and mixed with water and starch alcohol content reach 15%, the yeast cells die extracted from wheat or rice is added, The barley enzymes digest starch to maltose and glucose and “wort’, a sugary solution is obtained. Wort is filtered and boiled with hops which give beer « bitter flavour. Yeast is added which act on maltose and glucose to produce ethanol. Fermentation takes 3-15 days alter which beer is obtained. 1.4.6 Fermentation and Fermenters Fermentation Respiration is a chemical reaction carried out by all living organisms to get Living things usually respire in the presence of oxygen but most microorganisms do not need it as they ry out of food can res) obically. The anaerobic respiration is a process that breaks down glucose to aleohol and carbon dioxide and this process is also known as alcoholic fermentation, This chemical reaction provides nch biologist (1822- fermentation is defined as the presence or absence of ire anae the microorganism with enet zy needed for their liv 1895) had described alcoholic fermentation as “life without air” but nowada chemical changes in organic substances brought about by microorganisms 2 processes, Louis Pasteur, a Fr oxygenGrade 11 Biology Textbook. Fermenters Fermentersare large containersthat maintain an optimum environment forculturing microorganisms, usually bacteria and fungi, to promote large scale fermentation processes and to manufacture commercially products like enzymes, antibiotics, alcohol beverages etc. As the waste produce by microorganisms are acidie, the fermenter tanks are usually made of stainless steel or special alloy to withstand the corroding effect, Figure (1,9) represents a diagrammatic typical fermenter and steps taken to run the fermenter are shown below + First hot steam is passed into the fermenter through steam inlet under high pressure to sterilize it + Next nutrients are put into the tank from another inlet and the microorganisms to be cultured are added. + Air. which is filtered to prevent contamination, is passed through the air inlet if the micron, need to respire avrobically. I the reaction is going to be anaerobic this step is not necessary. isms. + Temperature and pH are monitored through probes and optimum environment for the culture such as oxygen, carbon dioxide and nutrient supply are also maintained, To keep the pH! constant, alkali or acid is added as needed. + Fermentation process produces heat. So to prevent the fermenter from overheating and dama the cult h the water jacket surrounding it * Build-in stirring paddles are used to stir the contents to keep the temperature even throughout the tanks. It also keeps the microorganisms suspended in the medium to get more exposure to the nutrient + The products are collected trom the harvesting outlet when the Ferm re, cold water is cire nished. ntation process is steam inlet ——> == inlet —>-¢——. steam outlet exhaust outlet cold water outlet temperature —_, and pH probess ————* cold water inlet —: water jacket stirring paddles, air inlet valves= =a: filter harvesting outlet Figure 1.9 Diagram of an industrial fermenter 10Texthook Biology Grade 11 In commercial fermentation there are two types of culture: batch culture and continuous culture. The volume of culture medium and microorganisms are fixed in bateh culture at the be of the process and when the maximum products accumulate, itis collected. The fermenter is shut down, cleaned out and prepared for reuse. However, in continuous culture once the fermentation process has started, the fermenter is kept running for extended period adding tresh nutrients while the produets are harvested continuously 1.5 ENZYMES USE IN INDUSTRY Enzymes are protein molecules formed in the living cells. They are biological catalysts and all the metabolic processes of the living things are catalysed by them. Enzymes that are isolated from the cell still retain their ability to function. This property of enzymes is put to use in industrial processes which require high temperature or pressure to work. They are much cheaper to use and the cost for industrial processes are reduced as they do not require expensive fuel to maintain high temperature to function, Many enzymes used in industries are obtained from microorganisms mostly from fungi or bacteria, Application of ny industries like baking and brewing industries, dairy industry and textile industry. Even in medicine and pharmaceutical industry microbial trypsin is used to treat blood clotting and pancreatic trypsin is used for treatment of inflammation, iselal enzymes is seen in ma 1.5.1 Biological Washing Powders Commercial fermentation produces many enzymes that are usefull to man. They inelude proteases. the protein-digesting enzymes and lipases, the fat-digesting enzymes. These enzymes are used to make biological washing powder and stains in clothes cause by blood, egg, gravy and grease can be removed easily. The enzyme proteases act on red haemoglobin and break it down into smaller molecules which are colourless and dissolve in water. Both the protein and fat molecules are I di e but the proteases and lipases zest them into small, soluble substances which pass out of the fabric and are washed away 1.5.2. Extracting Fruit Juice Fungi produce the pectinases enzymes which are used in extracting fruit juices. The enzymes break down pectin, a jelly like substances between the cell walls and separate the fruit cells making it much easier for extracting the juice. During the break down process many kinds of polysaccharides (such as cellulose and starch) are also released causing the juice to become cloudy. Peetinases continue to break them down to sugar making the juiee sweeter and clearer, "Grade 11 Biology Textbook. 5. The diagram below shows seven species of arachnid. 1. Why is knowledge of biology important for mankind? 2.Givea few examples of the link between biology and other sciences? 3, Based on easily identifiable features draw a key to classify the six kingdoms. 4, The diagram below shows the underground storage organs of five plants. 2 & UZ © Use the key to identify which storage organ, shown in the diagram, is produced by which plant, Write the letter of each storage organ on the correct line in the key. Name of pint 1. (a) | Approximately round goto2 (b) | Longer than it is wide 20103 2. (a) Has a ring of roots at the base Allium (b) | No ting of roots Colocasia | 3. (a) Has shoots or leaves gotod (b) | No shoots or leaves Cassava 4. (a) | Branched Zingiber b) Not branched Solanum ‘cephalothorax abdomen E P| 6 Referring to the diagram in the box, use the key to identify each species. Write the letter of each species (A to G) in the correct box beside the key. One has been done for you. 12Textbook Biology Grade 11 (a) Abdomen with a tail Abaliella dicranotarsalis E (a) Legs much longer than abdomen and cephalothorax and cephalothorax 1 (0) Abdomen without a tail (go to2 g0103 (6) Legs not much longer than abdomen goto 4 | segmented same size 3, 2) Hairs on legs Tegenaria domestica * ((b) No hairs on legs Odielus spinosus (a) Cephalothorax or abdomen segmented | Chelife : 4. (b) Cephalothorax or abdomen not gotoS | (a) Abdomen and cephalothorax about the | Poecilotheria regalis BA 4, @)_ Body covered in long hairs _(b) Body not 6. The diagram below shows five mammals. _(b) Abdomen larger than cephalothorax | go to 6 _Broglyphus longior wered in hairs Ixodes hexagonus ~~ wa A B ie E in the table. Use the key to identify each of these mammals. Write the letter for each mammal tail more than half that of body length ... "tail less than half that of body length | goto 2 goto 4 front legs longer than wide 13 4, ears at top of head, with thick tal Sciurus caroliniensis ~ ears at side of head, with thin tail goto3 3, fase pointed, nose length longer than its depth Sorex araneus "nose blunt, nose length shorter than its depth Clethrionomys glareolus front legs as wide or wider than long Talpa europaea Oryetolagus cuniculusGrade 11 Biology Textbook Clethrionomys glareolus Oryetolagus cuniculus Sciurus caroliniensis Sorex araneus Talpa europaea 7. Explain what is meant by the term magnification and resolution. 8. Outline the working of the light microscope. 9, Make a table comparing the advantages and the disadvantages of the light and electron microscopes. 10. Define and discuss the term biotechnology. 11. Write briefly on the advantages of using microorganisms in biotechnology. 12. Give a brief account on the making of biofuel. 13, Describe in outline the stages in bread making. 14, What are curds and whey? 15. Give a brief account on making of wine. 16. Explain the processes in making of yoghurt and cheese. 17. Describe the steps taken to brew beer. 18. Name three microorganisms used in food production and state their fermentation products. 19. How is the fermenter sterilized before use? 20. Why is cold water circulated through the water jacket of the fermenter during the fermentation process? 21. Explain what would happen to the microorganisms in the fermenter if the paddles stopped working. 22. State the role of enzymes in the biological washing powder. 23. Describe the use of pectinase enzyme in fruit juice extraction. 14‘Textbook Biology Grade Identification and Classification ) [The Importance of of Living Things Biotechnology ‘The working of ight and electron microscope and Other Branches of Science ‘Comparison of light and electron microscope Magnification and Resolution Traditional Modern Microorganism Enzymes use in Biotechnology Biotechnology and Biotechnology industry Making yoghurt and cheese washing powder Making wine and beer Biofuels and bread making Fermentation and fermenter 15Textbook Biology Grade 11 CHAPTER 2 AND MOV BIOLOGIC. IN AND OUT OF CELL Learning Outcomes It is expected that students will be able to = explain the main basic groups of molecules in living organisms = know the compositions and structures of different biomolecules = realize the structure of hereditary biomolecules = describe the structure ofa cell membrane and the role of each component = clarify the processes of passive and active transport, = comprehend the importance of water potential 21 BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES OF THE CELL. A biological molecule (biomolecule) is a chemical compound that naturally occurs in livin; organisms. Some are inorganic molecules (such as water) and some are orga an element present in all organic biolo structures. So biol jc molecules, Carbon is cal molecules, Carbon atoms can join to form chains or ring cal molecules can be very large ofien by polymerization (macromolecules). fie! constructed of repeating sub-units (monomers). Other elements always present are oxygen and hydrogen. Nitrogen is sometimes present. When macromolecules are made of long chains of monomers held together by chemical bonds, they are known as polymers. Examples are carbohydrates, proteins and nucl acids. Lipids are not polymers but important biomolecule. Cells need chemical substances to make new cytoplasm and to produce energy. Therefore, the organism must take in food to supply the cells with these substances, OF course, it is not quite as simple as this; most cells have specialized functions and so have ditferir alts and food substan water, enzymes and nucleie acids. needs, However, all cells need water, 0%; arbohydrates. lipids, proteins includi s and all cells consist of 2.1.1 Water Water is a good solvent and many substances move about the cells ina watery solution, It is the most important biochemical of all living things. Water is the medium for various enzymatic and chemical reactions in living cell. Without water, life would not exist on this planet. It is important for two reason: first, it is a major component of cells, typically forming between 70 % and 95 % of the cells, About 60% present in human. If water contents fall, the cells will die, Second, it provides an environment for aquati organisms. Despite these, water has some unusual properties. Properties of water Water molecules are made up of two “I!” atoms bonded to an *O” atom. “H’ atom possesses a slight positive charge and *O” atom has a slight negative charge. Therefore, water molecules have two poles i.e. a positive hydrogen pole and a negative oxygen pole, it is termed as polarity and water is a polar molecule. A bond called hydrogen bond (I1-bond), which formed in liquid state of water providing useful and significant properties of water in the livi anisms (Figure 2.1), 16Biology Textbook, Partial nagetive charge on oxygen, drogen en ag el a 4 Partial positive between molecules change on hydrogen re 2.1 Structure ofa water molecule, its polarity and formation of hydrogen bonds between water molecules |. Water has a high specific heat. Specific heat is the amount of heat that must be absorbed in order for 1 g of a substance to change its temperature 1 °C. This means that large bodies of water, like oceans, absorb a lot of heat and resist changes in temperature, As a result, they provide a stable environment for the organisms that live in them, In addition, coastal areas exhibit relatively little t nperature change because the oceans moderate their climates, . Water has a high heat of vaporization. This means that a relatively great amount of heat is needed to evaporate water. As a result, evaporation of sweat significantly cools the body surface. Water is the universal solvent. Because water is a polar molecule, it dissolves all polar and io substances. All the reactions of metabolism occur in solution, Also, food, hormones and other substances are transported in solution either in the blood of animals or in the sap of plants. 4. Water exhibits strong cohes othe on tension. This means that molecules of water tend to stick to each This results in several biological phenomena. Water moves up a tall tree from the roots to the leaves without the expenditure of energy by what is referred to as transpirational-pull and/or cohesion tension, Strong cohesion also results in surface tension that allows insects to walk on water without breaking the surface. 5. Water hay high adhesion properties. Adhesion is an attraction between two diferent molecules, Water molecules exhibit the attraction to the inside of the vascular tube. This foree of adhesion contributes to capillary action, which helps water flow up from the roots ofa plant to leaves. It plays an important role in the survival of plants, 6. Density or specific gravity of wat is highest at 4°C. As water cools to 4 °C. it reaches its maximum density. As it cools further, the molecules become less dense and change into solid form. The low density of ice causes it to float at the surface of liquid water, such as an iceberg in the sea or the cubes in a glass of water, In lakes and ponds, ice forms on the surface of the water creating an insulating barrier that protects the animals and plant life in the pond trom freezing. Without this layer of insulatin: ice, plants and animals living in the pond would freeze in the solid block of ice and could not survive. 2.1.2 Carbohyd Carbohydrates are organie molecules composed of earbon (C), hydrogen (I1) and ox They supply the living organism with food and energy and also play an important role in structure a shape of plant cells. Carbohydrates mainly originated from plant materials. Carbohydrates are divided into three groups: namely monosaccharides (simple sugars), disaccharides and polysaccharides. The word “saccharide” refers to sugar or sweet substance, ates. 7Texthook Biology Grade 11 Monosaccharides Monosaccharides are used to produce and store energy for the living organisms, Monosaccharides. are simple sugars in which there is one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms for each carbon atom i the molecule, A general formula for this can be written (CH,O),. ‘nis @ number of carbon atoms. Trios sugars (n=3) have three carbon atoms and the general formula C,H,O, stich as glycerol, glyceraldehy. and dihydroxyacetone. They are important in mitochondria, where the respiration process breaks down glucose into triose sugars. Pentose sugars (n=S) have five carbon atoms and the general formula C.H O,. Ribose and deoxyribose are important pentose sugars in the nucleie acids ribonucleic acid (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which make up the genetic materials (Figure 2.2). i \? cH,on H-C-OH Nf qh nocH, on Hoch, on I - : ‘ teen H-C—OH qn h HOH cH.OH Glycerol Giyeoraldenyde | Dibydroxyacctone Ribose |__Deoxyribose Figure 2.2 Triose and Pentose sugars Hexose sugars (n~6) have six carbon atoms and the general formula C,H, O,, They are the best- known monosaccharides, ofien taste sweet and include glucose, galactose, mannose and fructose. Ring structure has two isomers (dillerent forms): a and 6 such as d-glucose and B-zlucose. Most living things create energy by breaking down the monosaccharide ‘glucose’ and harvest the energy released from 1 bonds of glucose. Any glucose in the food that has been eaten ean be absorbed and used directly chemi in the cells (Figure .cu.on ~— 4CHLOn phospholipid bilayer nonpolar: 4 tails ; protein channel SA phospholipid ~~ SA Phospholipid peripheral integral membarne cytoskeletal _cholesterol _ ‘membrane prtein proteins filaments Figure 2.12 Structure of eell membrane The small hydrophobic molecules such as oxygen and carbon dioxide eross the membrane rapidly. Similarly, the small polar molecules such as water and ethanol can also pass through membrane but slowly. On the other hand, cell membrane restricts the diffusion of highly charged molecules, such as ions and large molecules such as sugars and amino acids. The passage of these molecules relies on specific transport proteins embedded in the membra The oles of components of cell membrane The principal components of cell membrane are lipids (phospholipids and cholesterol), proteins (integral and peripheral proteins) and carbohydrates (glycolipids or glycoprotein) ro Most Water-soluble substan Phospholipid layer avis as a ba for other components to bind. - prevents tight packing, basie bilayer 25Textbook Biology Grade 11 Cholesterol maintains the fluidity of the membrane that prevents the membrane from becoming rigid. stabilizes the hydrophobic layer and strengthens the basic bilayer of phospholipid. prevents ions and hydrophilic molecules from passing through the membrane, Proteins are diverse in structure, function and position in the membrane, Integral proteins are embedded inthe plasma membrane and may span all or part of the membrane. Integral proteins may serve as channels or pumps to move materials into or out of the cell, Peripheral proteins are found on the exterior or interior surfaces of membranes, attached cither to integral proteins or to phospholipid molecules, Both integral and peripheral proteins may serve as enzymes, as structural attachments for the fibers of the eytoskeleton, or as part of the cell’s recognition sites Carbohydrates are found on the exterior surface of cells and are bound either to proteins formin; glycoproteins or to lipids forming glycolipids. Carbohydrates provide cushioning and protection for the plasma membrane, important in cell recognition and aet asa glue to attach cells together, 2.2.2 Movements of Substances across the Membrane Substances may pass throu form of uetive transport h the cell membrane either passively by dilVusion or actively by some (1) Passive transport Passive transport is a movement of ions and other atomic or molecu membranes without need of energy input. The main kinds of passive transport are diffusion, facilitated diffusion and osmosis. ir substances across cell (a) Diffusion Diffusion is the random movement of molecules or ions of substances from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration down a concentration gradient, The natural kine’ (energy of movement) of the molecules or ions causes the random movement, As a result of diffusion, molecules or ions tend to reach an equilibrium situation, where they are evenly spread within a given volume of space (Figure 2.13). energy For example, glycerol will enter the cell if it has a higher concentration a? on the outside, The glycerol molecules ° are small and can easily slip through Ce sep core tease ORAKSRA IN Y the phospholipid bilayer into the cell yi Another example is the diffusion of rm lpia i oxygen gas into the red blood cells from Pune mexirane) 2° the alveoli in the lung while carbon Sepia dioxide diffuses the opposite way. Tine Sy re 2.13 Diflusion across the plasma membrane Factors affecting di - Extent of concentration gradient: the greater is the difference in concentration, the more rapid the rate of dillusion, ~ Temperatu of diftus high temperature increases the kinetie energy of molecules thus inereases the rate 26Grade 11 Biology Textbook area and thickness of cell membrane: increase surface area inereases the rate of dillusion, whereas a thicker membrane reduces the rate of diffusion. Solvent density: as the density of a solvent are increases, the rate of diffiasion dee ases. Solubility: non-polar or lipid-soluble materials pass through plisma-membrane easily and allow faster rate of diffusion Distance travel: the greater the distance thata substance must travel, the slower the rate of diffusion, (b) Facilitated diffusi Facilitated diffusion is a type of passive transport that allows substances to cross membranes | transport proteins, Some mole: ions, and chloride ions are unable to pass through the phospholipid bi substances can be transported into the cell using ion channel proteins and car embedded in the cell membrane, with the assistance of specia les and ions such as glucose, sodium These layer of cell membrani r proteins that are Jorn channel protains allow specific ions to pass through the protein channel, The ion channels are regulated by the cell and are a sets cither open or closed to control the passage of substances into the cell. Carrier proteins hind to specific molecules, change shape and then deposit the molecules across the membrane. Once the transport is completed, the proteins return to their original shape Figure 2.14 Facilitated diffusion in cell membrane, (Figure 2.14), howing protein channel and carrier protein An example is the diffusion of glucose into and out of the red blood cells. It requires channel as glucose is hydrophilic, insoluble in lipids and too big to diffuse across the phospholipid tated diflusion enables the red blood cell to m: entration in the plasma, * Intracellular space prote layer. This in intain its shape even if there are changes Jucose con (c) Osmosis Osmosis is defined as. the net veer molecules se io tp — movement of water from a region of high sc water potential (dilute solution) to a region of low water potential (concentrated solution) down a water potential through a partially permeable membrane. The tiny holes in the membrane allow small . but the sugar molecu adient 5 water molecules water molecules to pass thro e solute molecules are too bi larg to pass igure 2.15 Osmosis through the partially permeable membrane (Figure 2.15), Ifa cell is placed in a solution of lower water potential, water leaves the cell by osmosis. If the cell is placed in a solution of higher water potential, Water enters by osmosis. Water potential is a measure of the ability of water to move out ofa solution by osmosis, This is influence h water is available, but also by ather factors such as the pressure exerted on: 27“Textbook By Grade 11 water in plant cells by the cell wall, A dilute solution (containing a lot of water molecules) has a high water potential, A concentrated solution (containing fewer water molecules) has a low water potential. ler molecules are free to move through the membrane in both directions by kinetic energy there will be a net movement of water molecules through membrane from high water potential 10 low water potential down the water potential gradient, Osmotic concentration The osmotic concentration of a solution is have an osmotic effect. measure of only those dissolved solute substances that sotonic solution; the osmotie concentration of the solutes in the solution is the same as that in the cell. Hypotonie solution : the osmotic concentration of the solutes in the solution is lower than that in the cytoplasm of the cell (higher water potential). Hypertonic solution: the osmotic concentration of the solutes in the solution is higher than that in the cytoplasm of the cell (lower water potential) If water enters a plant cell by osmosis the eytoplasm will swell, but only until it pushes against the cellulose cell wall and the cell becomes turgid A plant cell is supported by its cell wall and will maintain its turgidity without bursting. Ifwater leave plant cell by osmosis the eytoplasm will shrink, but : era rgd cell S89 rik the cell wvall fail to shrink due to its tough structure, aaa wureidcel rm cell wall hy cenafan WES (eel Real Eee igure 2.16 Osmosis in plant cells The cytoplasm eventu wall (Figure 2.16). Animal cells have no cell wall, just a membrane. They are likely to suffer damage as a result of osmosis. As the water moves out, animal cells become flaccid and crenated. If water enters an animal cell by osmosis, animal cell swells and burst Osmosis is potentially damaging to animal cells, and animals have mechanisms to keep the blood plasma sormal cell _cellssvell, bunt seve ces and the body uid at the same water potential as the ee ee cytoplasm of cells, In mammals, the kidneys play a 2.17 Osmosis in animal cells vital part in this process of osmoregulation (Fi 2.17), (2) Active transport Active transport is the transport of substances from at region of lower concentration to a r higher concentration across membranes against the concentration gradient with the use of c (ATP). A carrier protein is required in active transport jon of, I's energy 28Grade 11 Biology TTexthook ince binds to it from one side of the membrane. er protein and the substance is released on The carrier protein has a receptor site and the subs A molecule of ATP is required to change the shape of the cai the other side of the membrane (Figure 2.18). Active transport takes place only in living, respiring cells. Factors that inerease the production of ATP inerease the rate of active transport, The rate of active transport depends on temperature and oxygen concentration, These aflect the rate of respiration and the rate of production of ATP. Cells that have more mitochondria can carry out faster rates of transport as more ATP can be produced. Poisons that stop respiration cause to stop aetive transport. Cyanide prevents the synthesis of ATP during cellular respiration, it also stops active transport. IfATP is added artificially, active transport starts again Ps ® iaiaiirmmancnineey stucmermoctes ener i heilTo ree — Ze {onesie shape) cera rom th oli of ATP ‘Supe tallow move one oles th Figure 2.18 Active transport (3) Endocytosis Endocytosis is the uptake of subst can be divided into two types i.e. phagoeytosis and pinocytosis. \ces by cell in mass or in bulk forming vesicles. Endocytosis (a) Phagocytosis Phagocytosis is cell eating in which solid particles e.g., bacteria are taken in by a cell like a white blood cell. Such blood cells are called phagocytes. The process also happens when amoeba takes in food as shown in Figure 2.19. nucleus plasma | membrane cytoplasm aaa A —— VT — food patice food vacuole 1. entrapment of 2. formation of food 3. fusion of lysosomes 4. digestion of food particle vacuole within cell with food vacuole food particle Figure 2.19 1 eytosis in Ainocha 29Textbook Biology Grade 11 Folds of the plasma membrane extend outward and engulf particles to be ingested and form a vacuole around it. 2. The vacuole then frees itself from the membrane and the eytoplasm, forming a food vacuole or phagosome. 3. Then, lysosome fiases with the vacuole or phagosome and releases hydrolases into it 4, When the content is digested, the products are absorbed and vacuole disappears. Any undig content in the vacuole will be egested through the reverse of the process. (b) Pinocytosis Pinocytosis is cell drinking in which liquid and dissolved substances are taken into the cell in the form of vesicles, The process is as shown in Figure 2. It is the same process as phago- eytosis except that no solid particles are involved. Tiny droplets of uid are tapped by microvilli, They are then pinched off from the eytoplasm as vesicles with Muid containing oil droplets. They occur in the epithelial cell of small intestine, The vesicles may be digested and absorbed or moved across the cell to the opposite side where the vesicle content is released. In the small intestine, it Se cytoplasm is known as micropinoeytosis for the uptake of fat droplets. Pinocytosis occurs in other Figure 2.20 Pinoeytosis cells which include the liver cells, the cells in the proximal convoluted tubule of nephron and the white blood cells. (A) Exocytosis Exocytosis is the reverse of endocytosis, in whieh the cell egests or secretes substances Mechanism of exocytosis is shown in Figure 2.21. A vacuole with waste produets or a vesicle from Golgi complex: moves towards plasma fuses with it and releases its content Examples of exocytosis are: Cell egestion: ‘This happens in the amoeba or the white blood cell in which undigested solid from phagocytosis is egested Figure 21 Exocytosis This happens in the glandular cells such as cells in the thyroid glands that secrete hormones. or cells in the tubular glands in large intestines that secrete mucus, 30Grade 11 Biology Textbook Rae . What property of water provide a stable environment for the organisms that live in them? . State the property of water that causes the cooling of skin during sweating. Give the meaning of the term ‘polymer’ with examples, . Define monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides. . Name the monomers present in each of the following macromolecules’ (a) amylose (b) glycogen (c) cellulose (d) protein 6. The formula for hexose is Cg Hy Og,What would be the formula of (a) a triose and (b) a pentose? 7. Name the monomers present in cellulose and proteins. 8. What do carbohydrates, fats and oils have in common? 9, How do fats differ from oils? 10. What is the chemical composition of a triglyceride? 11. Give a brief account of the role lipids play in healthy diet. 12. What are the functions of lipids? 13. Define proteins and name its four basic structures. 14, Explain the tertiary structure of protein. 15. List the types of proteins named according to its functions, 16. Describe any three functions of proteins with examples, 17. What are enzymes? Explain why one molecule of enzyme can catalyze the same reaction many times. 18, Use a diagram to show how enzymes work. 19. Give a diagrammatic explanation on the activity of coenzyme. 20. Describe the structure of a nucleotide, 21. Name two types of nucleic acid and describe their functions, 22. Tabulate the comparison between the nucleotides of DNA and the nucleotides of RNA. 23. How does DNA differ from RNA both in its structure and in its distribution in the cell? 24. How do substances get into and out of the cell? 25. Discuss the structure of the cell membrane. 26. Give two functions of glycoproteins in the cell membrane. 27. Describe the functions of phospholipid layer and cholesterol in the cell membrane. 28. With appropriate examples, define the term diffusion. 29. Give the factors affecting the rate of diffusion. 30. What are the osmosis? 31. How would you define ‘water potential”? 32. What would happen if (a) an animal cell (b) a plant cell are immersed in a hypotonic solution? 33. Explain, with suitable examples, what is meant by (a) facilitated diffusion and (b) active transport. 34. Compare and contrast endocytosis and exocytosis, 35. Give a diagrammatic explanation on the process of phagocytosis. pawn 31Textbook, Biology Grade 11 BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES, [Carbohydrates] [Lipids ) [Proteins] [Enzymes -__y [ Nucleic Acids Properties | | Characters. Structures ‘Components and DNA Functions Gx Fait aids eee between DNA and RNA Starch} (Gyeogen) [Cellulose] [Chitin | [Diffusion | | Facilitated diffusion | ‘Osmosi } [Endocytosis | Exocytosis) Water potential | Osmotic concentration | Phagocytosis | Isotonic solution Hypotonie solution Hypertonic solution 32Textbook Biology Grade U1 CHAPTER 3 HESIS AND RESPIRATIO! Learning Outcomes It is expected that students will be able to + recognize the important process of photosynthesis carried out by the plants. + describe the aerobic and the anaerobic respirations which take place in living cells. + carry out the investigations on photosynthesis and respiration processes. + explain the relationship between photosynthesis and respiration. 3.1 PROC OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS, Plants use carbon dioxide and water in the presence of chlorophyll and light to compose glucose and oxygen. This process is called photosynthesis. Photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplasts of the ;een parts of plants but mainly in the leaves. sco, + = 12Ho EB CHO, 60, + 64,0 240 + 2 ‘Chlorophyll a 3 ae Carbon dioxide ‘Water Glucose Oxygen ‘Water 3.1.1 Structure of a Leaf Most green parts ofa plant can photosynthesize but the leaves are best adapted for this function. The struct eof a le: can be seen in Figure 3.1 Wes need to have For photosynthesis efficiency, | surface area to absorb light, much chlorophyll to catch the light, veins including xylem and phloem to supply water and a system for earryi away the photosynthetic products to other parts of the plant. They also release oxygen and water from the lea cells. Most leaves are thin, flat structures supported by petiole which support the leaf blade to be angled to receive the maximum amount of sunlight. Inside the leaf are layers of cells with different functions. leaf blade (lamina) vein midrib petiole (a) whole leaf 33Grade 11 Biology Textbook (b) transverse section of a leaf this part is greatly enlarged below vein f cell in a leaf (C) arrangement of cell in a leat one xylem vessel upper epidermis palisade mesophyll — xylem vesel spongy __| phloem mesophyll seieve tube air space vein phloem sieve tube guard stoma lower cell epidermis Figure 3.1 Structure ofa leat Epidermis The epidermis is a single layer of cells on the upper and lower surfaces of the leaf. In many plants, there is a thin waxy layer called the cuticle over the epidermis. In most dicotyledonous plants, the stomata oceur only in the lower epidermis. In monocotyledonous plants, the stomata are equally distributed on both surfaces of the leaf. Mesophyll The tissue between the upper and lower epidermis is called mesophyll. It consists of upper palisade mesophyll layer and lower spongy mesophyll layer. The palisade mesophyll cells are usually long and contain many chloroplasts. The spongy mesophyll cells vary in shape and are loosely arranged with many air spaces between them. ‘They also contain chloroplasts. The major vein of the leaf is called the midrib continuation of petiole from which the veins are branched off as a network throughout the leat'surface. Vascular bundles are existed in the petiole, midrib and veins. They consist of two different tissues: xylem and phloem. In xylem, vessels are cylindrical, hollow and thick walled cells. The phloem consists of sieve tubes which are elongated cells and the transverse walls of sieve tubes are perforated sieve plates. 34Textbook Biology Grade 11 No. Cell layer Functions 1 |Upper epidermis |The epidermis helps to keep the leaf’s shape and to reduce water loss. The epidermal cells are thin to allow light to pass through. Chloroplasts are absent. They act as a barrier to disease organisms. 2 [Palisade mesophyll | It exposes many cells to light rays, photosynthesis takes place mainly in this region, 3 |Spongy mesophyll | It allows diffusion of carbon dioxide and oxygen in and out of mesophyll cells, photosynthesis also takes place in this region. 4 | Veins ‘They consists of vascular bundles (xylem and phloem) and support the leaf. Xylem carries water and minerals absorbed by roots to leaves. Phloem transports photosynthetic products to other parts of the plant, 5 [Lower epidermis _/ It protects inner tissues and reduces the water loss. The stoma is the site of gaseous exchange into and out of the leaf. Chloroplast Chloroplast is a membrane bound organelle containing chlorophyll a, b and other pigments, Plant cells contain chloroplasts which are green in colour, The most important function of chloroplast is to synthesize food by the process of photosynthesis, Structure of chloroplast Chloroplasts found in higher plants are generally biconvex shaped. In different plants, chloroplasts have different shapes, such as spheroid, filamentous, saucer, discoid or oval in shape. They are vesicular and have a colourless center as in ire The parts of a chloroplast are as follows: (a) Outer membrane ~ It is a semi-porous membrane and is permeable to small molecules and ions which diffuse casi (b) Intermembrane space ~ It isa thin space about 10-20 nm and it lies between the outer and the inner membranes of the chloroplast. (c) Inner membrane ~The inner membrane of the chloroplast forms a border to the stroma, Te regulates passage of materials in and out of the chloroplast. (d) Stroma — Protein rich aqueous fluid is present within the inner membrane of the chloroplast. ‘The space outside the thylakoid is called the stroma. ‘The chloroplast DNA, ribosomes, the thylakoid system, starch granules and many proteins are found in the stroma. The stroma is the site for the dark reaction of photosynthesis. (e) Thylakoid system ~The thylakoids are suspended in the stroma, They are membranous sacs which are arranged in stacks known as grana, Each granum contains around 10 - 20 thylakoids. The thylakoid membrane is the site for the light reactions of photosynthesis. 35Grade 11 Biology “Textbook outer membrane inner membrane granum. intermembrane space Figure 3.2 Structure of chloroplast Chlorophy The green pigment chlorophyll is present on the membrane of thylakoid in the chloroplast. Chlorophyll refleets mostly the green portion of light. ‘The other wavelengths of light (blue-480 nm and red-700 nm) are almost totally absorbed by chlorophyll and light energy is transformed into chemical energy. 3.1.2. Light and Dark Reactions of Photosynthesis Photosynthesis is the process of conversion of light energy into chemical energy which ean be utilized by the living organisms. This process is complex which is carried out through various stages. Photosynthesis comprises of two phases: the light reaction and the dark reaetion, ‘The light reaction takes place on the thylakoid membrane of chloroplast and the dark reaction takes place in the stroma of the chloroplast, The whole process of photosynthesis takes place within the chloroplast Figure 3.3 Light reaction The light reaction is a light-dependent process which includes a series of events such as light absorption, photolysis and release of oxygen and formation of chemical compounds; ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) and NADPH (Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate) 2H,0 + 2NADP’ + 3ADP + 3P, (phosphate ion) ——> 0, + 2NADPH + 3ATP Dark reaction ‘The dark reaction is also called Calvin eyele, It is a light-independent process in which sugar molecules are formed by using carbon dioxide with the help of ATP and NADPH produced from the light reaction, This reaction converts six molecules of carbon dioxide into one sugar molecule i.e. glucose. 36‘Textbook Biology Grade 11 6CO, + 18ATP + 12NADPH ——> C,H,,0, + 6H,O + 18ADP + 18Pi + 12NADP Light reaction (Light-dependent) | Dark reaction (Light-independent) Light energy: Chemical energy (ATP, NADPH) od L Chemical energy: Chemical energy (ATP, NADPH) | (CHO) co, stroma thylakoid chloroplast glucose Figure 3.3 Light and dark reactions of photosynthesis Difference between light and dark reactions Light reaction Dark reaction (Occurrence | the presence of light the absence of light Phase photochemical phase biochemical phase Place in the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast | in the stroma of the chloroplast Tons NADP utilizes H" ions to form NADPH ‘The H’ of NADPH combines with CO. Molecules |The water molecules split into hydrogen and | Glucose molecules using CO, oxygen End product | ATP and NADPH Glucose Photolysis [occurs does not occur 37Grade 11 Biology Textbook 3.1.3 Factors Affecting Photosynthesi The rate of photosynthe temperature and carbon dioxide concentration. is varies according to the controlling factors such as light intensity, No.] Factors Effects on the rate of photosynthesis 1 |Light intensity | As the light intensity increases, the rate of photosynthesis increases until it reaches a maximum rate. 2|Temperature Under bright light, the rate of photosynthesis increases with a rise in temperature up to a maximum temperature of around 40°C. Beyond this maximum temperature, the rate of photosynthesis drops rapidly. 3 Carbon dioxide | The concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is about 0.04%. Under experimental conditions, the concentration can be increased up to a certain level, the rate of photosynthesis increases with higher carbon dioxide concentration. A” Req ‘There are four requirements of photosynthesis, namely chlorophyll, light, carbon dioxide and water. The investigations for requirements of chlorophyll, light and carbon dioxide are deseribed in this section, In each investigation, the plants must first be destarched. ments for Photosynthesis, Experiment 1. To investigate that chlorophyll is essential for photosynthesis Take a plant with variegated leaves which has chlorophyll as green patches. Sueh leaves can be found in plants like Coleus (Kadiba-ywethla), spiderwort (Tein-taung-nyo-pya) and croton (Ywethla). The leaves are destarched by placing this plant in the dark for 2-3 days, Then, the plant is placed in the day light for about 4-6 hours. A leaf is detached from the plant and tested for starch, Only the green patches previously, will turn blue-black with iodine solution. The other patches will remain brown. This shows that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis, Experiment 2. To investigate that light is essential for photosynthesis destarched pland black paper clip Figure 3.4 Investigation to show that light is essential for photosynthesis 38Textbook Biology Grade LL n leaf is sandwiched between two pi 1 placed in the Tight for a few days. The black A destarched potted plant is taken and a portion of gr black paper or black tape or aluminium foil. The plant is th paper from the leaf is removed and tested for starch Only the portion of the leaf exposed to light will turn blu black and the parts with black paper brown Therefore, 1 is necessary for photosynthesis, Experiment 3. To investigate that earbon dioxide is essential for photosynthesis, air air oe a = soda lime bell jars destarched plants NaH CO, NaOH solution A B 5 Investigation to show that carbon dioxide is essential for photosynthesis Iwo destarched potted plants are taken and covered both the plants with bell jars. These are labeled as A and B. NalICO; (sodium hydrogen carbonate) is put inside set-up A for producing carbon dioxide and NaOH (sodium hydroxide) inside set-up B to absorb carbon dioxide. Both the set-ups are placed in the sunlight at least for 6 hours. The leaves of both plants are tested forstarch. Leaf from the plant in which Nal1COs has been placed will turn blue-black, while leaf from the plant in which NaOH has been will stain brown. Plant in setup A gets carbon dioxide whereas plant in set-up B does not get carbon dioxide. It means carbon dioxide is essential for photosynthesis. 2 PROCESS OF RESPIRATION Respiration takes place in all living cells all of the time because cells need a constant supply of energy to stay alive. Respiration involves a number of chemical reactions that break down nutrient molecules, such as glucose, in living cells to release energy. There are two types of respiration: aerobie respiration and anaerobic respiration, In prokaryotic organism: kes place in the cytoplasm. In eukaryotic organisms, jon takes place in the mitochondria of cells. Anaerobic respiration takes place in the int cells, aerobic respiration aerobic respi cytoplasm of p The chemical reaction called respiration is vital for the growth, repair and survival of all livin things. The energy released during respiration is used by both plants and animals in metabolic processes. ation releases energy, while breathing is the flow of air into and out of the lungs. nimal cells and some microorganisms. 39Grade 11 Biology Textbook 3.2.1 Structure and Functions of Mitochondria A mitochondrion has two membranes, an outer membrane and an inner membrane. Each membrane is made up of phospholipid bilayer. The outer membrane covers the surface of the mitochondrion while the inner membrane has many folds called cristae. An increased surface area creates more space for more reaetions to occur and increases the mitochondria’s output. The space between the alled the inter-membrane space, and the space inside the inner membr outer and inner membranes is is called the matrix. Mitochondria produce ATP through procs ne sof cellular respiration specifically, aerobie respiration Mitochondria are analogous to a furnace or a powerhouse in the cell, its produce energy from basic components. Mitochondria have many other functions as well. They c ns homeostasis of calcium levels in the cell. They also regulate the cell’s metabolism and have roles in apoptosis (controlled cell death), cell signaling, and thermogenesis (heat production). n store calcium, which maint matrix ATP synthase particles intermembrane space inner membrane cristae outer membrane ribosome deoxyribonucleic granules acid (DNA) Figure 3.6 Structure of a mitochondrion 3.2.2. Aerobic respiration In aerobic respiration, glucose is broken down to release energy in the presence of oxygen, forming carbon dioxide and water. The balanced chemical equation for aerobie respiration is as follow. Enzymes CHO, + 60, —————> 6CO, + 6H,O + 2830kJ (36-38 ATP) Glucose Oxygen Carbon dioxide Water Energy Most of the energy released in aerobie respiration is released in mitochondria, Cells that require a lot of energy have many mitochondria, For instance, insect flight muscle has numerous mitochondria located between the muscle fibre. The mitochondria provide the energy for the muscles to contract during ht. Liver cells have a high metabolism and have many mitochondria, The epithelial cells of the small intestine absorb glucose and other molecules by active transport, so have large numbers of mitochondria. 40Textbook Biology Grade 11 wsed during respiration in plant Experiment 1. To demonstrate that carbon dioxide is rele: potassium hydroxide respiring seeds conical flask water n of the release of « Figure 3.7 Demonstrat bon dioxide during respiration Take small quantity of groundnut or bean seeds and allow them to germinate by in a conical flask imbibing them, A small glass tube containing 4 ml of potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution is hung into the conical flask with the help of a thread. The conical flask is tightly closed by the one holed cork. Take a bent glass tube, the shorter end of which is inserted into the conical flask through the hole in the cork, while the longer end is dipped in a beaker containing water. Observe the initial water level in the bent glass tube This experimental setup is kept for to hours and the seeds were allowed to germinate. Alter two hours, the level of water rises in the glass tube. It is because of the CO, evolved during aerobie respiration CO, gas is absorbed by KOH solution and the level of water rises in the glass wating seeds, TI of germ) tube. Experiment 2. To demonstrate the release of carbon dioxide during respiration in animal air in sedative —83 ———— air out lime water lime water A B Figure 3.8 Demonstration of the release of earbon dioxide during respiration in animal The living animal is placed in a glass boitle as shown in figure. Air is drawn through the thistle funnel of soda-lime which absorbs all the atmospheric carbon dioxide. Then the air passes through bottle of elear lime water to show that the carbon dioxide has been removed from the air. After passing through the flask, the air is bubbled through a bottle B of lime water. I the animal is producing carbon dionide, the ime water in the bottle A will stay elear, lime water in botle B will turn milky. The 4Grade 11 Biology Textbook 3.2.3 Anaerobic Anaerobie respiration is the breakdown of glucose into energy in the absence of oxygen, In this, . the amount of energy released is relatively small and the type of end products varies. Microorganisms such as yeast respire anaerobically by converting glucose into ethanol (alcohol) and carbon dioxide, This process is also termed as aleohol fermentation. Like aerobic respiration, the process takes place slowly and in a series of steps. proce: Enzymes CHO, ————+ 2CHOH + 2C0, + II8KI@ATP) Glucose Ethanol Carbon dioxide Energy During strenuous exercise, not enough oxygen may reach the body muscles for aerobic respiration. Musele tissue respires anaerobically to release energy. Most of the enzyme-catalysed reactions of aerobic respiration do not happen without oxygen. As a result, the glucose is not broken down to carbon dioxide and water, but to lactic acid instead, Enzymes CHO, ————> .2C,H,03 +) I8kI@ATP) Glucose Lactic acid Energy Lactic acid and oxygen debt During vigorous exercise, oxygen cannot reach the muscles fast enough, so muscle cells carry out anaerobic respiration, Therefore lactic acid builds up in the muscles and blood, and causes the oxygen debt. The oxygen debt is removed during recovery by aerobic respiration of lactie acid in the liver. Lactic acid can slowly poison muscles and cause cramps, so it must be removed from the body, Mier exercise the heart continues to beat at a fast rate in order to transport lactic acid in the blood trom the muscles to the liver. Lactic acid must be broken down in the liver by breathing faster and deeper in order to supply more oxygen. Some of the lactic acid is oxidized to produce energy. The energy is used to convert the remaining lactic avid to glucose and then aerobie respiration take place. Experiment 3. To demonstrate anaerobic respiration germinating seeds carbon dioxide killed - germinating clamp with germinating ae stand seeds test tube Experiment Control F re 3.9. Demonstration of anaerobic respiration 42Textbook Biology Grade 11 Fill atest tube with mercury and invert it over a glass bow] also containing mercury. Then introduce germinating seeds through the open end of the test tube with the help of forceps. The seeds will rise to the top of the test tube because they are lighter than mercury. Killed seeds are also used as a control. ‘After a few days, the level of mercury in the test tube falls because of the collection of gas. This gas can be shown to be carbon dioxide by testing with potassium hydroxide or lime water. The level of mereury with killed seedlings is not changed. Initially the test tube was filled with mercury hence leaving no room for oxygen, The carbon dioxide produced by the seeds must be due to anaerobic respiration. 3.24 Formation of ATP Food contains chemical energy. Respiration is the release of this energy when food, e.g. glucose is broken down in living cells. The energy produced is not used immediately but stored in the mitochondria asa chemical compound called adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is a nucleotide that consists of three main structures: the nitrogenous base, adenine; the pentose sugar, ribose; and a chain of three phosphate groups bound to ribose. High energy bond 0. cH, ~H phosphate Adenosine ‘Adenosine monophosphate (AMP) Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) ‘Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) Figure 3.10 The structure of ATP The ATP molecule is formed by bounding adenosine diphosphate to a phosphate group in cytoplasm and absorbs a relatively large amount of energy released from glucose. These molecules are used up for driving various ene system, providing requiring reactions, Thus, respiration is the key physiological process in any living ‘quired energy for other processes. 43Grade 11 Biology Textbook ” rexcimin SO *@ + CUTEY —iochondia > @& Adenosine diphosphate Phosphate release from Adenosine triphosphate (ab?) elucose (ATP) 3.2.5 Energy Released from ATP. The energy released from ATP can be used in different forms for many activities. Thisis summarized below as solvent for chemical reactions CHO, + 6 + 6H,O ————> Energy (from oxidation glucose) for cell activity Using energy The energy released from ATP can be used for a variety of purpos (a) cell division and growth (b) synthesis of proteins, fats, vitamins etc, (c) conduction of nerve (@) mainte pulses and muscular movements ance of constant body temperature (¢) active transport of molecules and ionsTextbook Biology Grade U1 Experiment 4. To demonstrate the release of energy in germinating seeds during respiration mercury level thermometers germinating seeds killed seeds thermos flasks Experiment Control Figure 3.11 Demonstration of the release of energy during respiration Fill a small vacuum flask with pea seeds which have been soaked in water for 24 hours and rinsed with 1% formalin for $ minutes. These solutions will kill the bacteria or fungi on the surface of the pea seeds. Kill an equal quantity of soaked pea seeds by boiling them for S minutes, The seeds are then rinsed in tap water. The living seeds are placed in vacuum flask and the dead seeds in a similar one, Thermometers are inserted and the mouths of the Masks are plugged with eotton wool. Afier a few days, the temperature in the Mask with the living seedlings will be higher than in the ration of germinating seeds. control, because heat energy is released during res 3.3. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND RESPIRATION Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are connected through an important relationship, This relationship enables life to survive. The products of one process are the reactants of the other. Photosynthesis makes the glucose that is used in cellular respiration to make ATP. The glucose is then tuned back into carbon dioxide, whieh is used in photosynthesis. While water is broken down to form oxygen during photosynthesis, in cellular respiration oxygen is combined with hydrogen to form water, While photosynthesis requires carbon dioxide and releases oxygen, cellular respiration requires oxygen and releas en, Without oxygen, much le s carbon dioxide. Cellular respiration works best in the presence of x; ATP would be produced. The exchange of carbon dioxide ind oxygen during photosynthesis and cellular respiration (Figure 3.12) worldwide helps to keep atmospheric oxygen and carbon dioxide at stable levels, 45Grade IL Water (11,0) )\ | Biology cearbon dioxide and water react, using )) )) light energy, to produce glucose and oxygen. Textbook Mitochondrion Glucose and oxygen react to prod ‘carbon dioxide, water and energy (ATP) Photosynthesis ‘Respiration Occurrence | It occurs only in plants and Ttoccurs in all living organisms. cyanobacteria. Light It takes place in the presence of light. | It takes place throughout the day. Place It occurs in chloroplast and is Aerobic respiration occurs in cytoplasm and dependent on light. mitochondria and is independent on light. Raw materials | It uses water and carbon dioxide. It uses carbohydrates or organic substances and oxygen. and carbon dioxide is utilized. Storage In this process, light energy is fixed | In this process, chemical energy stored in in the form of chemical energy and _| carbohydrates burns to release energy. stored in carbohydrates, Gases ‘Oxygen is liberated in this process | Oxygen is utilized and carbon dioxide is released.Textbook Biology Grade U1 1. (a) What substances must a plant take in, in order to carry on photosynthesis? (b) Where does it get each of these substances from? 2. Which parts of the plant can photosynthesize? 3. Mention how the petiole support to the leaves in photosynthesis. 4, Describe the nature and functions of the layers of the leaf in which the process of photosynthesis mainly takes place. . Why do you think that photosynthesis does not take place in the cells of the epidermis? . Tabulate the functions of the epidermis layers and vascular bundles. . List the shapes of the chloroplast in the different plants. . Explain the parts of the chloroplast in which the reactions of photosynthesis occur. . Describe the region of the chloroplast which is the site for the dark reaction of photosynthesis. 10, Which rays of light does chlorophyll absorb and reflect? 11, Write a short note on Calvin cycle with an equation. 12. State the differences between light and dark reactions of photosynthesis with table. 13. Account the setting up for experiment to show that light is necessary in photosynthesis. een aw 14, State the observation and conclusion forexperiment to show that carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis. 15. What is the effect of changing temperature on the rate of photosynthesis? 16. What is meant by ‘“destarching’ a leaf? Why is it necessary to destarch leaves before setting up the photosynthesis experiments? 17. Describe the process of respiration. 18. Mention the structure and functions of mitochondrion. 19. Write down the word equation for aerobic respiration. 20. Give two examples of anaerobic respiration. 21, State what occur when oxygen is not enough in the muscles for aerobic respiration. 22. Explain the relationship of lactic acid and oxygen debt during vigorous exerci 23. Describe the differences between aerobic and anaerobic respirations in organisms. 24, Draw a labeled diagram to demonstrate anaerobic respiration in germinating seeds. 25, Explain how the formation of ATP. 26. Enumerate the purposes using the energy released from ATP. 27. Discuss about the relationship between photosynthesis and respiration. 47Grade 11 Biology Photosynthesis and Respiration Process of Photosynthesis Structure of a leaf, cl I :hloroplast, chlorophyll Structure and functions. of mitochondria Aerobic respiration light and dark reaction (experiments) [Experiments] Formation of ATP. (Experiments) (Experiments) Process of Respiration Textbook