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Taylor Series

Taylor series are infinite sums of terms that are expressed in terms of a function's derivatives at a single point. They provide approximations of functions that become more accurate as more terms are included. A Taylor series represents the Taylor polynomials, which are polynomials that approximate the function, with the nth Taylor polynomial being of degree n. If the Taylor series converges, its sum is the limit of the Taylor polynomials and equals the function at points near the original point.

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135 views

Taylor Series

Taylor series are infinite sums of terms that are expressed in terms of a function's derivatives at a single point. They provide approximations of functions that become more accurate as more terms are included. A Taylor series represents the Taylor polynomials, which are polynomials that approximate the function, with the nth Taylor polynomial being of degree n. If the Taylor series converges, its sum is the limit of the Taylor polynomials and equals the function at points near the original point.

Uploaded by

vijay kumar honnali
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Taylor series

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As the degree of the Taylor polynomial rises, it approaches the correct function. This image shows sin x and its
Taylor approximations by polynomials of degree 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, and 13 at x = 0.

Part of a series of articles about

Calculus

 Fundamental theorem
 Leibniz integral rule
 Limits of functions
 Continuity
 Mean value theorem
 Rolle's theorem

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Differential
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Integral
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Series
Geometric (arithmetico-geometric)
Harmonic
Alternating
Power
Binomial
Taylor
Convergence tests
Summand limit (term test)
Ratio
Root
Integral
Direct comparison

Limit comparison
Alternating series
Cauchy condensation
Dirichlet
Abel

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Vector
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Multivariable
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Advanced
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Specialized

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Miscellaneous

 v
 t
 e

In mathematics, the Taylor series or Taylor expansion of a function is an infinite


sum of terms that are expressed in terms of the function's derivatives at a single point.
For most common functions, the function and the sum of its Taylor series are equal near
this point. Taylor series are named after Brook Taylor, who introduced them in 1715. A
Taylor series is also called a Maclaurin series, when 0 is the point where the
derivatives are considered, after Colin Maclaurin, who made extensive use of this
special case of Taylor series in the mid-18th century.
The partial sum formed by the first n + 1 terms of a Taylor series is a polynomial of
degree n that is called the nth Taylor polynomial of the function. Taylor polynomials
are approximations of a function, which become generally better
as n increases. Taylor's theorem gives quantitative estimates on the error introduced by
the use of such approximations. If the Taylor series of a function is convergent, its sum
is the limit of the infinite sequence of the Taylor polynomials. A function may differ from
the sum of its Taylor series, even if its Taylor series is convergent. A function
is analytic at a point x if it is equal to the sum of its Taylor series in some open
interval (or open disk in the complex plane) containing x. This implies that the function is
analytic at every point of the interval (or disk).

Contents

 1Definition
 2Examples
 3History
 4Analytic functions
 5Approximation error and convergence
o 5.1Generalization
 6List of Maclaurin series of some common functions
o 6.1Exponential function
o 6.2Natural logarithm
o 6.3Geometric series
o 6.4Binomial series
o 6.5Trigonometric functions
o 6.6Hyperbolic functions
o 6.7Polylogarithmic functions
o 6.8Elliptic functions
 7Calculation of Taylor series
o 7.1First example
o 7.2Second example
o 7.3Third example
 8Taylor series as definitions
 9Taylor series in several variables
o 9.1Example
 10Comparison with Fourier series
 11See also
 12Notes
 13References
 14External links

Definition[edit]
The Taylor series of a real or complex-valued function f (x) that is infinitely
differentiable at a real or complex number a is the power series

where n! denotes the factorial of n. In the more compact sigma notation, this can be


written as
where f(n)(a) denotes the nth derivative of f evaluated at the point a. (The
derivative of order zero of f is defined to be f itself and (x − a)0 and 0! are both
defined to be 1.)
When a = 0, the series is also called a Maclaurin series. [1]

Examples[edit]
The Taylor series of any polynomial is the polynomial itself.
The Maclaurin series of 1/1 − x is the geometric series

So, by substituting x for 1 − x, the Taylor series of 1/x at a = 1 is

By integrating the above Maclaurin series, we find the Maclaurin series


of ln(1 − x), where ln denotes the natural logarithm:

The corresponding Taylor series of ln x at a = 1 is

and more generally, the corresponding Taylor series of ln x at an


arbitrary nonzero point a is:

The Maclaurin series of the exponential function ex is

The above expansion holds because the derivative


of ex with respect to x is also ex, and e0 equals 1. This
leaves the terms (x − 0)n in the numerator and n! in the
denominator of each term in the infinite sum.

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