aluminium technologies

29.09.2015
 Prof. Dr. YÜCEL BİROL
Metallurgy and Materials Science
3rd floor room:324
Telephone: 232 301 74 57
e- mail: yucel.birol@deu.edu.tr
syllabus
 Attendance is encouraged!
 Don’t panic if you are late! Sneak in!
 Mobile phones only in silent mode!
 Be involved in classroom discussions!
I’d be happy to answer your questions.
 No office hours: You can drop by anytime
for questions, discussions!
program
week # subject
1 / 29.9 Introduction to aluminium; distinctive features
of aluminium; primary production, production
of alumina (Bayer Process); production of
aluminium metal (Hall-Heroult Process)
2 / 6.10 Melting aluminium; furnaces; crucibles; melt
contamination (impurities in aluminium melts);
melt treatment procedures-degassing.
3 / 13.10 melt treatment-degassing; fluxing, flux types;
filtration, filter types; grain refinement;
modification; alloying; mixing
program
week # subject
4 / 20.10 Assesment of melt quality; Hydrogen and inclusion
measurements, modification rating; thermal
analysis; K-mold; chemical analysis/OES, fluidity,
die soldering; gating and feeding aluminium
castings
5 / 27.10 Assesment of casting quality; macro and micro
examinations: grain size, SDAS, porosity,
6 / 3.11 Advantages of aluminium casting; foundry alloys;
alloying elements; alloy groups, designations
7 / 10.11 casting processes; HPDC, LPDC, GDC, sand casting,
rheo-thixo casting; alloy selection for casting
process; applications of foundry alloys; heat
treatment of castings
program
week # subject
8 / 17.11 Semi-continuous casting process (DC casting);
extrusion processing; solution and aging heat
treatments; aluminium profiles
9 / 24.11 continuous casting processes; Hot-cold rolling of
aluminium; foil rolling; TRC and TBC
10 / 1.12 TRC and TBC (cont’d); wrought alloys; effect of
alloying elements; alloy groups; applications;
temper designations; selection of alloys
11 / 8.12 midterm
program
week # subject
12 / 15.12 Forging of aluminium alloys; thixoforging;
aluminium foil; converted foil; packaging
applications; aluminium foam; aluminium
powder metallurgy; anodising; corrosion of
aluminium alloys
13 / 22.12 Metallography and microstructure of
aluminium alloys
14 / 29.12 presentations
15 / presentations
grading
Presentation-term paper 20%
Midterm 30%
final 50%
Course grade 100%
Presentation themes
You are expected to write a comprehensive
review article on
● Additive manufacturing of aluminium
automotive components
● Manufacture of aluminium foams
● Non-equilibrium processing of aluminium
alloys (ECAP, ARB, FSP)
● Recycling of aluminium dross
Are you ready?
Aluminium metal
Low density, strength, recyclability, corrosion
resistance, durability, ductility, formability and
conductivity make aluminium a valuable material.
Due to this unique combination of properties, the
variety of applications of aluminium continues to
increase.
We cannot fly, go by high speed train, high
performance car or fast ferry without aluminium.
We cannot get heat and light into our homes and
offices without it.
We depend on it to preserve food, medicine and
provide electronic components for our computers.
aluminium

Atomic number: 13 Electron configuration : 1s22s22p63s23p1

Atomic weight: 26.98 g
Density: 2.7 g/cc at melting point: 2.375 g/cc
Melting point: 660 C Solidification contraction

Boiling point: 2519 C

Crystal structure: FCC
aluminium
Properties of Aluminium
Oxidation states : +3, +2, +1 (1s22s22p63s23p1)
Electronegativity: 1.610
Electron affinity: 41.747 kJ/mol
Atomic radius: 1.43 Å
Atomic volume: 10.0 cc/mol
lattice constant: 4.049 Å
“This valuable metal possesses the whiteness of silver, the
indestructibility of gold, the tenacity of iron, the fusibility of
copper, the lightness of glass. It is easily wrought, is very widely
distributed, forming the base of most rocks, is three times lighter
than iron, and seems to have been created for express purpose of
furnishing us with the material for our projectile.”
Jules Vernes, “From the Earth to the Moon”, 1865
 brief history
 It was only in 1808 that Sir Humphrey Davy, the
British electrochemist, established the existence of
aluminium, and it was not until 17 years later that
the Danish scientist Oersted produced the first tiny
pellet of the metal.
 Al metal was first displayed at the Paris Exhibition
in 1855.
 aluminium was more precious than gold, silver or
platinum at that time.
 Napoleon III became enthusiastic about the
possibilities of this new material, mainly for
military purposes.
Brief history
 Deville a Frenchman was subsequently able to
produce aluminium at a cost of 37 $/kg but that
was still too high to launch the metal commercially.
 Thirty years later improvements in production
methods made in association with Hamilton Y.
Castner, an American chemist, had lowered the
price to 18 $/kg.
 The metal was still potentially plentiful and useful
but, even at this substantially reduced price, too
expensive for general use.
 The total annual output at this time was only 15
tonnes.
Brief history
 Two unknown young scientists - Paul Louis
Toussaint Héroult of France and Charles Martin
Hall of the United States - searched for the low-
cost production of aluminium.
 They worked separately, each unaware of the
other’s activities, in their respective countries.
 In 1886, the two scientists - almost
simultaneously - came up with the same new
process.
 Named as Hall-Heroult process!
Brief history
 The first World War had a dramatic effect on
aluminium production and consumption.
 In the six years between 1914 and 1919 world
output soared from 70,800 to 132,500 tonnes.
 after the very large expansion occasioned by WW I
the ground was held.
 Once the changeover to civilian production had
been carried through the increased capacity was
occupied before very long in supplying the normal
demands of industry. And this happened again, on
a much larger scale, as a result of the WW II.
Brief history
 World production of primary aluminium increased
from 704,000 tonnes in 1939 to a peak of
1,950,000 tonnes in 1943, after which it declined
considerably.
 At the end of World War II, the western world
industry had completed a threefold expansion in
capacity in the space of four to five years.
 Civilian markets had to be developed for this new
capacity. The demand for aluminium proved to
be elastic and the expanded facilities were
working at near capacity in a matter of a few
years.
Aluminium facts…
● Aluminum is the most widely used metal after
iron.
● The primary source of aluminum is bauxite.
● Aluminum is paramagnetic.
● The top three countries that mine aluminum ore
are Guinea, Australia and Vietnam. Australia,
China and Brazil lead the world in aluminum
production.
● Aluminum was once called the "Metal of Kings"
because pure aluminum was more expensive to
produce than gold until the Hall-Heroult process
was discovered.
Aluminium facts…
A piece of jewelry in the tomb of the 3rd Century
Chinese general Chou-Chu has been found to contain
85% aluminium.
Aluminum is used in fireworks to make produce
sparks and white flames. Aluminium is a common
component of sparklers.
About 80% of the mass of
an aircraft is aluminium.
Not any more!!
Boeing dreamliner!!
Atomic structure
Al has the atomic number 13. According to present
concepts, this means that an aluminium atom is
composed of 13 electrons, each having a unit
negative electrical charge, arranged in three orbits
around a highly concentrated
nucleus having a positive
charge of 13.
The 3 electrons in the outer
orbit give the aluminium
atom a valence or chemical
combining power of +3.
Crystal structure
Aluminium, like copper, silver and gold, crystallizes with the
face-centred-cubic arrangement of atoms, common to most
of the ductile metals. This means that the atoms form the
corners of a cube, with one atom in the centre of each face.
The face centred cubic structure is one of the arrangements
assumed by close packed spheres, in this case with a
diameter of 4.049 x 10-8 cm, the corners of the cube being at
the centre of each sphere.
Properties – low density
● Lightness is the key characteristic of aluminium
● 2.7 (g/cm3) = 1/3 the weight of steel
● The addition of other metals does not
appreciably change the density (plus 3%, minus
2%), except in the case of Lithium alloys where
the density of the alloy is reduced by up to 15%.
● Low weight is an advantage during assembly in
buildings and in many other applications.
Low density
● Weight is important for all transportation
applications.
● use of aluminium in vehicles reduces dead-weight
and energy consumption while increasing load
capacity.
● Low weight means reduced emissions of
greenhouse gases and pollutants
● Low weight combined with the high strength
possible with special alloys has placed aluminium
as the major material for aircraft construction for
the past sixty years.
Low density
Mercedes' M-133-55
Low density
Volume per Unit Weight
strong
● tensile strengths between 70 and 700 MPa.
● Unlike most steel grades, aluminium does not
become brittle at low temperatures. Instead, its
strength increases.
● Aluminium alloys increase in strength without loss
of ductility.
● The strength of the metal can be increased by
alloying. Mixed with small amount of
other metals, it can provide the
strength of steel, with only
one-third of the weight.
strong

iPhone 6s
super-strong '7xxx'
aluminium
strong
Ductile-Easy to form
● Aluminium is ductile
● Easy to process in cold and hot condition
● This allows design flexibility and integration in
advanced transport and building industries
● Its ductility allows products of aluminium to be
basically formed close to the end of the
product’s design.
Highly corrosion resistant
Aluminium naturally generates a protective oxide
coating and is highly corrosion resistant. Different
types of surface treatment such as anodising,
painting or lacquering can
further improve this
property.
It is particularly useful
for applications where
protection and
conservation
are required.
excellent electricity conductor
● The electrical conductivity of 99.99% pure
aluminium at 20 C is 63.8% of the International
Annealed Copper Standard (IACS).
● However, twice as good a conductor as copper
based on weight
excellent electricity conductor
The addition of other metals in aluminium alloys
lowers the electrical conductivity of the aluminium.
Heat treatment also affects the conductivity since
elements in solid solution produce greater resistance
than undissolved constituents.
excellent electricity conductor
The very good electrical properties of aluminium
have made it an obvious choice
for applications in the electrical
industry, particularly in power
distribution where it is used
almost exclusively for overhead
transmission lines and busbars.
The first major aluminium
transmission line
was completed in
1898 in the USA
Excellent thermal conductor
The thermal conductivity, , of 99.99% pure
aluminium is 61.9% of the IACS,
and again because of its low specific gravity its mass
thermal conductivity is twice that of copper.
The thermal
conductivity is
reduced slightly
by the addition of
alloying elements.
Long life – low maintenance!
● All materials suffer degradation from weather
conditions, corrosion and decay.
● Aluminium forms a protective oxide coating
that is immediately reformed if cut or
scratched that makes it highly corrosion
resistant; it is very well suited to surface
treatments such as anodic oxidation.
● This prolongs the life of aluminium in cars and
buildings
● Reduces need for maintenance
● Reduces environmental impacts due
to replacements and maintenance
Long-lasting
All materials suffer degradation
from weather conditions,
corrosion and decay.
Aluminium’s natural ability to
resist these influences better
than many materials is one of
its most widely appreciated
features.
The durability of aluminium
applications, such as in
building structures, clearly
demonstrates this.
Non-magnetic
Aluminium alloys are very slightly paramagnetic, as
it has a magnetic permeability slightly greater than
one.
The low magnetic characteristic of aluminium is of
value in military ship structures where it has
advantages of lightness and lower cost over other
non-magnetic metals.
It is also used to advantage in electronic equipment
for screening and as heat sinks, usually in the form
of finned extruded profiles.
aluminium is often used in magnet X-ray devices to
avoid interference of magnetic fields.
Cryo-tolerant
In contrast to steel, titanium and many other
materials that become brittle at very low (cryogenic)
temperatures, aluminum remains ductile and even
gains strength as temperature is reduced.
This property makes aluminum highly useful in very
cold climates and for transporting
extremely cold materials such as
liquefied natural gas (-162°C).
joinable
Aluminum alloys can be joined by
all appropriate major methods, including welding,
riveting, mechanical connections, and adhesive
bonding.
Features facilitating easy jointing are often
incorporated into profile design.
Fusion welding, Friction Stir Welding, bonding and
taping are also
used for joining.
Fire-proof/non-combustible
● Aluminium in buildings, construction and
transport is fire-proof
● Will only burn if shaped as very thin film
● Will melt at 660° C without releasing any gases
Great reflector
● Can reflect both heat and light
● Plain aluminium reflects about 75% of the light
and 90% of the heat radiation that falls on it.
Combined with its light weight, this makes
aluminium ideal for reflectors like light fittings,
rescue blankets
● High energy efficiency in the reflectors reduces
energy consumption
● combined properties of high
reflectivity and low emissivity give
rise to the use of aluminium foil as
a reflective insulating medium
Great reflector
Reflectance and emissivity
The emissivity of the aluminium surface can be
raised considerably by anodic treatment.
Clear anodic coatings raise the emissivity to
between 35 and 65%, the phosphoric and chromic
acid methods being the most effective in this
respect. Black anodic coatings have
an even greater effect and raise it as high as 95%.

an ideal material for reflectors

in, for example, light fittings or
rescue blankets.
Perfect for food packaging
● Aluminium foil is completely impermeable –
no taste, aroma or light gets in or out
● non-toxic and odorless
● Widely used in food and drink packaging
● Efficient conservation of food reduces wastage
● Low weight reduces packaging and energy
consumption in transportation
● Impermeability also reduces cooling needs
Perfect for food packaging
Perfect for food packaging
Completely impermeable and
odourless
Aluminium foil, even when rolled to
just a 0.007 mm thickness, is still
completely impermeable and lets
neither light, aroma nor taste
substances in or out.
Moreover, the metal itself is
non-toxic and releases no aroma or taste substances which
makes it ideal for packaging sensitive products such as food
or pharmaceuticals.
Aluminium is therefore widely used in food and drink
packaging.
Easy to recycle
● Aluminium is 100% recyclable with
no downgrading of its qualities..
● Re-melting of aluminium requires
little energy; total loss in the re-
melting process is less than 3%
● Only 5 percent of the energy
required to produce the primary
metal initially is needed in the
recycling process
● About 75% of all aluminium
ever produced is still in use;
infinitely recyclable!
Other properties
Linear expansion
Compared with other metals, aluminium has a
relatively large coefficient of linear expansion. This
has to be taken into account in some designs.

Machining
Aluminium is easily worked using most machining
methods – milling, drilling, cutting, punching,
bending, etc. Furthermore, the energy input during
machining is low.
Screening EM radiation (EMC)
Tight aluminium boxes can effectively exclude or
screen off, reflect electromagnetic radiation.
The better the conductivity of a material, the
better the shielding qualities.
Aluminium is the material of choice for enclosures
radio-operated equipment
but also all electrical and
electronic devices,
equipment and systems in
respect of electromagnetic
compatibility.
Primary
production
reserves
the most abundant (8.3% by weight) metallic
element and the third most abundant of all elements
(after oxygen and silicon).
Because of its strong affinity to oxygen, it is almost
never found in the elemental state.
instead it is found in oxides or silicates.
It constitutes
about 7.8 wt%
of the earth’s
crust.
Elements found in earth’s crust
bauxite
aluminium is produced from bauxite, which contains
40 to 60 wt% impure hydrated aluminum oxide
(aluminum oxide with attached water molecules!)
The other components of bauxite typically include
iron oxide
silicon oxide
titanium oxide
water

Bauxite from Little Rock, Arkansas

Typical bauxite composition
Component wt%
Other minerals
Feldspars, micas and clay contain Al203 between 15
and 40 wt%.

Feldspar mica clay

Ontario, CANADA Ontario, CANADA Estonia
Bauxite mining
● The richest and most economical bauxite ores
are often found close to the earth’s crust in
tropical and subtropical areas.
● Worldwide reserves of bauxite ores are
estimated to last for another 500 years at recent
consumption rates.
● Clays and other minerals could, if necessary,
provide an almost limitless source of alumina.
Bauxite mining
The vast majority of world bauxite production is mined from
open surface pits, by conventional digging machinery,
while the rest,
mainly from
Southern Europe
and Hungary, is
from underground
excavations.
World production:
130x106 tons/year
70 % in Australia,
Guinea, Brazil and
Jamaica
Bauxite mining

Alcan Australia

Alcan Quebec,
canada
Bauxite mining
The area affected by
bauxite mining is about
160m²/kt.
Bauxite mining
The original flora and fauna of much of the land involved in
bauxite mining is restored once mining operations have
ceased. For all forest areas used for bauxite mining, 80% is
returned to native forests, the rest is replaced by agriculture,
commercial
forest, or recreational
area, thereby making
the area more productive
for the local community.
As far as rain forests in particular
are concerned, however, the area
used for bauxite mining in rain
forests is almost totally reverted
back to rain forest.
Bauxite mining
Bauxite reserves
Share from
country Bauxite reserve world reserves
Bauxite reserves in Turkey

Estimated total: 68.910.000 tons

Milas, Muğla / Seydişehir, Konya / Akseki, Antalya /
Saimbeyli, Adana / İslahiye, Gaziantep / Hassa, Hatay
production of aluminium from
bauxite
Bauxite has to be processed into pure aluminium
oxide (alumina) before it can be converted to
aluminium metal by electrolysis.
This is achieved through the use of the Bayer
chemical process in alumina refineries.
bauxite

Bayer process patented in

Germany in 1888 by Joseph Bayer!

alumina
Production of aluminium from
bauxite
bauxite Bayer process is used to produce
alumina from bauxite (process
patented in Germany in 1888 by
Joseph Bayer!)
alumina
Hall-Heroult process is employed
to produce aluminium from
alumina
Commercialization in 1886
aluminium Pittsburg Red Co. (Alcoa)
Bayer Process
benefication
bauxite Benefication may be employed via
washing, depending on the state
and the quality of the bauxite.
Bauxite is prepared for the caustic
treatment by crushing into smaller
pieces.
Caustic treatment “digestion”
Filtration
precipitation
alumina calcination
Alumina production
benefication

Digestion  filtration  precipitation  calcination

Caustic treatment “digestion”
● Crushed, washed and dried bauxite is treated with
caustic soda (NaOH) at high temperatures, under
high vapour pressures.
Al2O3 + 2NaOH + 3H2O  2NaAlO2 + 4H2O
● Aluminium oxide inside bauxite is converted into
soluble sodium aluminate, dissolves in caustic soda
and is thus seperated from the other insoluble
oxides.
● concentration, temperature and pressure in the
digester are adjusted according to the
characteristics of the bauxite mineral.
Caustic treatment “digestion”
● for minerals rich in Gibsite; T=140C
for minerals rich in Boehmite: 200-240C
● pressure: approximately 35 atm at 240C.
● while high temperatures appear to be favourable,
corrosion risk increases!
other oxides may start to dissolve in caustic at
high temperatures!
filtration
● While alumina is dissolved in the caustic
soda, insoluble impurities are retained in
RED MUD.
● This mixture is filtered to remove the red
mud, which is then discarded.
● The clarified alumina solution is transferred
to tanks called “precipitators.”
precipitation
● Hot alumina solution is allowed to cool inside the
precipitator.
● Aluminium hydrate in the caustic liquoir solution is
precipitated:
2H2O + NaAlO2  Al(OH)3 + NaOH
● Sodium aluminate solution is seeded with crystals
of hydrated aluminum to promote the formation
of aluminum hydrate particles.
● As the seed crystals attract other crystals in the
solution, large clumps of aluminum hydrate begin
to form.
precipitation
● The precipitated aluminium hydroxide is
collected at the bottom of the tank and is
removed.
● Hydrate crystals are grouped according to their
size.
● Fine crystal fraction is returned back to
precipitation step.
● The insoluble mud from the precipitator is
washed to recover the caustic soda which goes
back to the precipitation process.
calcination
● The separated aluminum hydroxide is washed to
remove residues of caustic soda and is heated to drive
off excess water in long rotating kilns called
“calciners”.
2Al(OH)3  Al2O3 + 3H2O
● Aluminum oxide (alumina) emerges as a fine white
powder that looks like granulated sugar but is hard
enough to scratch glass. The widely-used abrasives
corundum and emery are forms of alumina.
● Refined alumina consists of about equal weights of
aluminum and oxygen, which must be separated in
order to produce aluminum metal.
Alumina production-summary
Red
mud
digestion
bauxite T: 170…180 C filtration Na[Al(OH)4]

NaOH
Al(OH)3
crystallization
Seeding to facilitate
precipitation
precipitation

Aluminium Rotary kiln

oxide calcination
Production of Alumina-summary
 immersing crushed bauxite into a caustic soda solution
which dissolves the alumina to form sodium aluminate
liquor.
 After filtering, the impurities are left behind as a "red
mud" and the liquid is treated to precipitate the
aluminium content out of the solution which is now in
the form of aluminium hydroxide.
 This material is then separated from the liquor and
changed to alumina, which resembles course
granulated sugar, by heating in kilns at 1000°C.
 Approximately 4 kilogrammes of bauxite is required to
produce 2 kilogrammes of alumina.
Production of alumina
In 2010, 87.4 mil tonnes of alumina were produced
world-wide.
Alumina refineries
are often located
near to bauxite
mines for logistics
reasons.

QAL Alumina
plants
Queensland
Australia
Production of alumina
Rusal Aluminium (Ireland) works: 1.800.000 ton/year
alumina production capacity. One of the most
modern
plants in
Europe.
Production of alumina
ETİ ALUMINIUM Seydişehir: processes 400,000 ton
bauxite!
Alumina production-red mud
Red mud
reservoir
Stade,
Almanya

Red mud is
generated at the rate of 77 million tons/year and is
thus a major concern for aluminium industry
Primary production
alumina
Primary production
Production of Al from Al2O3
Aluminum and oxygen form such a strong chemical bond
that it takes a very large amount of energy to separate
them by heating. Although Al as a pure metal melts at
about 660°C; Al2O3 requires a temperature of about
2015°C before it will melt.
Chemical methods of breaking down aluminum oxide
developed in the mid-19th century were so expensive that
metallic Al cost as much as
Ag. The small amounts of Al
that were produced were used
mainly for jewelry and
other luxury items.
Production of Al from Al2O3
Early researchers thought of using electricity to
separate aluminum from its oxide in solution but
were frustrated by seemingly
● high energy requirements;
● the inadequacy of their only source of electricity-
batteries;
● and the insolubility of alumina in water.
The invention of the rotary electric generator, the
dynamo, in 1866 solved part of that problem.
However, that was not enough for economic
production!
Production of Al from Al2O3
● The other part was solved in 1886 by Charles Martin
Hall in the United States and Paul L.T. Heroult in
France.
● Hall and Heroult found that alumina would dissolve
in cryolite (a sodium aluminum fluoride salt-
Na3AlF6) at about 950°C.
● Once dissolved, the aluminum oxide is readily
separated into Al and O by electric current.
● Cryolite has the practical advantages of stability
under process conditions and a density lower than
that of aluminum, allowing the newly-forming
metal to sink to the bottom of the reduction cell.”
Electrolysis
● Primary aluminium is produced in reduction plants
(smelters), where pure Al is extracted from alumina
by the Hall-Héroult process.
● The reduction of alumina into liquid Al is operated
at around 950 C in a cryolite bath under high
intensity electrical current.
● This process takes place in electrolytic cells (or
“pots”), where carbon cathodes form the bottom of
the pot and act as the negative electrode.
● Anodes (positive electrodes) are held at the top of
the pot and are consumed during the process when
they react with the oxygen coming from the
alumina.
Electrolysis
● oxygen merges with the carbon used to line the cell
and escapes in the form of carbon dioxide.
● molten aluminium tapped from the pots is transported
to the cast house where it is alloyed in holding furnaces
by the addition of other metals (according to the users
needs), cleaned of oxides and gases, and then cast into
ingots.
● These can take the form of extrusion billets, for
extruded products, or rolling ingots, for rolled
products, depending on the way it is to be further
processed.
● Aluminium mould castings are produced by foundries
which use this technique to manufacture shaped
components.
Hall-Heroult Process
Electrochemical process to reduce alumina into
aluminium
Alumina is dissolved in
molten kryolite:
Na3AlF6 + Al2O3 +
AlF3(-excess) + CaF2
T= 960C
I = 200-240kA
E  4V
Hall-Heroult Process
Inner lining of each cell serves as the cathode.
Anode is manufactured from carbon.
Cathode lasts longer since it does not take part in
the reaction
Solid crust of Electrolyte Graphite anodes

a deep
steel
mold Al2O3
lined dissolved
with in molten
cryolite
carbon
Molten
aluminium
Graphite
Molten insulator
cathode
aluminium
Hall-Heroult Process
Reactions:
cathode: 4 (Al3+ + 3e  Al(l) )
anode: 3 (C(s) + 2O2-  CO2(g) + 4e)
4Al3+ + 3C(s) + 6O2-  4Al(l)+3CO2(g)
(2Al2O3 (cryolite) + 3C (anode)  4Al(liq) + 3CO2 (g))

Oxygen atoms, separated from aluminum oxide,

carry a negative electrical charge and are attracted
to the positive poles in each pot.
These poles, or anodes, are made of carbon which
immediately combines with the oxygen, forming the
gases carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide.
Hall-Heroult Process
These gases bubble free of the melt, leaving behind
the aluminum which collects at the bottom of the
pot.
The negative electric pole, or cathode, forms the
inner lining of each pot. It is also made of carbon.
As a cathode it does not react with the melt, so it
has a long service life.
When sufficient molten aluminum has collected at
the bottom of a pot, it is siphoned into a crucible
for transport to alloying and casting facilities. The
aluminum produced by the Hall-Heroult process is
more than 99 percent pure.
Hall-Heroult Process
Energy consumption is extremely high!
Hence, primary production plants are almost
always located close to economic energy sources.
Some of these plants have access to energy via
their own establishments!
Hall-Heroult Process
Hall-Heroult Process
● The Hall-Heroult process uses a lot of electricity
but only a low voltage, so it is practical to
connect many reduction cells, or “pots”, in
series along one long electrical circuit, forming a
“potline.”
● Modern cells are operated with currents of
around 250,000 amperes but at only four or five
volts each.
● Such cells use about six or seven kilowatts of
electricity per pound of aluminum produced.
● The heat generated by electrical resistance
keeps the solution molten.
Hall-Heroult Process
● The process, therefore, steadily consumes the
carbon anodes, which must be renewed either
by regular replacement or by continuous
feeding of a self baking paste (Soderberg
anode).
● About 225 g of carbon is consumed for every
455 g of aluminum produced.
● Most aluminum reduction plants include their
own facilities to manufacture carbon anodes,
each of which may weigh 270 - 320 kg and must
be replaced after about 14 days of service.
anodes
● There are two types of anodes currently in use.
● All potlines built since the early 1970s use the
prebake anode technology, where the anodes,
manufactured from a mixture of petroleum coke
and coal tar pitch (acting as a binder), are pre-
baked in separate anode plants.
● In the Soederberg technology, the carbonaceous
mixture is fed directly into the top part of the
pot, where self-baking anodes are produced
using the heat released by the electrolytic
process.
 entire production cycle
Chemical bauxite precipitator
proses
NaOH crusher cooler
filter Rotary kiln

Al2O3.3H2O
“digester”
Red mud Al2O3
AlF3
Na3AlF6 syphon
crucible
casting
Molten
electrolyte Holding furnace
cell Aluminium ingot

electrolytic process
Steps of aluminium production
Alumina production melting alloying and casting
2 kg Al2O3 1 kg Al
4 kg bauxite

carbon
2 kg alumina anode
(Al2O3)
Gas
scrubber

Cryolite
bath

Steel pot

carbon cathode ingot billet rolling

slab
Aluminium production
The world production of primary aluminium reached about
44 million tonnes in 2011.
The average annual production growth over the last 20 years
has been %3-4.
China is by far the largest producer, and also has the highest
growth rate.
The Gulf region
also has a significant
growth, while
production in most
other areas either
has declined or been
stagnant
in recent years.
primary aluminium
Aluminium output has increased by a factor of 13 since
1950, making aluminium the most widely used non-
ferrous metal.
In 2010, the world-wide production of primary aluminium
was about 42.6 million tonnes per year for installed
capacity of 53.6 million tonnes.
Very recently China developed its aluminium production
very rapidly, and it is the biggest producer in the world
with over 17 million tonnes of production.
In Europe the main producing countries are Germany,
France, Spain, Norway and Iceland. World-wide,
production plants are mainly located where suitable
electrical energy resources are available.
aluminium production
Aluminium production
Aluminium production in EU
Aluminium production in Turkey
(tons)

Extrusion ingot rolled foil conductors others

 Aluminium imports in Turkey (Tons)

Aluminium ingots is the

most imported item!
ton

İngot rolled foil scrap others conductors Extrusion

Aluminium use

castings Rolled
%23.1 products
%41.5

extrusions
%29.3
wire/cable
others %6.1
Aluminium use
Aluminium use (%)
construction 25
transport 24
packaging 15
Electric/electronic 10
General engineering 9
furniture/office items 6
İron & steel, metallurgy 3
Chemical and agriculture industries 1
others 7
Aluminium industry in Turkey
Aluminium industry in Turkey
Primary aluminium production: Eti Alüminyum A.Ş.
per year 461.000 ton bauxite/
200.000 ton alumina /
60.000 ton molten aluminium
Number of companies>1500
employement>30000
Production capacity750.000 ton
consumption:
2006 446.000 ton
2007 526.000 ton
2008 556.000 ton
Per person  9 kg
AB  30kg
turnover : 4 billion US Dolar
Aluminium production in Turkey
(1000 ton)
Foreign trade in Turkey (billion
US Dolars)
See you next week!
Melting aluminium
Aluminium ingot Returns/chips/scrap
(primary production) recycling

Melting furnace

mixing/homogenization
technological fluxing
melt treatments gas + inclusion removal
drossing + filtration
alloying
Melting aluminium
● Aluminium foundries are advised to operate seperate
melting and holding furnaces.
● The melting furnace is used to melt ingots, scrap and
returns.
● The holding furnace is used to maintain the molten
alloy transferred from the melting furnace at the
casting temperature with a uniform chemistry.
● Only final and minor adjustments are made at the
holding furnace.
● Fuel oil and natural gas are employed for melting
furnaces, electric energy for holding furnaces.
● The former is cheaper but electricity offers higher
quality.
 Energy required to melt 1 kg aluminium (kJ)
Melting aluminium

temperature (C)
Melting aluminium
Energy required to cast 1 ton aluminium (kwh)

To heat the liquid aluminium

to the casting temperature:
%8
To melt the charge: %34

To bring the temperature

of the charge to the
melting point: %58

temperature (C)
Reverbatory furnaces
energy: fuel oil, natural gas!
Burners are mounted on the furnace walls.
Heat transfer: radiation from the furnace walls +
convective heat transfer from the burners
capacities <150 ton! / relatively low capital cost
reverbatory furnaces
Reverberatory furnaces have gas or oil burners firing
within a refractory hood above the metal bath.
The burner flame is deflected from the roof onto the
hearth. They are used as batch melters.
They are simple and have relatively low
capital cost which

door
makes them
attractive for
bulk
melting of
ingots and
foundry
returns.
reverbatory furnaces
● They are produced in a variety of configurations
such as fixed or tilting, rectangular or cylindrical
with melting capacities from 200 to 1300 kg/hr.
● Large reverberatory furnaces give rapid melting
and can handle bulky charge material, but the
direct contact between flame and charge may
lead to high metal losses, gas pick-up and
considerable oxide contamination.
● Temperature control can also be difficult.
● This type of furnace is being used less because of
its relatively low thermal efficiency ofaround 1100
kWh/tonne.
Reverbatory furnaces
Reverbatory furnaces

Melting efficiencies typically 15%-39%

Efficiency may be up by  10%-15% via
recuperation.
Reverbatory furnaces
Advantages:
Capacity: high volume melting
Operation and maintainence costs are low!
Disadvantages:
Excessive melt loss due to oxidation
increased contamination and inclusions
increased dross %3-7
low thermal efficiency %25
larger space required!
More hydrogen gas
Fluctuations in melt temperature +/- 50º C
Reverbatory furnaces
Heat loss from
Heat loss exhausts
from walls (%35-50)
air (%1-7)

gaseous furnace
burner
fuel
oxygen load

incomplete combustion heat Useful heat output

loss (%0-25) (%10-40)
Electric reverbatory furnaces
Hardly ever used for melting!
Employed as a holding furnace.
Refractory lined furnaces which rely on resistance
heating elements mounted often at the ceiling and
on the walls for heating.
Electric reverbatory furnaces
Used for melting low volumes when emissions
control, metal quality and melting efficiency are
critical.
Advantages:
low exhaust emissions!
low melt loss due to oxidation!
less furnace cleaning
Disadvantages:
high energy cost!
low production capacity and production rate!
high investment cost!
heating elements frequently replaced!
Crucible furnaces
Crucible furnaces are widely used as melters,
melter/holders and holders.
Crucible furnaces are:
simple and robust
widely available in a range of sizes
either fixed or tilting
suitable for heating by different fuels
capable of low melting losses
relatively inexpensive
Alloy changes are readily carried out and both
degassing and metal treatment can be done in the
crucible before it is removed for casting.
Crucible furnaces
Crucible furnaces fall into three main types:
● Lift-out The crucible is removed from the furnace
for pouring
● Tilting The furnace body containing the crucible
is tilted to pour the molten metal
● Bale-out The molten metal is ladled out
crucible furnaces/fuel oil-natural
gas
Crucible furnaces
fuel oil-natural gas
Indirect heating (crucible is heated to heat the load!)
Suitable for melting small (<500 kg) quantities
Advantages:
alloy can be changed easily!
maintainence costs are low!
investment cost is low!
small space required!
Disadvantages:
efficiency very low (falls down to %12!)
excessive emissions!
size limitations!
Crucible furnaces
fuel oil-natural gas
exhaust
crucible

Exhaust
gases burner
Crucible furnaces/electric
● Similar to gas fired crucible furnaces.
● Crucible is heated with resistance elements.
● Capacity is limited
● preferred when alloy change is needed
frequently.
Advantages:
low emissions!
low oxidation loss!
Disadvantages:
high energy costs
size limitations
Crucible furnaces/ electric

Surface of aluminium melt

is clean and shiny:
evidences clean melting
conditions
Gas vs electric crucible
furnaces
molten aluminium is highly
reactive, it instantly reacts
with the water vapor which
is present in all products of
combustion according to
the following equation:
2 Al + 3 H2O → Al2O3 + 3 H2
Al2O3 produces hard spots
in castings.
Gas vs electric crucible
furnaces
H2 gas is highly soluble in molten
aluminium and completely
insoluble in solid aluminium,
appearing as porosity in finished
castings which can produce
surface roughness, casting
fractures, leaky castings,
unsealable machined surfaces,
etc.
PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION LEAK
THROUGH CRUCIBLE GASKET TO REACT
WITH MOLTEN ALUMINUM
gas-fired vs electric resistance
crucible furnace
Primary A356 aluminum alloy melted in silicon carbide
crucibles in gas-fired and electric resistance furnaces,
brought to the same pouring temperature, degassed with
ultra dry nitrogen, skimmed, and poured into green sand
molds and permanent molds.
hundreds of test bar samples cast, test bars pulled, and
the results recorded, plotted, and subjected to statistical
analysis.
The results were profound: Tensile strength, yield
strength and elongation properties were almost uniformly
superior in the electrically melted samples regardless of
the type of molds used.
gas-fired vs electric resistance
crucible furnace
The mechanical properties of test bars melted in the gas-
fired furnace reached only 80% of the mean values of
electrically melted test bars.
the mechanical properties of the electrically melted
castings, were much more uniform and consistent.
The electrically melted test bar samples demonstrated
mechanical properties that were much more consistent
and tightly grouped while the natural gas melted test bars
had a much wider variation in mechanical properties.
Some natural gas melted test bars tested significantly
below the red curve mean.
gas-fired vs electric resistance
crucible furnace
gas-fired vs electric resistance
crucible furnace
The natural gas melted test bars almost invariably
broke at a dross inclusion, a hydrogen gas bubble, or
even just a thin film of aluminium oxide, while the
electrically melted test bars rarely showed any
dross, oxide or hydrogen porosity at the breaks.
gas-fired vs electric resistance
crucible furnace
Leakage of Combustion Products
● the molten aluminium in the gas-fired furnace is not
isolated from the furnace’s combustion chamber at all.
● This is because the sealing gasket between the top of
the crucible and the underside of the steel furnace
cover is made of compressible fibre insulation to allow
the crucible to expand without cracking.
● Because of the positive pressure in the combustion
chamber and the porous fiber gasket, combustion
gasses freely penetrate the gasket, immediately
coming into contact with the surface of the metal
bath.
gas-fired vs electric resistance
crucible furnace
● With the electric furnace, the relative humidity is
always the same inside and outside.
● But with the gas-fired furnace, even though there is a
flue that pipes most of the combustion gases outside,
the relative humidity inside the foundry is always
significantly higher.
● This means, in addition to the combustion gases that
are penetrating the crucible gasket, there is additional
water vapour present in the air that is coming from
various leaks in the burners, refractories, flue pipes,
etc. which can react with the molten aluminium.
aluminium technologies
6.10.2015
Side-well reverbatory furnaces
Side-well reverbatory
melting furnace.
Ideal for scarp
melting.
During the charging
period, the melt is
pumped through the
charge well, where it
melts the scrap and
then recirculates
back into the main
furnace chamber for
reheating
gas-fired vs electric resistance
crucible furnace
gas-fired vs electric resistance
crucible furnace
The natural gas melted test bars almost invariably
broke at a dross inclusion, a hydrogen gas bubble, or
even just a thin film of aluminium oxide, while the
electrically melted test bars rarely showed any
dross, oxide or hydrogen porosity at the breaks.
gas-fired vs electric resistance
crucible furnace
Leakage of Combustion Products
● the molten aluminium in the gas-fired furnace is not
isolated from the furnace’s combustion chamber at all.
● This is because the sealing gasket between the top of
the crucible and the underside of the steel furnace
cover is made of compressible fibre insulation to allow
the crucible to expand without cracking.
● Because of the positive pressure in the combustion
chamber and the porous fiber gasket, combustion
gasses freely penetrate the gasket, immediately
coming into contact with the surface of the metal
bath.
gas-fired vs electric resistance
crucible furnace
● With the electric furnace, the relative humidity is
always the same inside and outside.
● But with the gas-fired furnace, even though there is a
flue that pipes most of the combustion gases outside,
the relative humidity inside the foundry is always
significantly higher.
● This means, in addition to the combustion gases that
are penetrating the crucible gasket, there is additional
water vapour present in the air that is coming from
various leaks in the burners, refractories, flue pipes,
etc. which can react with the molten aluminium.
gas-fired vs electric resistance
crucible furnace
Effect of Relative Humidity
The net result is that the water vapour coming from
both sources is quickly reacting with the molten
metal, resulting in higher metal losses and much
greater contamination of castings from oxide, dross,
and hydrogen gas, all of which degrade the
mechanical properties of the castings produced from
metal taken from the gas-fired crucible furnace.
gas-fired vs electric resistance
crucible furnace
● Some aluminium foundries suffer from seasonal high
relative humidity.
● When the dew point reaches a certain value, scrap rates
due to excessive dross and H2 increase to high levels.
● Aluminium alloys containing more reactive elements
like Mg and Zn lose some of these elements to
oxidation, altering the alloy composition.
● Alloys such as Almag 35, which contains magnesium,
develop thick dross layers, putting casting quality at
risk. Foundries casting such alloys would worsen the
problem by employing gas-fired melting furnaces that
increase the relative humidity.
gas-fired vs electric resistance
crucible furnace
Skimming Test to verify that combustion gasses are
indeed present and reacting with molten aluminium in
gas-fired crucible furnaces.
Simply skim the molten metal surface, do not further
disturb it, and watch what happens.
Note that the clean, skimmed surface will slowly darken,
the surface will change from a shiny, reflective surface to
a dull, non-reflective surface, and the oxide “skin” which
is thin after skimming will progressively become thicker
and darker.
This is all caused by water vapor in the products of
combustion from the furnace reacting with the melt.
gas-fired vs electric resistance
crucible furnace
the surface will appear highly reflective after
skimming and the shiny surface will remain that way
much longer in an electric resistance crucible
furnace than on the gas-fired furnace.
Also, the oxide “skin” will remain thin much longer.
The surface will slightly darken after a lengthy
period of time, but at nowhere near the rate of the
gas-fired furnace.
This demonstrates that the metal stays much cleaner
substantially longer in an electric resistance melting
furnace.
gas-fired vs electric resistance
crucible furnace
Simple skimming test demonstrates aluminium
surface reaction with products of combustion.
Note clean, highly
reflective surface
in electric melting
furnace.
Tilting crucible furnaces
● The crucible tilts to discharge metal into casting
ladles.
● Popular for batches of aluminium up to 700 kg.
● The tilting crucible furnace, which may be electric
or gas, is popular as a bulk melter.
crucibles
Carbon bonded, ceramic bonded, clay-graphite
(clay-bonded)
and silicon metallurgy
Service
carbide (carbon or conditions
resin bonded)
crucibles
are used Crucible
selection
in melting and
criteria
holding aluminium
alloys.
Furnace
features
Clay graphite crucibles
● these crucibles consist of special graphites with
clay as the bonding agent.
● The clay forms a ceramic bond, some silicon
carbide may be added to improve resistance to
thermal shock.
● The graphite provides thermal and electrical
conductivity and resistance to wetting by molten
metal or salts.
● The crucible is coated with a glaze which
prevents oxidation of the graphite.
Silicon carbide crucibles
● They consist of SiC and special graphites.
● They are carbon bonded using pitch, tar or a resin.
● The crucibles are glazed to ensure high resistance
to oxidation.
● While silicon carbide crucibles are more expensive
than clay graphite, their life is longer.
● Crucible life has increased with advances in
manufacturing methods, and in furnaces used
mainly for holding, crucible lives of twelve months
or more are possible with careful use.
Using crucibles
The main points to pay attention to are:
● Avoid mechanical shock!
● Use padded tools for transport!
● Do not roll the crucible on its bottom edge or side
● Avoid damage to the protective glaze
● Crucibles can absorb moisture which can give rise to
spalling of the glaze when heating up
● Store in a dry place, not on a damp floor
● The crucible should always be preheated before charging.
● It should be charged as soon as it has reached ~ 800°C.
● The crucible wall must be cleaned immediately after
emptying to remove slag or dross.
● If not removed immediately the slag or dross will harden
and be difficult to remove.
Selecting melting crucibles
● Must be resistant to natural gas, fuel oil and
propane.
● Must be conic to allow the flame to rise by
travelling around inside the furnace (uniform
heating)!
● Must be resistant to oxidation effects!
● Must resist thermal schocks and T changes.
● Must have high thermal conductivity (to transfer
the heat inside the furnace to the load and for
uniform heating)
● High graphite crucibles offer high thermal
conductivity for a rapid melting!
Selecting melting crucibles
● Melting is slow in electric resistance furnaces.
Hence, crucibles with a superior thermal
conductivity are required.
● Crucibles with a higher graphite ratio are
appropriate.
● Crucibles used in resistance furnaces are straight
cylindrical to maintain a constant distance
between the crucible and the heating elements.
● While high SiC crucibles are selected for low
frequency induction furnaces, high clay content
crucibles are used in high frequency furnaces.
Selecting melting crucibles
Crucibles for induction
furnaces often exhibit
straight cylindrical shape.
However, for those
operations where the
crucible must be removed
from the furnace, heating
coil is wound conically.
Selecting melting crucibles
● Crucible must be resistant to thermal shock if the
temperature variations in melting operation are
frequent and large.
● Graphite offers high thermal conductivity and
nonwettability.
● Thermal shock resistance is high in an oriented
graphite structure.
● These features may be critical in melting
operations during which the temperature changes
by couple of hundred degrees in several seconds.
Selecting melting crucibles
If the crucible is always loaded with molten metal,
resistance to physical damage is not critical. However,
crucibles with high mechanical strength and resistant
to physical damage are employed if a fraction of the
load is in the form of large and
heavy blocks and if loading is
carried out manually
instead of with a automatic
loading system.
High carbon and oriented
graphite crucibles provide
excellent impact and
mechanical shock resistance.
Selecting melting crucibles
● All crucibles are resistant to chemicals and to
corrosion to some degree.
● However, some of the fluxes used in melting
aluminium are highly corrosive. Hence, crucibles
are desired to be resistant to chemical
interactions.
● Crucibles must be manufactured from dense
materials and must be coated with a protective
glaze.
Selecting melting crucibles
● Degassing of aluminium alloys is often performed
by purging aluminium melt with an inert gas and
often with nitrogen. This degassing treatment
leads to the erosion of the crucible and also has
chemical effects.
● Hence, dense, mechanically durable crucibles
with high resistance to chemical attcaks must be
used. SiC based crucibles are resistant to high
temperature erosion and to chemical corrosion.
● Graphite crucibles produced with isostatic
pressing for high density are resistant to
erosive and corrosive service conditions.
Selecting melting crucibles
drossing
A dense and nonwetting crucible will avoid dross
build up inside the crucible wall and will facilitate
crucible cleaning.
Induction heating
process of heating an electrically conducting object by
electromagnetic induction, through heat generated in the
object by eddy currents.
An induction heater consists of an electromagnet, and an
electronic oscillator that passes a high frequency alternating
current (AC) through the electromagnet.
The rapidly alternating magnetic field penetrates the object,
generating electric currents inside the conductor called eddy
currents.
The eddy currents flowing through the material heat it by Joule
heating. In ferromagnetic materials like iron, heat may also be
generated by magnetic hysteresis losses.
The frequency of current used depends on the object size,
material type, coupling (between the work coil and the object
to be heated) and the penetration depth.
Induction heating
Technical features Economic features
High melting rate High energy efficiency
Flexible melting operation Low construction cost
without heel through compact design
Minimum assembly times
Easy change of metal grades through pre-assembled
modules
Short start-up times, rapid
charge sequences
Low labour cost through
Adaptable to metallurgical high power density and
requirements, e.g. by multi- melting shop automation
frequency technology, power
shift capability, etc.
Induction furnaces
 Induction furnaces
● Induction melting is a clean melting process where
the heat source is never brought into direct
contact with the aluminium melt.
● High frequency alternating current is used to
heat metals with high electrical conductivity.
● Heat is generated directly within the metal to be
melted. The efficiency is thus high.
● This is different from other melting practices
where the heat is generated with a flame or inside
a heating element.
Induction furnaces
Advantages
%60-75 efficiency
low oxidation losses
low emissions
clean and uniform aluminium melt
● Induction melting offers the further advantage of
mixing the melt leading to improved thermal and
chemical homogeneity.
● It is the most suitable melting method for aluminium
scrap and returns.
● Energy consumption is relatively smaller with
respect to other melting methods.
induction furnaces
● Induction furnaces are energy efficient melters.
● Energy consumption is affected by the density of the
charge and the melting practice used.
● Batch melting is less efficient than using a molten
heel, a 50% molten heel being most efficient.
● Energy consumptions vary from 540 kWh/ton for a
high bulk density charge (small scrap and ingot) to
600 kWh/ton if lower density scrap (such as pressure
diecasting runners and ingot) is melted.
● While energy consumption is low, costs for melting
may be higher than for gas-fired furnaces because of
the generally high cost of electricity as a source of
heat.
induction furnaces
● The stirring effect of the induction power can be
advantageous since the charge is mixed well.
● but it exposes the molten aluminium to oxidation.
● the oxide may be drawn into the melt which can
be harmful and lead to high melting losses.
● The stirring effect causes fluxes to be entrained in
the melt,
● so it is usual to melt without flux cover, then to
switch off the current before adding the flux.
Sufficient time must be allowed for the oxides to
float out before transferring the metal.
induction furnaces
The linings are usually a dry alumina refractory,
vibrated around a steel former according to the
supplier’s instructions and heated to 750°C at 80–
100°C/hr, then held for 1–4 hrs depending on the size
of the furnace and cooled naturally before removing
the former.
Dross build-up on the linings can reduce furnace
efficiency and contribute to lining failure. Dross
should be scraped from the walls at the end of each
melt cycle while the furnace is hot. Once a week,
the furnace should be allowed to cool and any
remaining dross carefully removed using chisels.
Coreless induction furnaces
Medium frequency
induction furnaces are
efficient, clean and rapid
melting units for
aluminium.
Aluminium
induction furnaces
usually range from
500 kg to 2 tonnes
capacity and operate
at frequencies of
250–1000 Hz.
Coreless induction furnaces
While induction furnaces
are excellent melting
units, they are not
efficient holders.
When used for
melting, it is
advisable to
transfer the molten
metal to an
efficient holding furnace as
soon as it has reached the
required temperature.
Coreless induction furnaces
● metal is charged into a
crucible placed inside a
water cooled selenoid coil
carrying alternative
current!
● Energy consumption is
higher!
● But longer service life!
● Easier to pour the melt!
● Turbulence at the surface
is more!
Coreless induction furnaces
Metal is heated by the outer primary coil.
Less efficient then the channel type furnaces.
However, melting capacity is higher.
Preferred for melting fine scrap.
Is more economical in fine scrap melting than gas
fired crucible furnaces.
Advantages:
Melting efficiency %50-70
Low emissions / low oxidation losses
Homogeneous melt
Disadvantages:
High investment and process costs
Channel type induction furnaces
● Often employed as holding furnaces
● Operates at 60 Hz frequency.
● Inductor is underneath the crucible (metal)
● Melt surface is still (hence they are preferred in
melting copper which is very sensitive to oxygen
pick up).
● Provides a turbulence-free mixing of the molten
alloy
● Energy efficiency is higher than coreless
furnaces.
Channel type induction furnaces
Offers
flexibility in
geometrical
design and
configuration
Induction furnaces-comparison
Recycling
Furnaces for recycling scrap
Rotating furnaces
With a capacity of 1-
20 tons, rotary
tilting furnaces are
employed in melting
fine scrap and
returns and in
recovering
aluminium metal
from dross
Rotating furnaces
The furnace is tilted upwards to
achieve maximum heating efficiency
when heating dross. The furnace is
repositioned for tapping
once the aluminium
inside the dross is
recovered
and the
melt is
poured
into
moulds.
Rotating furnaces
● ideal for melting scrap and dross (with Al >%35)!
● Metal is charged into furnace with flux!
● Rotation of the furnace increases the contact of the
metal with the burner flame allowing faster
transfer of the heat from the refractories.
● capacity 2-5 ton
Advantage
● Ability to process scrap as well as dross
Disadvantage
● Low efficiency
● Frequent maintainence
● Salt residues
Shaft (tower) furnaces
● Higher thermal efficiency!
● These furnaces are both melting and holding units.
They consist of three chambers, the first is a
preheating area charged with a mixture of foundry
returns and ingot by a skip charging machine.
● Waste heat from the melting and holding burners
heats the charge removing moisture and oil before
melting takes place.
● The preheated charge then enters the gas-fired
melting zone and the liquid aluminium runs down
into the holding bath.
● Temperature is accurately controlled within ±5°C.
Shaft (tower) furnaces
1 Waste gas temperature control
2 Waste gas hood
3 Baffle
4 Preheating zone
5 Holding chamber
6 Charging door
7 Charging car
8 Charging unit
9 Shaft/melting zone
10 Furnace body
Gas-fired shaft furnace
Shaft (tower) furnaces
● Typical shaft furnaces range in size from a holding
capacity of 1000 kg and a melting rate of 1000
kg/hour to over 3000 kg holding and 3000 kg/hr
melting capacity.
● Shaft furnaces of much larger capacity are also
available.
● Molten aluminium is discharged to a transfer ladle
or launder either by hydraulically tilting the
holding bath or by a tap-out system.
● Energy consumption of 580–640 kWh/ton (2–2.3
GJ/ton) can be achieved with melting losses of 1–
1.5% when melting 50/50–ingot/foundry returns.
Shaft (tower) furnaces
● Operating the furnace below rated capacity has a
significant effect on energy consumption.
● A furnace working at 50% of its rated throughout
may use almost twice as much energy per ton
(1070 kWh/ton, 3.8 GJ/tonne).
● Typical metal loss in a shaft furnace melting about
50% ingot + 50% foundry returns: 1–1.2%
● Refractory life is high, with relining needed every
3 or 4 years.
● Cleaning once per shift is necessary to avoid
corundum build-up.
Shaft (tower) furnaces
● Efficiency is higher than that of reverbatory
furnaces.
● Efficiency increases further when the flue gases
are utilized to heat the charge.
● Charge heats up as it moves down the shaft and is
melted by the burners when it arrives at the bath.
● Energy efficiency is around %40-50.
● Metal loss drops from around 4-8% in reverbatory
furnaces to about %1.
Shaft (tower) furnaces
Hot flue The material to be melted is
gases loaded into the vertical shaft
Skip where it is preheated with the
loader flue gases from the melting and
holding region of the furnace!
burner

Oxide and iron molten

debris aluminium
Shaft (tower) furnaces
● The shaft is offset from the bath so that unmelted
debris does not enter the liquid metal directly -
metal enters the bath by first melting and then
running over a supporting platform, and so joining
the bulk of the melt.
● The oxide skins are left behind at the base of the
shaft, together with other unwanted debris such as
iron inserts in scrapped castings.
● The sloping hearth of the furnace can be scraped
clean of such accumulations from time to time as
melting progresses.
Shaft (tower) furnaces

Ergitme brülörleri
Comparison of furnaces
Furnace - fuel capacity metal loss efficiency

crucible (gas)

indüksiyon
induction

electric
Reverb.
gas
Rotary furnace
Stack melter (gas)
Melting furnaces
● Small foundries may use lift-out crucible furnaces in which
the metal is melted and treated in a crucible which is then
lifted out of the furnace for pouring.
● Large foundries usually melt aluminium alloy ingot and
foundry returns in a bulk melting furnace, then transfer the
metal to smaller holding furnaces near to the casting area.
● Degassing and metal treatment are usually carried out in
the transfer ladle.
● The bulk melting furnaces can be coreless induction
furnaces or, more commonly, gas-fired reverberatory or
shaft furnaces.
● The tilting crucible furnace, which may be electric or gas, is
also popular as a bulk melter. Holding furnaces may be
electric or gas.
Holding furnaces
● Melting aluminium in a bulk melting furnace exposes
the liquid metal to turbulence and oxidation.
● The low density of aluminium retards the “float out”
of oxide inclusions, and it is desirable to allow the
liquid alloy to stand in tranquil conditions to allow the
non-metallics to float out before transferring to the
casting ladle.
● A holding furnace is used to overcome this problem.
● They are frequently resistance-heated crucible
furnaces, or radiant-roof bath furnaces, in which high
insulation allows low holding power to be achieved.
● Capacities are typically 250–1000 kg, although much
larger holding furnaces are possible.
Holding furnaces
Electrically
heated
crucible
furnace.

Radiant roof holding furnace.

Dosing furnaces
● Pressure displacement dosing furnaces are
designed to hold aluminium at temperature at the
casting station and to automatically meter
accurately.
● charges of metal to the die by pressure
displacement through a refractory riser tube.
● Accuracy of pour is within ±1.5%.
● They can be used to feed pressure diecasting
machines and gravity-die carousels.
Choice of melting unit
● The number of alloys required by the foundry is a
major factor in deciding the type of melting
furnace used.
● A sand foundry may use several different alloys
each day. In this case, tilting crucible furnaces
may be the best solution even though they may
not be the most fuel or labour efficient.
Choice of melting unit
● A pressure die casting foundry, on the other hand,
may melt only a single alloy; so a bulk-melting
tower furnace or induction furnace supplying small
holding furnaces at each die casting machine is
likely to be the lowest cost solution.
● Most gravity die casting foundries have some alloys
which do not warrant bulk melting, so in addition
to a bulk melter the foundries usually have some
smaller melting furnaces, often of the crucible
type.
Choice of holding unit
● In less critical applications, such as pressure die
casting, or in foundries where inclusion control is
accomplished by filtration of the metal in the
mould, the holding furnace need not be so large
and may be designed to allow alloy adjustment,
temperature control and some metal treatment
before transfer to the casting ladle.
● In pressure and gravity die casting foundries, it is
convenient to have a holding furnace adjacent to
the die casting machine in which metal is held at
the correct temperature and from which it may
be baled out to fill the die.
Lost Crucible Process
Alcan invention / Lost Crucible Process.

disposable fibre-ceramic crucible

Lost Crucible Process
● means of preventing poor metal transfer.
● a pre-weighed slug of material is rapidly melted in
an induction furnace.
● instead of the normal refractory crucible, a
disposable fibre-ceramic crucible is used.
● Once the charge is molten and at the required
temperature, the base of the crucible is pushed
out by a vertically moving piston.
● As the piston continues to move upwards, the
base of the crucible acts as a seal and the molten
metal is introduced through the bottom of the
mould at a controlled rate.
Lost Crucible Process
● This new Alcan Lost Crucible Process will
conserve the quality of the alloy as produced by
the primary producer.
● However, for all other processes, where the metal
has to be melted in a furnace and then
transferred for casting, the problem exists of how
to test the quality of the metal.
 melt
contamination
Melt contamination
● When its surface is cleared of oxide, liquid
aluminium looks like quicksilver.
● however, the quality of the liquid underlying the
silvery surface is likely to be anything but pure or
clean metal.
● In fact, it is necessary to develop a view of the
liquid as a slurry of sundry solid debris in
suspension.
● It is only the size and quantity of solid debris
which is changed from melt to melt and from one
melting practice to another.
Melt contamination
2Al+3H2O  Al2O3+3H2 2Al + 3/2O2  Al2O3

trapped Al
dross Al2O3 film

inclusions H2/H+
Al melt
Dissolved impurities
impurities in molten aluminium
Oxides: potential sources: ingots
foundry returns
scrap
additives
melting practice

Hydrogen gas

Trace elements: e.g. alkalines

origin of oxide inclusions
● oxide skins on the surface of the material to be
melted (the oxide skin on commercial ingots is not
especially thick) arrive in the melt right from the
start of melting.
● Upon melting the charge, the oxides float free and
become dispersed in the melt.
● In the case of remelting foundry returns from a
sand casting foundry, the oxide skin is especially
thick and can remain intact during remelting and
float into the area where metal is transferred to
the casting station.
origin of oxide inclusions
● Such films finish up as complete, massive, film-like
or dross-like inclusions in finished castings.
● This direct recycling of the oxide skins occurs when
the material to be remelted is introduced directly
into the molten aluminium.
● This happens in common types of melting furnace,
such as crucible furnaces or reverberatory
furnaces.
● Whatever is added to these furnaces is
automatically submerged and is redistributed
inside and remains in suspension in the melt.
Oxides in molten aluminium
oxides-oxidation of the melt
● Molten aluminium is an extremely efficient 'getter'
for oxygen and calculations show that a vacuum of
less than 10-40 atms would be required to prevent
oxide film formation.
● Molten aluminium and its alloys immediately oxidise
forming an oxide skin.
● In pure aluminium this is Al2O3 but the presence of
Mg in the alloy can cause the oxide to form as
MgO.Al2O3 (spinel).
● Al2O3 and MgO.Al2O3 have nearly the same density
(only 5% less) with liquid aluminium; so flotation of
oxide inclusions is slow.
oxidation-oxides
● The oxide skin has a protective effect, preventing
catastrophic oxidation of the melt (which occurs
when magnesium is melted) but it causes problems
during melting and also during casting.
● An oxide film can form even as the metal is filling
the mould and can give rise to entrained oxide in
the casting harming the physical properties of the
casting and possibly causing leaking castings.
● entrained oxide films in aluminium alloy castings
have harmful effects.
oxidation
temperature   Oxidation 
furnaces
transfer systems
in-line rafination unit HEAT LOSSES MUST BE
AVOIDED!

excessive heating of the melt must be avoided!

melting furnace T < 760C
holding furnace T < 730C
TEMPERATURE CONTROL!
SOUND PRACTICES!
 Oxidation rate (mg/cm2/h)
Oxidation

T (C)
Forms of oxides in liquid
aluminium alloys
Oxides due to surface turbulence
Surface turbulence
in liquid metals
Oxide Formation
● When a metal is poured rapidly into a mould, it enters
in a turbulent manner, and it is inevitable that the
oxide film folds over itself so that oxide-to-oxide
contact occurs.
● Furthermore, as the metal tumbles over and churns
about, the oxide film is continually being stretched and
ruptured and also re-growing.
● In the case of grey cast irons, this is not too serious since
the liquid silicate films can meet and fuse together,
agglomerating to form droplets which generally float out of
the molten iron.
● Even if they remain in the iron, they normally have a shape
which does not have a detrimental effect on properties.
Oxide Formation
● In contrast, when the solid alumina (Al2O3) films on
molten aluminium meet, they do not ’knit’ together,
but instead form crack-like defects which remain in
the casting as it solidifies.
● These introduce a mechanical weakness into the
casting which will probably result in it being less
reliable in service.
● Such crack-like defects also often result in leakage
problems in castings which are required to contain a
liquid or a gas.
● Unfortunately, aluminium castings have an unenviable
reputation for being prone to leakage defects as a
result of poor filling practice.
oxides
● For inclusion-free castings it is advisable to use
metal filters to clean the metal as it enters the
mould.
● Fluxes are used during melting to protect the
metal from oxidation and to trap oxides as they
float out of the melt.
Corundum (Al2O3) growth
● Corundum is formed when aluminium comes into
contact with silica in the furnace lining. Corundum
growth is well known in the aluminium melting
industry.
● It is a composite of alumina and metal which
grows on the refractory wall above the metal level
in holding furnaces.
● They are extremely hard, smooth and initially
hemispherical.
● when viewed in the hot furnace they are generally
grey or black, a few mms to tens of cms in size.
● They are difficult to remove from the walls!
Corundum (Al2O3) growth
Corundum (Al2O3) growth
● The growth direction is generally away from the
metal line, upwards towards the roof of the
furnace in a mushroom shape.
● Corundum growth not only reduces capacity of the
furnace but it reduces the thermal efficiency and
causes damage to the furnace lining through
refractory expansion.
● A significant amount of aluminium metal may also
be lost from the furnace charge.
● To avoid serious corundum growth, regular
inspection of the furnaces must be carried out and
growths removed while they are small.
Corundum growth
● The furnace refractories should be resistant to
metal attack, by having a high bauxite content
and low free silica content.
● Refractories should be non-wetting and of low
porosity to avoid corundum nucleation.
● High temperature, oxidising furnace
atmospheres and the presence of unburned
hydrocarbons should be avoided.
● Daily cleaning of the furnace refractories with a
suitable flux is advisable.
Hydrogen in aluminium melts
The only gas that dissolves in aluminium in appreciable levels
is hydrogen as it does not form compounds with aluminium
(oxygen forms Al2O3 and nitrogen forms AlN).
Hydrogen has a high solubility
in liquid aluminium which
increases with melt
temperature, but the
solubility in solid
aluminium is very low,
so that as the alloy
freezes, hydrogen gas is
expelled forming
gas pores in the casting. T, C
Hydrogen in aluminium melts
● only 5% of the hydrogen (1 in 20) is retained in
solution as the aluminium solidifies.
● The remaining 95% will be rejected and will form
gas pores, providing nuclei are present.
H  H2  gas porosity
● As the hydrogen solubility in molten aluminium
increases with increasing melt temperature,
measures must be taken to avoid excessive
heating of aluminium bath!
Hydrogen in aluminium melts
Hydrogen in liquid aluminium at 660°C:
0.69 ppm drops to 0.039 ppm after solidification.
aluminium solution
hydrogen gas in

20
liquid
Risk of gas
porosity

1
solid
Melting temperature
point
Hydrogen in aluminium melts
● When there is too much hydrogen in solution and
many oxides and other inclusions not wet by
aluminium, there will be porosity!
● If the melt is free of inclusions then the gas will
be unable to precipitate and will remain in solid
solution. will form H2 gas during high temperature
annealing treatments.
H  H2  gas porosity
Sources of hydrogen in castings
Hydrogen can come from:
● Melting and/or subsequent handling: a common
problem is hydrogen pickup from the use of damp
refractories in furnaces or ladles. Another source is
from burning hydrocarbon fuels, such as gas or oil.
● Reaction with the mould during passage through
the running system.
● Reaction with the mould and core materials
during and/or after filling.
Hydrogen in aluminium melts
Foundries are hot and humid places.
Hydrogen comes from:
● Water vapour in the atmosphere
● Water vapour from burner fuels
● Damp refractories and crucible linings
● Damp fluxes
● Oily or dirty scrap charges
● Dirty or damp foundry tools
Hydrogen in aluminium melts
The reaction of moisture with aluminium forms
Al2O3 while releasing H which then dissolves in
molten aluminium.

3 H2O + 2Al = Al2O3 + 6H

Scrap melting: 0.50 ml/100g
Wrought alloys: 0.18 ml/100 g
Foundry alloys: 0.40 ml/100g
Sources of hydrogen in castings
● Gas dissolved in the melt is in the form of atoms.
These atoms can diffuse to the surface, combine to
form gas molecules, and evaporate into the
environment.
● A furnace gains or loses gas from contact with its
environment, the rate of transfer of gas depending
on the ratio of surface area to volume.
● However, in many cases, a surface oxide film is
present, or a slag or flux layer.
● These additional layers presents a further barrier
to the release of gas atoms from the melt.
Sources of hydrogen in castings
● Melting and/or subsequent handling
Damp refractories
Gas/oil fired furnaces
● Passage through the running system
● Reaction with mould/core materials
to reduce hydrogen pick up!
● To reduce hydrogen pick-up, refractories,
crucibles, tools and oily scrap should be thoroughly
preheated to remove water.
● Burner flames should be slightly oxidising to avoid
excess hydrogen in the products of combustion.
● The melt temperature should be kept as low as
possible since more hydrogen is dissolved at high
temperatures.
● Nevertheless, hydrogen will still be present.
Cannot be totally eliminated!
hydrogen + casting method
● The amount of porosity that can be tolerated in a
casting is determined by the method of casting and
the end use of the component.
● If the metal cools relatively slowly, as in a sand
mould, the ejected gas can build up into small
bubbles which are trapped in the pasty metal.
● These are then uncovered by any subsequent
machining or polishing operation and show as a
“pinhole” porosity defect in the finished surface.
● The mechanical strength and pressure tightness
can also be seriously affected.
Hydrogen + casting method
● Where the rate of solidification is more rapid as in
gravity and low pressure diecasting, the emerging
bubbles are usually small and well dispersed.
● Therefore, they affect mechanical properties less,
and indeed often have a beneficial effect in
offsetting possible localised shrinkage unsoundness
that might otherwise cause the casting to be
scrapped.
● For high integrity gravity and low pressure
castings, it may still be necessary to apply a full
degassing process.
Hydrogen + casting method
● In the past, it has not been usual to degas metal for
pressure diecasting since diecastings usually
contain gas porosity arising from air entrapped in
the casting during metal injection.
● The additional porosity from hydrogen in the melt
was not considered serious, particularly since the
metal holding temperature for pressure diecasting
is usually low, reducing the amount of hydrogen
pick-up.
● Recently, with the improvement in diecasting
technology (marked reduction in entrapped air),
more diecasters are using degassed metal.
Sources of impurities
● Primary metal from electrolysis
● Smelter Grade Alumina (SGA)
● Secondary alumina (from scrubbing)
● Cryolite (Na3AlF6) bath and AlF3 make-up
● Anode carbon
● Steel tools and current collectors.
● Secondary ‘re-melt’ of previously solidified
primary metal – primary impurities, plus
processing and alloying elements
● Tertiary metal (recycled scrap, new or old)
Alkaline metals
● Na and other alkalines and alkaline earth
elements come from the Hall-Heroult cell of the
primary production cycle!
● Ca, K, Li and Na increase the hydrogen solubility
of aluminium melt and encourge hydrogen
porosity after solidification.
● Alkaline metals also impair the hot rolling
properties.
● They lead to hot tearing and increase brittleness.
● They degrade surface quality by causing
colouration in moist atmospheres (blue haze
corrosion).
Dissolved impurities
originating in electrolysis
Dissolved impurities
typical impurities in electrolysis
and re-melt aluminium
 melt
treatment
melt treatment
Before casting aluminium alloys, the molten metal must
be treated in order to:
● Degas
Molten aluminium contains undesirable amounts of
hydrogen which will cause porosity defects in the
casting unless removed
● Grain refine
Mechanical properties of the casting can be improved
by controlling the grain size of the solidifying metal
● Modify
The microstructure and properties of alloys can be
improved by the addition of small quantities of certain
“modifying” elements
Melt treatment operations
● degassing
● rafination-fluxing
● inclusion removal
● drossing
● mixing-homogenization
● alloying
● modification
● grain refinement
● filtration
● melt quality control
Degassing aluminium alloys
● maximum concentration of dissolved hydrogen
possible in aluminium alloys can be as high as 0.6
ml H2/100 g.
● By careful attention to melting practice this can
be reduced.
● However, even with the best practice, remelted
foundry alloys may be expected to contain 0.2–0.3
ml H2/100 g Al.
● The degassing process involves bubbling dry, inert
gases through the melt to reduce the hydrogen
level to around 0.1 ml/100 g.
Degassing foundry alloys
● liquid and solid solubilities of hydrogen are
different in different alloy systems and a
hydrogen level of 0.12 ml/100 g will give castings
free from porosity in Al–Si5Cu3Mn0.5
● while the low silicon Al–Cu–Ni alloy will be
porosity free at 0.32 ml H2/100 g.
● If levels of hydrogen are taken too low, it is
difficult to avoid some shrinkage porosity in the
castings.
● Shrinkage is often componsated by H2 gas!
Degassing via tablets
● For many years, the use of chlorine gas, developed
by plunging hexachloroethane (C2Cl6) in the form
of DEGASER tablets, was the standard method of
treatment.
● The use of C2Cl6 was prohibited in EU in 1998.
● C2Cl6 tablet degassing has been replaced by
degassing with dry nitrogen or argon using a lance
or preferably a specially designed rotary impeller
which ensures even dispersion of fine bubbles
throughout the melt.
● Tablets which produce nitrogen, when plunged
under the metal surface gas can also be used.
hexachloroethane
Hexachloroethane is used in metal and alloy production, and
as an ingredient in insecticides. Hexachloroethane acts
primarily as a central nervous system (CNS) depressant in
humans acutely (short-term) exposed to it.
Hexachloroethane is also moderately irritating to the skin,
mucous membranes, and liver in humans. Neurological,
liver, and kidney effects have been observed in animals
exposed to hexachloroethane. No information is available on
the chronic (long-term), reproductive, developmental, or
carcinogenic effects of hexachloroethane in humans.
Hepatocellular carcinomas (liver tumors) were observed in
mice following oral exposure to hexachloroethane. EPA has
classified hexachloroethane as a Group C, possible human
carcinogen.
Degassing via purging
● Inert gases (argon or nitrogen) are purged into
molten aluminium with lances that are lined
with ceramics.
● Measures must be taken to avoid turbulence
inside the bath and to
maintain the stability
of the bath surface.
● Purging gas may
contain a small
fraction of Cl if
the bath is too dirty.
Lance degassing
Gas bubbles release the H2 into the
inert gas
furnace atmosphere when they reach
bubble
the surface!
filled with:
H2 H2
H2 H2 H2 İnert gas
H2 H2
H2 bubble: low
H+ H2 partial
H+ H+ H+ H+
H+ pressure!
H+ H+ H+
H+ H+ H+ diffuses
into the inert
gas bubbles!
lance degassing
● The size of bubbles from such a lance are large and
disturb the melt:
● little gas is purged from the liquid, and the melt
comes into equilibrium with the surrounding
environment because the freshly presented surface
is ideal for re-introducing fresh hydrogen into the
melt.
● In addition, the rolling action of the surface
creates extra oxide and may stir this into the melt.
Furthermore, the impurities in the purge gas will
generate additional oxide in the liquid.
 lance degassing
● Furthermore, the impurities in the purge gas will
generate additional oxide in the liquid due to leaks in
the gas line.
● The extended time for such low efficiency degassing
methods means that much additional oxide is
introduced.
● Where degassing with N is carried out, as in some
large holding furnaces, and where the alloy contains
some Mg (quite common), there is an additional
danger of the build-up of nitrides in the melt.
● This can become so prolific that the melt takes on the
appearance of a slurry.
lance degassing
● The mechanical properties of the resulting
castings are low because of the embrittling effect
of the large concentration of nitrides.
● The only way to avoid such disasters when
attempting to degas continuously is to use a truly
inert gas such as argon.
● In addition, of course, the gas lines should be
soundly plumbed in metal throughout.
Lance Degassing
Degassing is often carried out poorly, using an open-
ended lance to introduce a purge gas into the melt.
nitrogen
disadvantages
Size of the bubbles Limited purging
effect
Surface Gas pick up &
disturbance Oxide
incorporation
Leaks in gas line
impurities in gas Additional oxides

Formation of Mg Poor properties

nitrides
rotary degassing
● For any degassing technique to be efficient, it is
necessary that very fine bubbles of a dry, inert gas
are generated at the base of the melt and allowed
to rise through all areas of the molten aluminium:
rotary degassing.
● a central hollow rotor introduces a purge gas
(usually nitrogen) into the centre of a melt, where
the emerging bubbles are fragmented and
dispersed by the rapid rotation of the rotor.
● The large total area of the bubbles and their wide
dispersion throughout the melt give a rapid
degassing action.
Rotary degassing
● While the hollow lance might give only poor degassing
in an hour or so, the rotary technique typically
reduces hydrogen to very low levels in only 10 mins.
● A correctly designed rotor produces many small
bubbles into which dissolved H atoms diffuse to be
ejected into the atmosphere when the bubble reaches
the surface.
● The rising bubbles also collect inclusions and carry
them to the top of the melt where they can be
skimmed off.
● The graphite rotor is designed to produce the
optimum bubble cloud throughout the whole of the
melt.
Degassing with a rotating difuser
inert gas Advantages
Smaller inert gas bubbles //
More inert gas surface area-
increased contact
Efficient degassing
Much less disturbence of the
surface
Oxides uniformly distributed
Smaller H2 porosity!
CLEAN METAL
Rotating
diffuser
Rotary degassing
Rotary degassing
The metal temperature
should be as low as
possible during this
operation.
Melts of 400–1000 kg
can be treated in 1.5
to 5 minutes with gas
flow between 8 and
20 litres/minute.
The graphite rotor
has a life of 100–150
treatments according
to the temperature of the melt.
Rotary degassing
● The treatment time, gas flow and speed of
rotation are critical operation parameters and are
preset for a given furnace capacity for a
treatment that lasts 3 to 5 minutes.
● Rotor rotation speed is typically around 400–500
rpm and at this speed the optimum quantity of
purging gas is dispersed giving very fine bubbles,
resulting in high degassing efficiency and thorough
cleansing of the melt through oxide flotation.
● After treatment the rotor is raised from the
furnace or ladle, the metal skimmed clean and is
ready for casting.
Rotary degassing
Commercial degassers
Rotary furnace degassing

Before fluxing After fluxing

“Porous plug” degassing
Degassing with inert gasses introduced into
molten aluminium through porous ceramic plugs
mounted at the bottom of reverbatory furnaces
offers more
uniform and
much more
efficient
removal of
Hydrogen gas.
porous plug degassing

H2 H2 H2 H2
H2 H2 H2
H2 H2
H2
Degassing
H2 (ml/100g Al)

Degassing time min

Oxide removal during degassing
inert gas bubbles help to float the
inclusions in suspension!

H2 H2 H2
H2 H2
H2

inert gas
bubbles
Bubble formation in the graphite rotor
Hydrogen removal in degassing
inclusion removal in degassing
flux degassing
● A logical development of the rotary degassing
system is the injection of fluxes into the melt
along with the inert purge gas.
● Early attempts to do this were plagued with
difficulty because the fluxes melted in the injector
nozzles causing total or partial blockage.
● granular fluxes has greatly assisted in this respect.
● The flux feeder gives accurate dosing rates and the
flux is fed into the molten aluminium at the base
of the melt so that full reaction can take place
before the additive reaches the metal surface.
flux degassing
● Flux is introduced into the melt during the first
part of the treatment cycle followed by a
degassing cycle.
● The combined effect of flux injection and
degassing produces cleaner alloy (fewer inclusions)
than degassing alone and mechanical properties,
particularly elongation values, are improved. In
addition, metallic aluminium in the dross skimmed
from the melt is reduced by 20–40%.
● The Rotary Degassing Unit and the Metal Treatment
Station are widely used in gravity, low pressure and
high pressure diecasting foundries.
Metal Treatment
Station
The rotor and shaft of the
Metal Treatment Station
have been designed to
allow the free passage of
the additive into the metal
melt, reducing to a
minimum the problem of
fusion of the treatment
product in the shaft.
Effect of flux degassing
● A treatment which cleans and simultaneously
degases the melt.
● Powered chloride and/or fluoride flux is blown into
the melt in a carrier gas, usually nitrogen.
● Oxides and gas are not totally eliminated
If oxide content is reduced by %95 and if gas
content is reduced by %75;
Remaining %25 gas precipitates on %5 remaining
nucleation sites.
overall porosity in the casting is reduced but is 5X
worse locally.
● Environmental disposal problems.
Effect of flux degassing
● the system may actually be introducing a new
dispersion of fine oxides, possibly by fragmenting
the large films which were originally in
suspension, or possibly by reaction with the oxide
or moisture contamination of the purge gas, which
can arise either from trace impurities in the
original gas or impurities introduced from sources
in the local plumbing.
● An additional dispersion of nitrides is to be
expected if nitrogen is used for degassing melts
which contain some Mg.
Effect of flux degassing
● This fine dispersion of solids may have some
benefits to melts intended for the production of
shaped castings (provided that very high
mechanical properties are not required).
● The low hydrogen content, together with the high
density of nuclei on which the hydrogen can
precipitate, will probably ensure that the residual
hydrogen porosity, if present at all, is extremely
fine and well dispersed.
● Thus the quality of the melt will be expected to
be quite different from that produced by flux
degassing.
Case study: State of melt
● in a major low pressure die casting plant, the
quality of alloy sitting in the well is good at the
beginning of the Monday morning shift.
● However, as the shift progresses, the slopping of the
metal up and down the riser tube, and the
consequent disturbance of the sediment on the
furnace bottom, results in a considerable increase in
oxide level.
● A further major increase occurs when the furnace is
topped up. The churning and surging of the melt and
the thorough mixing-in of floor sediments greatly
impair the melt quality further.
● During the day, the melt continues to deteriorate.
Alcan Compact in-line degasser (ACD)
in-line degassing

snif-sheer system with

lifting roof
degassing issues
● When nitrogen is used for degassing and if the
melt contains Mg, there is an other problem.
● Nitrides form during and after degassing
treatment.
● Castings suffer poor mechanical properties since
the nitrides are brittle ceramic particles.
● This can be avoided by using argon for degassing
Mg-bearing aluminium alloy melts.
fluxes
Flux salts

spent flux salts could be a

major source of problems

NaCl-KCL mixtures
Cover fluxes
Rafination fluxes
Drossing off fluxes
Wall cleaning fluxes
why do we need fluxes!
Oxidation ofmolten aluminium is inevitable!
Al2O3 ~ sıvı Al  inclusions in suspension!
< sıvı Al  inclusions float!
> sıvı Al  inclusions sink!
Fluxing is essential in order to
● to avoid the contact of aluminium melt with the
furnace atmosphere
● to release inclusions in suspension and to improve
melt quality
● to get a dry dross after skimming
● to maintain clean furnace walls
Flux selection is critical!
Critical features of fluxes
● melting point must be lower than that of Al
(660 C)! the lower the melting point of the
cover flux, the more efficient its use.
● density must be lower than that of molten Al
(~2.3g/cm3)!
● must be inert to furnace refractories!
● vapour pressure must be low!
● fluidity must be high!
● must be recyclable!
● must conform to the health-safety codes!
● must be cheap!
issues of flux practice
● fluxes immediately absorb atmospheric
moisture: damp fluxes do more harm than good!
● Packaging is thus critical!
● fluxes must be packaged in addition dose!
● fluxes must be added in packages!
● fluxes must never be exposed to the furnace
atmosphere)
Flux types
● cover fluxes
● drossing off fluxes
● rafination fluxes
● wall cleaning fluxes
Cover fluxes
● must be liquid and must cover the melt in order to
avoid contact with the furnace atmosphere.
● must melt at the operation temperature.
Tm   Flux-dross layer mushy  metal loss 
wet (high Al content) dross
Tm   Flux-dross layer liquid  metal loss 
flux inclusions
handling difficult!
● the liquid flux layer protects the melt from
oxidation and hydrogen pick-up.
Cover fluxes
● NaCl + KCl : (%44 + % 56)
binary eutectic : 645C
● NaCl + KCl + NaF mixture
ternary eutectic : 607C
● Cover flux must not be intermixed with aluminium
alloy melt!
● Cover flux must be employed after all treatments
are over, for melt held for casting!
● Binary and ternary mixtures are also ideal carriers!
Cover fluxes
KCl-NaCl
binary phase
diagram
Cover fluxes
● Most fluxes contain sodium and it is possible for the
metal to pick up as much as 0.001% Na from them.
● For most aluminium alloys the sodium has no effect or
is beneficial, but alloys containing more than 2% Mg
may become brittle with even trace amounts of
sodium, so they are treated with sodium-free fluxes.
● Approximately 0.5% of the flux is put onto the solid
charge and a further 2% sprinkled evenly over the
surface when the alloy is fully molten.
● When the flux becomes pasty or liquid at about 750°C,
the flux is worked well into the melt with a bell
plunger for about 3 minutes.
Drossing off fluxes
● a drossing-off flux is used to absorb oxides and
non-metallic material, cleansing the metal and
forming a good metal-free dross which can easily
be removed.
● Drossing-off fluxes agglomerate the oxides allowing
easy removal from the surface of the melt.
● They are used to remove the dross with the
mimimum metal loss (dry dross-pure in metal).
● Typical ingredients:
NaCl + KCl (carrier) + KNO3 : (nitrate, sulfate,
carbonates) + fluorides
Drossing off fluxes
exothermic compounds  thermite reactions
Q  softening in the dross layer
 frees trapped aluminium!
● Exothermic fluxes ensure that liquid aluminium
trapped in the dross layer is returned to the melt.
● Floride compounds : contributes to oxide – metal
seperation owing to their high wetting capacity!
● if added too much   metal loss 
if added too little   softening effect 
 metal loss 
Drossing-off before pouring
● When the melt is ready for drossing-off, the flux is
spread over the metal surface, allowed to stand for a
few minutes until fused and then rabbled into the dross
for several minutes with a skimmer.
● For best results the melt should preferably be above
700°C although fluxes will function well below 650°C.
● doors are then closed and the burner is turned on for 10
minutes.
● This helps to activate the flux, heating the dross and
giving good metal separation.
● The dross is then pulled to the door, allowed to drain
and transferred to a dross bogie.
● If the dross in the bogie is raked, further metal will
collect in the bottom.
Drossing-off before pouring
● In reverberatory and shaft furnaces, the quantity
of flux needed will depend on the cleanliness of
the charge material and on the surface area of the
metal.
● As a guide, it is recommended that an application
of 1–2 kg/m2 will suffice.
● The behaviour of the flux will indicate whether
the dosage needs to be reduced of increased in
future applications.
Drossing-off before pouring
● In crucible furnaces, when drossing-off is carried
out, the crucible sides are scraped and the required
quantity of the selected flux (250 g is normally
enough for the lift-out or bale-out furnace) is
sprinkled onto the metal surface along with the
existing flux cover and mixed into the surface of the
melt until a red-glowing dross is obtained.
● This is exceptionally free of metal and can be
removed with a perforated skimmer.
Rafination/cleaning fluxes
● they remove non-metallics from the melt by
trapping the oxide particles as they float out!
● They help the oxides in suspension float,
● employed continuously in rafination units
located in transfer systems or
in melting (or holding) furnaces
● Typical ingredients:
NaCl + KCl (carrier) + Floride compounds (upto %20
Na3AlF6, CaF2, Na2SiF6)
Rafination fluxes
● They penetrate between the oxide particles owing
to their low solubility and help to physically
seperate the oxide particles from the molten
metal!
● They strip the oxide films on the molten metal
droplets and improve the metal recovery!
● metal – oxide interface energy is reduced and the
oxides are wet by the melt  oxides in suspension
are removed from the melt while the aluminium
metal entrapped by the oxides return back to the
melt; aluminium and oxides are thus seperated
● dry dross is skimmed off!
Rafination fluxes
● if aded too much  the fluidity of the flux is
impaired due to the high melting point of fluorides
 metal loss 
● The most effective (yet the most expensive)
fluoride salt is: Na3AlF6
● Addition practice: stir the flux into the molten
alloy!
wait for 5 to 10 minutes – allow enough time
for oxides to float
dross is skimmed off!
Removal of Alkalines with Cl2/Ar
concentration (ppm)

Duration of fluxing (min)

Removal of alkalines
Removal of alkaline and alkaline earth metals via
flour fluxing

Via chlorine fluxing

Removal of Mg: demagging
Specialist flux for the removal of excess
magnesium from aluminium alloys.
DEMAGGER B is a magnesium removing flux
suitable for use with aluminium alloys where the
magnesium content is over specification. We
recommend using this product as manual flux.
Furnace-cleaning flux
● Aluminium melting furnace linings become
coated with an oxide build-up and with time the
oxide content increases to form the hard
corundum phase.
● Metal quality, cleanliness is adversely affected if
furnace refractories are not cleaned properly!
● In this case refractories can be cleaned only
mechanically by crushing the corundum phase,
causing damage to the refractories.
Furnace-cleaning flux
● The flux is mainly for application to the walls and
roof of reverberatory and rotary furnaces.
● It can also be used for cleaning large transfer
ladles, if these can be independently heated.
● The flux is not recommended for electric furnaces
with exposed elements because of the possibility
of element attack.
Furnace-cleaning flux
● Furnace cleaning flux is a strongly exothermic
flux which attacks and strips oxide films.
● Typical ingredients are:
NaCl + KCl (carrier) + Oxygen bearing exothermic
compounds (KNO3, Alkaline carbonates)
● The heat generated and the stripping action
causes entrapped aluminium to melt and run
down to the furnace hearth.
● Residues on walls are thus loosened and can be
removed more easily by scraping tools.
Furnace-cleaning flux
● bath level is brought to a minimum (minimum
heel inside the furnace)!
● The empty furnace is heated until the lining glows
red (800–850°C). the walls are sprayed evenly
with flux using a Flux Gun.
● furnace doors are closed!
● burners work full capacity for 10-15 minutes!
● (walls are brought to the maximum possible
temperature to help to soften the corundum
layer!)
Furnace-cleaning flux
● Then the walls are scraped clean off the softened
corundum layer.
● The recovered metal is finally tapped.
● A 10 tonne furnace will need about 25 kg of flux.
Furnaces should be treated weekly to prevent
accumulation of build-up.
● The flux can be used when making a change of
alloy, to prevent contamination of the bath by
residues from the preceding charge.
● Application once a week is recommended!
granulated fluxes
● The formulations of fluxes have not changed for
many years, being based on powdered halides
including fluorides which are of concern
environmentally and which can reduce the life of
furnace refractories.
● Attempts have been made to eliminate fluorides
completely from the flux formulations, but
unfortunately this rendered the flux ineffective.
● The morphology of the flux was found to have a
major effect on its efficiency.
granulated fluxes
● granulated fluxes have significant environmental
and technical advantages over the powder fluxes
and are rapidly replacing them.
● Fluxes for aluminium contain chlorides and
fluorides which may give rise to potentially
harmful fumes in use on molten metal. Operators
must avoid inhalation of the fumes or dust.
● Used flux must be disposed with care, referring to
the local authority or a specialist disposal
company.
granulated fluxes
granules powder
granulated fluxes
● By using fluxes in granular form rather than as
conventional powders, the effectiveness of the
flux can be greatly increased, the handling
improved and the undesirable, hazardous
emissions can be significantly reduced.
● The higher cost of granulated fluxes (arising from
the additional manufacturing process involved) is
compensated by the much reduced quantities
needed.
granulated fluxes
● Conventional powder fluxes are used at more than
0.25% by weight of the metal being melted.
● The granular material is used at only 0.125% by
weight so that emissions only half of normal might
be expected.
● In fact, tests have shown fume reduction of more
than 85%.
● the move from a powder to a granulated flux
significantly improves working conditions, reduces
the amount of waste material to be disposed of
and reduces attack on furnace refractories.
aluminium technologies
13.10.2015
fluxes
Flux salts

spent flux salts could be a

major source of problems

NaCl-KCL mixtures
Cover fluxes
Rafination fluxes
Drossing off fluxes
Wall cleaning fluxes
why do we need fluxes!
Oxidation ofmolten aluminium is inevitable!
Al2O3 ~ sıvı Al  inclusions in suspension!
< sıvı Al  inclusions float!
> sıvı Al  inclusions sink!
Fluxing is essential in order to
● to avoid the contact of aluminium melt with the
furnace atmosphere
● to release inclusions in suspension and to improve
melt quality
● to get a dry dross after skimming
● to maintain clean furnace walls
Flux selection is critical!
Critical features of fluxes
● melting point must be lower than that of Al
(660 C)! the lower the melting point of the
cover flux, the more efficient its use.
● density must be lower than that of molten Al
(~2.3g/cm3)!
● must be inert to furnace refractories!
● vapour pressure must be low!
● fluidity must be high!
● must be recyclable!
● must conform to the health-safety codes!
● must be cheap!
issues of flux practice
● fluxes immediately absorb atmospheric
moisture: damp fluxes do more harm than good!
● Packaging is thus critical!
● fluxes must be packaged in addition dose!
● fluxes must be added in packages!
● fluxes must never be exposed to the furnace
atmosphere)
Flux types
● cover fluxes
● drossing off fluxes
● rafination fluxes
● wall cleaning fluxes
Cover fluxes
● must be liquid and must cover the melt in order to
avoid contact with the furnace atmosphere.
● must melt at the operation temperature.
Tm   Flux-dross layer mushy  metal loss 
wet (high Al content) dross
Tm   Flux-dross layer liquid  metal loss 
flux inclusions
handling difficult!
● the liquid flux layer protects the melt from
oxidation and hydrogen pick-up.
Cover fluxes
● NaCl + KCl : (%44 + % 56)
binary eutectic : 645C
● NaCl + KCl + NaF mixture
ternary eutectic : 607C
● Cover flux must not be intermixed with aluminium
alloy melt!
● Cover flux must be employed after all treatments
are over, for melt held for casting!
● Binary and ternary mixtures are also ideal carriers!
Cover fluxes
KCl-NaCl
binary phase
diagram
Cover fluxes
● Most fluxes contain sodium and it is possible for the
metal to pick up as much as 0.001% Na from them.
● For most aluminium alloys the sodium has no effect or
is beneficial, but alloys containing more than 2% Mg
may become brittle with even trace amounts of
sodium, so they are treated with sodium-free fluxes.
● Approximately 0.5% of the flux is put onto the solid
charge and a further 2% sprinkled evenly over the
surface when the alloy is fully molten.
● When the flux becomes pasty or liquid at about 750°C,
the flux is worked well into the melt with a bell
plunger for about 3 minutes.
Drossing off fluxes
● a drossing-off flux is used to absorb oxides and
non-metallic material, cleansing the metal and
forming a good metal-free dross which can easily
be removed.
● Drossing-off fluxes agglomerate the oxides allowing
easy removal from the surface of the melt.
● They are used to remove the dross with the
mimimum metal loss (dry dross-pure in metal).
● Typical ingredients:
NaCl + KCl (carrier) + KNO3 : (nitrate, sulfate,
carbonates) + fluorides
Drossing off fluxes
exothermic compounds  thermite reactions
Q  softening in the dross layer
 frees trapped aluminium!
● Exothermic fluxes ensure that liquid aluminium
trapped in the dross layer is returned to the melt.
● Floride compounds : contributes to oxide – metal
seperation owing to their high wetting capacity!
● if added too much   metal loss 
if added too little   softening effect 
 metal loss 
Drossing-off before pouring
● When the melt is ready for drossing-off, the flux is
spread over the metal surface, allowed to stand for a
few minutes until fused and then rabbled into the dross
for several minutes with a skimmer.
● For best results the melt should preferably be above
700°C although fluxes will function well below 650°C.
● doors are then closed and the burner is turned on for 10
minutes.
● This helps to activate the flux, heating the dross and
giving good metal separation.
● The dross is then pulled to the door, allowed to drain
and transferred to a dross bogie.
● If the dross in the bogie is raked, further metal will
collect in the bottom.
Drossing-off before pouring
● In reverberatory and shaft furnaces, the quantity
of flux needed will depend on the cleanliness of
the charge material and on the surface area of the
metal.
● As a guide, it is recommended that an application
of 1–2 kg/m2 will suffice.
● The behaviour of the flux will indicate whether
the dosage needs to be reduced of increased in
future applications.
Drossing-off before pouring
● In crucible furnaces, when drossing-off is carried
out, the crucible sides are scraped and the required
quantity of the selected flux (250 g is normally
enough for the lift-out or bale-out furnace) is
sprinkled onto the metal surface along with the
existing flux cover and mixed into the surface of the
melt until a red-glowing dross is obtained.
● This is exceptionally free of metal and can be
removed with a perforated skimmer.
Rafination/cleaning fluxes
● they remove non-metallics from the melt by
trapping the oxide particles as they float out!
● They help the oxides in suspension float,
● employed continuously in rafination units
located in transfer systems or
in melting (or holding) furnaces
● Typical ingredients:
NaCl + KCl (carrier) + Floride compounds (upto %20
Na3AlF6, CaF2, Na2SiF6)
Rafination fluxes
● They penetrate between the oxide particles owing
to their low solubility and help to physically
seperate the oxide particles from the molten
metal!
● They strip the oxide films on the molten metal
droplets and improve the metal recovery!
● metal – oxide interface energy is reduced and the
oxides are wet by the melt  oxides in suspension
are removed from the melt while the aluminium
metal entrapped by the oxides return back to the
melt; aluminium and oxides are thus seperated
● dry dross is skimmed off!
Rafination fluxes
● if aded too much  the fluidity of the flux is
impaired due to the high melting point of fluorides
 metal loss 
● The most effective (yet the most expensive)
fluoride salt is: Na3AlF6
● Addition practice: stir the flux into the molten
alloy!
wait for 5 to 10 minutes – allow enough time
for oxides to float
dross is skimmed off!
Removal of Alkalines with Cl2/Ar
concentration (ppm)

Duration of fluxing (min)

Removal of alkalines
Removal of alkaline and alkaline earth metals
via flouride fluxing

via chlorine fluxing

Removal of Mg: demagging
Specialist flux for the removal of excess
magnesium from aluminium alloys.
DEMAGGER B is a magnesium removing flux
suitable for use with aluminium alloys where the
magnesium content is over specification. We
recommend using this product as manual flux.
Furnace-cleaning flux
● Aluminium melting furnace linings become
coated with an oxide build-up and with time the
oxide content increases to form the hard
corundum phase.
● Metal quality, cleanliness is adversely affected if
furnace refractories are not cleaned properly!
● In this case refractories can be cleaned only
mechanically by crushing the corundum phase,
causing damage to the refractories.
Furnace-cleaning flux
● The flux is mainly for application to the walls and
roof of reverberatory and rotary furnaces.
● It can also be used for cleaning large transfer
ladles, if these can be independently heated.
● The flux is not recommended for electric furnaces
with exposed elements because of the possibility
of element attack.
Furnace-cleaning flux
● Furnace cleaning flux is a strongly exothermic
flux which attacks and strips oxide films.
● Typical ingredients are:
NaCl + KCl (carrier) + Oxygen bearing exothermic
compounds (KNO3, Alkaline carbonates)
● The heat generated and the stripping action
causes entrapped aluminium to melt and run
down to the furnace hearth.
● Residues on walls are thus loosened and can be
removed more easily by scraping tools.
Furnace-cleaning flux
● bath level is brought to a minimum (minimum
heel inside the furnace)!
● The empty furnace is heated until the lining glows
red (800–850°C). the walls are sprayed evenly
with flux using a Flux Gun.
● furnace doors are closed!
● burners work full capacity for 10-15 minutes!
● (walls are brought to the maximum possible
temperature to help to soften the corundum
layer!)
Furnace-cleaning flux
● Then the walls are scraped clean off the softened
corundum layer.
● The recovered metal is finally tapped.
● A 10 tonne furnace will need about 25 kg of flux.
Furnaces should be treated weekly to prevent
accumulation of build-up.
● The flux can be used when making a change of
alloy, to prevent contamination of the bath by
residues from the preceding charge.
● Application once a week is recommended!
granulated fluxes
● The formulations of fluxes have not changed for
many years, being based on powdered halides
including fluorides which are of concern
environmentally and which can reduce the life of
furnace refractories.
● Attempts have been made to eliminate fluorides
completely from the flux formulations, but
unfortunately this rendered the flux ineffective.
● The morphology of the flux was found to have a
major effect on its efficiency.
granulated fluxes
● granulated fluxes have significant environmental
and technical advantages over the powder fluxes
and are rapidly replacing them.
● Fluxes for aluminium contain chlorides and
fluorides which may give rise to potentially
harmful fumes in use on molten metal. Operators
must avoid inhalation of the fumes or dust.
● Used flux must be disposed with care, referring to
the local authority or a specialist disposal
company.
granulated fluxes
granules powder
granulated fluxes
● By using fluxes in granular form rather than as
conventional powders, the effectiveness of the
flux can be greatly increased, the handling
improved and the undesirable, hazardous
emissions can be significantly reduced.
● The higher cost of granulated fluxes (arising from
the additional manufacturing process involved) is
compensated by the much reduced quantities
needed.
granulated fluxes
● Conventional powder fluxes are used at more than
0.25% by weight of the metal being melted.
● The granular material is used at only 0.125% by
weight so that emissions only half of normal might
be expected.
● In fact, tests have shown fume reduction of more
than 85%.
● the move from a powder to a granulated flux
significantly improves working conditions, reduces
the amount of waste material to be disposed of
and reduces attack on furnace refractories.
Characterization of fluxes
Mineralogical analysis :
the compounds in the flux are identified by x-ray
diffraction analysis.
The compounds
(fluorides, chlorides, etc)
identified in the XRD
spectrum of flux are
checked for their fitness
for the particular
application!
Characterization of fluxes
Mineralogical analysis :
the compounds in the flux are identified by x-ray
diffraction analysis. The compounds (fluorides, chlorides,
etc) identified in the XRD spectrum of flux are checked
for their fitness for the particular application!
Thermal Analysis :
The flux sample is melted inside a crucible and a
thermocouple is inserted into the melt. The flux is
allowed to cool. The variation of T with time is recorded.
The melting behaviour, the change in the viscosity of the
molten flux with temperature, the melting point/melting
range are estimated.
Characterization of fluxes
Moisture content :
the flux sample is weighed as received and after
drying in a laboratory oven to calulate the moisture
content:

weight as received–weight after drying x100

weight as received
Characterization of fluxes
Analysis of the recovery capacity :
50 g foil (thickness 13m) fines are placed inside a
crucible.
It is covered completely with the flux to be analyzed.
Foil fines are melted under the flux.
Molten flux is decanted and the aluminium melt
underneath is poured on a cold plate to allow rapid
solidification.
The weight of the solid aluminium is measured (w).
w < 50g ; several solid beads 
Modest rafination capacity
w ~50g ; single piece  high rafination capacity
Characterization of fluxes
Katılaşma Aralığı : 520-585ºC
Nem Miktarı : % 0,1
Geri Kazanım Verimi : % 86
Reclamation of swarf, skimmings
and turnings
● A heel of metal is melted using heavy scrap or ingot and a
quantity of cover flux is added to form a fluid cover.
● The amount of cover flux depends on the degree of dirtiness
and oxidation of the scrap and will vary between 1 and 5%.
● The swarf, turnings etc. are fed through the flux cover a
little at a time, adding more flux as required to keep the
cover in a fluid condition.
● The temperature of the melt is kept relatively low during
this procedure and when charging is complete, the heat is
raised to pouring temperature.
● At this stage the flux may be poured off from rotary or
reverberatory furnaces but there is a significant advantage
to be obtained by passing more than one melt through the
same flux.
drossing
drossing
● Poor melting and drossing practices lead to the
formation of dross rich in aluminium metal.
● This type of dross is referred to as WET DROSS.
● Dross with low metal content, DRY DROSS,
is obtained with sound
melting and drossing
methods.
● Foundries must take
precautions to avoid
wet dross.
drossing
● Dross removed from the furnace must be cooled
rapidly to avoid further thermite reactions that
lead to higher metal loss.
● A simple practice to achieve this is to spread hot
dross over an inclined cold concrete surface.
● Liquid aluminium trapped
inside the dross can flow
down over the surface and
become seperated.
● There are other methods
which employ cooling
inside inert gas chambers.
Factors that affect dross features
 Drossing temperature
 Fluxing employed before drossing
 Drossing off practice
 method and the conditions under which dross is
cooled to room temperature
Dross cooling methods
 Cooling in air
 Rotary coolers
 Cooling in argon gas
 Dross presses
dross recycling
wet (white) dross dry (black) dross

 Dross can amount up to 10% of the total yield.

 Drosses are heterogeneous in both size and
chemistry.
 Metal to be recovered may be between %10-70.
dross press
bath-melt mixing
● Faster melting with less energy supply
● Rapid alloying
● Uniform chemistry throughout the bath
● Uniform temperature distribution
● Less oxidation loss

EMS
Melt mixing-homogenization
PMS
Permanent
magnetic
stirrers
Filtration
● a melt can contain many non-metallic particles, films, or
clusters in sizes from a few ms to several mms.
● Inclusions
are detrimental to the finished casting;
decrease mechanical properties,
increase the propensity to leak under pressure
reduce machinability.
Make casting difficult by reducing the fluidity.
● Turbulence of the melt should be avoided since
aluminium oxidises very readily.
● Turbulence leads to “folding in” of oxides and creation of
new oxides from exposure of clean aluminium to the
atmosphere.
impurities to be filtered
● Al2O3 (particularly when the fraction of scrap in
charge is high!)
● Spinels (MgAl2O4 and MnAl2O4)
● Al4C3 (comes from primary ingot and scrap-
returns contaminated with oil, painted scrap)
● Nitrides
● Refractory particles from eroding, worn furnace
refractories
● Fe-Mn-Cr intermetallic compounds: tolerance to
Fe and Mn in pressure die casting is high!)
Advantages of fitration
Clean aluminium melt
High fluidity, better feeding, quality casting
Clean casting structure
Superior mechanical properties (UTS, yield
strength, fatigue and creep resistance)!
Elongation and ductility is particularly high; often
twice as much!
Better surface-shiny surface
Anodising quality is higher!
Fewer pinholes in foils; tearing in foil production
reduced; foil yield is high!
filtration
Filtration practice and filter type depends on the
requirement of melt cleanliness and casting quality
Filter types
Fiberglass textile filters
alumina ball filters
ceramic foam filters
bonded particle filters
rigid cartridge filters
Filtering mechanims
cake filtering : foam filters
Deep bed filtering : cartridge filters
Textile filters
fiberglass textile filters are used in the case of not so
critical products

meş Pore size (mm2) Open area (%)

25 17.16 65
36 11.56 63
50 7.49 55
100 2.72 47
200 1.71 43
400 0.45 27
Alumina ball filtration
Bed (box) filters manufactured from alumina balls
Alumina balls are placed in a ceramic box; the size
variation of the balls produce a variety of pore
dimensions. The pore size is not constant.
Alumina ball filtration
Ceramic foam filters
● Foam filters are produced from either sintered
or cast alumina.
● Porosity is identified by the number of pores
per inch length (ppi). Typical PPI values: 20,
30, 40, 50, 60, 65 and 80 ppi.
● They donot lead to blockage problems with %80-
85 porosity but filtering efficiency in this case is
poor.
● Hence,improvement in mechanical properties
with foam filtering is limited.
Ceramic foam filters
Ceramic foam filters are used when the
cleanliness of the casting is of interest.
Filtration in melt transfer
Filtration during casting
Filtration of aluminium alloy castings
● To counter this it is usual to cast aluminium using
non-pressurised systems;
● for example 1:2:4 (sprue:runner:gate area) so that
metal front velocities are minimised.
● The introduction of ceramic foam filters to the
aluminium industry in the 1970s was a major
advance.
● The foam filter has a tortuous path through its
body which traps inclusions allowing clean,
smooth-flowing metal to enter the mould cavity.
● By the 1980s most aerospace parts and many high
● integrity automotive parts were filtered.
Cleaning effect and flow
smoothing of foam filters

Turbulent flow smooth flow

metal flow
SIVEX FC filters
● Because of the filter’s high surface area, even
particles smaller than the size of its pores can be
captured and retained in the depth of the filter.
● The foam structure also provides smooth, non-
turbulent metal flow, so that oxide formation
during mould filling is reduced.
● This allows simplification of gating systems,
providing significant cost savings through yield
improvement.
Use of filters in conventional
running systems
● Initially, there is a delay while the filter is primed;
no flow occurs until sufficient pressure is created
by a suitable head of metal, an initial surge of
metal is then observed, followed by a steady flow
until filter blockage occurs.
● The running system must be designed to fill the
mould cavity before the blockage stage is reached.
● The presence of the filter ensures that the lower
part of the sprue and part of the runner bar are
filled before metal begins to flow, thereby avoiding
turbulence and air entrapment.
Schematic pattern of flow through a
ceramic foam filter

Typical filter print for horizontal filter

position.

Typical filter print for vertical filter position

Filtration during casting
Pouring cup
Pouring cup Vertical runner
supporter filter
filter Horizontal runner
Mould joint

İnstallation in pouring cup horizontal installation in

vertical runner
Pouring cup Pouring cup
Vertical runner Vertical runner

Horizontal runner Horizontal runner

filter
filter Mould joint
Mould joint

Horizontal installation in horizontal runner vertical installation in

horizontal runner
Direct pouring with filters
● direct pouring into the top of a mould cavity offers:
improved yield
simplified sprue, gating and feeding design
reduced fettling costs
● However, direct pouring introduces defects due to the
turbulent flow of the metal in all but the simplest of
castings.
● In addition, the impingement of high velocity metal streams
caused erosion of moulds or cores.
● These objections can be overcome by pouring the metal
through a ceramic foam filter situated at the base of the
sprue.
● Clean metal, free from turbulence and oxide, fills the
mould cavity and helps to feed the casting through the
filter.
Direct pouring with filters
● Directional solidification and casting soundness is promoted
and gates are unnecessary.
● The impingement problem is reduced because the metal
velocity is reduced as it passes through the filter.
● The unfiltered castings show a few, but very significant,
low strength test pieces which microscopic examination of
fracture surfaces showed to be due to oxide inclusions.
● No such low strength test pieces are seen with the filtered
test pieces.
● Filtration effectively removes the oxide inclusions.
Remarkably, the test bars top poured through a ceramic
foam filter gives consistently better mechanical properties
than filtered bottom-filled castings.
Direct pouring with filters

turbulent flow

A schematic view of the

cleaning and flow-
smoothing effect of
pouring directly through a
filter unit.

laminar flow
Bonded particle ceramic filters
● Manufactured from alumina and
silicon carbide.
● They are strong and resistant to
chemical attacks.
● Pore fraction is lower than foam
filters: %40
● Filters made of SiC offer effective
heating owing to a high thermak
conductivity.
● Uninterrupted pore configuration
provides a difficult flow pattern
Filtration-rigid media
● Rigid media filters are used when the cleanliness
of the as cast structure is critical as in magnetic
disks and very thin foil.
● These filters can only be used during the transfer
of the melt to the casting station.
Filtration-rigid media
● Cartridge filters must be employed after the
degasser. Inclusions are trapped on the surface
and inside of the filter tubes.
● This is achieved by stagnation precipitation and
allows the removal of solid reside much smaller
than the pores of the filters.
Filtration mechanisms
cake Deep bad
Grain refinement
Grain refining
improves hot tear resistance,
reduces the harmful effects of gas porosity
(giving pressure-tight castings) and
redistributes shrinkage porosity in aluminium
alloys.

The grain size of a cast alloy is dependent on

the number of nuclei present in the liquid metal
as it begins to solidify and
on the rate of undercooling.
A faster cooling rate promotes a smaller grain size.
Grain refinement
● Additions of certain elements to aluminium alloy
melts can provide nuclei for grain growth.
● Titanium, particularly in association with boron,
has a powerful nucleating effect and is the most
commonly used grain refiner.
● Titanium alone, added at the rate of 0.02–0.15%
as a master alloy, can be used but the effect
fades within 40 minutes.
● The addition of boron together with titanium
produces finer grains and reduces fade.
Grain refinement – why ?
fine, equiaxed and unfirm grain strcuture improves
the soundness and quality of the casting:
dendrite coherency occurs at higher solid
fractions!
the feeders stay molten longer!
better feeding and mould filling!
 less shrinkage

Fs0.3 Fs0.6
Grain refinement – why ?
Fine grains // small intergranular porosity
 small/dispersed porosity

microsegregation = f(grain size)

 less segregation//shorter homogenization
 superior surface quality
better responseto anodising and
other finishing operations
Grain refinement - why ?
superior mechanical properties
isotropy
high yield strength
ductility
high fatigue resistance

efficient casting process

limited hot tearing!
lower scrap rates!
reliable and efficient!
Grain refinement - why ?
better response to heat treatment and finishing
operations
 (higher formability:
forging/rolling/extrusion)
 easy to homogenize: short HT cycles
 easy to solutionize: shorter SHT cycles
faster age hardening

high quality component

efficient-economic process
Grain refinement – how ?
 dn/dt  dr/dt Fine grains

 dn/dt  dr/dt Coarse grains

r
Grain refinement – how ?
 dn/dt
Effective nuclei:
Stable in the melt / not soluble!
High crytallographic epitaxy with -Al (>90%)
Similar density to -Al: çekirdek  Al

TiAl3: soluble < 1500ppm Ti / 97.8%

TiB2: insoluble / 95.7%
AlB2: soluble < 220ppm B / 96.5% (Ti,Al)B2

TiC for special circumstances!

Grain refinement – how ?
 dr/dt
Balance between latent heat and heat transfer is
critical!
Latent heat released during solidification =
f(partioning of alloying elements).
Partioning of alloying elements at the
solidificiation front (liquid-solid interface)
restricts growth!: growth restriction (GRF)

elem. Mn Cu Fe Mg Ni Cr Si Ti
GRF 0.1 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.3 3.5 5.9 246
Desing of a commercial grain refiner
High nucleation rate low growth rate

effective nuclei growth restrictor

TiB2 excess Ti

Al-%1-10Ti-%0.2-3B
Al-5Ti-1B rod :
2.2Ti (TiB2 insoluble )
2.8Ti (TiAl3 soluble) Al3Ti

TiB2
Commercial grain refiners
Grain refining
AlTi5B1–wrought alloys
before after addition / holding time (min)
addition 2 5 10 15 30

Before addition 2min after addition

cont./semi-cont. vs shape casting
continuous characteristic shape
casting casting
low Undercooling before high
solidification
short Time from inoculation to long
solidification
high Alloy chemistry-purity low
low Alloy composition-Ti high
content
wrought ?XXX Alloy content casting ?XX
cont/semi-cont vs shape casting
Foundry alloys high levels of Si
 fluidity / castability
 shrinkage
 hot tearing
 density
 mechanical properties
Si > %3;
Si + Ti  Ti-Si compounds: Si poisoning
Al3Ti and TiB2 particles / efficiency is impaired!
 Grain refining capacity / fading ( fluidity)
 Grain refining of foundry alloys is DIFFICULT!
aluminium technologies
20.10.2015
Al-5Ti-1B / wrought vs foundry alloys
before addition 2 min after addition
1050/3003/8011
AlSi7Mg
Grain refinement in shape casting
Exact copy of the grain refinement practice in
continuous casting!
Aluminium foundries use prealloyed stock with as
much as wt% 0.1 Ti!
+ 0.2-0.4 wt% Al-5Ti-1B rod (2-4 kg/ton)
Al-5Ti-1B rod performance  cost 

Foundries need better grain refiners that can offer

superior performance in spite of the high Si
content of foundry alloys!
To counteract Si poisoning (Ti-Si compounds!)
Grain refinement in shape casting
Al-B alloys! Known to be effective for nearly 30 years.

B reacts with Ti to produce compounds!

B reacts with Sr to impair modification process!
B-rich AlTiB grain refiners! : mixed Al(Ti,B)2!
Al-B alloys
have not been used commercially!
instead they are used as alloying addition to improve
electrical conductivity in conductor grade aluminium
alloy!
Foundry alloys use prealloyed materials with Ti!
B addition to Ti bearing alloy // addition of AlTiB!
 Effect of Si on grain structure Si (wt%) (ağ%)
0.075 1 2 3 4 5 7 9 10.5 12
unrefined
katkısız
500 ppm Ti
200 ppm B

4000
size ( (µm)

katkısız
w/o addition
m)

3000 500 ppm Ti

200 ppm B
grainboyutu

2000
tane

1000

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Si (wt%)
Si (ağ%)
Commercial purity aluminium (99.7)
İlaveden İlaveden sonra süre (dk)
önce 2 5 10 15 30 60

AlB2 is not stable in molten aluminium at B < 0.022 wt% !

(Al) is the primary phase and AlB2 is yet to form!
800
Sigworth & Guzowski 1985
775
L T, °C
750 L
660
(Al)
sıcaklık (C)

725 L + AlB2 L + AlB2

+L +L
700 659.7  0.005 0.022
675
L  (Al) + AlB2 T= 659.7°C
650
(Al) (Al) + AlB2
625 (Al) + AlB2

600
0,00 0,03 0,06 0,09 0,12 0,15
Al B (%) B Al B
Grain refinement with B
Si (ağ%) AlB2 is the
0.075 1 2 3 4 5 primary phase
7 that
w/o B

precipitates
B’suz

from the melt

at
200ppm B

approximately 4
wt% Si in the
Al-Si-B
1,0 660
oranı

AlSi0.02B kesit
size w/o B

640
tane çaplarının

0,8
L
620 L +
Si
0,6 600 L + AlB2
w/B/grain

L + Si +
T ( °C) 580 L + (Al) + AlB2 AlB2
0,4
B’suz

Al + Si + AlB2 + L
560
size
B’lu ve

0,2
grain

540 Al + Si + AlB2

0,0 520
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
SiSi
(wt%)
(wt%) Si (wt%)
Grain refinement
5 min after addition
AlSi7Mg0.3

Al-5Ti-1B
Before addition

Al-3B
500m

500m
AlSi7Mg0.3
İlaveden İlaveden sonra, süre (dk)
Al-5Ti-1B
Al-3B önce 2 5 10 15 30 60

2000
tane çapı ( µm)

1600 katkısız
AlTi5B1 katkılı
1200
AlB3 katkılı
800
400
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
ilaveden sonra süre (dk)
Grain refinement 2 min after addition
AlSi11Cu2

Al-5Ti-1B
Before addition

500m

Al-3B
500m
 AlSi11Cu2
İlaveden İlaveden sonra, süre (dk)
önce 2 5 10 15 30 60
Al-5Ti-1B
Al-3B

2400
tane çapı (µm)

2000 katkısız
1600 AlTi5B1 katkılı
1200 AlB3 katkılı
800
400
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
ilaveden sonra, süre (dk)
Grain refinement
2 min after addition
AlSi12CuFe

Al-5Ti-1B
Before addition

Al-3B
500m
Grain Refinement
Grain Refinement
inoculation
 nucleation rate -
Homogenous-heterogeneous nucleation
Fragmentation / multiplication
breakage of dendrites
Mechanical/thermal/solutal disturbance
ultrasonic-vibration
high solidification rate
Restrict grain growth
 growth rate
Grain Refinement
low pouring temperatures
dendrites form and are broken up in the stream of
flowing metal, fragments are swept into the bulk of
the casting and if they do not re-melt, they can act
as efficient nuclei.
mechanical, thermal or solutal disturbance during
freezing will assist, such as surface shower
multiplication, or grain refinement by vibration or
stirring, such as electromagnetic stirring.
Ultrasonic vibration is also a well-known method of
achieving grain refinement.
Grain Refinement via restriction
Effect of Alloying Elements
Finally, it is possible to restrict grain growth after
nucleation.
One way of achieving this is to use alloying elements
with a low distribution coefficient, k, i.e. those
solutes which segregate strongly ahead of the
advancing front and so slow down diffusion and thus
the rate of arrival of aluminium atoms to grow the
primary aluminium dendrites.
This is probably how Ti helps to grain refine Al alloys.
In summary, there is widespread confusion between
the concept of a grain and the concept of a dendrite.
Grain Refinement via restriction
Effect of Alloying Elements
Partioning of alloying elements at the solidificiation
front (liquid-solid interface) restricts growth!:
growth restriction (GRF)

elem. Mn Cu Fe Mg Ni Cr Si Ti
GRF 0.1 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.3 3.5 5.9 246
Grain refinement with Al-B
● Al-B is a perfect grain refiner for foundry alloys!
● Grain size is 3 times smaller with Al-B addition with
respect to that obtained by Al-5Ti-1B!
● Average grain size as small as 200 µm is standard!
● For AlB2 particles to offer effective grain nucleation,
the Ti level in the alloy must be controlled below <80
ppm); otherwise, AlB2  TiB2
● The grain refinement of AlB2 particles does not suffer
fading since the nucleant in the case of grain
refinement with Al-B form inside the melt shortly
before the -Al grains!
● Hence, Al-B is just as effective in remelt operations!
Microstructural features
● The composition of the alloy and the choice of casting
process affect the microstructure of the aluminium
alloy castings.
● Sand cast and gravity die cast alloys cool relatively
slowly, resulting in a coarse lamellar eutectic structure
which is detrimental to the strength of the castings.
● Pressure diecastings are rapidly solidified giving small
grain size with a fine eutectic structure with small
dendrites.
● The microstructure can also be changed by the addition
of certain elements to aluminium–silicon alloys which
improve castability, mechanical properties and
machinability.
Modification of aluminium alloys
● Si lamella transform into fine Si fibres upon
modification.
● This fine structure improves elongation values.
However, it increases porosity.
● Modification of the eutectic Si is critical for the
ductility of the casting.
● modified alloys exhibit at least 3x higher ductility
with respect to those not modified.
● Modification increases hot tear resistance and
alloy feeding characteristics, decreasing shrinkage
porosity.
modification
modification
Modification of aluminium alloys
Modification of Si can be achived by different
mechanisms.
Thermal modification:
Si phase is modified under rapid solidification
conditions
Si particles change during solution heat
treatment.
Chemical modification:
Modification is executed via the addition of
approximately 100-200 ppm Na, Sr, Sb, Ca, P
thermal modification

Effect of solution heat treatment on eutectic Si particle

characteristics observed in A356.2 alloy casting level 1 samples in a
as cast condition and b after solution heat treatment at 540C for 80 h
thermal modification

Effect of solution heat treatment on eutectic Si particle

characteristics observed in Sr-modified A356?2 alloy SrM
casting level 1 samples in a as cast condition and b after
solution heat treatment at 540C for 80 h
Thermal modification
Effect of solidification rate

Sand cast Chill Cast

Al-12.5wt% Si alloy Al-11% Si alloy
chemical modification
+100 ppm Sr
Modification of aluminium alloys
● The higher the silicon level in an alloy, the
more modifying element is needed.
● The faster the freezing rate, the lower the
amount of modifier required.
● Pressure diecastings are often not modified!
● Modification of pressure-diecast
microstructures is also possible and the
lamellar eutectic silicon will be changed to a
fine fibre structure.
mechanism of modification
Growth direction

Layer growth

Modification
elements lead to
twining and
introduces new
growth
directions.
mechanism of modification
Crystal with a single twin
Closure of
twins due
Crystal with two twins
to ridge
formation

Creation of extra
reentrant
corners I and II
Twin Plane Propagation of crystal
Reentrant Edge due to reentrant
Mechanism corners
The effect of
modification on the
microstructures of
aluminium alloys

LM 6: Al-12Si
LM25: AlSi7Mg
LM27: AlSi7Cu2Mn0.5
chemical modification
modification rating
Large plates
unmodified + acicular
particles

Lamellar +
Partially acicular
modified particles

Lamella
Partially broken +
modified acicular
particles
modification rating
More Lamella
Under broken +
modified fewer acicular
particles

fibers + no
modified acicular
particles

Super Very fine

modified fibers
modification with sodium
● The first hypoeutectic modifiers, based on sodium,
are still widely used today although “fade”, the
gradual loss of sodium with time, can lead to
problems of control.
● Sodium has a very large undercooling effect so
that it is particularly useful in slowly cooled
casting processes such as sand casting.
● Sodium can be added either as metallic sodium or
as sodium salts.
● The modified structure is unstable and tends to
fade, that is, to revert to the unmodified
condition.
Sodium metal method
● The rate of reversion depends on silicon content,
temperature and size of the melt.
● Reversion is slow at temperatures below 750°C and
does not occur to any considerable extent during a
10 min holding period as long as the metal is not
agitated by stirring or degassing.
● Since some possibility of hydrogen pick-up is possible,
it is preferable to degas after modification.
The charge is melted under a layer of cover flux.
● The dross is pulled to one side and when the melt is
around 750°C, the metallic sodium is plunged using a
bell-shaped plunger which has been coated with
refractory dressing.
Sodium metal method
● When the reaction has subsided, the metal is
stirred using the plunger, but without breaking
the metal surface.
● The plunger is withdrawn and the Degassing Unit
rotor immersed, degassing takes 3–5 minutes.
● The melt is then drossed off and poured without
delay.
● The modified structure fades with time, and
melts which are held for longer than 10 minutes
should be partially or wholly remodified from
time to time with further additions of sodium.
Refinement effect
● When sodium is added to the alloy, the rate of
advance of the dendritic front will only be 1/17th
of the rate of the planar front.
● The eutectic spacing is coarse in the dendritic
growth mode, whereas it is fine in the planar mode
because it had rapidly solidified.
● This explains the action of sodium in refining the
spacing of the eutectic silicon.
● castings which solidify rapidly, such as die castings
(especially pressure die castings) have especially
fine eutectic spacing, although additions of sodium
will act to refine the spacing still further.
refinement effect
The refining of the eutectic spacing is generally carried out to
enhance the strength and ductility of Al-Si alloys, particularly
those alloys which contain more than about 50% eutectic
phase such as Al-7Si-0.4Mg and higher Si alloys such as Al-11Si.
Al-12Si alloy modified with 0.005 wt% Na
Sodium salt method
● The salts process, although slower in terms of
sodium transfer, is less likely to introduce gas into
the melt.
● Because of its reactivity, sodium is vacuum packed
in aluminium containers for convenient addition.
● This minimises the possibility of gas pick-up.
● It also avoids the likelihood of undesirable crucible
attack which may result from the use of modifying
sodium salts.
Sodium salt method
● When degassing with DEGASER tablets, it is
advisable to degas before sodium modification,
since degassing with hexachloroethane removes
sodium from the melt.
● The Rotary Degasser removes much less sodium,
but modification using flux is still best carried out
after degassing.
● The charge should be melted under cover flux and
heated to above 750°C then degassed for 3–5
minutes.
● The melt is skimmed before pouring.
Problems of Sodium Modification
● The addition of Na causes a lot of fume during
addition when added as Na metal. The health and
safety legislation make this aspect unpopular.
● When Na is added in salt form, then the residual
chloride and/or fluoride salt has to be disposed of
in some safe manner. Because of the danger of
the pollution of ground water supplies, this
procedure is also becoming less widely used.
Problems of Sodium Modification
● The temperature at which liquid aluminium is held
is above the boiling point of Na, so that Na is lost
from the melt by evaporation.
● The rate of loss of Na vapour means that most Na
is lost within 15 or 20 minutes of an addition.
● It is therefore not easy to ensure that the level of
Na in the melt is correct at all times.
● This poor chemical control is the main reason why
Na is unpopular for control of eutectic
modification.
Modification with Strontium
Today, AlSr master alloys is almost exclusively used
for the modification of Si phase.

composition
AlSr10
AlSr5

product form
ingots
rod
Modification with Strontium
● Strontium as a modifier has the advantage over
sodium that it is less reactive and can be added in
the form of master alloys so that precise control
over additions is possible and fade only occurs
over a period of several hours but it is less
effective in heavy section castings.
● The ability of strontium to modify the structure of
aluminium–silicon alloys without fading has made
it popular for low pressure and gravity diecastings
where it may be necessary to hold molten metal
for relatively long periods.
 Modification with Strontium
● Strontium is added as a master alloy containing 10%
Sr for use principally on hypoeutectic and eutectic
Al–Si alloys (6–8% and 10–13% silicon) and is used
mainly on alloys for gravity and low pressure
diecasting.
SrAl additions for eutectic modification (from Spooner
S.J., Cook R., Foundryman, 90, May 1997, p. 170)

Si of alloy (%) Sr addition (%) 10SrAl Addition (kg/t)

4–7 0.01–0.02 1–2
8–10 0.03–0.04 3–4
11–13 0.04–0.06 4–6
 Modification with Strontium
● They are added to the melt at the Degassing Unit,
allowing degassing and modification to take place at
the same time.
● Addition of 200 g piglet to 100 kg of metal adds 0.02%
Sr and, in good conditions, almost 100% yield is
possible.
● Solution is usually complete within 3 min of plunging
the piglets, which is within the treatment time when
using the rotary degassing unit.
● The rate of loss of strontium from molten metal is slow
and allows holding times of a few hours.
● Foundry returns from strontium-modified metal contain
an uncertain amount of active strontium modifier.
Modification with Strontium
● Its great advantages are that it is effectively,
easily and fumelessly added to the melt.
● Strontium is less reactive and can be added in the
form of master alloys so that precise control over
additions is possible and fade only occurs over a
period of several hours but it is less effective in
heavy section castings.
● It is lost slowly by oxidation. However, this is
similar to the rate at which other oxidisable
elements such as Mg are lost, and so can be
effectively kept under good control.
Modification with strontium
disadvantages to the use of Strontium:
● The melt seems sensitised to the pickup of
hydrogen gas, so that castings often display
dispersed gas porosity.
● When the melt is allowed to remain in contact
with moisture in the air, the strontium reacts with
the water, forming strontium oxide on the melt
surface and releasing hydrogen gas to go into the
melt.
Modification with strontium
● This seems to happen less in low pressure die
casting where holding the melt inside an enclosed
pressure vessel keeps the it out of contact with
air.
● The action of strontium on straightening the
freezing front of the eutectic is not quite the
same as that of sodium.
Modification with strontium
Modification with strontium

Al4Sr Al3Sr
microstructure of Al-Sr

Al4Sr
modification with antimony
● Antimony (Sb) is another permanent alloying
addition which has a modest effect on the
refinement of the Al-Si eutectic.
● However, it is not usual to use Sb in foundry
applications.
● There is a danger of formation of toxic stibnine
gas (SbH4).
● there is a danger of overmodification when scrap
is recycled.
modification with antimony
● Sb addition can seriously impair the performance
of Na and Sr additions.
● Its effect on sand castings is sufficiently
insignificant that it is usually not used for such
applications.
● It is claimed to be reasonably useful for die
castings of various sorts, and is used particularly
in gravity die foundries.
Refinement of hypereutectic alloys
● Al–Si alloys containing over 12% Si are used for
their wear resistance and it is important for
consistent casting properties that primary silicon
is evenly dispersed throughout the casting.
● growth and flotation of primary silicon particles
may occur with long solidification ranges.
● Large silicon particles are detrimental to
castability, machinability and mechanical
properties.
● Refinement of the structure is therefore desirable.
Al-Si Hypereutectic Solidification
● In the hypereutectic Al-Si alloys, primary silicon is
the first phase to separate on solidification. This
solidifies as chunky crystals of pure silicon.
● If there are few nuclei on which the silicon can
form, then the silicon will form as large separated
particles which will float out rapidly, segregating
to the top of the casting.
● To avoid this problem, and to obtain a fine and
nicely dispersed form of the primary silicon, it is
necessary to make a prolific addition of suitable
nuclei.
Al-Si Hypereutectic Solidification
● Hypereutectic alloys are refined with phosphorus
additions of 0.003–0.015%.
● The aluminium phosphide , AlP3, forms and provides
nucleation sites for primary silicon ensuring a fine
dispersal of silicon in the eutectic matrix.
● Care needs to be taken to ensure that sodium or
strontium are not present when P is added.
● These two groups of elements are antagonistic in
aluminium alloys and effectively neutralise each other.
Thus if one is present, the other has to be added in
sufficient amounts first to react and negate the effect
of the first before any beneficial action can be gained.
 Al-Si Hypereutectic Solidification
Hypereutectic alloys may be modified with phosphorus

● in hypereutectic alloys, large crystals of Si form first and float!

● This is overcome by the addition of P to form AlP3 nuclei.
● Note that Na and Sr neutralize P and vice versa!
alloying additions
element M.P. (C) High melting point alloying
Al 660 additions (Fe, Mn) must not be
Fe 1535 made in elemental form.
Mn 1245
It takes long times for such
elements to dissolve in the
Cu 1083
aluminium melt and the OES
Si 1410 analysis over time may be very
Ti 1660 misleading!
B 2300 Low melting point alloying
Sr 769 additions (Mg) must be made
Mg 650 as close to casting as possible!
commercial master alloys
alloy % alloying element alloy % alloying element
Al-Mn %10/%15/%20/%25/%30/%60/%80 Al-Mo %10
Al-Mg %20/%25/%50/%65/%75 Al-Ni %20/%50
Al-Bi %10 Al-Sc %2
Al-B %3/%4/%5/%6/%8 Al-Si %20/%25/%30/%50
Al-Ca %5/%6/%10 Al-Ag %10
Al-Ce %10 Al-Sr %3.5/%5/%10/%15
Al-Cr %5/%10/%20/%80 Al-Ti %5/%6/%10/%80
Al-Co %5/%10 Al-Ti-B 5/1, 3/1, 5/0.2
Al-Cu %33/%50/%80 Al-Ti-C 3/0.15, 3/0.2
Al-Fe %10/%20/%25/%30/%45/%80 Al-Li %2/%5
Al-Sb %8/%10/%15 Al-Be %2.5/%5
Alloying-Master alloys
Master alloys with a high
fraction of the alloying
element are in the form
of tablets
pressed
from a
mixture
of element
powder
and
flux!
Raw materials
● Foundries usually purchase pre-alloyed ingots
from specialist suppliers who convert
miscellaneous scrap into high quality, accurately
specified material subject to national standards.
● Scrap metal is carefully sorted by the supplier
using spectroscopic analysis and melted in large
induction or gas-fired furnaces.
● There is always a danger of contamination by
impurities, particularly iron, and by alloying
additions such as magnesium and silicon.
● Ingots are usually about 5 kg in weight and may be
colour coded to avoid danger of mixing.
Melting procedures
for commonly used
aluminium alloys
Medium silicon alloys, 4–7% Si
● The alloys should be melted under a covering/
drossing flux and degassed.
● Grain refinement is advantageous and can assist
response to heat treatment.
● Modification is not essential.
Medium silicon alloys, 4–7% Si
Bulk melting
● Melt under granular cover flux using about 0.5 kg/m2
of melt area, forming a complete cover adding half
early and the rest when the charge is molten.
● Transfer the required amount of metal to the transfer
ladle, grain refine.
● Degas.
● Grain refinement can be carried out simultaneously
with degassing by using TiB 5/1 rod.
● Suggested pouring temperatures for sand castings:
Light castings, under 15mm 730°C
Medium castings, 15–40mm 710°C
Heavy castings, over 40mm 690°C
Medium silicon alloys, 4–7% Si
Crucible melting
● Melt under cover flux, raising the temperature to
750–760°C.
● Grain refinement can be done.
● Skim off the flux.
● degas for 3–5 minutes.
● grain refinement can be carried out simultaneously
with degassing by using TiB 5/1 grain refiner.
● 6–10 kg/tonne addition. Grain refinement and
degassing take place simultaneously. Skim the
metal clean before casting.
Eutectic silicon alloys, 12% Si
● The alloys should be melted under a cover flux.
● Grain refinement benefits heavy section castings and
the eutectic alloys benefit greatly from
modification.
Bulk melting
● Melt under granular cover flux using about 0.5 kg/m2
of melt area, forming a complete cover adding half
early and the rest when the charge is molten.
● Transfer the required amount of metal to the
transfer ladle.
● Modify the alloy by plunging metallic sodium.
Eutectic silicon alloys, 12% Si
Bulk melting
● If strontium modification is preferred, which may be
the case if the metal is to be transferred to a holding
furnace, 10SrAl master alloy can be plunged adding 200
g to 50 kg of metal (0.04%).
● Degas for 3-5 minutes.
● If grain refinement is needed as well, add TiB 5/1 rod
before degassing.
● Skim the metal clean before use.
● Suggested pouring temperatures for sand castings:
Light castings, under 15mm 730°C
Medium castings, 15–40mm 710°C
Heavy castings, over 40mm 690°C
Eutectic silicon alloys, 12% Si
Crucible melting
● Melt under cover flux, increase T to 750°C.
● Modify the alloy by drawing the dross to one side and
plunging metallic sodium.
● When the reaction has subsided, raise and lower the
plunger a few times to stir the metal gently, allow
the metal to stand for a few minutes, then skim off
the dross.
● degas for 3–5minutes.
● If grain refinement is required, grain refiner may be
plunged before degassing. Alternatively TiB 5/1 rod
can be added before degassing.
● Skim clean before casting.
assesment of
melt quality
Assesment of melt quality
Analysis (OES) of molten alloy
conformance to alloy specs / homogeneity
alkaline and alkaline earth metals
Ti/B/Sr
cleanliness
measurement of H2 gas
measurement of inclusions
castability
fluidity
hot tearing tendency
Die soldering
measurement of hydrogen
Measuring dissolved hydrogen in molten aluminum
alloys is vital in meeting quality requirements in
aluminium foundries.
Hydrogen must be lower than 0.18ml/100 g for a
high quality casting!
Over the years several techniques have been
developed for performing this task.
● Qualitative and semi-quantitative cast shop
techniques
● Quantitative laboratory analysis techniques
● Closed Loop Recirculation techniques
Qualitative and semi-quantitative
cast shop techniques
● The Straube-Pfeiffer test (also called the
Reduced Pressure Test) in which the gas content
can be estimated from the density of a metal
sample solidified under reduced pressure, or from
a comparison of a polished cross-section of the
solidified metal with known “standards”.
● One of the most widely used methods of assessing
the quality of molten Al alloys.
● The test is quick, and the required apparatus is
inexpensive, durable, and simple to use.
Quantitative laboratory analysis
techniques
These include the vacuum subfusion and the nitrogen
carrier gas techniques, known respectively as the
Ransley or hot extraction method, and the LECO
method.

Closed Loop Recirculation techniques

These are in-situ methods that are based on the
recirculation gas principle and include the AlSCAN
and Telegas methods.
The Reduced Pressure Test
Straube-Pfeiffer Test

The test involves solidifying a

sample (between 100-200 g) under
a reduced pressure (26 mm Hg).
The Reduced Pressure Test
● This test simply comprises taking a small spoon
sample from the melt,
● pouring this carefully into a small stainless steel
crucible of the size of an eggcup, and
● placing this under a bell jar from which the air is
evacuated by a vacuum pump,
● reducing the air pressure to typically one tenth
(or possibly as low as one thirtieth) of one
atmosphere while the sample solidifies.
The Reduced Pressure Test
● The reason for carrying out the test under
reduced pressure is simply for the convenience of
the magnification of the volume of gas by a factor
of ten (or more if carried out at lower pressure; a
factor of 30 is rarely exceeded).
● The pores are much more easily seen as they
emerge at the surface, and are easily visible when
the sample is cut up for subsequent examination.
The Reduced Pressure Test
● The observation of the sample during solidification
is important.
● The emergence of many bubbles indicates the
presence of gas.
● Similarly, the final density of the sample may be
low (although this is not an unambiguous result,
since the precipitating gas may have entirely
escaped from the free surface of the sample;
hence the need to observe it during freezing).
The Reduced Pressure Test
● As the sample solidifies, it rejects hydrogen due
to the decrease in the solubility of hydrogen in
aluminium alloys with decreasing temperature.
● The reduced pressure over the sample during its
solidification enhances nucleation and growth of
hydrogen bubbles, thus exaggerating their
appearance for easy detection.
● The results that are produced are easily
repeatable and correlate well with casting
quality.
● These results may be interpreted either
qualitatively, or semi-quantitatively.
The Reduced Pressure Test
Qualitative Interpretation of RPT Results
● The main objective of the qualitative assessment
is to rapidly gauge the effect of dissolved
hydrogen in an aluminium melt.
● It relies on observing the extent of formation of
porosity in an aluminium alloy sample under
controlled reduced pressure conditions.
● The result is an indication of the amount of
hydrogen in the melt.
The Reduced Pressure Test
Semi-quantitative Interpretation of RPT Results –
● The specific gravity of a sample is measured and
the result is correlated with the hydrogen dissolved
in the melt.
● The results are only semi-quantitative because they
are confounded by factors such as the impurity
level of the melt (hydrogen bubbles tend to
nucleate on oxides and inclusions), and alloy
modification.
● Nevertheless, the RPT can be an effective quality
control tool if the confounding variables are
controlled and understood.
The Reduced Pressure Test
Semi-quantitative Interpretation of RPT Results
● A constant vacuum level, of course, is a prequisite
for the most consistent results.
● Frequent calibration of the vacuum gauge and
maintenance of the vacuum pump and regulator
and the bell jar seal are important because
constant use of the test system in the foundry
environment can affect the results over time.
The Reduced Pressure Test
● if no bubbles are observed, one cannot conclude
that the sample is free of hydrogen.
● In fact, the hydrogen level may have been high,
but the sample has retained its gas in solution.
● This is because the gas cannot precipitate without
the presence of nuclei which are usually non-
wetted interfaces such as oxides. (It should be
noted that TiAl3, TiB2, Al solid, and other
interfaces on which the solid is thought to
nucleate are well-wetted and thus probably good
nuclei for solid aluminium, but of no use as nuclei
for pores. Nuclei for pores will require to be non-
wetted, such as oxide films.)
The Reduced Pressure Test
● The reduced pressure test is therefore a good test
for the combined effects of hydrogen and nuclei.
● As such, it is really a "pore forming potential"
test, in other words, a porosity test (i.e. it is
definitely not a gas test, as is commonly
supposed, and unjustly criticised when the test
fails to agree with other fundamental techniques
for the measurement of gas content).
● It is therefore a good test for the practical
foundryman since it will reflect the likely
overall quality of the castings.
The Reduced Pressure Test
The Reduced Pressure Test
Test results are only qualitative since oxides and and
other insoluble particles encourage the formation of
bubbles (i.e. Porosity).
However, sound conclusions can be drawn from this
test if the solidification of the melt sample under
partial vacuum is observed during the entire test.

No bubbling at the surface:  inclusions  gas

Very few bubbles:  inclusions  gas
Bubbles only at the end of test:  inclusions  gas
Bubbling from the very start:  inclusions  gas
The Reduced Pressure Test
Section of samples taken from the same point
solidified under different vacuum levels.
Vacuum Vacuum
(torr) (torr)

50 200

100 250

150 760
Gas Content Measurement
Other tests for hydrogen content in the melt are based on
sampling, and measuring the volume of hydrogen gas that
emerges under vacuum during the freezing of the sample.
Clearly this test relies on most of the hydrogen escaping, and
will thus probably give
an underestimation of
the hydrogen content
of the metal Known
where the volume of
metal is liquid alloy
Pirani
particularly Valve to shut-off gauge to
clean. after rapid measure
evacuation hydrogen
pressure
Vacuum pump
First bubble prensible
The Ransley Method
● The device works on the recirculating gas principle.
● The porous ceramic probe is immersed in the melt and
an inert carrier gas, typically nitrogen, is circulated
through. The carrier gas contacts the molten metal at
the probe-melt interface, and since the initial partial
pressure of hydrogen in the carrier gas is negligible,
hydrogen diffuses from the liquid alloy into the carrier
gas.
● The recirculation process is continued until the
hydrogen in the carrier gas comes into equilibrium with
the hydrogen dissolved in the liquid metal.
● The partial pressure of hydrogen in the carrier gas is
then measured through a thermal conductivity sensor.
The Ransley Method
The probe can be left in
place indefinitely,
continuing to sample
on a continuous
basis.

Modern
probes appear to last for
many hours when used
continuously
or semi-continuously.
Gas Content Measurement
● these tests assess the gas content in situ in the melt,
and have the advantage of the possibility of
continuous operation.
● These devices, now much improved by further
sophistication from Alcoa and Alcan, repeatedly cycle
a small amount (about 3 ml) of an inert gas such as
argon (or nitrogen) through the melt, where it picks
up hydrogen.
● The hydrogen content of the carrier gas gradually
increases, reaching a condition of equilibration
between the hydrogen gas in solution in the melt and
the partial pressure of hydrogen gas in the carrier gas.
● This takes about 5 minutes.
AlSCAN Method
The AlSCAN analyzer allows a direct,
quantitative measurement
of hydrogen in
aluminium melts on
the foundry floor.
It consists of a
porous ceramic
block
(24 × 24 × 6mm)
to which two capillary stainless
steel tubes are connected.
AlSCAN Method
● The porosity of the ceramic probe is such that
penetration of the metal into the ceramic is
avoided, and a good exchange between the
hydrogen and the carrier gas is ensured.
● Movement of the probe in the melt is required to
keep its interface free of oxides and other
contaminants that can slow down the diffusion of
hydrogen into the recirculation gas.
● This movement is accomplished through a cam and
a small electric motor.
● The AlSCAN analyzer has a built-in microprocessor,
which controls its operation and processes data.
AlSCAN Method
As the temperature of the melt is also simultaneously
measured, the concentration of hydrogen dissolved in
the melt, [H], can be calculated from Sieverts’ law:
[H] = So Pi CA CT
So: the solubility of hydrogen in pure aluminum at
973K (So = 0.92 ml/100g of melt),
Pi: the partial pressure of hydrogen in the carrier gas
C A: a correction factor for alloy composition
(1.0 for pure aluminum)
CT: a correction factor for melt temperature
(1.0 at 973K-660C).
Hydrogen measurement-ALSCAN
continuous monitoring
of residual hydrogen
concentration
Telegas method
● The TELEGAS analyzer is based on the same
principle as the AlSCAN analyzer, but
● the design of the TELEGAS probe is different from
that of the AlSCAN analyzer.
● Unlike with the AlSCAN analyzer, the depth of
immersion of the TELEGAS probe in the liquid
metal is critical and gas bubbles (N2 + H2) are
collected in the probe’s head for analysis.
Telegas method
● Measures the hydrogen gas content of the molten
aluminium in a continuous fashion.
● When equipped with an alarm system, works very
efficiently for the gas control in continous casting
processes.
● A small amount (3ml) of inert gas (argon or
nitrogen) is continuously purged through the
aluminium melt.
Telegas method
The amount of hydrogen inside the circulating inert
gas (to achieve equilibrium) is measured precisely
with a catherometre (an instrument that measures
the temperature of a thin wire inside the circulating
inert + H2 gas).
This method can be
successfully employed
in continuous casting
lines.
Modern probes can
work for hours in fact
for days.
AlSCAN and TELEGAS probes

TELEGAS probe AlSCAN probe

CHAPEL test
Continuous Hydrogen Analysis by Pressure Evaluation in
Liquids
a porous graphite probe connected to a pressure
transducer is dipped into the melt and quickly
evacuated. Hydrogen in the melt diffuses into the disc
until the pressure in the probe and the hydrogen partial
pressure in the melt have equalised. (About 30-60 min is
required to establish equilibrium) Since hydrogen is the
only gas which dissolves in molten aluminium, the total
pressure measured in the probe is equal to the hydrogen
partial pressure. By simultaneously measuring the
temperature, Sievert’s Law then allows the hydrogen
concentration CH to be derived from the hydrogen
partial pressure pH2.
Chapel Test-direct measurement
LECO Method
● The LECO method employs the inert gas fusion
principle.
● A weighed solid sample taken from the melt is
placed in a high-purity graphite crucible and fused
under a flowing helium gas stream at
temperatures sufficient to release hydrogen in the
form of a gas.
● The gas is passed through heated copper oxide,
which converts it to H2O.
● An H2O detector determines the total hydrogen
content in the test sample.
LECO method-fusion method
Aluminium sampled from the melt is melted in a graphite
crucible under argon. The Hydrogen gas liberated during
melting is transferred with carrier gas. The thermal
conductivity of the carrier gas with hydrogen is measured
and compared with calibration data to estimate the H2
content in ml/100g.
Hydrogen gas measurements
equipment used for quantitative measurements includes:
aluminium melt tester (first-bubble method)
HYCON tester
HYSCAN (measurement of the partial pressure of hydrogen)
ALSCAN (continuous measurement in the melt)
TELEGAS (introduction of inert gas until equalisation of the
partial pressure)
ANDION (new, low-priced measuring system)
measurement of the apparent density (density measurement
using Archimedes’ principle)
Methods for providing a qualitative statement:
reduced-pressure test (Straube–Pfeiffer test)
pour or cup sample (solidification of a small amount of metal
in fireclay)
Oxidation-oxides
● oxidation
melting furnace atmosphere / burner flame
melt treatments foundry atmosphere / moisture!
melt transfer turbulence

Melt temperature +10C  oxidation rate x2

Mg > 2% ; T > 760C  oxidation !
● Temperature control critical!
T of melting furnace < 760C; holding furnace < 730C
● Alloying additives / practice : 40 ppm during Mg addition
● Scrap charge (upto 35 ppm).
● ingot/ (alumina based from the electrolysis cell!)
Oxide inclusions
Frequent oxides and inclusions
Mg   Al2O3 films / particles
Mg   MgAl2O4 and MgO based

oksit  Al settlement and floatation very slow

 Spesific surface area they remain in suspension!

Selection of flux and drossing practice critical!

When the heel is too low, the risk of inclusions at the
bottom of the bath increases!
When the refractory lining erodes and reacts with molten
aluminium:
2SiO2 + 2 Al (s) + Mg (s) = MgAl2O4 + 2 Si
inclusions
İndigenous impurities:

inclusions that form during melt treatment

operations such as degassing and that come from the
electrolysis cell, namely Al3C4, AIN and/or AIB2.

Most critical: Al2O3, MgO and A4C3.

inclusions
extogenous impurities:
Furnace refractories, transfer systems, transfer
crucibles and the tools used during melt treatments
are all source of extogenous impurities such as
simple and complex oxides
Al2O3, MgO and Al2O, MgO spinels
K-, Ca- and AI- silicates
Na-, Ca- and Mg- aluminates
TiB2 clusters that come from the grain refiners.
Measurements of inclusions
● Common practice to measure the inclusion
content of aluminium melts relies on filtering of
the melt through a thin ceramic foam filter.
● The inclusions inside the melt are retained on top
of the filter. The residue that builds up on the
filter is analyised with standard metallographic
methods. Inclusion are counted, statistically
evaluated, identified with SEM-EDS.
● This is a laboratory practice; takes time and
requires expertise.
● There are other methods where inclusions are
seperated from the melt by centrifuge.
Inclusion content measurements
● Independent measurements of the inclusion
contents of melts is rarely carried out outside of
continuous casting operations.
● However, this would undoubtedly be of
considerable advantage to foundries attempting
to produce very high quality parts.
● Two main types of continuous devices are
currently used:
Ultrasonic reflection from particles
Conductivity measurements
continuous inclusion content
measurements
inspection of the melt by ultrasonics. An ultrasonic beam
directed into the liquid metal, and is reflected from floating
particles. The density and intensity of reflections is
monitored electronically and processed to give information
on the quality of the melt.
A conductivity probe measures the electrical current
Flowing through a small hole through which a sample of the
melt is continuously being passed.
As inclusions pass through the hole the electrical resistivity
of the current path changes in proportion to the size of the
inclusion.
The signals are processed electronically to monitor the size
and number of inclusions.
melt cleanliness measurement
via ultrasonics
transmitter receiver

Ultrasonic
inclusions
Schematic beam
signal trigger
illustration of
the
configuration
of inclusion
detection
conductivity
probe
Liquid Metal Cleanliness Analyzer
for Continuous Monitoring-LIMCA
can characterize the cleanliness
of a melt at time intervals in the
order of one minute. It can
therefore monitor, in real-time, the
evolution of cleanliness
along a cast as a function of process
parameters and melt-handling
practices. The impact of furnace
preparation, alloying practice,
feedstock mix, settling time, and
similar parameters on melt
cleanliness is easily determined.
Inclusion content measurements
A standard technique is the passing of a known
volume of melt through a fine filter. The inclusions
are caught on the filter and are subsequently
identified and counted on a polished cross section
under the optical
microscope. This inclusions
sampling method
is of course rather
laborious, but has
been used to
calibrate the
continuous
measurement techniques.
Inclusion content measurements
inclusions

filter

balance

Weigth of the filtered melt

SEM-EDS analysis of the inclusions
withheld at the filter
Inclusion content measurements

Data collection and analysis

Weight of filtered melt vs t

Inclusion content measurements
Inclusion content measurements
 Analysis of inclusions
Filter cake

filter
sludge
High melting point intermetallics- from low quality furnace
charge-alloying additions etc. and improper melting practice!
quality is seriously impaired when they end up in the casting!
They must be cleaned when they remain in the furnace/
crucible
“sludge” factor= %Fe + 2x%Mn + 3x%Cr
impurities in primary/recycled
aluminium
ingot recycled
alloy >%99.7 Al
hydrogen 0.1-0.3 ppm 0.2-0.6 ppm
Na 30-150 ppm <10 ppm
Ca 2-5 ppm 5-40 ppm
Li 0-20 ppm 1 ppm
residues  1mm2/kg Al4C3 0.5  mm2/kg  5.0
Al2O3, MgO, MgAlO4,
Al4C3, TiB2
Chemical analysis
fast and reliable measurement is required for
industrial production.

Optical Emission Spectrometer:

● equipment that measures the composition of the
alloy with an accuracy of %1-3
● very popular and widely used in aluminium
foundries.
Chemical analysis
● For sound analysis of the composition, the sample
itself must be uniform and must also represent
the molten bath it is taken from.
● This condition is largely met with disc samples
solidified rapidly on a chilled surface to avoid
segregation.
● The chilled surface of the disc sample is made
smooth on a lath machine before the analysis.
Optical emission spectrometer
Optical emission spectrometer
A spark is ignited on the sample
surface. The light emitted by
the sample is collected by
detectors adjusted for different
wave lengths.

The composition of the

sample is measured by
comparing the light
intensities emitted with
known standards with
precise compoisitons.
Optical emission spectrometer

Yakma, enerji
girdisi : E

E1-initial E2-energy level after back to the initial energy

energy level ignition-electron level after releasing a photon
excited with a wavelength of !
Optical emission spectrometer
Optical emission spectrometer
● New generation spectrometers not only provide a
chemical analysis but also give you an estimate
of the inclusion content.
● It is essential that the spectometer be equipped
with each detector for each and every element
you want to measure.

Ex:
Aluminium foundries; Sr, Ti, B
Foil manufacturers: Ca, Na, K
recycling contamination
Fe, Si and Cu contamination arising from the
melting of scrap!
Since these elements cannot be reduced under
normal condition, they can be controlled only
diluted by mixing with pure Al.
Thermal analysis
As the atoms are increasingly close packed during
solidification, heat is evolved and the entropy
increases (solidification is an exothermic process).
The opposite takes place when the atoms become
further apart during melting.
The structural transformations can be traced
during cooling of the melts by measuring
the change in temperature of the melt
with time, owing to the heat
exchange that accompanies such
transformations.
The change in slope and inflection
points on cooling curves represent
structural transformations.
Thermal analysis
The extent of undercooling below the Tliqiudus during
solidification is a measure of the effectiveness
of the grain refinement. If the grain refinement
is effective, the undercooling will be limited.

Grain refined

Not grain
refined
Thermal analysis
modified

The extent of
modification
can also be
estimated
from the
analysis of
cooling
curves.

Not modified
K-mold test
K-mold test
a simple robust shoop floor test to evaluate the quality of
the charge and the cleanliness of the melt.
The melt is poured in a stepped mould and is then fractured
along the steps. Finally the fractured sections are examined
visually for control of the presence of inclusions on the
fracture surface.
The fracture surfaces with inclusions are rated against those
that are clean.
advantages:
Fast evaluation
Practical
Simple sampling
Portable
Sensitive to oxides and inclusions
cheap
castability
Castability of an alloy is identified on the basis of 3
criteria:
fluidity
hot tearing tendency
die soldering
● Hot tearing is a consequence of stresses
developing during feeding until the casting tears
itself apart.
● Hot tearing is not found in alloys used in HPDC.
● Die soldering is important because, in improperly
designed castings, soldering can be a significant
problem that can severely inhibit productivity.
Fluidity
● Fluidity is the distance to which a metal, when
cast at a given temperature, will flow in a given
test mould before it is stopped by solidification.
● Fluidity is therefore a length, usually measured in
millimetres or metres.
● fluidity depends on heat flow during solidification.
Fluidity
Measurements of Fluidity
Traditionally fluidity has been measured in a spiral
mould. The rationale behind this is clearly the desire
to compress the fluidity test into as small a mould as
possible, and that the flow distance is sensitive to
levelling errors, and that these are minimised by the
spiral path of the liquid.
Spiral fluidity test
Molten alloy is poured into a sand mould at a
specified temperature. The length the melt has
travelled is measured once the sand mould is broken.
Factors that affect fluidity
Mould coatings
Alloying additions
Molten metal head-feeding
Melt superheat
Solidification range
(fluidity decreases with increasing range.)
Cleanliness of the melt (fluidity increases with
decreasing cleanliness)
fluidity
Vacuum fluidity testing allows for the evaluation of
various alloys and process modifications in a
laboratory setting under rapid solidification
conditions, but suffers from a poor reputation and,
as a consequence, has principally been used for
qualitative experimentation.
Fluidity vs phase diagram
increasing solidification range  decreasing fluidity
Hence, Fluidity is maximum at
or near the eutectic point!
However, in Al-Si system, the
peak in fluidity is not at the
equilibrium eutectic, but is
nearer 15% Si.
This corresponds of course to
the non-equilibrium eutectic
composition.
It is expected that the presence of Na
or Sr as promoters of the eutectic
phase, and suppressers of the primary
Si, might influence the position and
height of the fluidity peak.
Fluidity of Al-Si alloys
The general increase in
fluidity with increasing
silicon content in this
particular alloy is the
result of the powerful
effect of Si. Its latent
heat of solidification is
among the highest of
all natural elements, and
is nearly 5 times greater
than that of Al.
Thus tS is significantly
increased as Si levels are
raised.
fluidity
1200

1000 filtered
fluidity (mm)

800

600

400
Unfiltered
200

0
600 650 700 750 800 850
temperature (C)
impact of melt cleanliness on fluidity
Filtered (Clean) versus Unfiltered (Dirty) metal fluidity comparison
hot tearing
● a casting phenomenon that occurs in sand castings
where the solidification rate is slower than in die-
castings.
● It can occur also in high integrity castings depending
on stress distribution.
● solidification behavior is critical.
● hot tear is a uniaxial tensile failure, which results in
cracks on the surface or inside the casting.
● Alloys having a wide freezing range have a higher
tendency to hot tear.
● Variables that influence hot tearing include alloy
composition and processing variables.
Hot tearing
solidification behavior in the mushy zone is critical!
Solidification can be divided into four stages:
Mass feeding where the liquid and solid are free to move;
Interdendritic feeding when the dendrites begin to contact
each other, and a coherent solid network forms;
Interdendritic separation. With increasing fraction solid, the
liquid network becomes fragmented. If liquid feeding is not
adequate, a cavity may form. As thermal contraction
occurs, strains are developed and if the strain imposed on the
network is greater than a critical value, a hot tear will form.
Interdendritic bridging or solid feeding occurs. Simply stated,
hot tearing occurs if the solidification shrinkage and thermal
deformation of the solid cannot be compensated by liquid
flow.
Short freezing range alloys
The solidification front is planar.
Solidification is from the outside walls in towards the
centre as the metal proceeds along the mould.
The flow of metal stops when the two freezing fronts
meet
long freezing range alloys
● solidification front is no longer planar but dendritic,
and because freezing is occurring in a moving liquid,
the bulk turbulence in the liquid carries pockets of hot
liquid into the cooler regions, and thus remelting
dendrite arms and other fragments, to build up a slurry
of dendrite debris.
● As heat is lost from the slurry, the slurry thickens,
gradually becoming so thick that it is too viscous to
flow. This occurs at different fractions of solid in
different alloys, and also seems to be influenced by the
metallostatic head driving the flow.
● In general, however, the flow of liquid is arrested
when the volume fraction of solid is somewhere
between 25 and 50 %.
long freezing range alloys
Slurry of
dendrites!

Flow stops when solid fraction reaches %25-50

sand mould metal die

Die Soldering
● occurs when the cast aluminum alloy comes into
contact with die steel.
● Due to the natural affinity of iron and aluminum, a
reaction occurs at the surface, which results in the
formation of Al-Fe intermetallic phases.
● Over a series of shots, a significant amount of
aluminum becomes stuck to these phases at the
die surface, and the resulting cast part can begin
to miss critical tolerances or to lose integrity.
● At this point, the die must be shut down and
cleaned, which is an expensive process when it
occurs too frequently.
Die Soldering
● It is estimated that 1 to 1.5% of variable
overhead is directly attributed to die soldering in
casting plants.
● With such a large economic effect on the casting
process, it is clear why die soldering needs to be
controlled.
● There are several ways in which this can be
achieved:
melt chemistry,
process conditions and
the die surface condition.
Die Soldering-melt chemistry
● Fe has the greatest effect of any alloying element in
the study on reducing die soldering.
● Fe has long been added to die casting alloys in order
to reduce the die soldering tendency of alloys.
● It is well known that alloys with insufficient iron
content (< 0.8-0.9%) will solder readily to the die.
● The solubility of Fe in aluminum with 10% Si at typical
casting temperatures is quite low, around 2-3%. At
temperatures where the melt is likely to be in contact
with the die, this solubility drops even lower.
● The presence of Fe in the melt reduces the chemical
potential gradient of Fe from the steel to the melt and
slows the reactions that occur at the surface.
Die Soldering–melt chemistry
● Sr also has the potential to help control die soldering,
in addition to its common use as a eutectic modifier.
● In industrial trials a small Sr addition was shown to
reduce die soldering by more than 20%.
● The mechanism behind this reduction has to do with
the effect Sr has on the viscosity and surface tension
of the alloy.
● The addition of Sr changes the apparent viscosity and
subsequently the surface energy of the alloy.
● This causes a reduction in the ability of the alloy to
wet the die surface and reduces the contact area and
the reaction between the two.
Die Soldering-process conditions
● High temperatures and high melt velocity lead to
soldering.
● high temperatures are more critical and must be
avoided through careful design of the die.
● By configuring the part and optimizing the design
of the die cooling system, the potential for
soldering can be greatly reduced.
● It is very important to consider this during the
design phase of a die because once a die is
manufactured it is very difficult to reduce any hot
spots.
Die Soldering-
surface/process conditions
● Other potential solutions include using additional
spray in the high solder areas for cooling or the use
of inserts with high conduction coefficients.
● Impingement velocity is important to control as well.
● The die surface should be coated with lubricants and
is likely oxidized from prior treatment.
● A high impingement velocity can wash these
protective coatings off of the die surface, exposing
the die steel to the aluminum alloy and begin erosion
of the die surface.
● Both of these effects will promote the beginning of
die soldering.
Die Soldering-
surface/process conditions
● SSM processing can help to reduce both the
temperature and velocities apparent in the
casting system, and should help reduce die
soldering.
● Die coatings can be useful as a diffusion barrier
between the steel in the die and the aluminum in
the cast alloy.
● An effective coating must be able to withstand the
harsh conditions at the surface of the die.
● Coatings which are sometimes used include
CrN+W, CrN, (TiAl)N and CrC.
Die Soldering-
surface/process conditions
● surface treatments such as nitriding and nitro-carburizing
can help to strengthen the surface and prevent erosion,
which accelerates the soldering process by roughening
the surface and creating local temperature excursions at
the peaks of the die surface, which solder very quickly.
● Accurate modeling of the casting process during the
design phase is very important to an effective control
against die soldering.
● All of the mentioned controls require additional cost
during the design and manufacturing of the die, and it
must be understood how badly soldering will affect the
process before the costs of any of those controls can be
justified.
aluminium technologies
27.10.2015
term paper
Papers due on Dec 15
15 min presentations on Dec 22 & 29
Cenk Eren ultrasonic processing of aluminium melts
Murat Teke quality assesment of aluminium melts
Emre Açıcı applications of aluminium foams
Gazican Özkan squeeze casting of aluminium alloys
Engin Kılınç foundry themes
Mehmet Ağılkaya high integrity casting processes
Haluk Erdemir additive manufacturing of aluminium alloys
Serhan Köktaş rheo-casting of aluminium alloys and applications
Alper Güneren friction stir processing of aluminium alloys
Emre Baran production of aluminium foams
Berkay Oral FSW automotive aluminium
Erkut Özer casting of hypereutectic Al-Si alloys and applications
İzzet Nahid Demir Casting of Al-Mg based foundry alloys and applications
Mehmet Yasak surface treatment of aluminium alloys
castability
Castability of an alloy is identified on the basis of 3
criteria:
fluidity
hot tearing tendency
die soldering
Short freezing range alloys
The solidification front is planar.
Solidification is from the outside walls in towards the
centre as the metal proceeds along the mould.
The flow of metal stops when the two freezing fronts
meet
long freezing range alloys
● solidification front is no longer planar but dendritic,
and because freezing is occurring in a moving liquid,
the bulk turbulence in the liquid carries pockets of hot
liquid into the cooler regions, and thus remelting
dendrite arms and other fragments, to build up a slurry
of dendrite debris.
● flow of liquid is arrested when the volume fraction of
solid is somewhere between 25 and 50 %.

Slurry of
dendrites!

Lf
feeding distance, Lf

feeding distance (Lf)

sand mould metal die
short freezing range alloys
= 4-16 2-4
long freezing range alloys
Die Soldering
● occurs when the cast aluminum alloy comes into
contact with die steel.
● Due to the natural affinity of iron and aluminum, a
reaction occurs at the surface, which results in the
formation of Al-Fe intermetallic phases.
● Over a series of shots, a significant amount of
aluminum becomes stuck to these phases at the
die surface, and the resulting cast part can begin
to miss critical tolerances or to lose integrity.
● At this point, the die must be shut down and
cleaned, which is an expensive process when it
occurs too frequently.
Die Soldering
● It is estimated that 1 to 1.5% of variable
overhead is directly attributed to die soldering in
casting plants.
● die soldering must be controlled due to a large
economic effect on the casting process.
● There are several ways to control die soldering:
melt chemistry
process conditions
die surface condition.
Die Soldering-melt chemistry
● Fe has the greatest effect of any alloying element
in the study on reducing die soldering.
● It is well known that alloys with insufficient iron
content (< 0.8-0.9%) will solder readily to the die.
● The presence of Fe in the melt reduces the
chemical potential gradient of Fe from the steel to
the melt and slows the reactions that occur at the
surface.
● Sr also has the potential to help control die
soldering.
● In industrial trials a small Sr addition was shown to
reduce die soldering by more than 20%.
Die Soldering-
process conditions
● High temperatures and high melt velocity
encourage soldering.
● high temperatures are more critical and must be
avoided through careful die design.
● Local overheating can be avoided via die design!
Die Soldering-potential remedies
● use additional spray in the high solder areas for
extra cooling.
● use inserts with high conduction coefficients.
● control impingement velocity.
● coat die surface with lubricants (surface is likely
oxidized from prior treatment).
● A high impingement velocity can wash these
lubricants off the die surface, exposing the die
steel to the aluminum alloy  erosion of the die
surface  die soldering.
Die Soldering-potential remedies
● Semi-solid processing can help to reduce both the
temperature and velocities apparent in the
casting system, and should help reduce die
soldering.
● Die coatings can be useful as a diffusion barrier
between the steel in the die and the aluminum in
the cast alloy.
● An effective coating must be able to withstand the
harsh conditions at the surface of the die.
● Coatings which are sometimes used include
CrN+W, CrN, (TiAl)N and CrC.
casting
Influence of mold filling rate
● For a clean microstructure it is necessary to
ensure non-turbulent mold filling in addition to
using clean metal.
● In order to prevent impurities (particularly oxides)
during mold filling, we need a uniform filling rate.
● If the mold filling rate exceeds a critical value (for
molten aluminium, 0.5 m/s) separation of metal
drops or folding of the metal front occurs, leading
to formation of additional oxides.
● In the case of gravity casting, a height of only 13
mm is sufficient to reach this speed.
Critical Velocity
a wave starts to form under an inertial pressure having an
approximate value of ρ·V2 , where ρ is the molten metal
density and V is the velocity of the disturbance.
Once Vcrit is exceeded, the surface of the metal will
behave in a turbulent fashion, i.e. the surface will break
up into waves and droplets, causing the oxide film defects.

Limiting condition: formation of a

drop
Mold filling

Critical velocity
Influence of mold filling rate
Separation of
metal drops
and folding of
metal surface

If critical
velocity
(0.5m/s) is
exceeded,
metal drops
separate!
Mold filling
Oxide skin

Formation of wave

Liquid oxide Solid oxide

Separation of
metal drops
and folding of
metal surface
Influence of filling velocity
Casting Defects
● As the molten metal is poured into the mould,
turbulence leads to the formation of layers of oxide
which gets trapped in the metal, creating
entangled oxide films  mechanical weakness!
● These oxide film defects often cause castings to
fail leak tests implying that the defects are
continuous from one side to the other.
● Castings are tested by pressurizing them with air
whilst they are submerged under water so that the
defects are revealed by a stream of bubbles.
● Aluminium castings should not be top-poured.
Casting Design Assessment

sprue

http://nptel.ac.in/courses/112107144/metalcasting/lecture2.htm#
Casting Design Assessment
a section through a mould that shows four
deliberate mistakes:
a conical pouring bush
a parallel sprue
no choke
no runner (bar)
so that the metal
enters directly into
the casting.
bad design features
As the metal is poured directly from the ladle into
the conical pouring bush, it is already moving quite
quickly as it enters the
top of the sprue.
Its velocity V1 will be
determined through the
height through which it
has fallen.
Thus, this basin design
is bad because it has no
decelerating effect
on the metal.
bad design features
metal accelerates due to gravity and so the stream
gets thinner, reaching a velocity V2 at the bottom.
Since there is no 'choke' at the bottom of the
sprue, the sprue will not
fill up completely.
As a result, there is a
Venturi effect with air
being sucked into the
metal stream through
both the sand walls of
the sprue, thereby
forming oxides.
bad design features
The metal stream then hits the bottom of the sprue,
spreads out in a relatively thin film along the
horizontal surface of the
gate with a velocity of V3
which can be significantly
greater than V2.
It therefore enters the
cavity rapidly, hitting the
far wall where it rebounds
in an uncontrolled manner, forming a splash and
creating conditions for
further oxidation.
Pouring Basin
avoid the use of a conical pouring basin since this
does not decelerate the metal and also acts as a
venturi and causes air ingress.
use an offset pouring basin which helps to
decelerate the metal stream
before it enters
the sprue.

BAD BETTER
conical basin offset basin
Pouring Basin
The best design is to introduce a step into the basin
to give an offset stepped basin.
The step acts to stop the rapid motion of the metal
over the top of the sprue and helps to ensure that
the latter is completely filled.

BAD BETTER BEST

conical basin offset basin offset+shaped basin
Pouring Basin
● The pouring bush should be rectangular in shape so
that the upward circulation during pouring will
assist in dross removal.
● The exit from the pouring bush should be radiused
and match up with
the sprue entrance. radiused
Tapered Sprue
● Use a tapered sprue.
● The stream of metal will accelerate from a
velocity V1 at the top of the sprue to a velocity V2
at the base of the sprue and the conservation of
matter requires that its cross-
sectional area will decrease
from A1 to A2.
● It can therefore be seen
that the sprue will remain
full if: 5° taper

A1 · V1 = A2 · V2
Sprue
● The sprue should provide a 5° taper from the
controlling area.
● The cross-section of the sprue can
be round, square or rectangular.
● A rectangular shape is preferred
due to a reduced tendency to
vortex formation which could
result in air aspiration.
Sprue Well
● A sprue well helps to decelerate the metal, cushions the stream and
allows the flow to change from vertical to horizontal with a minimum
of splashing.
● It helps to ensure that the runner bar is filled.
● Recommended sizes of the sprue base are a diameter 2–3 times the
sprue exit diameter and a depth equal to twice the depth of the
runner bar.
Top vs bottom gating
When the metal is introduced into the the casting cavity, by
top gating; the critical velocity is readily exceeded and the
resulting turbulence and splashing cause oxidation of the
molten metal.
The preferred technique is to use bottom gating, i.e. to
introduce the metal uphill into the casting although,
it is still important to limit the velocity with which the
metal enters the mould.

Top gating-turbulence bottom gating-prevents turbulence

Runner bar and gates
Non-ferrous alloys should always be cast with an
unpressurised gating system with the runner in the
drag (lower half of the mould) and the ingates in the
cope (upper half of the mould).
The distance between sprue and the first
gate should be maximised for effective
inclusion removal.
● Runner cross-sections should
ideally be rectangular, the wider
upper surface is to maximise the
potential of the runner bar to
collect dross and inclusions.
Runner bar and gates
● Ingates should enter the mould cavity at the
lowest possible level to avoid turbulence
associated with a falling metal stream.
● As with the runner bar, ingates should be
rectangular in cross-section rather than square to
avoid a “hot-spot” and subsequent porosity at the
casting contact.
● Bottom gating means that the coldest metal is at
the top of the casting, just where the hottest
metal is needed to ensure feeding to avoid
shrinkage defects in the casting.
Runner Bar and Gates
● If one gate suffices: the runner bar will be a simple
parallel sided channel, arranged so that the metal
rises uphill from the sprue base, through the runner
and gate and into the casting.
● have a runner bar extension
which can be used to
receive the first metal
poured into the mould and
which often contains air
bubbles and slag particles.
Runner bar extension
Runner Bar and Gates
Uneven flow leads to an uneven T distribution and
an increased risk of turbulence-induced defects.
The runner bar should therefore have a gentle
tapered step at each gate to promote even metal
flow.
Stepped runner bar:
Uneven flow
uniform flow

The well should be the lowest point of the casting and filling
system and the metal should always progress uphill thereafter.
Runner Bar and Gates
Another important feature is that the gating
arrangement must avoid waterfall effects:
To prevent splashing
To stay under the critical velocity
To avoid a static metal meniscus
Running, gating and feeding
aluminium castings-summary
● Where possible, gating should be into the bottom of the
casting
● Unpressurised gating should always be used, that is, the
gate areas should not limit the flow rate into the mould
cavity
● Ingates should be taken from the top of the runner to
ensure that the runner bar is always full
● The sprue should control the fill rate of the casting
● The sprue should be designed to avoid entraining air and
dross, it should be tapered downwards so that the sprue
base is the flow controlling area
● Low stream velocities should be used to avoid turbulence,
optimum stream velocities as low as 500 mm/s have been
reported for Al alloys.
Gating with filters
The widespread use of foam ceramic filters has
introduced a new dimension into the running and
gating of aluminium castings.
Filters have several important effects:
effectively trap dross and some oxide films.
control metal flow rate.
reduce turbulence.
Foam ceramic filters have a distinct advantage over
the extruded type in that there is no separation of
the initial metal stream which passes through them,
hence the possibility of reoxidation at the filter exit
face is less.
Types of shrinkage
Of these, the transformation from liquid to solid is
the most critical.
linear with temperature
and can be compensated
for without much
difficulty
arrangement of the
atoms from the rather
open, random close-
packed manner in a
7% for aluminium
liquid to a regular close-
packed form in a solid

Solid state contraction;

linear with temperature
Factors which influence
solidification mechanisms
The time interval between the start and the end of
solidification.
The interval between liquidus and solidus is
determined by a number of factors:

The solidification range of the alloy:

This is a fundamental characteristic of a particular
alloy. For a given mould material,
increasing solidification range  larger interval
between start and end of solidification
Factors which influence
solidification mechanisms
The thermal conductivity of the solidifying alloy:
high thermal conductivity 
reduced thermal gradients within the casting 
larger solidification interval.
Solidification temperature:
A low solidification temperature 
reduced T gradients between mould and casting
will reduce thermal gradients within the casting 
larger solidification interval.
Solidification of
short freezing range alloys
● solidification starts at the mould interface where
heat extraction is greatest.
● The chilling action of the mould wall results in the
formation of a thin skin of solid metal surrounding
the liquid.
● With further extraction of heat through this shell of
solid metal, the liquid begins to freeze onto it and
the wall of solid metal increases in thickness.
Solidification of
short freezing range alloys
● The solid and liquid portions are separated by a
relatively sharp line of demarcation – the
solidification front– which advances steadily towards
the centre of the casting.
● The crystal growth on the solidification front is
relatively short and corresponds to the start of
freeze at their apex and the end of freeze at their
bases.
● Short freezing range alloys encourage directional
solidification even at relatively low thermal
gradients.
Solidification of short freezing range alloys
Typical forms of porosity in short
freezing range alloys
Cavity at thermal feeder
centre
open cavities at inadequately
fed thermal centres and
isolated heavy sections.

Centre-line shrinkage
small open cavities near the
end of the solidification when
the feed metal is cut off by the
merging of parallel
solidification fronts
Typical forms of porosity in short
freezing range alloys

riser
Casting Cavity at heat centre

sound metal

Centreline shrinkage porosity

effect of solidification mechanism
on shrinkage distribution
● With long freezing range alloys, the development of
directional solidification is difficult.
● With long freezing range alloys, feeders often show
minimal pipe as the “mushy” solidification mode will only
allow liquid flow for a part of the total solidification time.
● Finely dispersed porosity can exist throughout the entire
casting section, with coarser concentrations at parts of
slower cooling such as junctions and under feeder heads.
● Under normal foundry conditions, it is virtually impossible
to achieve absolute soundness in extremely long
freezing range alloys such as tin or phosphor bronzes.
Typical forms of porosity in long
freezing range alloys
three distinct zones for
a long freezing range
alloy:
a completely liquid
zone at the thermal
centre of the casting;
a zone of solid metal
next to the mould walls
a region of partial
solidification between
the liquid and solid
zones.
Feeding Rules
● Heat transfer requirement (Chvorinov's Rule)
● Volume requirement
● Junction requirement
● Feed path requirement
● Pressure requirement
● Pressure gradient requirement
● The Zeroth Rule: you should not feed a casting
unless it is absolutely necessary!
Heat Transfer Requirement
the freezing time of the feeder must be at least
as long as the freezing time of the casting.
Modulus =
volume of casting /
cooling surface area
As M increases
solidification
time increases!
Modulus of the feeder >
modulus of casting
Mf = 1.2 Mc
Volume Requirement
The feeder must contain sufficient liquid to satisfy
the volume contraction of the casting".
Junction Requirement
● when we place the feeder on the casting, a hot spot
may be created. As a result, we will inevitably get
shrinkage porosity at the base of the feeder, which is
also known as under-riser porosity.
● This problem can be overcome by enlarging the
junction between the plate and the feeder.
● However, this leads to a large feeder which is difficult
to cut off the casting.
● This difficulty can be overcome by trying to avoid
junctions altogether and one way to achieve this rather
contradictory aim is to extend the casting and to put
the feeder on that.
Junction Requirement
the junction between the casting and the feeder
must not create a hot spot.

feeding a plate casting

Feed Path Requirement
a section through a typical flanged wheel casting
it should be possible to feed this with a single feeder
placed on one of the heavy sections (C).
It can easily be seen,
however, that the feed
path to the other heavy
section (A) will be cut
when the thinner
section B solidifies.
Feed Path Requirement
● We can use 'padding', i.e. to add extra material so
that the feed path is kept open. The extra material
then has to be removed, which adds to the
manufacturing cost.
● One alternative is to use an
extra feeder, although this isC
not always feasible and
may be difficult to remove. A
● A further possibility is to
apply a chill or cooling
fin to A.
A
Pressure Requirement
● most defects - such as porosity or hot tears -are
volume defects, that is, they are induced by the
volume changes which occur as a casting
solidifies.
● It follows that if a pressure is applied to a
solidifying liquid, it is difficult for the defects to
nucleate.
● Therefore, sufficient pressure must be supplied
to all parts of the solidifying metal to inhibit the
nucleation and growth of volume defects.
Pressure Requirement
pressure inhibits the nucleation and growth of volume defects.
Pressure Gradient Requirement
There must be sufficient pressure differential to cause
the feed metal to flow in the correct direction.
Driving force = positive pressure + negative pressure
Positive : atmospheric +
hydrostatic
Negative: generated
by solidification
Net pressure must be
higher in the feeder
than the casting
Feeding mechanisms
Liquid feeding
in skin freezing materials - such as pure metals and
eutectics - it is the only type of feeding process.
Since the liquid metal has such low viscosity (near to that of
water) this mechanism works effectively at negligibly small
pressure gradients.
If liquid feeding can be ensured in a particular casting, then
the stresses which can occur in the liquid will be maintained
at such a low level that there will be no practical difficulties.
● most “open” type of feeding mechanism generally occurs
first
● only feeding mechanism in skin-freezing alloys works well
with low pressure gradients governed by the seven feeding
rules
inadequate liquid feeding
Mass Feeding
● the flow of a slurry of liquid plus solid crystals can
occur up to about 68 % solid in some alloys.
● At that stage of freezing the dendrites start to
impinge to form a coherent network, as a three
dimensional space frame, thus gaining rigidity and
resistance to further deformation.
● Flow of slurry of solidified metal in residual liquid
improves as: - section size increases
- grain size decreases
can effectively counter the layer porosity.
Mass Feeding
● The action of mass feeding is sensitive to the
relative size of the grains and to the section
thickness of the casting.
● For instance mass feeding cannot act in thin
section castings which have not been grain
refined.
● Mass feeding improves as section thickness
increases and as grain size becomes smaller.
● This is simply because if the section is narrow and
if the grains are large, they impinge on each
other and are supported on the side walls of the
casting, and so are not free to move.
Mass Feeding
● Porosity in such sections occurs due to the difficulty
of flow of the liquid among the dendrite mesh: this is
typically layer porosity - shrinkage porosity which
grows among the fixed network of dendrites.
● As the section size grows and grains become smaller
and the interior semi-solid slurry is free to flow, thus
more easily feeding the more distant regions of the
casting.
● Layer porosity disappears in such sections.
● grain refinement is clearly an important way of
facilitating this feeding mechanism.
 Interdendritic Feeding
As the dendrite mesh thickens, the interdendritic channels
become progressively narrower, and progressively more
resistant to the flow of the residual liquid.
No eutectic  feeding problems  microporosity

liquid

dendrites
Solidification direction 
eutectic present elimination of narrowest part of path  no microporosity

eutectic
Feeding mechanisms in Al alloys
Aluminium alloys shrink by 3.5–6.0% during
solidification, so that without feeding, castings will
contain porosity defects.
The feeding requirements are dependent to a large
extent on the freezing range of the alloy being cast.
Feeding aluminium alloy castings
● For satisfactory feeding of short freezing range
alloys, feeders must be placed over thermal
centres of the casting; they must solidify after that
part of the casting to which they are connected.
● Insulating feeding aids are used to ensure effective
feeding and to improve yield.
● Feeders must be of sufficient volume to compensate
for the liquid and solidification shrinkage of the
alloy which is influenced by the alloy composition,
the degree of pouring superheat, the shape of the
casting and the gas content of the alloy.
Feeding aluminium alloy castings
● The concept of directional solidification has little
relevance with long freezing range alloys.
● The goal in feeding such alloys is not to eliminate
porosity totally but to ensure that it is dispersed
as evenly as possible throughout the casting
section.
● It is often desirable for feeders to compensate only
for superheat and a portion of solidification
shrinkage so as not to extend the solidification time
excessively.
Feeding aluminium alloy castings
● The shrinkage volume for which the feeders
must compensate is again influenced by
the alloy constitution,
the degree of pouring superheat,
the section thickness of the casting and
the gas content of the alloy.
● Long freezing range alloys have virtually no feeding
range and under normal foundry conditions,
achieving a high degree of soundness is virtually
impossible.
Simulation modelling
● software packages are now available which model the
flow of metals into dies or moulds and allow the
solidification of the casting to be simulated.
● Fluid flow software, Magmasoft being one of the best
known, uses physics-based modelling to allow mould
filling to be studied and its effects on casting
soundness to be assessed.
● Ideally such modelling should enable the onset of
turbulence during mould filling to be predicted and the
effect of gating systems on the temperature
distribution within the casting to be studied.
● While flow modelling is not yet perfect, it does enable
possible danger areas in the casting to be predicted.
Casting defects
the understanding of the origins of
defects in aluminium castings and their
reduction by attention to
degassing,
metal treatment and
filtration
has greatly improved the general quality
of castings in recent years.
Casting defects
Because of potential casting defects, aluminium
castings, like all castings, suffer from variable
mechanical properties which can be described by a
distribution curve.
Advanced
Mean value high integrity
is the same, casting

but the Conventional

sand casting
scatter with
sand casting
is more!
Casting defects
● The variability of properties of castings must be
reduced to allow designers to have greater confidence
in castings so that thinner sections and lower weight
components can be used.
● If, for example, the mean tensile strength for a cast
alloy is 200 MPa, the designer must use a lower figure,
say 150 MPa, as the strength of the alloy to take into
account the variability of properties.
● If the spread of the distribution curve can be
reduced, then a higher design strength, say 170 MPa
can be used, even though the process mean for the
alloy and the casting process stays the same.
Effect of filtration
Top filled AlSi7Mg/filtered unfiltered

Design Design
stress stress

bottom filled AlSi7Mg/filtered unfiltered

Design Design
stress stress
Effect of filtration
● The unfiltered castings show a few but very
significant low strength test pieces, known as
outliers.
● A design strength below 200 MPa would have to be
used for unfiltered castings because of the
occasional outliers.
● Examination of the fracture surface of the low
strength outliers showed massive oxide fragments
indicating that inclusions in the unfiltered castings
were responsible for the low tensile strength.
● Filtration eliminates inclusions allowing the design
strength to be increased to 230 MPa.
quality of castings
● porosity
gas Casting defects
shrinkage
● Oxide inclusions
● Hot tears/cold cracks
● grain structure
● dendrite arm spacing (SDAS)
● intermatallic compound particles
● eutectic (and primary) silicon
● extent of segregation
● composition/alkalis/Fe/Mg/additives (Ti-B-Sr)
Properties of castings
Chill casting (into metal moulds) has inherently a
greater possibility of producing higher quality than
sand casting because the higher solidification rate
reduces pore size and refines grain size.
The highest quality components are produced
using filtered metal,
non-turbulently introduced into metal moulds
and
solidified under high external pressure to
minimise or totally avoid porosity.
Sources of gas porosity
● gas held in solution in the molten metal can be
precipitated as the metal solidifies, simply as a
result of the reduced solubility on freezing.
● if the mould is filled under very poor conditions,
air can be entrained in the metal stream and
then trapped as the metal solidifies.
● the sand binders used to make the moulds and
cores often break down when in contact with the
molten metal and the gaseous decomposition
products can force their way into the solidifying
metal, leading to defects which are normally
known a 'blows‘.
Gas porosities

Uniform distribution of
Hydrogen is increasingly pores with diameters
enriched in liquid aluminium between 0.05-0.5mm çap
during solidification.
There is strong link between
the gas pore size and DAS
values! 1-2mm from the surface is
pore-free
hydrogen pores in castings
● If the mould is a metal die, then the environment is
likely to be dry and thus relatively free from water
vapour and its decomposition product, hydrogen.
The liquid metal may lose hydrogen to this
environment.
● In contrast, if the mould is made from sand (either
chemically-bonded or especially if bonded with a
clay-water mixture as in a greensand mould), then
the environment all around the metal will contain
nearly pure steam at close to one atmosphere
pressure.
Gas porosities
Factors that impact the porosity features
Melting operations
humid foundry atmosphere
refractories with moisture
moist tools /gelberi vb
mould material 3H2O + 2Al = 3H2 + Al2O3
melting practices
charge materials (scrap-returns etc)
hydrocarbon based fuels used in furnaces
insufficient degassing/fluxing
insufficient filtration
Gas porosities
Casting operation
turbulent mold filling:
melt transfer with cascading
mould and core (decomposition of the organic
binders) gases
air inside the mould, runners
improper venting
mould and gating design
Solidification rate
Alloy composition
Sr level
Grain refinement
Gas coming from cores
● When a metal is poured into a sand mould
containing cores, the resin binders start to break
down and generate additional gas.
● If the mould and core have a low permeability, the
gas pressure will build up inside the core.
● If the pressure reaches the level where it exceeds
the opposing pressure of the molten metal, a
bubble can be formed in the metal and float up
towards the top of the casting.
● Such pores originating from core gases are rather
coarse as big as 10-100mm.
Gas coming from cores

Such core
Solutions Vent cores blows are as
include Use less volatile binders
large as 10-
Fill mould rapidly to build
up hydrostatic pressure
100 mm.
Air Entrapment
● surface turbulence in the metal stream as it fills
the mould, leading to a chaotic, scrambled mess
of metal and air.
● The air cannot escape easily because it is held in
place by the oxide film.
● Furthermore, as the air bubbles move through the
molten metal, they leave behind a collapsed sac
of oxide, forming a bubble trail which is another
form of defect in the casting.
 Air entrapment
Bubbles trapped
Forms due to bad casting design!
along horizontal
Bubbles Conical pouring
trapped on basin surfaces above
horizontal
surfaces
ingate and under
above ingate ledges and
Parallel
column apertures in
casting;
irregular in size;
No well! normally 0.5-5mm
Non-tapered runner bar solution:
insufficient gates to improve running
prevent turbulence
system!
gas porosity
Gas porosity defects
defect distribution size
Gas Uniform, apart from 1-2 mm 0.05-0.5mm
precipitation near surface
from solution
Air Above ingates, especially the 1-5mm
entrainment first ingate. Concentrated on
horizontal ledges.
Very close to surface.
Only revealed when casting is
shotblasted or machined.
Core gases At a uniform distance under Typically 100
top of casting mm dia.
10 mm thick
Gas porosities
A

1 mm
1 mm

1 mm
Gas porosities
Gas porosities

200µm 20µm
Gas porosities

20µm 200µm

Fatigue performance is
directly affected by the
gas porosities. The
largest pore across the
section will dictate the
fatigue life. 100µm
Gas-blister
dissolved hydrogen transforms to hydrogen porosity
during thermal treatments in the course of down stream
processing. This occurs particularly near the surface
regions and impairs the surface quality by forming
blisters.
shrinkage
● The density of liquid aluminium is nearly %6.5
less than that of solid aluminium.
● Therefore aluminium contracts this much during
solidification.
● Castings always start to solidify at the surface
towards the centre.
● Unless we employ a sound feeding practice,
mould design, alloy selection, temperature
regime, this contraction is always manifested in
the form of shrinkage porosity.
Shrinkage porosity
● Si is the only element that counteracts shrinkage
as it expands as much as %8 during solidification.
● Alloys with little amount of eutectic (alloys far
from the eutectic point) exhibit either
dispersed microshrinkage or collapsing.
● Elements such as P, Na, Sb, Sr impact the porosity
shape since they change the morphology of the
silicon phase. These elements also effect the
porosity shape in alloys with higher Si.
shrinkage-alloy effect

Micro shrinkage macro shrinkage

spongious shrinkage collapsing

Shrinkage-microporosity
● This is particularly a problem in long freezing
range alloys and/or when the temperature
gradient is low.
● These conditions create an extensive and uniform
pasty zone which is favoured by:
● metals of high conductivity, such as aluminium
● high mould temperatures, as in investment
casting;
● thermal conductivity of the mould, as in sand,
investment or plaster low moulds.
Microporosity  Layer Porosity
Promoted by:
Alloys with long freezing range
Low T gradients high metal thermal conductivity
high mould T
low mould thermal conductivity
Flow through the pasty zone
Macro porosity 'pipe' formed as a simple
ingot of a short freezing
mold range alloy solidifies
Solidifying
metal primary
secondary

pipe Smooth shrinkage pipe in short

freezing range alloys
Sponge-like pipe in long freezing
range alloys
Shrinkage porosity
scale macroporosity intermediate microporosity
cause Failure of liquid Failure of Failure of
feeding; interdendritic interdendritic
Feeding Rules not feeding feeding
correctly applied
Short Smooth shrinkage Centreline Dispersed
freezing pipe shrinkage microshrinkage
range
Long Shrinkage sponge Layer porosity Dispersed
freezing microshrinkage
range
microshrinkage

200µm 50µm
Porosity and mechanical
properties
key structural
features of
aluminium
castings
structural features of
aluminium castings
Casting defects
porosity
shrinkage
inclusions
hot tear cracks
cold cracks
residual stresses
Microstructure
grain size
DAS
eutectic Si
Fe based
Grain size
Although grain size does tend to reduce somewhat
as freezing time is decreased, it is not closely
controlled by the
freezing time.
This is clearly
illustrated by
the general
scatter in grain
sizes above the
d = k·(tS)0.3 line
on this graph.
grain size
Solidification mode
Growth morphology
changes from
planar to
cellular,
to dendritic as the
compositionally-
induced
undercooling
increases
(equivalent
to reducing
G/R)
Dendritic solidification
Dendrites normally grow
from a single nucleus.
The dendrite arms all have
the same crystallographic
structure and
orientation, i.e. a
dendrite is a single crystal.
Grains can be considerably
larger than the DAS but,
the reverse is not possible.
Dendrite Arm Spacing (DAS)
● there is widespread confusion between the
concept of a grain and the concept of a dendrite.
● A grain may consist of one dendrite or a 'raft' of
thousands of dendrites.
● A grain boundary is formed where rafts of
different orientation meet.
● Although grain size is used to characterise the
scale of the microstructure of wrought alloys, it is
often more appropriate to characterise the scale
of cast microstructures by measuring the
secondary dendrite arm spacing (DAS).
Dendrite arm spacing (DAS)
● DAS increases with time as a result of coarsening,
owing to the reduction in surface energy achieved
by reducing the surface area.
● Some of the larger arms grow at the expense of
smaller ones, leading to an increasing DAS as the
dendrite gets older, and this process is controlled
by the rate of diffusion of solute in the liquid.
● Thus, the DAS, d, is largely a function of the
solidification time, tS, and the relationship is of
the approximate form:
d = k · tS 0.3
Dendrite Arm Spacing (DAS)
Why is Dendrite Arm Spacing important ?
The mechanical properties of most cast alloys
depend strongly on DAS:
As dendrite arm spacing increases:
Tensile strength/hardness increase
Ductility and elongation increase
fracture toughness increases
fatigue resistance increases
A small DAS also reduces the time required for
homogenisation/solution heat treatments since the
diffusion distances are shorter.
Dendrite Arm Spacing (DAS)
● It is therefore beneficial to reduce the DAS as far
as possible and since this is almost exclusively a
function of the freezing time, any technique to
reduce this will improve the DAS.
● In the case of sand casting, metal chills will help
considerably in reducing the DAS.
● Die castings will have a finer DAS, and lower die
temperatures will assist even further.
Dendrite arm spacing  DAS
DAS and
SDAS are
measured
with the
intercept
method!

DAS, SDAS
=n/l
Dendrite Arm Spacing (DAS)
This average length is usually measured by carrying out
a line count along the length of a number of primary
dendrite stems which happen to lie near to the plane
of the section.

Line length = 400 m

number of dendrite arms
crossed = 8
SDAS= 50 m
Dendrite arm spacing  DAS
DAS vs grain size
DAS nearly the same but d is much different!

d nearly the same but DAS is much different!

DAS and d are two important yet independent structural
characteristics.
DAS = f (cooling rate/section thickness)
grain size = f(chemistry effects/(cooling rate, ….)
DAS
Most critical structural parameters that impact the
mechanical properties
DAS
heat treatment and
morphology of the Si particles.

Ultimate tensile strength and elongation values

have increased markedly when the DAS values
were reduced from the initial 115 m to 25 m.

Fatigue life has also increased with decreasing

DAS.
aluminium technologies
3.11.2015
Term paper topics
Cenk Eken ultrasonic processing of aluminium melts
Murat Teke assesment of melt quality via K-mold method
Emre Açıcı applications of aluminium foams
Gazican Özkan injection casting of aluminium alloys
Engin Kılınç
Mehmet Ağılkaya high integrity casting processes
Haluk Erdemir additive manufacturing of aluminium alloys
Serhan Köktaş rheo-casting of aluminium alloys and their
applications
Alper Güneren friction stir processing of aluminium alloys
Emre Baran production of aluminium foams
Berkay Oral FSW automotive aluminium
Erkut Özer casting of hypereutectic Al-Si alloys and their
applications
İzzet Nahid Demir Casting of Al-Mg based foundry alloys and
their applications
Mehmet Yasak surface treatment of aluminium alloys
Kürşat Kambur severe plastic deformation of aluminium alloys
steel vs aluminium for automotive applications

Papers in word format due on 22.12.2015

Presenations of the papers on 29.12.2015 & 5.1.2016
 Midterm exam (%25)
10.11.2015, Tuesday
09:30
you will be responsible for every
topic we will have covered up until
the end of this lecture!
Hot tearing
● Hot tear cracks may be encountered in the
casting after solidification.
● The section that have solidified may induce
stresses on the other sections which are yet to
solidify.
● Cracks may initiate if these semi-solid regions are
too thick and the feeding is insufficient.
● Alloy composition has a significant impact on hot
tearing.
● Alloy composition directly affects the supply of
liquid eutectic phase for the feeding of the
solidifying regions.
Hot Tears

initial stage: Application of tensile Continuous

Hexagonal strain leads to grain extension leads
grains impingement and the to the opening
surrounded by creation of of tears
liquid film intergranular pools
Hot Tears
Characteristics of Hot Tears
● Ragged, branching crack
● Generally intergranular
● Dendritic morphology on failure surface
● Heavily oxidised failure surface
● Often located at hot spot
● Random occurrence and extent
● Alloy specific
Hot tearing
parameters that need to be controlled to avoid hot
tears:
Casting design
effectiveness of the grain refinement practice
Stiffness of the mold

Tensile stresses
that develop during
solidification
Hot tearing

Hot tearing in a
DC cast 7XXX
billet produced
by ETİ
Aluminium!
Hot tearing
Hot tearing in a
DC cast 7XXX
billet produced
by ETİ
Aluminium!
prevention of hot tears
● Alter casting design
● Chill hot spots
● Reduce constraint from mould
● Add brackets and webs
● Employ effective grain refinement
● Reduce casting temperature
● Adjust/optimise alloying
● Reduce contracting length
prevention of hot tears
● It may be possible to alter the geometry of the casting
to reduce stress concentrations and hot spots, for
example, by providing generous radii at vulnerable
sections.
● Local hot spots can be reduced by local chilling which
will strengthen the metal by taking it out of the
susceptible temperature range.
● There are various ways of reducing the mould strength
so that it provides less constraint to the contracting
casting.
● Brackets and webs can be placed across a vulnerable
corner or hot spot to provide mechanical support and
to enhance local cooling.
prevention of hot tears
● A reduction in the casting temperature can sometimes
help, probably because it reduces the grain size.
● Grain refinement should help to reduce tear initiation
since the strain will be spread over a greater number of
grain boundaries.
● increasing the volume fraction of eutectic liquid may
help by increasing the pre-tear extension and by
decreasing the cracking susceptibility.
● Finally, it is sometimes possible to site feeders
carefully so that the casting is effectively split up into
a series of short lengths to reduce the strain
concentration.
Cold cracks
● Form below the solidus temperature
● Straighter and smoother than hot tears
● Transgranular or intergranular
● Can be oxide-free (if formed at low T’s)
Sources of stress Prevention
Differential cooling Reduce stress raisers
Mould/core restraint avoid abrupt changes of section
Phase transformation eliminate oxide defects
Heat treatment Reduce mould/core restraint
Eliminate or use alternative heat
treatments
Reduction in quenching stresses
Rates of cooling of a
20mm diameter
aluminium bar when
quenched by various
means from 500 C.

time, s

Effect of quenching
medium on ductility
intermetallics

Permanent mould cast -AlFeSi intermetallic

Al-12 Si alloy with %1 “chinese script”
Fe; -Al5FeSi needles morphology
Fe-based intermetallic particles

Cracks that form due to -AlFeSi needles physically

the stress concentration block interdendritic melt
at the tip of AlFeSi flow and lead to micro
intermetallic needles. shrinkage.
Fe-based intermetallic particles
-Al5FeSi particles exhibit an acicular morphology
and have a very negative impact on ductility.
modification

Lamellar granular undermodified

Modified overmodified
Silicon modification
1. seviye 3. seviye 5. seviye

2. seviye 4. seviye 6. seviye

lack of modification
A fatigue crack that follows unmodified Silicon
particles in
an aluminium
cylinder
head
casting.
segregation

temperature

ck cs

c0 composition
segregation
Compositional fluctuations that scale with the
dendritic structure: dendritic segregation-coring

6XXX alloys 7XXX alloys

segregation

50m 50m
As-cast 206 alloy (4.4% Cu-0.3 %Mg-0.3 %Mn)
Homogenization anneal
Segregation in the as-cast component can be largely
eliminated by a high temperature soak called
homogenization. Homogenization is a must for parts
that will be
subjected to
forming
Operations.
Homogenization anneal
High temperature annealing treatment to remove
dendritic segregation!

We use Fick’s Law to estimate the T and t of the

heat treatment to be employed to eliminate
compositional fluctuations
x = D.t
X is the distance over which diffusion will take
place; dendrite arm spacing, t is time and D is
diffusion coefficient.
Homogenization anneal
An aluminium casting with a dendrite arm spacing of DAS 100
micron is annealed at 480C.
The homogenization anneal time to eliminate Mg segregation:
t = x2/D
For Mg diffusion in aluminium at 480C
D = 1x10-14 m2/s.
t = (0.0001m)2 / 1x10-14 m2/s
= 106 s = 278 h
If DAS were = 10 microns
t = (0.00001m)2 / 1x10-14 m2/s
= 1x104 s < 3 h
Segregation in strip casting
Nonmetallic inclusions
melt quality
● impair surface quality
● impair machinability
● reduce mechanical properties Casting
quality
● decrease corrosion resistance!
● increase porosity!
● produce pinholes in foils!
● reduce fluidity and castability! Process
● cause filter blockage! efficiency
Oxides
A

1 mm

B
Oxide inclusions
Extrageneous oxide inclusions
Possible defects
Possible defects
defect inclusions (mainly oxides)
Possible main Retention system for oxide skin of metal
cause not efficient enough; the two metal
fronts hit together
Ways to avoid Use and optimize oxide retention
defects systems; fronts with oxides should be
brought into overflows

overflow
Possible defects
Defect Shrinkage porosity
Possible main cause Feeding of large cross sections is not
good enough.
Way to avoid defects Dimension runner and gating systems for
good feeding; use numerical simulation to
control and optimise them.
Possible defects
why aluminium
castings?
Properties of castings
● Roughly two thirds of all aluminium castings are
automotive where the use of aluminum castings
continues to grow at the expense of iron castings.
● Although aluminium castings are significantly more
expensive than ferrous castings, there is a continuing
market requirement to reduce vehicle weight and to
increase fuel efficiency.
● Aluminium castings are widely used in cars for engine
blocks, cylinder heads, pistons, rocker covers, inlet
manifolds, differential casings, steering boxes,
brackets, wheels etc.
● Al castings in EU cars is expected to reach 200 kg by
year 2020.
Aluminium casting alloys
Easy to cast!
● Al-Si alloys with sufficient Si exhibit outstanding
flowing properties during casting and facilitates
the casting of huge complex components.
● Design features can be produced easily with
minimum tolerances.
● The mold filling capacity of 3xx.x alloys is
exceptionally high!
● Hence, 3xx.x alloys are preferred in the casting of
big complex parts.
Aluminium casting alloys
High strength!
● High strength levels are possible through heat
treatment!
● High strength and tougness can be achieved by a
precise mold design that allows for rapid cooling
during solidification.
● Highest strength values are possible with 2xx.x
alloys; however, casting of these alloys is
relatively more difficult and requires special
attention.
● These alloys are selected for aerospace
applications where strength is a critical issue.
Aluminium casting alloys
Surface quality
● A very high surface quality is possible by a
careful selection of the casting alloy.
● 5xx.x and 7xx.x alloys offer outstanding surface
quality.
● However, casting of these alloys is difficult and
they are employed only in those applications
where surface quality is a must!
● For example, rulman uygulamaları için 7xx.x
alloys are preferred for bearing applications
owing to their high surface quality.
aluminium casting
processes
Aluminium production routes
Primary production  99.7 wt%Al
melting+melt treatment
alloying
Foundry alloys casting Wrought alloys

Shape casting Semi-cont casting Cont. casting

Sand casting Direct Chill Twin roll Twin-belt

(DC) casting casting/TRC casting/TBC
Permanent casting
Slab/ingot
Coiled sheet
Pressure casting
hot-cold rolling/
extrusion Cold rolling
castings
Profile/sheet/foil sheet/foil
Shape casting processes
Aluminium alloys can be cast with several processes:
Sand casting
permanent mould (gravity die) casting
low pressure diecasting, (metal die+sand cores)
Pressure diecasting
Lost Foam casting
Squeeze casting
Investment casting
plaster moulding precision casting techniques
(for aerospace castings)
some alloys are suitable for more than one casting
method.
Selection of casting process
● Sand casting for high quality casting of
inticate components!
● Sand casting for a limited number of parts
(as in casting of prototypes)!
● Permanent mould casting for high strength
parts with high elongation values!
Sand cores can be used in permanent mould
casting (but not in pressure die casting!).
Selection of casting process
● Low pressure die casting  bottom feeding with
a linear melt flow  high quality castings!
● LPDC offers solidification under pressure
(although low)  reduced shrinkage!
● LPDC offers advantage particularly in the casting
of round symmetrical parts!
● High Pressure Die Casting is the most popular
and most widely used casting process!
● HPDC is limited to uncored castings!
● HPDC if high quality surface and minimum
finishing are essential.
Sand Casting
● Gravity and low pressure diecasting are inherently
slow because the die is effectively out of use
during the time that the casting is solidifying.
● When the casting is removed, the die must be
reloaded with cores and closed before the next
casting is poured.
● This may take 10 minutes or more for a large,
complex casting such as a cylinder block.
● In order to achieve the high production rates
required by automotive manufacturers, expensive
multiple die sets are required.
Sand Casting
re-usable, permanent patterns are used to make the sand
moulds.
The preparation and the bonding of this sand mould is
the critical, the rate-controlling step of this process.

Mould designing is
a particularly
complex art.
Half mould with
cores and an
example of a cast
air intake for a
turbocharger
Sand Casting
With the
exception of
pressure
diecasting, runner riser
green sand gate
casting is the
most
productive sand core
casting
process.
Bottom board
Sand Casting
Sand Casting
Sand casting includes green sand
core assembly processes
lost foam process
● It accounts for 12–15% of all aluminium castings.
● It is generally used for high-volume production.
● Two main routes are used for bonding the sand moulds:
The "green sand" consists of mixtures of sand, clay
and moisture.
The "dry sand" consists of sand and synthetic
binders cured thermally or chemically.
● The sand cores for forming the inside of hollow parts
of the casting are made using dry sand components.
Sand Casting processes
● With sand casting, productivity is not affected by
the solidification time but only by the rate at which
the sand mould/core package can be produced.
(In GDC and LPDC, the die is effectively out of use
during the time that the casting is solidifying.)
● With automatic green sand moulding and cold-box
coremaking, mould/core packages can be made and
assembled in times which enable high production
rates to be achieved without the need for the costly
multiple tooling sets needed by diecasting.
● Moulding machines can produce moulds at the very
high rate of one every 12 seconds.
Green sand casting
● The slower rate of cooling of sand castings
compared with die castings leads to smaller
temperature gradients and a wider solidification
time range, making feeding more difficult.
● The grain structure of slower-cooled sand cast
aluminium is usually regarded as inferior to that
of chill cast alloys.
● To counter this potential problem, moulding sand
based on magnetite ore can be used to increase
the chilling effect.
Green sand casting
● There has also been some concern that aluminium
alloys may pick up hydrogen from moisture in the
green sand, but it is not a problem if the sand
system is correctly controlled to avoid excessive
water.
● Unlike green sand used for iron casting, it is not
necessary to have coal dust in the sand to improve
casting surface finish.
● To make high integrity sand castings, the melt
must be carefully treated to remove hydrogen and
oxides from the melt and must be grain refined
and modified.
Green sand casting
● The simplest method of filling moulds rapidly and
without introducing oxide defects into the casting is by
using ceramic foam filters in the running system.
● Ceramic filters remove already entrained oxide and
reduce turbulence downstream of the filter.
● Top pouring through a filter is an efficient way of filling
sand moulds, giving high yield and excellent mechanical
properties.
● To produce shrinkage porosity-free castings,
directional solidification must be encouraged, with the
use of feeders to supply liquid metal to the last sections
of the casting to solidify.
● Simulation techniques are increasingly being used to
design running and feeding systems.
Green sand casting
The traditional green sand casting process, combined
with high-speed moulding lines, is a very flexible
process with high productivity for the manufacture of
aluminium castings.
For automotive applications, the process is used to
cast:
Intake manifolds
Oil pan housings
Structural parts
Chassis parts
Green sand castings
Automated green sand casting
● AGSC offers a reasonable alternative to conventional
die casting processes (high pressure/low pressure
/vacuum-assisted or not).
● This holds for middle and high volume series,
especially for automotive applications.
● Manufacturing in high pressure die casting is limited
by wall-thickness and design. I.e. producing a
complicated inner structure by using lost cores is
still not economically feasible in this process.
● Low pressure die casting's productivity is limited by
solidification time, leading to cycle times of
typically several minutes.
● Automated green sand casting has no such limits.
Automated green sand casting
Examples of AGSC castings
From left:
Heat Exchanger
Hat Profile
Brake Calipers
Knuckles
wheel
Automated green sand casting
● The AGSC casting process is a container-less sand
casting process.
● The mold is divided upright.
● Front and rear mold half are formed by the shaped
faces of every sand block.
● Stacked on a conveyor belt, the pouring cavity is
between two blocks each.
● Insertion of individual cores or whole core packets
is possible and can be carried out in an automated
manner.
● The finished molds are pushed forward when a
new sand block is added.
Automated green sand casting
can produce and fill up to 400 sand molds per hour.
By using multiple cavities for smaller parts an hourly output
surpassing all other casting processes is achievable.
Overview of the AGSC Process
Complete Control of Mold Filling Combined With High
Productivity
Core package casting
● the entire sand mould consists of single sand cores,
● industrially applied first in 1970 using low pressure
filling by means of an electromagnetic pump.
● Due to low productivity, the process is restricted to
low volume series.
● However, the increasing interest in the outstanding
dimensional quality and possible complexity of
the castings led to further developments and thus,
(e.g.) the Core Package System (CPS®) has
become an established casting process for the
volume production of engine blocks.
Core package casting
Partly assembled core
package for a 4-cylinder
engine block

Core package for

V6 engine block
4-cylinder engine block produced
with the CPS® process
Die Casting
the mould is not destroyed at each cast but is permanent,
being made of a metal such as cast iron or steel.
There are a number of die casting processes.
● High pressure die casting is the most widely used,
representing about 50% of all light alloy casting
production.
● Low pressure die casting currently accounts for about
20% of production and its use is increasing.
● Gravity die casting accounts for the rest, with the
exception of a small but growing contribution from the
recently introduced vacuum die casting and squeeze
casting process.
Die Casting Processes
Classifications of die casting processes.
High Pressure die casting
half of all light alloy castings are made by the
pressure die casting process, in which the liquid
metal is injected at high speed and high pressure into
a metal mould.
It is the most widely used casting
process for aluminium alloys.
High Pressure Die Casting
● In high pressure diecasting, molten alloy is injected under
pressure into a highly accurate split metal mould.
● The die halves are closed and locked together hydraulically
to withstand the high injection pressure.
● Molten metal is introduced through a pouring slot into the
shot tube, then a steel plunger forces the liquid metal into
the die cavity under pressure.
● Once the die is filled, pressures are maintained on the
casting until solidification is complete.
● The metal solidifies rapidly because of the good thermal
contact with the water-cooled die.
● the die set is opened to eject the finished casting together
with its sprue, the process is then repeated.
High pressure die casting
High pressure die casting
High filling speeds and high pressures are distinct
features of HPDC.

Aluminium alloys are cast in cold-chamber diecasting machines.

High pressure die casting
HPDC machines are size rated by the closing force.
a fairly common 600 ton HPDC machine

Source: IdraPres
High pressure die casting
● Die filling times are very short, castings with wall
thickness of 3–4 mm are filled in less than 0.1
seconds.
● Cycle times depend on size and section thickness of
the component, being typically 40 shots/h for a 5 kg
component.
● Production rates are fast, the process can be highly
automated, and dimensional accuracy and surface
finish are excellent.
● Thin-walled components are possible and little or
no machining is needed on the cast component since
holes, grooves and recesses can be finish cast.
High Pressure Die Casting
● Dies are expensive but can survive more than 105
shots. The process is therefore most suitable for
long runs of castings.
● With an highly automated operation, the HPDC
process is capable of extremely high levels of
productivity.

Bar = 105Pa = 0.1MPa

High pressure die casting
● One drawback of the process is that almost
inevitably some air is trapped in the die with the
liquid metal.
● Lack of internal soundness is a cause for concern
when strength and leak tightness are required.
● Turbulence and air bubble entrapment often cause
poor metallurgical properties and leaks.
● special precautions must be taken to limit gas
inclusions which cause blistering during subsequent
heat-treatment or welding of the casting product.
High Pressure Die Casting
● For this reason, the process has mainly been used
for castings which do not require the highest
strength.
● Another disadvantage is that sand cores cannot
be used, since the high pressure liquid metal
would penetrate the core.
Die issues
● Dies are made of hot work tool steels.
● Dies must be correctly heat treated to achieve
the maximum life.
● Die design is clearly crucial to the success of the
process.
● the die must be designed to withstand the large
forces involved. Mechanical strength of the die is
critical!!
High pressure die casting-summary
● Rapid filling of the die
● Rapid solidification under pressure
● Density and the surface quality is high
● Fine grain structure
● Good (!!) mechanical properties and fatigue
resistance
● air entrapped in the die  gas porosity
● Turbulence during die filling  gas porosity
● Thick sections are not as strong as thin sections
● in other casting processes, however, thickness
is increased when strength is required.
High pressure die casting-summary
● HPDC parts are used as cast!
● Heat treatment, welding and machining are not
employed for HPDC castings!
● HPDC dies must be stronger than permanent
moulds used in gravity die casting; Hence, are
more costly!
● A minimum of 10,000 parts must cast for
economy!
● Suitable for small parts and thin sections.
High pressure die casting
A

1 mm

1 mm
High pressure die casting
Productivity is usually
enhanced via multi-
cavity die designs, e.g.
4 to 8 cavities per die.
Production rates are up
to 100 parts per hour
per cavity.

Transmission cases are one

of the largest automotive
parts commonly diecast
High pressure die casting
Metallurgical design considerations:
● Part ductility is limited by process considerations
to <3% on average.
● Die castings should not be used for load bearing
safety critical parts.
● Die castings are not heat treatable.
● Die castings are generally produced using
secondary (recycled) alloys; this reduces cost.
● Fatigue properties of die castings are good so long
as the very smooth as-cast surface is not machined
away.
High pressure die casting
Macrostructure: Die castings exhibit three regions
internally:
● The surface skin –dense and fine. The skin gives
die castings good fatigue life. It should not be
machined away unless absolutely necessary.
● The interior body of the casting – sound metal.
● The core – at the centre of the part, the core is
usually porous. It may not be present in high
quality parts. It is harmless in many applications.
Core porosity may be a combination of entrained
air and shrinkage.
High pressure die casting
Macro section showing Low magnification view of a
entrained air frozen into a high section through a typical die
pressure die cast part cast part

Entrained Air makes HPDC parts non-heat treatable. Air

bubbles entrapped under high pressure during solidification
will cause HPDC parts to blister during solutionising.
High pressure die casting
Common Al Die casting Alloys:
AlSi8Cu3 (AA 380) Rp0.2%=160 MPa, Rm =325 MPa,
A5=0.5-3%
AlSi10Cu (AA 383) Rp0.2%=150 MPa, Rm =310 MPa,
A5=1-3%

These are the most common alloys in use for

general-purpose die castings.
General utility castings, transmission cases, blocks
etc.
Popular alloys in Al-Si system
High pressure die casting
Special Purpose Al Die casting Alloys
AlSi5 (AA C443) Rp0.2%=110 MPa, Rm =230 MPa, A5=9%
Where exceptional ductility at moderate strength is
required. Increased corrosion resistance (low Cu). (eg.
steering wheels)
AlSi12 (AA 413) Rp0.2%=140 MPa, Rm =300 MPa, A5=0.5-2%
For intricate thin castings.
AlSi17Cu4Mg (AA 390) Rp0.2%=240 MPa, Rm=280 MPa,
A5=1% A hypereutectic wear-resistant alloy. Used for
parent bore engine blocks, compressor parts, pulleys,
brake shoes.
Caution: HPDC Properties are very process/part
dependent
High pressure die casting

Al18Si (AA 391) Alloy Microstrucuture - Typical AlSi8Cu (AA 380 microstructure),
Primary Si Imparts Wear Resistance Hypoeutectic Al-Si plus Fe phases
Low pressure diecasting
● A metal die is mounted above a sealed furnace
containing molten metal.
● A refractory-lined tube, called a riser tube or stalk,
extends from the bottom of the die into the molten
metal.
● When air is introduced into the furnace under low
pressure (15–100 kPa), the molten metal rises up the
tube to enter the die cavity with low turbulence, the
air in the die escaping through vents and the parting
lines of the die.
● When the metal has solidified, the air pressure is
released allowing the still-molten metal in the riser
tube to fall back into the furnace.
Low Pressure Die Casting
the die is filled from a pressurised crucible below, and
pressures of up to 0.7 bar are usual.

Low-pressure die
casting is especially
suited to the
production of
components that are
Pressurising symmetric about an
gases axis of rotation. Light
automotive wheels
Fill stalk
are normally
manufactured by this
technique.
Low pressure die casting
● Mould filling is controlled by regulating the pressure in
the casting furnace.
● The melt flows through the riser tube which is
positioned under the melt surface of the furnace and
fills the mould very smoothly with clean melt from the
bottom up.
● After mould filling, solidification starts from the
opposite end of the mould in the direction of the tube.
● By increasing the pressure in the casting furnace, good
feeding is guaranteed.
● Cycle times are long since the casting is connected to
the big melt volume by the riser tube during
solidification.
Low pressure
die casting

LPDC is used in the

production of
aluminium wheels and
big V-engine blocks in
hypereutectic
aluminium alloys and
in the casting of air-
cooled cylinder heads
for motor cycles.
Low pressure die casting

LPDC cast V-8

cylinder block
Low pressure diecasting
● The process is capable of making high quality
castings.
● directional solidification may be achieved with
correct die design.
● This may eliminate the need for risers, the casting
being filled and fed from the bottom.
● Because there is usually only one ingate and no
feeders, casting yield is exceptionally high,
generally over 90%.
● Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish are
possible and complex castings can be made using
sand cores.
LPDC-Die design
● Dies must be coated with a suitable dressing to avoid
welding of the molten aluminium to the die and to control
the rate of heat extraction.
● The dressings are the same as those used for gravity
diecasting.
● They are sprayed with the die at a temperature of 120–
200°C to facilitate a quick dry.
● The die must then be reheated above working temperature
before casting metal.
● It is very important that particular care is taken in cleaning
dies regularly, say once per week, by “shot”-blasting using
glass beads, otherwise tolerance and surface finish of the
castings will soon deteriorate.
● Die life is normally around 30 000–50 000 “shots”.
LPDC-Cores
● Sand cores made by any of the usual processes –
shell, cold box, hot box etc.– can be used.
● As with any casting process, cores must be
permeable and provision made for venting core
gases to avoid gas defects in the castings.
● Where complex coring is needed, such as for
cylinder heads, it is usual to preassemble a core
package which can quickly be inserted into the die
to avoid slowing down the casting cycle.
LPDC-Cycle time
● The process is rather slow since the die must be
filled slowly to avoid turbulence and air
entrapment.
● The casting must solidify progressively from the
extremities back to the gate and the gate must
solidify before the pressure can be released.
● Cycle times are similar to gravity diecasting,
about 9 shots per hour are typical for a
component such as a cylinder head.
LPDC-Alloys cast
The commonly used aluminium alloys include:
● Al–Si5Cu3 (LM4, US 319)
● Al–Si12 (LM6, US 413)
● Al–Si7Mg (LM25, US A356)

It is usual to fully treat the metal by degassing,

grain refining and modifying.
LPDC-typical applications
● Aluminium automotive parts:
● wheels,
● cylinder heads,
● blocks,
● manifolds
● housings
● Critical aerospace castings
● Electric motor housings
● Domestic kitchenware such as pressure cookers
● Large castings up to 150 kg (Al) can be made but
can only be justified in special cases because of
high die costs.
LPDC-Casting quality
● The process produces castings of high quality, both
metallurgically and dimensionally:
● The metal is drawn from the bottom of a bath of
molten alloy, avoiding the contaminated surface
layer,
● The mould is filled gently without turbulence so
avoiding oxide entrapment,
● Solidification is directional, enabling constant
feeding of the casting by maintenance of pressure
from below,
● casting extraction is relatively damage-less to the
die: dimensional accuracy should be maintained
throughout the life of the die.
LPDC-Casting quality !!!
● Although metal is drawn from below the surface of
the melt, oxide inclusions may still be present due to
the turbulence arising when the furnace is topped up
from the transfer ladle.
● The density of aluminium oxide is close to that of the
metal itself so oxide inclusions may not all float to the
surface.
● Further turbulence is introduced in the furnace by the
fall of the metal in the riser tube each time a casting
is made and the pressure released.
● Casting quality can be improved by fitting a ceramic
foam filter in the sprue to prevent inclusions from
entering the casting.
LPDC-Casting quality
● Casting tolerances in low pressure diecasting are
similar to those of gravity diecasting.
● Variation in the dosing of die coating is one of the
main reasons for dimensional inaccuracies.
● Die distortion over time will also affect dimensions
of the castings.
Gravity Die Casting (GDC)
● Gravity die casting is the simplest die-casting
process.
● It enables castings to be produced with only a very
modest capital investment, although plenty of hard
physical work is required!
● However, it can also be automated with either
horizontally or vertically-parted dies.
● Good quality castings can be produced if sufficient
care is taken to design running and gating systems
which minimise surface turbulence in the metal as
it flows into the die.
gravity die casting
● one of the standard processes for the manufacture of
high-integrity automotive castings.
● precision technology for the production of large
batch quantities.
● used in carousel casting units or in shuttle technique
particularly for the manufacture of engine castings.
● Optimum heat dissipation from the solidifying
casting through the die leads to short solidification
times.
● This results in castings which have good mechanical
properties, especially after an additional heat
treatment.
gravity die casting
In gravity die casting processes, the melt is
metallurgically treated in the holding furnace, which
is positioned near the dies.
gravity die casting
components of a
casting mould
(gravity die
casting).
Cores (inner
parts of the
mould) are
generally made
of bonded sand.

Gravity die casting is suitable

for mass production and for fully mechanised casting.
gravity die casting
● The molten metal is poured under gravity into a
refractory-coated permanent mould or die.
● The technique is sometimes known as “permanent
mould” or “chill” casting.
● The dies are made of a fine-grained, pearlitic cast
iron or a low alloy steel.
● Simple retractable cores may be made of high
grade alloy steel, but resin bonded sand cores are
used to produce complex internal shapes.
gravity die casting
● With the exception of pressure diecasting, the
process is the most widely used of the aluminium
casting methods due to its inherent simplicity and
the metallurgical quality and complexity of
castings that can be made.
● The process is used for castings made in numbers
from 1000 to more than 100 000 per year, for
example manifolds, cylinder heads, water pump
housings etc.
● Casting size ranges from less than 1 kg to over 50
kg.
gravity die casting
● The dies are coated with a refractory-based coating.
● The coating reduces the heat transfer to the die so that cooling
rates are faster than in sand moulds but slow enough for complex
castings to be filled satisfactorily.
● Different coatings are available which allow faster or slower
cooling as the shape and section of the casting requires.
● The time before the casting can be extracted from the die may
vary from 4–10 minutes depending on the type of casting.
● The process is therefore relatively slow.
Solidification times of Al castings made by different processes
gravity die casting-Running and feeding
● The gravity die casting process produces castings of high
metallurgical quality. Metallurgical structures and
properties benefit from the chilling achieved by gravity
die casting.
● The objective of running the metal into the cavity is to
make entry as smooth as possible, avoiding turbulence
which would introduce oxide film defects.
● The speed of filling is a compromise between getting the
metal to the furthest point of the die quickly enough to
avoid misruns, and pouring slowly enough to avoid
turbulence.
● Bottom gating is the traditional way of achieving
turbulence-free filling but bottom gated castings have
poor yields and incorrect thermal gradients.
gravity die casting-running and feeding
● Feeders need to be at the top of the casting and
must be the last masses to freeze, but optimum
directional solidification is not easy to achieve
when the metal is bottom gated and has to
traverse the die cavity and any cored passages
before reaching the feeders.
● One way of improving feeding is to tilt the die
when pouring in such a way that the last metal is
poured into the feeder.
● Special tilting machines are available to allow
this to be done.
gravity die casting-running and feeding
● The widespread use of ceramic foam filters and
insulating feeders has greatly improved the
quality of gravity castings in recent years.
● A recent development has been the use of direct
pouring methods, either through a filter fitted
directly in the die or through a combined
filter/feeder.
● This greatly improves yield, achieves turbulence-
free filling and also feeds the casting with the
hottest metal.
melting and metal treatment
The usual alloys cast by gravity die casting are:
AlSi5Cu3, A319
AlSi12, A413
AlSi7Mg, A356
● AlSi12, A413, being the eutectic alloy, has the
best fluidity and is good for thin section castings
but its machining characteristics are poor.
● AlSi7Mg has good fluidity and good machining
properties, it can be heat treated and is
corrosion resistant.
● Al–Si5Cu3, A319 has somewhat lower fluidity due
to its low Si content and has good machinability.
Melting and metal treatment
● It is advantageous for a foundry to use the
minimum number of different alloys, allowing
bulk melting to be used for the majority of the
castings.
● Since gravity diecasting is capable of making high
quality castings and is used for critical castings
such as cylinder heads, hydraulic castings etc., it
is usual to fully treat the metal by degassing,
grain refining and modifying.
gravity die casting
● Permanent moulds are manufactured from high
alloy steels (hot work tool steels (H13) are used in
the manufacture of pressure die casting moulds).
● Casting quality is superior with respect to that
obtained in sand casting.
● Preferred for parts with high surface quality and
with limited dimensional tolerances.
● Mechanical properties in gravity die cast parts are
at least 20% better than sand cast counterparts.
● Up to 100.000 shots can be produced with
permanent moulds.
gravity die casting
● Minimum wall thickness must be 3mm (2 mm is
possible in small parts.
● Weight of castings range between several hundred
grams and several hundred kilograms.
● In addition to producing ever more complicated
cylinder heads for petrol and diesel engines,
gravity die casting is also used for the manufacture
of diesel engine blocks with cast-in grey iron
liners.
● Some foundries use gravity die casting to produce
cylinder blocks weighting 300 kgs.
Gravity diecasting
Special requirements for
gravity diecasting
Thin section (<5 mm) gravity die castings cool so quickly that
it is sometimes considered unnecessary to grain refine or
modify the alloy.
For castings having sections above 5 mm, grain refinement is
beneficial and modification of eutectic alloys (10–13% Si) may
be used.
Melting practice for high quality gravity die castings and low
pressure die castings is generally the same as for sand casting.
In some less-critical gravity die castings, a small amount of gas
in the metal may be beneficial since dispersed gas porosity
may be considered less harmful than shrinkage.
The metal is melted as usual using the appropriate cover flux.
Degassing is not usually necessary.
Skim off the dross and cast.
gravity vs pressure die casting
● The die casting processes are limited by their poor
productivity since it is necessary to wait for the metal
to solidify before the die can be opened.
● As an example, the cycle time for producing a typical
die-cast cylinder head is about 5 - 7 minutes,
although this can be as long as 15 minutes for larger
variants, such as a Jaguar cylinder head.
● Therefore, die casting should be restricted to thin-
walled components.
● The other limitations with all forms of die casting are
the high cost of the dies themselves and their
limited lives as a result of thermal fatigue which
causes craze-cracking of the working faces.
gravity vs pressure die casting
● Porosity that is almost inevitable in pressure die
casting degrades mechanical properties and leads to
blisters after heat treatment.
● Gravity die castings have less porosity; are more sound
and leak tight.
● Gravity die castings can be machined with no evidence
of porosity on the surface. Pressure die cast
components, on the other hand, cannot be machined
due to the presence of porosity!
● surface quality is higher in pressure die casting
● A machined pressure die casting may be stronger
than a permanent mold casting. However, the latter
is more reliable because of less porosity.
gravity vs pressure die casting
● Pressure die casting is superior with thin sections and
due to closer dimensional tolerances.
● Die-tooling costs are lower.
● Parts that cannot be cast with pressure die casting
due to sand cores can be cast with the gravity die
casting route.
● Pressure die casting is faster and yields more parts in
unit time.
● Dies in pressure die casting must be stronger than in
gravity casting and are thus more expensive
● Cost per part is lower (for high volume production)
● Alloys for die casting are few as high castability is a
must!
casting processes-comparison
property sand gravity pressure
strength good best good
density good best medium
repetability medium good best
tightness good best medium
Cost per part medium good best
Production rate medium good best
Alloy variability best good medium
tolerances medium good best
Design flexibility best good medium
dimensions best good good
Surface quality medium good best
Tool preparation best good good
Cost of die best good medium
Applications of die castings
● The use of modern die casting techniques improves the
metallurgical quality of die castings.
● Heat treatment is possible with some processes so
extending the application of the die casting to
components such as hydraulic manifolds, brake callipers,
engine brackets, suspension arms, engine blocks etc.
● One limitation of pressure die casting is that complex
cored castings cannot be made.
● It is not possible to use sand cores since the high
injection pressure causes metal penetration.
● Special salt cores have been used, but are difficult to
remove from the casting.
● Coring is limited to using tool steel “pulls”.
Metal handling in the die casting foundry
● The commonly used pressure diecasting alloys
contain 8–10% Si and 2–3% Cu with around 1% Fe.
● The presence of iron reduces the tendency for the
casting to “solder” to the steel die but it tends to
deposit inclusions in melts that are held for any
length of time.
● The most frequently used alloys are:
● Al–Si8Cu3Fe (LM24, US A380)
● Al–Si10Cu2Fe (LM2)
● Al–Si9Cu3Fe (LM26)
Metal handling in the die casting foundry
● Metal is normally melted in a bulk melter, either electric
induction or gas-fired shaft or crucible furnaces.
● For many years, it was not considered worthwhile to degas
the alloy before casting (because some gas porosity is
accepted as inevitable).
● Furthermore, the cooling rate in the die is so fast that
grain refinement and modification are also not required.
● However, it is found that treatment of the liquid alloy by a
Rotary Degassing Unit is effective in removing non-metallic
inclusions, reducing sedimentation of hard iron–manganese
inclusions as well as lowering gas content.
● Increasingly diecasters are using Rotary Degassing in the
transfer ladle for this reason.
● Some diecasters find that modification with strontium is
also valuable.
Metal treatment
● It is important to keep melting and holding furnaces clean
to prevent hard inclusions of corundum from entering the
castings.
● Regular use of a cleaning flux, is recommended.
● Bulk melting is carried out under a covering/drossing flux
to ensure minimum metal loss, forming a complete cover,
adding half early and the rest at final melt down.
● The metal is poured into the transfer ladle and degassed.
Modification may also be done at the same time.
● Note that sodium modification is not suitable since the
metal may be held for a long time in the holding furnace
before use.
● In the holding furnace, a low temperature flux can be
used as a cover to reduce metal loss.
Die coating
● Refractory die coatings are not used for pressure
diecasting, since high heat transfer is needed to cool the
casting quickly and achieve fast casting cycle times.
● However, the die must be sprayed between each shot with
a lubricant.
● The die cycles at a high temperature (250–300°C) and at
regular intervals molten metal is injected at high pressure.
● All the alloys cast commercially will attack and weld to
steel dies.
● The lubricant must protect the expensive die from direct
metallurgical attack and erosion as well as lubricate slides,
cores, ejector pins etc. to prevent them seizing at the high
operating temperature.
● The coating also has a cooling function.
Share of Al castings market held
by various processes
Modification of the diecasting process
The pressure diecasting process is such a powerful casting
process, producing castings of such excellent surface finish
and dimensional accuracy, that many developments have
been made to overcome the basic problem of low internal
integrity of the castings due to air entrapment.

Vacuum diecasting
The shot tube and die cavity are evacuated before metal
injection to reduce the amount of air that is trapped.

Pore-free diecasting
The cavity is flushed with oxygen rather than air. The oxygen
should then combine with the liquid aluminium, forming
oxide which is less harmful than gas entrapment.
Vacuum die casting of precision
engineered die cast products
Used when no surface
flaws such as blisters etc
are forgiven. When high
temperature powder
coating is an essential
step in manufacturing
cycle.
Modification of the diecasting process
Indirect squeeze casting
● Metal is injected into a closed die cavity by a small
diameter piston which also exerts sustained pressure during
solidification.
● a special thermally insulating die release agent is used to
provide a significant thermal barrier between the casting
and the die during filling allowing the metal to be fed
further into the die cavity without freezing.
● When pressure is applied to the full cavity, the die coating
is compressed reducing its insulating effect.
● The metal velocity during filling is controlled to ensure
non-turbulent flow so that air entrapment is minimised.
● When the cavity has been completely filled, the pressure is
applied (from 60 to 100 MPa).
Modification of the diecasting process
● It is most important that the temperature gradients
within the die are controlled so that the casting
freezes directionally towards the gate area.
● This gate area is made deliberately very thick so that
it will be the last area to solidify.
● In this way, all the metal freezes under pressure
reducing the possibility of shrinkage porosity.
● The low metal velocities used do not wash release
agent from the die faces so that contact between the
alloy and the die steel is reduced.
● There is no need to use high-iron alloys to prevent
Soldering.
Modification of the diecasting process
● The resulting physical properties of the castings
are much enhanced over conventional pressure
diecastings.
● the gas content is low so that heat treatment is
possible and hydraulic integrity good. Indirect
squeeze castings can be used for critical
components such as brake callipers and hydraulic
components.
Modification of the diecasting process
disadvantages:
● large, thin, wall castings are not possible,
● yield is reduced because of the large gate section
that must be used,
● shot rates are slower than in conventional
pressure diecasting and
● the machines are expensive.
 Investment Casting
● wax patterns are coated with a refractory (i.e. the
patterns are invested in alternate layers of slurry and
stucco), and are subsequently melted out to leave a
hollow shell into which the metal is cast.
● It is an extremely slow process and the production rate is
governed by the time to make the mould.
● The production of a wax pattern might take only 1 or 2
minutes but most ceramic shell moulds require between 7
and 14 coats and take at least 24 hours and sometimes as
long as several days to complete.
● However, it is now normal practice to make several
hundred moulds automatically in one batch and, of
course, each mould may comprise several dozen or over a
hundred small components.
Investment Casting Processes
Stages in investment (lost wax) casting
● Make wax pattern in die
● Assemble patterns onto 'tree'
● Build up ceramic shell mould
● Dewax and fire shell
● Pour metal and allow to solidify
● Remove shell
● Separate castings from runner system
and fettle
The Lost Foam Casting process
● The actual LFC-process uses patterns of
expandable polystyrene (EPS) for industrial
applications.
● These patterns, directly foamed to shape, are
immersed in a moulding box with binderless sand.
● The liquid metal, which is poured into the cups of
the downsprues, vaporises the EPS pattern, which
is precisely replaced by the metal.
● With the possibility of assembled patterns very
complex shapes can be created and the castings
can be reproduced with remarkable dimensional
accuracy.
The Lost Foam Casting process
● the filling rate of the mould is determined by the rate at
which the EPS pattern is destroyed by the liquid alloy.
● This in turn is greatly affected by the properties,
particularly permeability, of the coating.
● The result is an essentially turbulence-free mode of
filling, whether from the bottom, side or top.
● Due to the freedom from turbulence and its associated
trapping of oxide films, lost foam aluminium castings can
be of high metallurgical integrity.
● The process is therefore increasingly used for critical
automotive castings such as cylinder heads and blocks,
water , brackets, inlet manifolds up to about 20 kg
weight.
The Lost Foam Casting process
● LFC offers the possibility of a direct production of
nearly any complex geometry including
complicated undercuts and cavities without tapers
and the need for considerable finishing work.
● Compared to the conventional sand casting
methods it has economical and ecological
advantages.
● It is still used for rapid prototyping of intricate
components or large castings.
The 'lost foam' process
Stages in the 'lost foam' process
● Produce expanded polystyrene pattern
● Assemble patterns onto runner system
● Coat with ceramic slurry and dry
● Embed in sand and vibrate to consolidate
● Pour metal
● Remove from sand
● Clean and fettle castings
The ‘lost foam’ process
Pattern making.
First step in the LFC-process is the pre-expansion of EPS
beads. After maturing the beads are blown into a mould
forming the pattern sections. The mould is then steamed to
expand the beads further and tightly fill the cavity of the
mould. Hot steam and expansion of the beads causes them to
weld together.
Cluster assembly. Complicated parts including undercuts and
hidden cavities cannot be moulded in one working step, but
are assembled from pattern segments into a final pattern.
Joining techniques used are gluing, heated platen welding and
plugging. In order to increase the efficiency of the total
process several patterns are combined into a cluster and
supplied with a common gate system, also made of EPS.
The ‘lost foam’ process

Pattern assembly
Source: BMW AG
Landshut

Cluster with
two cylinder
heads
The ‘lost foam’ process
Coating:
● The clusters are coated with a refractory coating layer
by immersion in a water soluble ceramic slurry.
● The coating layer has the function of guiding the
gasification process of the pattern and to form a
barrier between the moulding material and the gas-
filled bubble which exists between the still solid EPS-
pattern and the intruding aluminium melt.
● After the coating has dried, a thin, hard and
permeable coating remains.
● The coatings are typically applied to a foam cluster by
dipping, spraying or pouring.
The ‘lost foam’ process
Embedding in sand:
● After the coating has dried, the cluster is placed in a flask
and backed up with unbonded quartz sand without
chemical additives.
● The sand is compacted through vibration with various
frequencies, which causes the sand to fill all hidden
cavities of the patterns.

coating Sand fill compaction

The ‘lost foam’ process

Coating of a cluster with two cylinderheads

The ‘lost foam’ process
Pouring: During the filling process the molten metal flows via
the gate system into the EPS-patterns, which is gasified, filling
up the cavity and replacing exactly the pattern geometry.
During this stage it is important to avoid turbulences, support
the casting cavity wall and to realise a progressive elimination
of the foam pattern.
The gas originating
from EPS decomposition
permeates the coating
layer and escapes into
the sand, possibly
supported by an
external vacuum.

Permeable coating
The ‘lost foam’ process
Form filling velocity and type of metal flow, i.e.
laminar or turbulent, determine the part's quality by
influencing the amount of oxide inclusions and
porosity.
Specifically, the following sets of parameters have to
be tuned to each other:
● permeability of coating,
● optional external vacuum,
● metal temperature,
● EPS-pattern density and type of adhesive,
● geometry of the gating / riser system and of the
patterns
The ‘lost foam’ process
Dumping, quenching and trimming:
After solidification of the casting, the sand can be removed
from the flask and be prepared for the following moulding.
Clusters are quenched and knocked-off from the gate system.
The castings are purged and controlled w.r.t. defects. In
many applications the castings don't require any further
mechanical finishing.
Advantages
● Low tooling cost: Though tools are expensive, their
life is long, up to 500 000 cycles are possible. So for
long-running, high volume parts overall tool costs
are much lower than for conventional casting
process. For shorter running parts the advantage is
less and may even be a disadvantage.
● Reduced finishing: There is a major advantage on
most castings since finishing is restricted to
removing ingates.
● Reduced machining: For many applications,
machining is greatly reduced and in some cases
eliminated completely.
Advantages
● Ability to make complex castings: For suitable
applications, the ability to glue patterns together
to make complex parts is a major advantage.
● Reduced environmental problems: Lost Foam is
fume-free in the foundry and the sand, which
contains the EPS residues, is easily reclaimed using
a simple thermal process. (binder-less recirculated
sand/no sand reclaiming system)
● high productivity
● high flexibility
● potential for Rapid Prototyping
● good surface quality.
Disadvantages
● The process is difficult to automate completely;
cluster assembly and coating involve manual
labour unless a complete casting plant is dedicated
to one casting type so that specialised mechanical
handling can be developed.
● Methoding the casting is not easy and a good deal
of experimentation is needed before a good
casting is achieved.
● Cast-to-size can be achieved but only after several
tool modifications because the contractions of
foam and casting cannot yet be accurately
predicted.
Disadvantages
● long lead times are inevitable for new castings.
● it is difficult to achieve the highest metallurgical
quality in Al castings because of the need to cast at
rather higher than normal temperatures. (However,
new thermally insulating coatings are available for
the patterns and allow lower casting temperatures.)
● possible deformation of pattern during sand fill and
compaction,
● possible entrapment of plastic residues caused by
non-optimised gating systems,
● large number of process parameters need to be
controlled for optimum form filling.
Lost foam casting

Cylinder heads
BMW AG Landshut
The Lost Foam casting process
 Applications
● The usual alloys used for sand and gravity casting
can be cast successfully by Lost Foam and the
methods of melting and treatment are the same.
● The automotive industry is a major user.
● The inlet manifold was the first successful high
volume application.
● Cylinder heads are being made in growing numbers.
Use of Lost Foam gives the designer rather more
freedom to cool the working face effectively, the
combustion chambers can be formed “as-cast”,
avoiding an expensive machining operation, and
bolt holes can be cast.
Applications
● Lost Foam offers significant design advantages
over other casting processes for cylinder blocks;
features can be cast in, such as the water pump
cavity, alternator bracket, oil filter mounting pad.
● Oil feed, drain and coolant lines can also be cast
more effectively.
● A variety of other automotive parts are being made
including water pump housings, brackets, heat
exchangers, fuel pumps, brake cylinders.
Semi-solid processing
Semi-solid-route?
Solid feedstock Liquid alloy
forging Pressure die casting

solid (%60)-liquid (%40): Semi-solid forging

solid (<%10)-liquid (>%90): Semi-solid casting
T
1
1: pressure die casting
2 2: thixo-route
3: forging
3
A B→
Thixocasting
● This process makes use of the thixotropic
behaviour of semi-solid metallic alloys.
● Slugs of aluminium alloy are inductively heated
into a semi-solid state; the slug is introduced into
the shot sleeve by a robot arm.
● the globular feedstock behaves like a solid (high
viscosity) if not sheared.
● As soon as shearing occurs, viscosity decreases by
orders of magnitude.
● Under certain conditions this effect is reversible.
Thixocasting
Metallic alloys have strong thixotropic behaviour if:
● it is possible to bring the metal homogeneously to
the required semi-solid state, i.e. enough
solidification range is present,
● a microstructure with very fine and round grains
exists.
All semi-solid forming processes are characterised by:
● 10 to 70% solid phase during forming,
● Thixotropic properties: initially the metal's viscosity
is high. After being sheared its viscosity decreases
strongly.
● the metal solidifies during forming.
Thixocasting
Specific properties of the products:
● Since only part of the metal is liquid, shrinkage
porosity is reduced.
● Solidification takes place very rapidly and little
heat extraction is necessary.
● Since the viscosity of the metal is high, mould
filling occurs in a very laminar way.
● Net-shape parts can be produced.
Process steps of Thixocasting
Liquid metal is first DC-cast to fine grained billets which are
then reheated to the semi-solid state and formed to the final
product..

This process has

been mainly used
during the last 20
years
Metallurgical aspects of SS process
Thixocasting
● The metal used has to show very fine and spherical
grains to increase the shear thinning effect during
forming.
● DC-casting is normally combined with strong
electromagnetic stirring. This leads to fine rosette
like grains.
● During re-heating the metal, grains become
spherical, as required for semi-solid forming,
● During forming, the weak bridges between the
grains break, leading to a strong reduction of
viscosity (shear thinning).
Metallurgical aspects of SS process
Microstructure of
AlSi7Mg0.3 before
re-heating

Microstructure of
AlSi7Mg0.3 after
re-heating
Rheocasting
Liquid metal is directly cooled down to the semi-solid state
and processed to the final product. Since 1999, this process
family is gaining new attention

Process steps of Rheocasting

Rheocasting
● During cooling the liquid to the semi-solid state,
some specific conditions have to be fulfilled to get
the fine grains required.
● A very high amount of grain seeds have to be built.
This can be produced by using chemical grain
refiners, suitable thermal conditions or mechanical
vibrations in the melt,
● During the process of partial solidification, the
many grain seeds grow and, after touching their
neighbours, get spherical.
Rheocasting
Microstructure of AlSiMg0.3 alloy ready for forming
aluminium technologies
17.11.2015
Semi-solid processing
Semi-solid-route?
Solid feedstock Liquid alloy
forging Pressure die casting

solid (%60)-liquid (%40): Semi-solid forging

solid (<%10)-liquid (>%90): Semi-solid casting
T
1
1: pressure die casting
2 2: thixo-route
3: forging
3
A B→
characterization
25
20 Heating rate: 2.5C/min
15
10
Heat flow (mW)

5
0
-5
-10
-15
FS:100%
-20
-25 FL:100%
-30

500 520 540 560 580 600 620 640 660 680 700 720
temperature (°C)
Thermal analysis
100 Semi-solid
forming range:
Solid fraction (%)

80
TFs:70-TFs:50:
60 633,9C
640,6C
40
dFs/dT (C-1):
20 50% solid: 0.047
60% solid: 0.032
0 70% solid: 0.017
603 612 621 630 639 648
temperature (C) T range:
635C-640C
Requirements for alloys suitable for
semi-solid forming:
● The metal can be brought homogeneously to a
liquid fraction between 40 and 60% (no pure metal
or eutectic alloy)
● The solid phase is
prone to build a fine
globular structure.
● The flow behaviour
of the alloy is good.

Suspension part
Main process parameters of semi-solid
forming and their influence on quality
● Casting speed It is important that the metal front
stays together during mould filling. A too high speed
can lead to turbulences and air entrapment. If the
speed is too low mould filling could be incomplete.
● Geometry of the runner system Due to the fact that
metal is already partly solid, thicker sections and
short runners are necessary in comparison to die
casting. Numerical simulation is a very valuable tool
for designing runner systems.
● Die temperature To avoid cold shots, Tdie has to be
high enough. Very often, die temperatures of 200 -
250°C lead to good results.
Squeeze Casting Process
● probable unsoundness is a major limitation of
pressure die castings.
● The Squeeze Casting Process was developed to
counter unsoundness in pressure die castings.
Squeeze Casting Process
● SC is similar to forging, with a mould made of a
hollow lower dye and an upper dye used as a stamp,
which are set on a drop forging press.
● Squeeze Casting is of course the potential of the
process to produce products which are effectively
perfectly sound.

stamp
Squeeze Casting
● liquid metal is introduced into an open die, just as in a
closed die forging process.
● The dies are then closed.
● During the final stages of closure, the liquid is displaced
into the further parts of the die.
● No great fluidity requirements are demanded of the liquid,
since the displacements are small.
● Thus forging alloys, which generally have poor fluidities
(which normally precludes the casting route) can be cast by
this process.
Squeeze Casting or Squeeze Forming
● This technique is especially suited for making
fibre-reinforced castings from fibre cake preform.
● Squeeze casting forces liquid aluminium to
infiltrate the preform.
● In comparison with non-reinforced aluminium alloy,
aluminium alloy matrix composites manufactured
by this technique can double the fatigue strength
at 300°C.
● Hence, such reinforcements are commonly used at
the edges of the piston head of a diesel engine
where solicitations are particularly high.
Squeeze casting

Laminate squeeze casting of carbon fiber

reinforced aluminum matrix
Composites
Hasan Ali Alhashmy, Michel Nganbe
Materials & Design
February 2015, Pages 154–158
Squeeze casting
● "squeeze-casting", is now commonly an evolution
of pressure die casting, using the same machines,
with differences only on the injection speed and on
the design of the pouring system.
● the speed of the metal is drastically lowered, so as
to avoid any turbulence – typically 0.5 m/s, against
30 to 60 m/s in HPDC.
● the solidification must be progressive from the
thinner area of the cast part to the biscuit.
● the channels must be thicker than the cast part,
and the gates set so as to feed any area.
Squeeze casting
● The high cooling speed and the pressure applied
give the parts excellent mechanical properties,
and squeeze casting is therefore particularly
suitable for suspension parts.
This method is not widely used due to 2 problems:
● The thickness of the cast part depends on the
quantity of metal poured;
● Parts must be of rather uniform thickness.
Otherwise, thinner areas, which solidify before
thicker ones, will stop pressurizing of areas subject
to shrinkage.
Low inclusion Casting Processes
Shortcomings of conventional practice:
● Molten alloy may be held for several hours so that
there is some time for oxide films to sink or float.
● However, there is a small density difference between
molten aluminium and its oxide, and air is often
entrained in folds of the film.
● Thus the separation takes place only slowly.
● A significant proportion of films never sink.
● Degradation of melt quality by turbulent transfer
operations is typical of many casting operations.
● This underlines the importance of those processes
which are designed to handle the melt without
unnecessary disturbance.
Cosworth Casting Process
● designed specifically for the high volume
production of high quality automotive castings.
● An electromagnetic pump is used to remove the
molten metal which is taken from mid-depth in the
furnace to minimize the risk of transferring oxides.
● The large reservoir of liquid metal in the holding
furnace allows time for impurities to sink or float,
● and the electromagnetic pump (no moving parts!)
displaces the best quality metal from the mid-
depth of the holding furnace up and into the
mould, displacing the air ahead of it as it goes.
Cosworth Casting Process
● This approach ensures that the metal rises through
the system in a nonturbulent manner, thereby
minimizing the formation of excessive oxide films
and their incorporation into the casting.
● Firstly, the mould has to remain attached to the
pump until the casting solidifies, which results in a
slow production rate.
The Cosworth Process
Low pressure sand casting
No melt pouring!
world-wide annual production of casting
ferrous castings are a long way ahead of non-ferrous metals.
The majority of non-ferrous castings are made in a wide
variety of aluminium alloys and this is followed in importance
by zinc alloys.
Only relatively limited tonnages of castings are made in
magnesium alloys because of their cost.
106 tons
Aluminium alloy castings are mainly
produced using die
casting, sand casting
and investment casting,
with smaller tonnages
being cast using squeeze
casting and the lost
foam process.
Treatment of hypereutectic Al–Si
alloys (> 16% Si)
● These are wear-resistant alloys used for pistons
and unlined cylinder blocks;
● they may be sand, chill or pressure cast.
● Grain refinement is necessary to improve
castability and machinability.
● Hypereutectic alloys must be refined with P (Al-P).
● Alternatively prerefined ingot can be used.
● Melting must be under a sodium-free flux, since
sodium prevents the refining action of phosphorus.
● Degassing is necessary but modification with
sodium or strontium is not used.
Treatment of hypereutectic Al–Si
alloys (> 16% Si)
Melting practice
● Melt under sodium-free cover flux, adding 0.5%
with the charge and a further 0.5% when molten.
● Bring the melt to 780°C and plunge Al–P master
alloy, dross-off.
● Degas.
● Skim the metal clean before use.
● The casting temperature for these alloys is high,
around 750–760°C.
Treatment of alloys for
pressure die casting
● With conventional pressure die casting, castings
usually suffer from porosity because air in the die
cavity becomes trapped in the casting;
● moreover thick sections are difficult to cast sound
because of shrinkage.
● The castings cannot be fully heat treated since the
trapped air causes “blistering” of the casting
surface when the casting is heated.
● On the other hand, the rapid chilling in the die
produces a fine grain structure and good as-cast
strength.
Treatment of alloys for
pressure die casting
● The commonly used alloys contain 8–10% Si and 2–
3% Cu with around 1% Fe.
● The alloys are usually bulk melted and transferred
to holding furnaces at each casting machine from
which metal is dispensed into the die by an
automatic ladle.
● The holding furnaces are topped up from time to
time from the melting unit.
● In the past, it was not considered worthwhile to
degas the alloy before casting (because some gas
porosity was accepted as inevitable).
Treatment of alloys for
pressure die casting
● Furthermore, the cooling rate in the die is so fast
that grain refinement and modification were also
not considered necessary.
● However, with improvements in the practice of
pressure die casting, it is found that treatment of
the liquid alloy by Rotary Degassing is effective
both in degassing and removing non-metallic
inclusions, so some die casters degas in the
transfer ladle for this reason.
● Strontium modification is also found to be
beneficial.
Treatment of alloys for
pressure die casting
● Bulk melting is carried out under a
covering/drossing flux to ensure minimum metal
loss forming a complete cover, adding half early
and the rest at final melt down.
● In the holding furnace, a low temperature flux can
be used as a cover to reduce metal loss.
● Scatter 0.25–0.5% onto the metal surface and
rabble gently until the exotherm develops.
● Push aside or remove before taking ladles.
overview of casting
processes and their
use in automotive
applications
casting processes for
automotive components
1) Green sand casting
2) Modified DISAmatic casting
3) Core package casting
4) Gravity die casting
5) Low pressure die casting
6) High pressure die casting
7) Vacuum die casting
8) Squeeze casting
9) Thixocasting
10) Vacuum riserless casting
11) Lost foam casting
casting processes for
automotive components
(A) mould filling and (B) moulding technologies

1) Green sand casting

2) Modified DISAmatic casting
3) Core package casting
4) Gravity die casting
5) Low pressure die casting
6) High pressure die casting
7) Vacuum die casting
8) Squeeze casting
9) Thixocasting
10) Vacuum riserless casting
11) Lost foam casting
Vacuum Die Casting
● The principle is the same as low-pressure die casting.
● The pressure inside the die is reduced by a vacuum
pump and the difference of pressure forces the liquid
metal to enter the die.
● This transfer is less turbulent than by other casting
techniques so that gas inclusions can be very limited.
● As a consequence, this new technique is specially
aimed to components which can subsequently be heat-
treated.
● Used when no surface flaws such as blisters etc are
forgiven; when high temperature powder coating is an
essential step in manufacturing cycle.
Vacuum die casting of precision
engineered die cast products
Vacuum die castings
● Aluminium-intensive cars like Audi A2, Audi A8 or
Ferrari Modena rely heavily on Vacuum Die Casting
(VDC) for the space frame design.
● highly attractive for automotive applications.
● thin walls in large structures: Designs using a
minimum wall thickness well below 2 mm.
● joining with standard welding techniques as well
as Laser welding and self-piercing rivets.
● crash worthy structures (i.e. A-pillar of Audi A2)
● wide selection of alloys including heat treatable
and non-heat treatable alloys.
● high productivity.
VDC Process
Vacuum Dies: The principle of vacuum die casting
requires the dies to be very tight.
Residual pressure is as low as 20-30 hPa. (Normal
atmospheric pressure is 1013 hPa).
Therefore tools consist of frames and one or several
inserts with air seals in between.
Good quality tools loose very little vacuum.
Melt: The melt is kept in the dosage furnace below
the filling chamber. Melt cleanliness determines
heat treatability as well as weldability of castings.
If the gas content is too high, heat treatment
produces blisters.
VDC Process
Examples of VDC parts

Ferrari Modena Spaceframe: light colored nodes are

produced in VDC
Examples of VDC parts
Audi A2 Space Frame: colours indicate different
processes
Examples of VDC parts
B-Post DC S-Class Coupe

A-Post
Examples of VDC parts

Shock tower Audi A8

A8 Lower A-Post Audi A8

Vacuum riserless castings
● VRC / PRC is a combination of Vacuum Riserless Casting
(VRC) with Pressure Riserless Casting (PRC).
● This variant of low pressure die casting has been developed
by Alcoa mainly for automotive chassis parts. "Riserless"
means no mechanical feeding of melt into the mould.
● In addition, the level of melt in the feeding furnace is kept
constant by replacing every shot from a holding furnace.
● Furthermore, the direction of solidification is controlled by
active heating and/or cooling.
● Thicker sections can be fed directly in most cases, leading
to lean gating systems.
● VRC / PRC castings have a dense, fine grained
microstructure with excellent mechanical properties.
Vacuum riserless casting
The VRC process was developed by Alcoa during the
1950s. PRC was added during the 1980s.

Vacuum: VRC pressure: PRC

Vacuum riserless casting

VRC/PRC Gen III casting machine

VRC/PRC–Processing of chassis parts
● The alloy most commonly used for this process is A356 /
AlSi7Mg.
● First, raw material is analysed metallurgically.
● After melting, liquid aluminium is distributed by a channel
system feeding furnaces equipped with impellers.
● From there the melt flows to dosage furnaces feeding the
casting furnaces after every shot.
● After solidification the chassis parts are removed either
manually (small parts) or robotically (large, heavy parts).
● Sawing and deburring is usually automatized. This is
followed by X-Ray with automatic image analysis, heat
treatment to achieve suitable mechanical properties,
crack detection, eventually machining and shipping.
VRC/PRC–Processing of chassis parts
Flow chart of chassis parts production
Subframe produced with VRC/PRC: this
part is a one piece casting approx. 1200
mm wide
Ultra Large Caster (ULC)
The Ultra Large Caster has been built during a further
development effort targeting large castings.
Parts produced demonstrates the potential of the process:
the tailgate weights
11 kg, replacing 11
stampings and
reducing the weight
by 25 % (at that
time). Wall
thickness was
between 2.5 mm
and 6 mm. The
alloy in this case
was A356-T5.
Ultra Large Caster (ULC)
Molds for this machine can be as big as 3400 mm x
1700 mm. This allows using a
two-out die for parts
like the tailgate.

One piece tailgate

produced by ULC
Cycle time was 2
minutes: this
makes ULC
economically
attractive
Lost Crucible Process
● means of preventing poor transfer of metal.
● a pre-weighed slug of material is rapidly melted in
an induction furnace.
● instead of the normal refractory crucible, a
disposable fibre-ceramic crucible is used.
● Once the charge is molten and at the required
temperature, the base of the crucible is pushed
out by a vertically moving piston.
● As the piston continues to move upwards, the
base of the crucible acts as a seal and the molten
metal is introduced through the bottom of the
mould at a controlled rate.
Lost Crucible Process
● This new Alcan Lost Crucible Process, if fully
developed for production in due course, will
conserve the quality of the alloy as produced by
the primary producer.
● However, for all other processes, where the metal
has to be melted in a furnace and then
transferred for casting, the problem exists of how
to test the quality of the metal.
Lost Crucible Process
Alcan invention / Lost Crucible Process.
Sand
casting
alloys
chill
casting
alloys
Presure die casting alloys
investment casting alloys
Explosions in aluminium foundries
 There is an explosion risk in foundries with a high
humidity and when moist tools, dies and equipment
is used and when the material charged into the
furnace is moist.
 The water entrapped in aluminium vaporizes and
bursts the molten aluminium that surrounds it.
 Explosions are classified acorrding to their intensity.
 3rd level explosion implies bursting of many
kilograms of aluminium melt over many meters and
can be hazardous. This type of explosion may cause
serious injuries.
Explosions in aluminium
foundries
Binzhou Weiqiao Aluminum Co.
Effect of alloying elements
● Pure aluminium melts at 660°C.
● It is not suitable for casting and is only used for
electrical applications (where high conductivity is
essential), and a few other special applications.
● Most casting alloys contain silicon as the major
alloying element.
Types of alloying elements
Primary alloying elements are added to offer
solid solution strengthening
deformation strengthening
age hardening and
castability
Secondary alloying elements
limited solubility–
form intermetallic compounds and
affect mechanical properties indirectly by;
refining the grain structure
increasing the response to heat treatment
Alloying elements
Special alloying elements to increase strength :
Zn
Cu
Alloying elements to increase
strength, ductility and toughness:
Mn
Mg
Si (fluidity!)
Fe (impurity)

Special effects
Ti, B
Mn, Zr, Cr, V, Sc
Bi,Sn
Ni
Effects of Alloying Elements
Major elements
silicon (Si), copper (Cu) and magnesium (Mg)
Minor elements
nickel (Ni) and tin (Sn) -- found largely in alloys that
likely would not be used in high integrity die castings
Microstructure modifying elements
titanium (Ti), boron (B), strontium (Sr), phosphorus
(P), beryllium (Be), manganese (Mn) and chromium
(Cr)
Impurity elements
iron (Fe), chromium (Cr) and zinc (Zn)
Silicon in Al-Si alloys
Typical silicon levels of popular casting alloys are:

Alloy Si content (%) freezing range(°C)

Low Si 4–6% 625–525
Medium Si 7.5–9.5% 615–550
Eutectic 10–13% 575–565
hypereutectic > 16% 650–505
 Al-Si phase diagram
● Pure Al solidifies
“isothermally”,
at a single
temperature.
● Eutectic
compositions
(Al-12% Si/ 413
alloy) also
solidify
essentially
“isothermally”,
that is, within a
very narrow
temperature
window.
Al-Si alloys
● The planar front solidification of very narrow
freezing range alloys produces a sound skin
extending toward the thermal centre of the casting
section.
● They tend to solidify progressively from the die
surface toward the thermal centre of the casting’s
cross-section.
● There exists a very narrow plane of demarcation
between the solidified portion and the remaining
liquid.
● That solidification pattern alone provides a
minimum tendency to hot tear during casting.
Al-Si alloys
● Near Eutectic compositions that solidify within a
very narrow temperature window, any liquid to-
solid transition shrinkage is confined along the
thermal centerline of the casting at the end of
solidification.
● Because solidification shrinkage is not connected
to the surface of the casting, castings produced
from such alloys are usually pressure tight.
● The eutectic alloys have the highest fluidity for a
given casting temperature and having a short
freezing range, they solidify with primary
shrinkage.
Al-Si alloys
● The eutectic alloys are good for thin section castings
where fluidity is critical.
● The lower silicon alloys (far away from eutectic) are
used where higher strength is needed.
● The hypereutectic alloys are difficult to machine.
● They are used for wear-resistant applications such as
pistons.
● As little as 5% Si provides a sufficient degree of
isothermal solidification to overcome any major hot
shortness issues and, at the same time, improves
fluidity.
● In pure AlCu casting alloys (e.g. Al Cu4Ti), silicon is a
harmful impurity and leads to hot tearing
susceptibility.
 Al-Si alloys
● Metal casters often label wide freezing range
aluminium alloys as being quite “difficult to cast.”
● It is not, however, their solidification temperature
range that makes them difficult to cast, but rather,
their characteristic cooling curve shapes (little
isothermal solidification) and their lack of fluidity,
both brought on by their lack of sufficient Si.
● 333 and especially B390 alloys also have relatively
broad solidification temperature ranges, but those
alloys contain significant quantities of Si, to have
excellent fluidity and they undergo a substantial
degree of relatively isothermal solidification.
 Silicon
● Silicon (Si) is the most important alloying ingredient in the
vast majority of aluminium casting alloys.
● Si improves casting characteristics by improving fluidity,
feeding and hot tear resistance.
● Silicon’s high heat of fusion contributes immensely to an
alloy’s “fluidity” or “fluid life”.
● silicon has limited solid solubility (maximum 1.65%) and yet
forms a eutectic with aluminum at a significantly high level
(12%) at 577°C
● alloys with more than a few percent silicon undergo a
relatively large volume fraction of isothermal solidification,
thus they gain significant strength while undergoing little
or no thermal contraction - very important to avoiding hot
tearing or hot cracking issues.
Silicon
Strength
● Silicon alone contributes very little to the
strength of Al casting alloys.
● However, when combined with Mg to form Mg2Si,
Si provides a very effective strengthening
mechanism in Al castings.
● Mg2Si is soluble in the solid alloy to a limit of
about 0.7% Mg and provides the precipitation
strengthening basis for an entire family of heat-
treatable alloys (alloys 356 through 360).
Silicon
Thermal Expansion Coefficient
Increasing the silicon level in an alloy decreases its
thermal expansion coefficient as well as its specific
gravity.
Wear Resistance
● Silicon also increases an alloy’s wear resistance, which
has often made Al-Si alloy castings attractive
substitutes for gray iron in automotive applications.
● The hypereutectic Al-Si alloys, such as B390, are used
extensively in premium aluminum bare-bore engine
blocks, for example, as well as in numerous pumps,
compressors, pistons and automatic transmission
components.
Silicon
Cutting Tool Wear
● While Si improves casting characteristics, there exists
a downside as well.
● The more Si an alloy contains, especially into the
hypereutectic range, the greater the tool wear during
machining.
● With the current popularity of polycrystalline
diamond cutting tools, tool wear has become less and
less of an issue when selecting casting alloys.
● It continues to be an important consideration however
where high-speed steel (HSS), carbide or other less
wear-resistant tool materials are employed.
Copper
● greatest impact of all alloying elements on the
strength and hardness of aluminum casting alloys,
both heat-treated and not heat-treated and at
both ambient and elevated service temperatures.
● improves the machinability of alloys by increasing
matrix hardness, making it easier to generate small
cutting chips and fine machined finishes.
● On the downside, copper generally reduces the
corrosion resistance of aluminum; and, in certain
alloys and tempers, it increases stress corrosion
susceptibility.
Copper
● Copper decreases castability and hot tear resistance.
● Aluminum-copper alloys that do not also contain at
least moderate amounts of silicon have relatively poor
fluidity and low resistance to hot tearing during
solidification.
● Although alloys with up to 10% copper were popular in
the very early years of the aluminum foundry industry,
they have now been replaced by silicon containing
alloys, with the exception of the very-high-strength
alloy 206.
● Cu improves thermal conductivity.
● Heat treatment is most effective with 4–6% Cu alloys.
Magnesium
● The strength of binary Al-Mg alloys is not generally
improved by heat-treating, however, these alloys have
excellent strength and ductility in the as-cast and room
temperature self-aged condition.
● Al-Mg alloys have marginal castability (they are
aggressive toward tools, they lack fluidity because of
their low silicon and they tend to be hot-short).
● However, they have excellent corrosion resistance and
they tend to be anodized to a natural aluminium colour.
● Mg improves machinability.
● Al-Mg alloys 515 through 518 are designated for die
casting.
● binary AlMg casting alloys are difficult to cast owing to
their large solidification range.
Magnesium
● Magnesium’s role is also to strengthen and harden
aluminium castings.
● Magnesium’s greatest influence on strength occurs, not
in the 5XX alloy series, but rather when it is combined
with Si in 3XX alloys to form Mg2Si and/or with Cu in 3XX
or 2XX alloys, forming the precipitation-hardening
phase, Al2CuMg.
● Small additions of 0.25–0.5% Mg allow Al–Si alloys to be
hardened by heat treatment, improving mechanical
properties through the precipitation of Mg2Si in a finely
dispersed form.
● Their proof stress can be almost doubled.
● Mg is used at levels of around 1% in high silicon piston
alloys.
magnesium
● Higher levels still, around 3–6%Mg, are used in low
silicon alloys to improve the anodising
characteristics and give a bright surface finish for
decorative components.
● Magnesium content is kept low in pressure
diecasting alloys to avoid embrittlement.
● The presence of magnesium increases the
oxidation losses of liquid aluminium.
Minor alloying elements
Nickel
● Nickel (Ni) enhances the elevated temperature
service strength and hardness of 2XX alloys.
● It is employed for the same purpose in some 3XX
alloys, but its effectiveness in the silicon
containing alloys is less dramatic.
Minor alloying elements
Tin
● Tin (Sn) in 8XX aluminum casting alloys is for the
purpose of reducing friction in bearing and
bushing applications.
● The tin phase in those alloys melts at a very low
temperature (227.7 C). Tin exudes under
emergency conditions to provide short-term
lubrication to rubbing surfaces if such bearings
/bushings severely overheat in service.
● The 8XX series alloys are not generally applicable
to die casting or its variations and thus are not
shown among the alloys suitable for high integrity
die casting.
zinc/lead
Zinc
● When combined with copper and magnesium, heat
treatment and natural ageing characteristics are
improved.
● The fluidity is increased but shrinkage problems
may occur.
● increases strength
● produces (self) age-hardenability in conjunction
with magnesium.

Lead
Improves machinability at levels over 0.1%.
Microstructure Modifying Elements
Titanium & Boron
● Titanium (Ti) and boron (B) are used to refine primary
aluminum grains.
● Titanium alone, added as a titanium aluminum master
alloy, forms TiAl3, which serves to nucleate primary
aluminum dendrites.
● More frequent nucleation or initiation of dendrites
means a larger
number of
smaller
grains.
Microstructure Modifying Elements
● Grain refining efficiency is better when titanium
and boron are used in combination.
● Master alloys of aluminium with 5% titanium and
1% boron are commonly used additives for this
purpose.
● They form TiB2 and TiAl3, which together are
more effective grain refiners than TiAl3 alone.
● The most efficient grain refiner for Al-Si alloys
has a Ti:B ratio closer to 1.5:1.
● That is a special case, applicable to 3XX and 4XX
alloys and not to the other alloy systems.
Microstructure Modifying Elements
Strontium, Sodium, Calcium and Antimony
● These elements (one or another, and not in
combination) are added to eutectic or hypoeutectic
Al-Si casting alloys to modify the morphology of the
eutectic silicon phase.
● Without the benefit of a modifying treatment,
eutectic silicon solidifies in a relatively coarse
continuous network of thin platelets.
● That morphology provides abundant stress risers and
thus limits the attainment of maximum strength and
ductility.
● Modification with one of the above elements changes
the eutectic silicon into a fine fibrous/lamellar form.
Microstructure Modifying Elements
Strontium, Sodium, Calcium and Antimony

Unmodified Modified Super-modified

Microstructure Modifying Elements
Strontium
● Sr accomplishes the same modified eutectic silicon
structure as sodium, but strontium’s effect fades at
a much slower rate.
● Sr is usually added to somewhat higher retained
levels than sodium (0.01 - 0.025%); but Sr can
generally be counted on to remain effective for
many hours and through numerous re-melts.
● Because of this, Sr has become the preferred
modifier in North America.
● Levels of 0.008–0.04% Sr modify the Al–Si eutectic
structure.
Microstructure Modifying Elements
Phosphorus
Refines the primary Si phase in hypereutectic alloys.
In hypoeutectic alloys, low levels of phosphorus
coarsen the eutectic structure and reduce the effect
of Na and Sr eutectic modifiers.

Sodium
Used to modify the eutectic structure.
Microstructure Modifying Elements
Manganese & Chromium
● Alone or in combination, manganese (Mn) and/or
chromium (Cr) change the morphology of the iron-
rich Al5FeSi phase from its typical platelet/acicular
form to a more cubic Al15(MnFe)3Si2 form that is
less harmful to ductility.
● if iron exceeds 0.45%, manganese content shall not
be less than one-half the iron content.
● As with the platelet/acicular Al5FeSi phase, the
volume fraction and size of the cubic Al15(MnFe)3Si2
phase is also a function of concentration levels and
solidification rate.
Microstructure Modifying Elements
Manganese & Chromium
● Greater concentrations of iron, manganese and/or
chromium are tolerable at higher solidification
rates.
● While manganese and/or chromium cause a
beneficial change to the morphology of iron phases,
it is that change in combination with large
concentrations of iron, manganese and chromium
that leads to “sludge” in traditional secondary die
casting alloys.
● Manganese has proven to be a suitable substitute for
iron to minimize "soldering« of the cast melt to
steel tooling during die casting.
Manganese
● Improves casting soundness at levels over 0.5%.
● partially offsets iron‘s negative effect on ductility
when iron content is > 0.15 %; controls the
intermetallic form of iron in the alloy, leading to
improved ductility and shrinkage characteristics.
● reduces the tendency to stickiness in pressure die
casting.
Microstructure Modifying Elements

Fe-rich Al5FeSi platelets Cubic Al15(MnFe)3Si2

Mn and/or Cr also tend to stabilize some 2XX and 7XX alloys at

elevated temperatures. Cr especially suppresses grain growth.
Mn and Cr impart a bronze to gold colour to 7XX alloys that
are anodized.
Impurity Elements
Iron
● Iron is present in most traditional die casting alloys
as an impurity, yet a very useful impurity.
● Iron in concentrations of 0.8% or more greatly
reduces the tendency of an alloy to solder to die
casting tooling.
● The Al-Fe-Si ternary eutectic composition occurs at
about 0.8% Fe.
● Theoretically, when iron is alloyed to a little above
that amount, the supersaturated molten alloy has
little tendency to dissolve the relatively
unprotected tool steel while the molten alloy and
die are in intimate contact.
Impurity Elements
Iron
● Iron in a moderate range intended to reduce
soldering is also credited with improving somewhat
the resistance of die casting alloys to hot tearing
during solidifications in rigid die cast tooling.
● That characteristic may, however, be overstated as
some die casters say iron at the upper end of the
typical range actually increases hot-tearing issues.
Impurity Elements
Iron
● Iron combines with aluminum, silicon, and other
elements to form a variety of hard, complex insoluble
phases.
● The beta Al5FeSi phase forms as very thin platelets,
which appear acicular or needle-like in a polished cross
section. Such morphologies provide stress risers that
significantly reduce the ductility of an alloy.
● Their volume fraction and size are functions of not only
the iron concentration but also the solidification
conditions (rate).
● The platelets tend to be fewer and smaller at higher
solidification rates; thus, die casting is able to tolerate
higher iron levels than other casting processes.
Impurity Elements
Iron
● Iron at high concentrations cannot be tolerated in high-
integrity die casting variations such as high-vacuum,
squeeze and semi solid casting.
● In those cases, a major goal is usually high ductility,
and beta Al5FeSi platelets destroy ductility by providing
numerous stress risers and points of crack initiation.
● In those cases, primary alloys more traditionally used in
sand and permanent mold casting have become the
popular choices for high integrity die casting as well.
● Those alloys avoid Al5FeSi platelets by limiting iron to
very low limits.
Impurity Elements
Iron
● In some cases, high-integrity die castings have
tolerated less pure alloys than required in sand and
permanent mold by simply abiding by the rule “if
iron exceeds 0.45%, manganese content shall not
be less than one-half the iron content.”
● As noted earlier, manganese at concentrations
above 0.4% has now been demonstrated to provide
adequate protection against soldering, so alloys
intended for high integrity vacuum die casting,
such as 365 and Alcan's Aural alloys, avoid harmful
Al5FeSi platelets by manganese substitution for
Impurity Elements
Iron
● at a content of approx. 0.2 % and above, has a
decidedly negative influence on the ductility
(elongation at fracture); this results in a very
brittle AlFe(Si) compound in the form of plates
which appear in micrographs as “needles”; these
plates act like large-scale microstructural
separations and lead to fracture when the slightest
strain is applied at a content of approx. 0.4 % and
above, reduces the tendency to stickiness in
pressure die casting.
iron/manganese
Iron
● Levels of 0.9–1.0% Fe are used in pressure
diecasting alloys to prevent die sticking.
● High Fe contents decrease ductility, shock
resistance and machinability.
● Castability is decreased by Fe due to the
formation of sludge phases with manganese and
chromium, so alloys for processes other than
pressure diecasting are limited to less than 0.8%
Fe.
Impurity Elements
Zinc
● The only intentional and controlled additions of
zinc (Zn) to aluminum casting alloys are in the 7XX
series, and those are not yet suitable for die
casting or any of its variations.
● Otherwise, zinc is present merely as an acceptable
impurity element in many secondary (scrap-based)
die casting alloys.
● As such, zinc is quite neutral; it neither enhances
nor detracts from an alloy’s properties.
Impurity Elements
Zinc
● It should be recognized that zinc is a relatively
dense (heavy) element, and as such it increases an
alloy’s mass density.
● High-zinc secondary alloys usually seem attractive
because they cost somewhat less than low-zinc
versions.
● However, that attractiveness can be deceiving if
the cost differential is too small; it can make little
sense to purchase lower cost alloys if doing so
means shipping a higher weight of material with
each casting.
Impurity Elements
Lithium
● While lithium up to 3% may be used to improve the
properties of wrought aluminium alloys, it has a
generally harmful effect on casting properties by
● reducing the effectiveness of Na or Sr modifiers at
levels above 0.5%.
● At even lower levels, above 0.01%, porosity
problems are experienced.
● It is recommended that Li levels below 0.003% are
used for casting alloys.
Foundry alloys
● Foundry alloys contain substantial amounts of
silicon and other alloying elements (Mg, Cu, Zn).
● High alloy content lead to heterogeneous
microstructures with a distribution of secondary
phases.
● Intermetallic particles promote the initiation and
rapid growth of cracks under loading when they
are acicular and block with sharp edges.
● Fatigue resistance is particularly sensitive to
coarse intermetallic particles.
● The adverse effects of these particles can be
limited with sound alloying and casting practices.
Foundry alloy designations
Alloy Alloy Solid Precipita
number element solution tion

treatable
Non heat
1xx.x Min %99Al 
4xx.x Si 
5xx.x Mg 

2xx.x Cu  

treatable
3xx.x Si+Cu/Mg  

Heat
7xx.x Zn  
8xx.x Sn  
9xx.x Reserved  
Foundry alloy designations
● digit that follows the decimal in each alloy number
indicates the product form.
● 0: indicates the cast product-casting itself (die casting,
for instance).
● 1: indicates the chemistry limits for ingot used to make
the XXX.0 product.
● 2: indicates ingot used to make that XXX.0 product, but
ingot of somewhat different (usually tighter) chemistry
limits than that of XXX.1.
● While not always the case, XXX.1 often indicates
secondary alloy chemistry limits whereas XXX.2 would
indicate primary alloy chemistry limits.
● 380.0 could indicate a die cast product likely produced
from 380.1 secondary ingot
Foundry alloy designations
● Since melting and melt handling can alter the
chemistry of an alloy prepared to make castings,
the “XXX.1” or “XXX.2” ingot specifications are
always somewhat tighter than the “XXX.0”
specifications for the cast part.
● And according to convention, “XXX.2” ingot always
has tighter chemistry limits than “XXX.1” ingot.
Foundry alloy designations
● Letters can also precede an alloy’s designation
number.
● Letters denote some variation on the original
designated alloy, perhaps a lower-impurity version,
or a version that has an additional controlled
element, or one that has a modified range for one of
the controlled elements.
● Not all alloys have both a “XXX.1” and “XXX.2” ingot
forms.
● Many of the more traditional die casting alloys will
have only a “XXX.1” secondary-alloy ingot call-out
and many “premium castings” alloys will have only a
“XXX.2” primary ingot call-out.
1xx alloys
● Distinctive property of 1XX alloy is high electrical
conductivity.
● They are used commercially to cast electric motor rotors.
● Rotors are usually cast on vertical high-pressure die casting
type machines especially designed for the purpose. The
high electrical conductivity of relatively pure aluminium is
useful in collector rings and conductor bars, which are cast
integrally with steel laminations that are stacked in the die
prior to casting.
● These alloys might occasionally also be used to cast
connectors for joining transmission cables,
● but 1XX alloys are not candidates for high integrity die
castings.
applications
2xx / Al-Cu alloys
● The highest strength aluminium foundry alloys
● Ultimate tensile strength 130-450 MPa
● Retain strength and hardness at elevated
temperatures.
● However, limited ductility and toughness!
● Low corrosion resistance!
● Suitable for sand and permanent mould casting!
● Limited fluidity: high risk of porosity and hot
tearing!
● Hence more suitable for investment casting!
● Can be heat treated!
● Most popular alloys: 201.0, 203.0
 2xx / Al-Cu alloys
● When casting 2XX alloys in rigid molds or die casting
dies, special methods are required to minimize
solidification stresses; two effective techniques are
1) cast in hotter than usual tooling and 2) eject cast
parts from tooling at the highest practical
temperature.
● Special techniques are also necessary to chill
critical strength/ductility areas of castings,
simultaneously promoting directional solidification
from colder remote casting extremes back to in-
gates or other sources of shrinkage feeding and
promoting finer solidified structures.
2xx / Al-Cu alloys
● A201.2 offers high mechanical properties but is
expensive and is thus in limited use.
● 206 and A206 offer nearly as high mechanical
properties, are much less expensive and are
considered viable candidates for future
applications.
● Suitable for die cast versions like semi solid
processing, employing new processing tools like
Continuous Rheoconversion Processing (CRP™)
and/or Controlled Diffusion Solidification (CDS™).
2xx / Al-Cu alloys
● Applications for alloys 206 and A206 include military
and aerospace hardware where the highest tensile
and impact properties are required.
● They are also used for a variety of structural castings
on trucks and trailers, in gear and pump housings, and
increasingly in automotive structural hardware.
● 2XX alloys are not good candidates for HPDC because
of their poor fluidity and tendency toward hot-
shortness.
● lower casting temperature, higher tool temperature,
pressure filling and viscous, stable-front flow of semi
solid metal processing offer significant promise for
high-integrity die cast products from alloys like 206.
242.0 / A242.0 alloys
● Used when high strength and hardness are
required at elevated temperatures
● Moderate fluidity; limited hot tearing and
porosity
● Reasonable Leak tigthtness!
● Good machinability
● High anodised surface quality
● Good arc and resistance weldability
● Resistance to corrosion not too bad! (can be
improved with coating!)
● Used in pistons and air cooled cylinder heads
2xx alloys
Aerospace structural parts

Fuel transfer components

in jet engines

Body parts in jet engines

2xx alloys
Jet engine fan components
in civil and military
airplanes
2xx alloys
Tactical Tomahawk
missile body parts

Electronic and optical surveilance

components mounted on light
vehicles-single piece casting
 Al-Si alloys
liquid
temperature (C)

+ Si +
liquid liquid

%5-8 Si
355, 356, 319 and 320 %10-13 Si %16-20 Si
sand/permanent 336, 339 and 413 390 and 392
mould alloys Wear resistant
Pressure die
%8-10 Si casting alloys alloys
360, 380 and 383
Presure die casting alloys  + Si

%Si
Popular alloys in Al-Si system
Commercial cast Al-Si alloys
(a) Al-Si
equilibrium
diagram.
(b) Microstructure
of hypoeutectic
alloy (1.65-12.6
wt% Si).
(c) Microstructure
of eutectic alloy
(12.6% Si).
(d) Microstructure
of hypereutectic
alloy (>12.6% Si)
Microstructures in Al-Si system
Hypo eutectic hyper eutectic

Primary phase:
-Al silicon
3xx / Al-Si-Mg alloys
● The 3XX alloys are the true workhorse of the
aluminium casting industry because of their
superior casting characteristics and good strength.
● Al-Si-Cu alloys are the most prevalent and the
higher-copper versions are fully heat treatable.
● When full heat treatment is desired, the Al-Si-Cu-
Mg alloys provide the highest strength and
hardness, at both ambient and elevated
temperatures.
3xx alloys / Al-Si-Mg (Cu)
● Excellent fluidity
● Heat treatable
● High strength
● Ultimate tensile strength: 130-275 MPa
● High elongation, ductility and toughness in some
alloys
● Good wear resistance
● Good machinability but poor corrosion resistance
in Cu-bearing alloys
● Suitable for a variety of casting processes (sand,
permanent mold and pressure die casting)!
3xx alloys/Al-Si-Mg (Cu)
● ideal for large complex castings!
● Very precise castings with very fine intricate
details
● cylinder blocks
● cylinder heads
● wheel
● Aerospace
● components
● Compressor and
● pump parts
3xx alloys/Al-Si-Mg (Cu)
 An attractive balance between cast strength
(without heat treatment), castability and cost!
 Mg concentration is controlled at very low levels in
order to avoid the formation of oxides that result
from turbulent mold filling!
 However, even this much Mg (~0.3%) contributes to
strength and machinability.
 Recycled alloys are not good enough for critical-
safety components.
3xx alloys/Al-Si-Mg (Cu)
The most popular alloys
 for sand casting: 356.0 and 319.0
 for permanent mold casting, A356.0
 For pressure die casting 360.0, 380.0/A380.0 and
390.0
 Squeeze, forge-casting and many other casting
methods 357.0/A357.0
 Alloy 332.0 is one of the most widely used foundry
alloy as it is produced entirely from recycled metal
356.0
● A356 is currently the workhorse of aluminium
structural castings.
● Excellent castability
● No risk of hot tearing and solidification
contraction!
● Machinability is good in the heat treated state(T6).
Savings can be obtained with carbide based tools
due to high Si.
● Good surface quality. Good surface look as
polished. Looks good and grey coloured as
anodised.
● Good weldability.
● Cannot be soldered.
 356.0
● A356 has long been the material of choice for cast
aluminium automobile wheels and has become the
standard for most automotive chassis and
suspension castings as well.
● Cast in sand for gear boxes, oil pans, rear axle
housings, water-cooled cylinder heads, pump
cases.
● 356/A356 alloys are preffered in electrical
components, marine vessel components, pump
housings.
● Preferred for Permanent mold castings, engine
components, valve housings, airplane wing
couplings, fuel tanks of airplane and missiles
356.0
● This is an ideal alloy in T6 temper for marine
vessel applications where leak tightness and
corrosion resistance are two very critical
properties.
● Alloy 357 is similar to A356 but has higher strength.
It, too, is used to make “premium quality”
castings.
● A356 is the most popular alloy used in squeeze
casting and semi solid metal processing.
360/A360
● 360 and A360 alloys have been developed specially
for pressure die casting. Hence, they contain
higher Si and Fe and the impurity content of this
alloy is higher.
● Alloys 360 and A360 are in the same family as
A356, but were designed specifically for die
casting and, as such, contain more silicon and
higher iron and allow more impurities than A356.
A380.0/B380.0
● General pupose pressure die casting alloys.
Designed specifically for pressure die casting.
● Castability, leak tightness, hot tearing resistance of
these alloys are good.
● Good mechanical properties.
● Good Machinability. However, carbide based tools
are recommended because of their high erosive
capacity.
● Electrocoating produces excellent results. Polishing
and anodising quality are also good.
● moderate weldability; cannot be soldered.
● Moderate corrosion resistance.
A380.0/B380.0
● The 380 family of alloys have long been the
workhorses of the die casting industry, probably
accounting for 85% or more of all die cast aluminum.
● These are secondary (scrap-based) alloys that also
evolved specifically for die casting, and thus contain
more silicon and iron, and allow more impurities
than alloys intended for other casting processes.
● These alloys provide a good balance between low
material cost, moderate strength without need for
heat treatment and castability.
● They are used in mowers, gear housings, air cooled
cylinder heads.
A380.0/B380.0
● Mg in these alloys is usually controlled to very low levels
to minimize formation of oxides during very turbulent
cavity fill,
● but small amounts of Mg (~0.3%) can markedly improve
hardness and machining characteristics (tight chip curl,
short chips, minimum BUE on tools and improved surface
finishes),
● thus specifications often require some Mg in Al-Si-Cu die
casting alloys;
● through NADCA’s efforts, the Aluminum Association and
ASTM specs have recently changed to allow Mg up to 0.3%
in the US too.
● The traditional 380-type alloys, being scrap based, are
not suitable candidates for high integrity die casting.
319.0, A310.0, B319.0 ve 320.0
● Castability and weldability of 319.0 and A319.0
alloys are good with a reasonable level of
strength. Leak tightness of these alloys is
exceptional.
● Hot tearing and solidification contraction are
limited.
● Casting properties and mechanical properties are
not too much affected by impurity levels.
● Machinability is good.
● Carbide tools are recommended to resist wear
and counteract the adverse effects of inclusions.
319.0, A319.0, B319.0 ve 320.0
● The strength of B319.0 and 320.0 alloys is higher
with respect to 319 and A319. They are generally
produced with permanent mold casting. Other
properties are similar.
● Sand castings of these alloys are used for crank
cases of internal combustion and diesel engines,
gas and oil tanks and oil boxes.
● Permanent mold castings are used for water-
cooled cylinder heads, arka dingil gömleği and
engine components.
 319.0, A319.0, B319.0 ve 320.0
● Alloys 319 and B319 are used in numerous commercial
casting applications and have been extensively used in
recent years for automotive engine crankcases, intake
manifolds and cylinder heads.
● Alloys 319 and B319 are also used to cast oil pans for
autos and trucks.
● Neither version is considered a die casting alloy, due
mostly to their moderate silicon levels, however, their
solidification modes have already made them very
attractive choices for semi solid processing.
● Pistons for automobiles are also cast from the 3XX
alloys.
332/333
● Alloy 332 is the traditional car engine piston
material; but 339 and B390 alloys, which are better
able to withstand the stresses of modern high
specific output engines, are increasingly replacing
332.
● Another general-purpose alloy is 333, more-or-less
the permanent mold version of the 380-type die
casting alloy.
● Alloy 333 has traditionally been used to cast sole
plates for irons, a variety of meter and regulator
parts and also automotive cylinder heads.
355
● The 355 type alloy, especially C355, is one of a
small group of select alloys used to make military
and aerospace parts for “premium
strength/quality” castings (the 206 alloys are also
in this group, as are A356 and 357).
● They are used in aircraft crankcases, gearboxes,
housings and supports, as well as in impellers for
superchargers.
● This alloy has already been used for semi solid
processing and to a limited extent for squeeze
casting as well.
A390.0/B390.0
● Hyper-eutectic alloys
● Very high wear resistance owing to primary silicon
particles dispersed in a eutectic matrix.
● Suitable for pressure die casting
● Can be cast as thin sections and complex parts.
● Leak tightness and hot tear resistance are both
high.
● Limited die soldering!
● Permanent mold casting good!
● Slow cooling in sand molds have an adverse effect
on as-cast structure.
A390.0/B390.0
● Does not require heat treatment!
● Hence, fatigue performance (that is impaired by
residual stresses from heat treament) is good.
● Thermal expansion coefficient is low.
● An attractive material for internal combusion
engine pistons, cylinder blocks and heads,
compressor and pump housings and brake
components since it has low thermal expansiton,
high wear resistance and hardness
 A390.0/B390.0
● 390, B390, 393 are used primarily in wear
applications (engine blocks, compressors, pistons,
pumps, pulleys, brake systems, etc.)
● but they are also popular for very thin parts, since
they have exceptional fluidity.
● because of low ductility associated with the
presence of primary silicon crystals, are not
candidates for high integrity die casting, even
though they are heat treatable and capable of high
strength and hardness.
A390.0/B390.0
● 390, B390, 393 are generally preferred for
applications such as engine block, compressor, pump
and brake systems that require high wear resistance.
● They are also preffered for the casting of thin
sections owing to their very high fluidity-castability.
● Hyper-eutectic alloys are not suitable for safety-
critical parts as they contain primary silicon
particles and have limited ductility.
● They can be hardened with heat treatment and can
be produced at high strength and hardness levels.
3xx alloys / Al-Si-Mg (Cu)
356.0 alloy turbo part for a
Mercedes truck

380.0 alloy sand casting

rear axle sleeve

357.0 and A357.0 alloy sand and

permanent mold castings
Automotive suspension components
3xx alloys / Al-Si-Mg (Cu)

Die cast gear box

380.0 alloy

Low pressure die cast

automotive wheel
A356.0 alloy
3xx alloys / Al-Si-Mg (Cu)
7 kg A380 gear box
Presure die casting

Renault Safran cylinder head

3xx alloys / Al-Si-Mg (Cu)
A380 sand casting

investment cast 3XX alloy parts

319 sand casting

 4xx/Al-Si alloys
● The 4XX alloys are used where good castability is
required in conjunction with better corrosion
resistance than is generally afforded by copper
containing 3XX alloys.
● Suitable for sand, permanent and pressure die
casting
● Major alloys in this group: 413.0, 443.0
● Applications include marine castings, office
equipment frames, and equipment for food
handling and components for the chemical industry.
● Alloy A444 is essentially A356 alloy, but without the
magnesium.
413.0/AlSi12
● popular because of high castability owing to its
eutectic composition and low melting point (570C)
and excellent weldability
● Can be cast as thin sections
● Tensile strength: 120-175 MPa
● Moderate ductility
● Good wear resistance
● Printer and typewriter housings/cooking utensils;
popular in marine and architectural applications
owing to its high corrosion resistance
 413.0/AlSi12
● Alloy 413 is the Al-Si eutectic alloy and solidifies
over the narrowest range of all casting alloys
except perhaps the 1XX rotor alloys.
● As previously mentioned, eutectic alloys solidify
progressively from the die surface toward the
thermal center of a die casting’s cross-section.
● That planar-front solidification produces a sound
skin extending to nearly the thermal center of the
casting section.
● At the end of solidification, any liquid-to-solid
transition shrinkage is confined along the thermal
centerline of the casting.
413.0/AlSi12
● Because solidification shrinkage is not connected
to the surface of the casting, castings produced
from these alloys are usually pressure tight.
● 413 is also a secondary based alloy and like the
380 alloys, is not considered a suitable candidate
for high integrity die castings.
443
● The 443 alloys have broad casting process
applicability, and are suitable for use in processes
ranging from sand to high-pressure die casting.
● 4XX alloys are even used to cast electric motor
rotors that require high electrical-resistivity
(motors with high starting torque); in such cases,
more highly alloyed die casting compositions like
443.2 are commonly used.
● Alloys such as 443.1 provide conductivities in the
range of 30 to 35% IACS.
444
● A444 has outstanding ductility combined with
moderate strength and is used extensively to cast
lamp pole bases, bridge rail supports and for
highways, where impact absorbing capabilities
without failure are important.
● While the 4XX alloys are not heat treatable, A444
for highway applications is often given a T4
treatment (exposed to typical solution heat
treating temperature for an hour or so) so as to
spherodize eutectic silicon and thus provide
maximum ductility and energy absorbing
capability in the event of vehicle impact.
Silicon in 3XX and 4XX alloys
● All 3XX and 4XX alloys undergo a significant degree of
relatively isothermal solidification at their major Al-Si
eutectic arrest.
● By the time cooling resumes below that arrest temperature,
the bulk of the solid has already formed and only the lowest
melting temperature phases remain liquid (generally, Cu
and/or Mg bearing eutectics).
● The 3XX and 4XX alloys already have, at that point,
sufficient structure and strength to overcome whatever
cooling-contraction restrictions the mold might impose as
the casting continues to solidify from the Al-Si eutectic
arrest to the solidus temperature.
● 3XX and 4XX alloys have almost no tendency to hot tear or
hot crack, except where some form of imposed “hot spot”
might exist in the die during late stages of solidification.
5xx.x/Al-Mg alloys
● Long solidification range due to high Mg;
castability difficult; prone to hot tearing; they are
not selected for pressure die casting.
● Generally sand/occasionally permanent mold cast!
● Very high surface quality; anodising quality!
● Excellent corrosion resistance!
● Good machinability
● Ultimate tensile strength range:120-175 MPa
● Typical alloys: 512.0,514.0,518.0, 535.0
● 512.0 and 514.0 alloys exhibit medium strength
and high elongation.
● They are not heat treatable!
5xx.x/Al-Mg alloys
● The 5XX alloys have the best corrosion resistance of
the aluminium casting alloys.
● They also polish to bright finishes and they tend to
anodize with a pleasing natural aluminum appearance.
● Therefore, they are popular for decorative castings as
well as castings used in dairy and food-handling
equipment, for pipe-fittings in marine and chemical
systems, marine hardware and architectural
/ornamental applications.
● The 5XX alloys require more care in preparation and
casting than lower-magnesium content alloys because
they are more reactive in the presence of oxygen,
moisture in the atmosphere, lubricants and the like.
5xx.x/Al-Mg alloys
● Similar to the 2XX alloys, 5XX alloys lack fluidity and
have hot-shortness tendencies, thus they are not often
selected for die casting.
● However, pressure during die casting minimizes fluidity
issues and semi solid processing can minimize hot
shortness issues.
● Alloys 515 through 518 are actually designated for die
casting, and might be specified when maximum
resistance to corrosion is required, and/or when a
combination of strength and ductility higher than is
generally achievable using common 3XX or 4XX die
casting alloys in the as-cast (F temper) is desired.
5xx.x/Al-Mg alloys
● Relatively new entries into the 5XX family of
alloys are “Magsimal-59” developed by
Rheinfelden Aluminium in Germany, Maxx alloy 59
developed by Salzberger Aluminium GmbH (SAG)
in Austria and the Aural 11 alloy from Alcan.
● These alloys were designed especially for high
vacuum die casting of crashworthy automotive
components requiring high ductility.
● To avoid the ill effects of Fe phases on ductility,
these alloys employing Mn to reduce die-soldering
tendencies.
5xx.x/Al-Mg alloys
● The strength is not improved by heat treating;
● however, they have good strength and good ductility in
the as-cast (F temper) and room temperature
naturally-aged condition
● they are now receiving well-deserved attention for
large structural die castings that would be difficult to
heat treat without developing residual stresses and
distortion.
● They show potential for increased use for die casting
large, thin-walled automotive body, chassis and
suspension components that must have both strength
and ductility without the stress and distortion that
would surely be imposed when heat treated.
5xx.x / Al-Mg alloys
● Interestingly, they show great promise for
processing by rheocasting in the semi solid
temperature range.
● A major issue when die casting the 5XX alloys,
including the Mn-containing alloys designed for
high vacuum die casting, is reduced tool life.
● The presence of Mn might overcome soldering
issues, but reactive Mg still increases
aggressiveness to tool steel, and die life is shorter
than when casting lower-Mg Al-Si alloys.
7xx.x / Al-Zn alloys
● Heat treatable
● More difficult to cast than Al-Si alloys
● Used only when machinability is required and
surface quality and appearence is critical because
of poor castability.
● Sand and permanent mold castings
(pressure die casting is out of question!)
● Excellent machinability
● Good dimensional stability
● Good corrosion resistance
● High surface quality
● Typical alloys: 705.0,712.0
● Tensile strength: 205-380 MPa
7xx.x / Al-Zn alloys
● 7XX alloys have good impact properties
● they develop reasonably high strength without a
need for heat treatment.
● The 7XX alloys continuously age at room
temperature but develop nearly-peak properties
within 20-30 days after casting.
● They are therefore popular for large machine tool
parts, furniture, garden tools, textile and office
machine castings, trailer parts and mining
equipment parts
7xx.x / Al-Zn alloys
● ideal for huge parts that could be troublesome to
heat treat and quench without issues of stress and
distortion.
● The 7XX alloys have the highest solidus
temperatures of all aluminium casting alloys
(other than pure aluminium/rotor metal), which
renders them suitable for use in assemblies that
are joined by brazing.
● The 7XX alloys are not intended for die casting,
but like some 2XX and 5XX alloys, might benefit
from semi solid processing and thus become
candidates for high integrity die casting.
8xx.x/Al-Sn alloys
● Heat tretable
● Limited strength
● High wear resistance
● More difficult to cast than Al-Si alloys
● Suitable for sand and permanent mold casting
(not for presure die casting!)
● Perfect machinability
● Typical alloys:850.0,851.0
● Tensile strength:105-205 MPa
● Difficult to cast like the 7XX alloys. Preferred
only when machinability is required.
 8xx.x/Al-Sn alloys
● used exclusively to cast bushings and journal bearings.
● excellent compressive properties
● unique lubricating properties under over-heat
conditions.
● The unique ingredient in 8XX alloys is Sn which resides
in the solidified casting largely as small globules of the
essentially-pure element. If normal lubrication fails
and causes overheating of a bushing/bearing, the tin
phase melts at 231°C (its normal low melting
temperature) and exudes from the over-heated surface
to provide emergency liquid-tin lubrication and thus it
prevents catastrophic failure of the system.
etial alloys
aluminium technologies
24.11.2015
Tentative program
● Presentation of HW assignments will start on
December 22nd.
● There will be 5 presentations on
December 22nd
December 29th
January 5th
● Each presentation is expected to last 25 minutes.
● There will be an additional 5 minutes for the
discussion of presentations.
Comparison of casting processes
● Elongation levels of conventional pressure die
casting parts are limited. Hence, pressure die
cast component are not suitable for safety
critical parts.
● Other casting methods that use even higher
pressures, such as squezze and semi-solid casting
have been commercialized in recent years.
● High strength together with elongations much
higher than %10 have been obtained.
Primary and secondary alloys
● Primary alloys are produced by adding alloying
elements to pure aluminium.
● Secondary alloys, on the other hand, are produced
from recycled metal at much lower costs.
● Recycled material is almost always contaminated
with iron.
● Secondary alloys thus contain high levels of Fe
and other impurities. Fe has a negative effect on
castability and ductility and other properties.
● The Fe content must be controlled to a minimum
for these reasons.
Primary and secondary alloys
● The only exception to a low-Fe level is pressure
die casting alloys.
● In sand and permanent mold casting, for
applications that require high ductility, Fe must
be controlled below < 0.20 %. This actually
means primary alloy.
● Fe may be higher when ductility is not critical.
● When castability and machinability are important
Fe can be as high as %0.5 and even higher.
Secondary aluminium alloys can be used in such
cases.
casting alloy designations
Aluminum casting alloys are numbered in accordance
with a 3 digit-plus-decimal designation in order to
identify major alloying elements (and some alloy
combinations).
The digit following the decimal in each alloy number
indicates the form of product.
“0”: the chemistry limits applied to an alloy casting.
“1”: the chemistry limits for ingot used to make the
alloy casting.
“2”: the chemistry limits for ingot are different
(typically tighter).
casting alloy designations
Generally, the XXX.1 designation indicates the ingot
is supplied as a secondary product (e.g., remelted
from scrap),
whereas the XXX.2 designation suggests the ingot is
produced from primary aluminum.
Some alloy names are preceded by a letter so as to
distinguish between alloys that differ only slightly in
percentages of impurities or minor alloying elements
(e.g., 356.0, A356.0, B356.0 or F356.0).
Sand casting alloys
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Ni Zn Sn Ti
201.0 0.10 0.15 4.0–5.2 0.20–0.50 0.15–0.55 ... ... ... ... 0.15–0.35

204.0 0.20 0.35 4.2–5.0 0.10 0.15–0.35 ... 0.05 0.10 0.05 0.15–0.30

242.0 0.7 1.0 3.7–4.5 0.35 1.2–1.8 0.25 1.7–2.3 0.35 ... 0.25

295.0 0.7–1.5 1.0 4.0–5.0 0.35 0.03 ... ... 0.35 ... 0.25

319.0 5.5–6.5 1.0 3.0–4.0 0.50 0.10 ... 0.35 1.0 ... 0.25

328.0 7.5–8.5 1.0 1.0–2.0 0.20–0.6 0.20–0.6 0.35 0.25 1.5 ... 0.25

355.0 4.5–5.5 0.6B 1.0–1.5 0.50B 0.40–0.6 0.25 ... 0.35 ... 0.25

356.0 6.5–7.5 0.6B 0.25 0.35B 0.20–0.45 ... ... 0.35 ... 0.25

443.0 4.5–6.0 0.8 0.6 0.50 0.05 0.25 ... 0.50 ... 0.25

512.0 1.4–2.2 0.6 0.35 0.8 3.5–4.5 0.25 ... 0.35 ... 0.25

514.0 0.35 0.50 0.15 0.35 3.5–4.5 ... ... 0.15 ... 0.25

520.0 0.25 0.30 0.25 0.15 9.5–10.6 ... ... 0.15 ... 0.25

535.0 0.15 0.15 0.05 0.10–0.25 6.2–7.5 ... ... ... ... 0.10–0.25
Sand casting alloys
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Ni Zn Sn Ti
0.20 0.8 0.20 0.40–0.6 1.4–1.8 0.20– ... 2.7–3.3 ... 0.25
705.0
0.40
0.20 0.8 0.20 0.40–0.6 1.8–2.4 0.20– ... 4.0–4.5 ... 0.25
707.0
0.40
0.15 0.50 0.35– 0.05 0.6–0.8 ... ... 6.0–7.0 ... 0.25
710.0
0.65
0.30 0.50 0.25 0.10 0.50–0.65 0.40–0.6 ... 5.0–6.5 ... 0.15–
712.0
0.25
713.0 0.25 1.1 0.40–1.0 0.6 0.20–0.50 0.35 0.15 7.0–8.0 ... 0.25

0.15 0.15 0.10 0.10 0.8–1.0 0.06–0.2 ... 6.5–7.5 ... 0.10–
771.0
0.20
850.0 0.7 0.7 0.7–1.3 0.10 0.10 ... 0.7–1.3 ... 5.5–7.0 0.20

851.0 2.0–3.0 0.7 0.7–1.3 0.10 0.10 ... 0.30–0.7 ... 5.5–7.0 0.20

852.0 0.40 0.7 1.7–2.3 0.10 0.6–0.9 ... 0.9–1.5 ... 5.5–7.0 0.20
Permanent mold casting alloys
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Ni Zn Sn Ti
204.0 0.20 0.35 4.2–5.0 0.10 0.15–0.35 ... 0.05 0.10 0.05 0.15–0.30

208.0 2.5-3.5 1.2 3.5-4.5 0.50 0.10 … 0.35 1.0 … 0.25

222.0 2.0 1.5 9.2-10.7 0.50 0.15-0.35 … 0.50 0.8 … 0.25

242.0 0.7 1.0 3.7–4.5 0.35 1.2–1.8 0.25 1.7–2.3 0.35 ... 0.25

296.0 2.0–3.0 1.2 4.0–5.0 0.35 0.05 ... 0.35 0.50 ... 0.25

308.0 5.0-6.0 1.0 4.0-5.0 0.50 0.10 … … 1.0 … 0.25

319.0 5.5–6.5 1.0 3.0–4.0 0.50 0.10 ... 0.35 1.0 ... 0.25

332.0 8.5–10.5 1.2 2.0–4.0 0.50 0.50–1.5 … 0.50 1.0 ... 0.25

333.0 8.0-10.0 1.0 3.0-4.0 0.50 0.05-0.50 … 0.50 1.0 … 0.25

336.0 11.0-13.0 1.2 0.50-1.5 0.35 0.7-1.3 … 2.0-3.0 0.35 … 0.25

354.0 8.6-9.4 0.20 1.6-2.0 0.10 0.4-0.6 … … 0.10 0.20

355.0 4.5–5.5 0.6B 1.0–1.5 0.50B 0.40–0.6 0.25 ... 0.35 ... 0.25

356.0 6.5–7.5 0.6B 0.25 0.35B 0.20–0.45 ... ... 0.35 ... 0.25
Permanent mold casting alloys
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Ni Zn Sn Ti
357.0 6.5-7.5 0.15 0.05 0.03 0.45-0.6 … … 0.05 … 0.20

359.0 8.5-9.5 0.20 0.20 0.10 0.50-0.70 … … 0.10 … 0.20

443.0 4.5–6.0 0.8 0.6 0.50 0.05 0.25 ... 0.50 ... 0.25

513.0 0.30 0.40 0.10 0.30 3.5–4.5 … ... 0.35 ... 0.25

535.0 0.15 0.15 0.05 0.1–0.25 6.2–7.5 ... ... ... ... 0.10–0.25

705.0 0.20 0.80 0.20 0.4-0.6 1.4-1.8 0.2-0.4 … 2.7-3.3 … 0.25

707.0 0.20 0.80 0.20 0.4-0.6 1.8-2.4 0.2-0.4 … 4.0-4.5 … 0.25

711.0 0.30 0.7-1.4 0.35-0.65 0.05 0.25-0.45 … … 6.0-7.0 … 0.20

713.0 0.25 1.1 0.4-1.0 0.6 0.2-0.5 0.35 0.15 7.0-8.0 … 0.25

850.0 0.7 0.7 0.7-1.3 0.10 0.10 … 0.7-1.3 … 5.5–7.0 0.20

851.0 2.0-3.0 0.7 0.7-1.3 0.10 0.10 … 0.3-0.7 … 5.5–7.0 0.20

852.0 0.40 0.70 1.7-2.3 0.10 0.6-0.9 … 0.9-1.5 … 5.5–7.0 0.20

Pressure die casting alloys
● Fe is an intended impurity as it avoids die
soldering.
● Hence, the Fe content in this alloy group is
identified with a minimum limit.
● Generally this limit is minimum %0.6 Fe.
● Secondary alloys are appropriate for die casting for
this reason.
● The upper limit for Fe is determined by the level
of ducitility required for that particular
application.
● The upper limit is often between %1 and %1.3.
Pressure die casting alloys
● Pressure die castings are not heat treated because
of the hydrogen gas problem.
● Hydrogen gas whether in solution or trapped in the
casting having failed to escape during
solidification, lead to blistering problems during
solution heat treatments.

General purpose die casting alloys:

● A380 (AlSi8Cu3) Rp=160 MPa, Rm =325 MPa, A5=0.5-
3%
● A 383 (AlSi10Cu) Rp=150 MPa, Rm =310 MPa, A5=1-3%
Pressure die casting alloys
Special pressure die casting alloys
● A443 (AlSi5) Rp0.2%=110 MPa, Rm =230 MPa, A5=9%
● When high ductility in addition to moderate
strength is required; corrosion resistance is also
high owing to low Cu content!
● A413 (AlSi12) Rp=140 MPa, Rm =300 MPa, A5=0.5-2%
complex thin section components!
● A390 (AlSi17Cu4Mg) Rp=240 MPa, Rm=280 MPa,
A5=1%
a hypereutectic wear resistant alloy; used for
engine blocks, compressor parts, brakes.
Pressure die casting alloys
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Ni Zn Sn Ti
360 9.0-10.0 2.0 0.6 0.35 0.4-0.6 0.50 0.50 0.15 -
A360 9.0-10.0 1.3 0.6 0.35 0.4-0.6 0.50 0.50 0.15 -
380 7.5-9.5 2.0 3.0-4.0 0.50 0.10 0.50 3.0 0.35 -
A380 7.5-9.5 1.3 3.0-4.0 0.50 0.10 0.50 3.0 0.35 -
383 9.5-11.5 1.3 2.0-3.0 0.50 0.10 0.30 3.0 0.15 -
384 10.5-12.0 1.3 3.0-4.5 0.50 0.10 0.50 3.0 0.35 -
390 16.0-18.0 1.3 4.0-5.0 0.50 0.45-0.65 0.10 1.5 - 0.10
413.0 11.0-13.0 2.0 1.0 0.35 0.10 0.50 0.50 0.15 -
A413.0 11.0-13.0 1.3 1.0 0.35 0.10 0.50 0.50 0.15 -
443.0 4.5-6.0 2.0 0.6 0.35 0.10 0.50 0.50 0.15 -
Aluminium foundry alloys
alloy major Solid solution Precipitation
element strengthening strengthening

Non heat
tretable
1xx >99 Al 
4xx Si 
5xx Mg 

2xx Cu  

tretable
3xx Si + Mg (Cu)  

Heat
7xx Zn  
8xx Sn  
Foundry alloy-summary
Al-Cu alloys (2xx.x series)
● Heat treatable
● High-very high strength
● Low ductility
● Low corrosion resistance (sensitive to stress
corrosion)
● Limited fluidity
● Hot tearing susceptibility
applications
Cylinder heads for car and aerospace engines, pistons
for diesel engines, exhaust components
Foundry alloy-summary
Al-Si-Cu-Mg alloys (3xx.x series)
● Heat treatable
● High strength
● Low ductility
● Good wear resistance
● Limited corrosion resistance (Cu bearing alloys)
● Good fluidity and castability
● Good machinability (Cu bearing alloys)
applications
Cylinder block and cylinder heads, wheels, airplane
parts, compressor and pump components
Foundry alloy-summary
Al-Si alloys (4xx.x series)
● Non heat treatable
● Medium strength
● Moderate ductility
● Good wear resistance
● Very good castability
● Good corrosion resistance

applications
Pump cases
Thin section castings
Cooking utensils
Foundry alloy-summary
Al-Mg alloys (5xx.x series)
● Non heat tretable
● High corrosion resistance
● Good machinability
● High quality surface
● Perfect surface finish as anodised
● Adequate castability

applications
Various sand castings
Foundry alloy-summary
Al-Zn alloys (7xx.x series)
● Heat tretable
● High dimensional stability
● Good corrosion resistance
● Poor castability
● Good machinability (Cu bearing alloys)

applications
High strength applications: both civil and military
aerospace castings
Foundry alloy-summary
Al-Sn alloys (8xx.x series)
● Limited strength
● Perfect wear resistance
● Good machinability

applications
Single and bi-metal bearing applications
casting alloy selection
242.0 Cylinder heads, generator Applications where
A242.0 housings (aircraft), pistons strength and hardness
(aircraft, diesel, at high temperatures
motorcycle) are desirable.
319.0 Sand castings: crankcases Applications where
A319.0 (internal combustion and moderate strength is
B319.0 diesel Engines), pans (oil), required.
320 tanks (gasoline and oil) Mechanical properties
Permanent mold castings: are not adversely
engine components affected by slight
(various), heads (water- changes in impurity
cooled cylinder), housings content.
(rear axle)
casting alloy selection
356.0 Sand castings: brackets, blocks Applications where
(water-cooled cylinder), excellent casting
automotive transmission cases, characteristics are
fittings, housings (rear axle), required.
pump bodies In the –T6 condition for
Permanent mold castings: bodies marine applications where
(valve), blocks (engine), brackets pressure tightness and/or
(springs), elbows (fuel tanks), corrosion resistance are
fittings (fuselage, tank car), required.
hardware (marine), machine tool
parts, pump parts, rudder-control
supports
A356.0 Airframes, chassis parts (trucks), Applications where higher
machine parts, missile strength and higher
components, structural parts ductility (especially
elongation) are desirable.
casting alloy selection
alloy Typical applications remarks
A380.0 / Housings (lawn mowers), heads Applications for general-
B380.0 (air-cooled cylinders), gear purpose die castings with
cases, radio transmitters good mechanical properties.
A390.0 / Blocks (internal-combustion Applications where high
B390.0 engines), brakes, cylinder hardness, good wear
bodies (compressors), pistons resistance and low
(internal-combustion engines), coefficient of thermal
pumps expansion are required.
535.0 Brackets, c-clamps, computing Applications requiring
devices, instruments, machined strength, shock resistance,
parts ductility and dimensional
stability.
712.0 Castings (marine), farm Applications requiring good
machinery, machinetool parts strength, shock and corrosion
resistance, machinability and
dimensional stability
Heat
treatment
of castings
Heat treatment of castings
● Many castings are used in the as-cast condition,
but certain applications require higher mechanical
properties than the as-cast material.
● The proof stress of castings of alloy Al–Si7 Mg for
example, can be more than doubled by full heat
treatment.
● For sand, gravity and low pressure die castings, all
treatments are possible, though not all are
standardised.
● Pressure die castings are not solution treated.
Heat treatment of castings
● Pressure die castings made using special processes such
as vacuum die casting or squeeze casting contain
less gas and may be solution treated.
● All die castings may be quenched from the die,
precipitation treated and stress relieved without
suffering harmful effects.
● Some heat treatments are carried out close to the
melting point of the castings so accurate temperature
control is needed.
● Forced air circulation furnaces are used to ensure that
the temperature of all parts of the furnace is constant.
Heat treatment of castings
● the heat treatment of cast aluminium alloys is
carried out to increase their strength and
hardness and to change their physical, mechanical
and metallurgical properties.
● Different types of castings require different
thermal treatments.
● For example, improved mechanical and physical
properties can be produced in sand and
permanent-mold castings by heat treatment.
Heat treatment of castings
● By contrast, some alloys – such as 443.0 that
contain little or no copper, zinc or magnesium – do
not respond to heat treatment and do not exhibit
improvements in mechanical properties.
● Others, such as die castings, can only be given a
stress relief (and not solution heat treated)
because of their porous internal structure due to
fears of surface blistering and internal porosity.
Heat treatments for aluminium
castings
designation Heat treatment
M None; as-cast or as-manufactured
TB (T4) Solution treated and naturally aged
TE (T5) Artificially aged
TB7 Solution treated and stabilized
TF (T6) Solution treated and fully artificially
aged
TF 7 Solution treated and artificially aged
and stabilized
TS Stress relieved and annealed
Solution Treatment–TB (T4)
● Castings are heated to a temperature just below
the alloy melting point (dependent on chemical
composition) and held at this temperature
(dependent on alloy and cross-sectional thickness)
a sufficient amount of time to allow the alloying
elements to enter into solid solution.
● Upon quenching, these elements are in a
supersaturated metastable state.
● Quench media include water, boiling water or
polymer.
Solution Treatment–TB (T4)
● Choice of the quenchant is often a balance
between achieving mechanical properties and
managing distortion while avoiding the buildup of
internal stresses in the part.
● Although mechanical properties increase
somewhat by natural aging, precipitation
hardening (artificially aging) is typically employed
to achieve maximum benefit to the mechanical
properties
Precipitation (Aging) –
TE Condition (T5 or T51)
● Artificial aging treatment is carried out at
temperatures above ambient, typically in the
range of 150-200˚C, at relatively low
temperatures to eliminate growth.
● Strength and hardness are increased.
● With chill castings (made in dies), it is possible to
obtain some increase in strength of as cast
components by precipitation treatment since the
rapid cooling in the die retains some of the
alloying constituents in solution.
Precipitation (Aging) –
TE Condition (T5 or T51)
● too long a time at temperature will result in a
reduction in the mechanical properties.
● T5/T51 are also used to stabilize the castings
dimensionally (improving mechanical properties
somewhat) and to improve machinability.
● Soak (hold) times can vary between 2-24 hours
depending upon the alloy and the cross-sectional
thickness of the part.
● Lower temperatures and longer times promote
precipitation and often enhanced mechanical
properties.
Solution Treated and Stabilized –
TB7
After solution treatment, castings can be heated
into the range of 200-250˚C for stabilization and
homogenization of the alloying elements.
Times and temperature vary with the type of alloy
and mass of the component.
Solution Treatment and Precipitation
Hardening–TF(T6 or T61)
Solution treatment followed by precipitation (age)
hardening produces the highest strength and
mechanical properties (tensile and yield strength)
while retaining ductility (elongation).
Precipitation (age) hardening stabilizes the
properties.
Solution treated, quenched, precipitation treated and stabilised (TF
condition)
Castings used at elevated temperature, such as pistons, benefit from
stabilisation treatment at 200–250°C following precipitation treatment.
Some reduction in mechanical properties occurs.
Solution Treated and Stabilized –
TF7 Condition (T7 or T71)
Castings used for elevated-temperature service may
benefit from a solution treatment and stabilization
between 200-250˚C in order to stabilize mechanical
properties when the component is exposed to
temperatures close to or in this range.
This heat treatment improves mechanical
properties to a large degree, stabilizes the castings
and usually results in a slightly lower tensile and
yield strength but an increased elongation value
compared to the T6 series of heat treatments.
Stress Relief and Annealing-TS
● Castings with varying section or having complex
shape are likely to develop internal stresses in the
mould or die because of differential cooling.
● The internal stresses may be released when the
casting is machined, causing dimensional changes.
● Stress relief and annealing can be used to remove
stresses in a casting or to soften the component for
subsequent shaping or mechanical-working
operations.
● Stress relief is typically performed between 200-
250˚C for 5 hours followed by slow cooling in the
furnace. while annealing is done around 300-
400˚C.
 wrought
aluminium
alloys
Wrought alloys
 Wrought alloys
these alloys are hot and/or cold rolled, extruded,
forged to final shape following either DC casting of
ingots and billets or continuous casting of coiled
strip!
 Strip, sheet and foil via hot and/or cold rolling
 Profile, tube, rod via extrusion
 Forming into various shapes
 Components with superior mechanical
properties via forging.
Secondary alloying elements,
impurities
Effect of alloying elements
Iron
● The most common alloying element. Almost
always present in aluminium alloys.
● Its solubility in liquid aluminium is high. Dissolves
in the aluminium melt readily and its
concentration increases rapidly.
● Its solubility in solid aluminium is very low and
immediately forms coarse intermetallics upon
solidification.
● Its compounds help to refine the grain size
during rolling and subsequent interanneals.
Effect of alloying elements
Manganese
● Improves strength both in solid solution and as
intermetallic dispersoids.
● Helps to control the grain size.
● Promotes fibering during forming.
● Its dispersoids resists recovery and grain growth.
Increases recrystallization temperature.
● Increases quench sensitivity.
● Used to modify the morphology of Fe-based
intermetallics and compensate for their
embrittling effect.
Effect of alloying elements
Silicon
● Most common element in aluminium alloys after
Fe.
Calcium (Ca)
● Increases hydrogen solubility in liquid aluminium
up to 10 ppm.
● Promotes hot tearing.
● Increases conductivity and affects
recrystallization behaviour.
Scandium (Sc)
● helps to control grain size.
● Used in high performance aluminium alloys such
as bicycle profiles.
Effect of alloying elements
Titanium
● Present in commercial aluminium alloys as much as
10-100 ppm.
● Decreases electrical conductivity. This is
counteracted by the so called Boron treatment.
● Used as a grain refiner ve helps to limit cracking
during solidification.
● These favourable effects become pronounced when
added together with Boron.
Effect of alloying elements
Boron
● Helps to control grain size at addition rates of
0.005-0.1 %
● More effective when used with Ti. Commercial
grain refiners offer a Ti:B ratio of 5:1.
● Forms stable borides with transition elements
such as V, Ti, Cr, Mo. The borides are removed
from the melt through settlement leading to high
conductivity: Boron treatment
● This is the most critical treatment in the
manufacture of high conductivity aluminium alloys
1XXX and 6101!
Effect of alloying elements
Chromium
● Helps to refine the grain structure!
● Gives yellow colour after anodization.
● Reduces conductivity
● İncreases toughness
● İncreases strength
● İmproves resistance to intergranular and stress
corrosion.
Vanadium
● Offers grain refinement.
● Reduces electrical conductivity.
● İncreases recrystallization temperature.
Effect of alloying elements
Zirconium
● used up to 0.1-0.3 % in 7XXX alloys
● Forms very fine dispersoids and help to control
grain structure through its effect on recovery
and recrystallization reactions.

tin
● Leads to surface blackening after annealing
treatments when present up to 0.01%.
● Has a negative effect on susceptibility to
corrosion when it segregates to the surface.
Effect of alloying elements
Antimon
● Added to Al-Mg alloys at trace levels (0.01–
01 ppm.
● İmproves corrosion resistance in salt water by
forming a protective Sb-oxi chloride film on the
surface.
● Some bearing alloys contain as much as 4–6% Sb.
Sb can be used to replace Bi to avoid hot tearing
in Al-Mg alloys.
Effect of alloying elements
Berillium
● Harmful in packaging foil in contact with food
and beverages as it leads to poisoning and must
definitely be avoided.

Bismuth (Bi)
● Used in Al-Mg alloys as much as 20–200 ppm to
avoid hot tearing caused by Na.
Classification of wrought alloys
 The first digit indicates the alloy series
 The second digit indicates alloy modifications of an
already existing alloy.
 For 1xxx series, the 3rd and 4th digits indicate the 0.XX %
of aluminium higher than 99.00%. e.g. Al99.80 → AA 1080
 For the other series (2xxx to 8xxx) the 3rd and 4th digits
identify a specific alloy without physical significance. They
only serve to differentiate between various alloys.
 Note that the 8xxx series is not included in the diagram;
this series contains all alloys with formulations that are
special and fall out of the more standard formulations of
the 1xxx to 7xxx series. A suffix "A" indicates a national
variation of the alloy, e.g. EN AW-6005A.
Classification of wrought aluminium alloys
1XXX: AlFeSi
3XXX: AlMn Non heat
4XXX: AlSi treatable
5XXX: AlMg
8XXX: special
6XXX: AlMgSi
2XXX: AlCu
heat
2XXX: AlCuMg treatable
7XXX: AlZnMg
7XXX: AlZnMgCu
1XXX series

● technically pure with at least 99 % Al

● very low strength
● main impurity elements are Fe and Si
● Fe and Si increase the strength of the alloy
● Iron results in a slight increase of strength and
better creep characteristics at moderately
elevated temperatures, for example for electrical
conductors
● Iron also reduces the grain size
1XXX series
 fewer solute or precipitated alloy element species =
fewer barriers against dislocation mobility, allowing
easier plastic deformation.
 This leads to very high formability and workability.
 Superior corrosion resistance.
 Microstructure is largely free of intermetallics, the
protective native oxide film is less disrupted and
there are many fewer preferred anodic/cathodic
reaction sites where corrosion can occur .This also
makes these alloys very good for anodising.
 Highly reflective and decorative.
1XXX series
 Very high thermal and electrical conductivities
 the electrical and thermal conductivities fall as the
solute content rises
 very suitable for packaging electronic devices,
heating equipment (inertness and high conductivity
for heat exchanger strip, radiator tubes, etc),
 lighting applications (high reflectivity for reflector
casings, laser mirrors, etc) and
 decoration (high reflectivity and design appearance
for furniture fittings, etc), amongst others.
2XXX serisi

 material strengthening by precipitation hardening,

resulting in very strong alloys.
 Cu main alloying element (3–6 wt%), with or without
Mg as alloying consituent (range 0–2 %)
 Cu also improves the fatigue properties, the high-T
properties and the machinability of the alloy.
 Cu is however bad for the corrosion resistance.
2XXX serisi
 Cu tends to precipitate at grain boundaries, making
the metal very susceptible to pitting, intergranular
corrosion and stress corrosion.
 Cu is also very bad for anodising.
 The 2xxx series alloys are used for high strength
structural applications such as aircraft fittings and
wheels, military vehicles and bridges, forgings for
trucks, etc. The low melting phase elements, lead
and/or bismuth, facilitate machining of the 2xxx series
alloys, making them also suitable for applications
where hard extruded and machined parts are required
(screws, bolts, fittings, machinery components, etc).
3XXX serisi

● Manganese as main alloying element in the 3xxx

series (range 1–2 wt%) makes the alloys ductile,
resulting in good formability while still allowing
a wide range of mechanical properties through
various strain hardened tempers.
● The 3xxx series are medium strength alloys.
3XXX serisi
 a very typical application is the beverage can body due
to the alloys' good formability by pressing, roll forming
and drawing.
 Also in other packaging, building (esp. architectural
sheet), and home appliances’ applications these alloys
are frequently used for their good combination of
strength and formability, weldability, anodising
behaviour (for building applications) and corrosion
performance.
 Also for heating equipment, such as brazing sheet and
heating tubes, 3xxx series alloys perform well with their
relatively high thermal conductivity combined with
medium strength and good corrosion resistance.
3XXX serisi
 Mn fine precipitates (dispersoids) also stabilise grain
size during high temperature annealing which
improves strength and formability.
 Manganese makes the alloy ductile; in combination
with iron it improves the castability of the alloy and
reduces shrinkage during metal solidification.
 In some of the 3xxx alloys, the strengthening effect
of added Mn is supplemented by additions of
magnesium which offers further solid solution
strengthening (for example EN–AW 3004 and EN–
AW 3104).
 Iron is a minor alloying element giving a polishing
effect in fast deep drawing/ironing operations.
4xxx
serisi

● 4xxx series have high silicon (up to 12 wt%)

● silicon is present in the form of intermetallic
precipitates, but also as elemental silicon particles
making the material brittle.
● They have very low formability.
● They find only a limited number of applications as
wrought product, for example, as cladding alloy on
brazing sheet because of its lower melting point
than the core alloys of the 3xxx or 6xxx series or as
filler metal for welding.
4xxx serisi
● Mostly the high silicon containing alloys are used
for casting products where high rigidity/low
ductility is required.
● Aluminium-silicon alloys containing high levels of
Si are widely used in the foundry industry due to
their high fluidity during casting and also
because silicon reduces the shrinkage during
freezing and the coefficient of thermal
expansion of the cast product.
● High levels of Si make the alloy low ductile.
5xxx
serisi
● The presence of magnesium as main alloying element in the
5xxx series (used up to 6 wt%) leads to solute hardening of
the alloy, and efficient strain hardening, resulting in
medium strenght.
● These alloys are generally stronger than the medium
strength 3xxx series alloys, while having also very good
formability.
● Except for susceptibility to intergranular corrosion under
very unfavourable conditions (when the Mg level is > 3 wt%),
the 5xxx series alloys have good corrosion performance, and
especially their resistance in seawater and marine atm is
superior to the other alloy series.
5xxx series
● The good formability, combined with the medium strength
and excellent corrosion resistance, and the high quality
anodising ability and weldability, result in many
applications for outdoor exposure: in building architecture
sheet (anodised and electrocoloured facade panels, for
example), scaffolding, and especially marine applications
(ship building, platforms, etc).
● Also in automotive, 5xxx series alloys are used for press
formed body-parts and chassis components due to their
good combination of strength and formability.
● Magnesium results in solute hardening of the alloy and thus
increases the strength.
Alloys in the 5xxx series may contain from about 0.8 wt%
Mg to more than 5 wt% in the most highly alloyed variants.
 6xxx
series

● 6xxx series are high strength alloys that can be strenghtened

by heat treatment (precipitation hardening), through the
presence of their main alloying elements Si and Mg.
● These alloys are generally less strong than the 2xxx and 7xxx
series, but have good formability and are weldable.
● They also have excellent corrosion resistance.
● The very good combination of high strength, formability,
corrosion resistance and weldability results in a vast variety
of applications for these alloys: transport (automotive outer
body-panels, railcars, etc), building (doors, windows,
ladders, etc), marine (offshore structures, etc), heating
(brazing sheet, etc)
6xxx series
● Extruded 6xxx series alloys are also often used for
machined products; by adding low melting phase
elements such as lead, bismuth and/or tin 6xxx
series alloys show very good machinability.
● These alloys can be easily anodised (often hard
anodising for extruded parts of brake systems,
electronic valves, pistons, etc) where hard
surfaces, good corrosion resistance and high
strength are required.
● For up to 12 % silicon, precipitation hardening of
the alloys is possible when silicon is combined with
magnesium making the 6xxx series strong alloys.
6xxx series
● Magnesium and silicon form Mg2Si precipitates.
● Furthermore, Si improves the corrosion resistance
compared to other alloys except for those of the
1xxx series.
● Si also improves the fluidity of the molten alloy
and reduces the susceptibility to hot crevicing
during solidification and heating.
● More than 13 % Si reduces the machinability.
7xxx
series

● 7xxx series are very strong "heat treatable" alloys;

● they can be strengthened through heat treatment
(precipitation hardening) based on the combination of zinc
(mostly 4–6 wt %) and magnesium (1–3 wt %).
● Unfortunately these alloys are prone to stress corrosion.
● Important critical applications of these alloys are based on
their superior strength, for example in aerospace, space
exploration, military and nuclear applications.
● But also structural parts in building applications can be
from the 7xxx series, as well as high strength sports'
attributes such as ski poles and tennis rackets.
 7xxx series
● 7xxx series also have additions of magnesium to
maximise their age-hardening potential where the
precipitating phases are typically of the type
MgZn2. Such alloys give medium strength, but are
relatively easily welded.
● Aluminium-zinc-magnesium alloys have a greater
response to heat treatment than the binary
aluminium-zinc alloys resulting in higher possible
strengths.
● The additions of zinc and magnesium however
decrease the corrosion resistance.
● Chromium amounts generally less than 0.35 % are
added to increase the electrical resistivity.
7xxx series
● Cr also controls grain structure, by preventing
recrystallisation in Al-Mg-Si and Al-Zn alloys during
hot working or heat treatment.
● The fibrous structures thus retained reduce stress
corrosion susceptibility and improve toughness.
● Cr in solid solution or finely dispersed increases
strength slightly.
● The disadvantage of Cr in heat-treatable alloys
(6xxx and 7xxx) is the increase in quench sensitivity
when the hardening phase tends to precipitate on
pre-existing Cr-based particles.
● Cr also tends to colour an anodic film yellow.
Common Minors, Traces & Unwanted
Elements
Applications of wrought alloys
Applications of wrought alloys
Aluminium foil:
1050 and other 1XXX alloys:
high deformability and
excellent corrosion
resistance
Applications of wrought alloys
1350 alloy:
overhead cables-conductors
High electrical conductivity and adequate
strength; corrosion resistance
Applications of wrought alloys
● 2024 / 7475 / 6013 alloys:
● Fuselage applications owing to high fatigue resistance
and fracture toughness
● 7150 / 7449 / 7475 alloys:
● High fatigue resistance,
fracture toughness,
compressive strength and
stiffness özellikleri ile alt
underwing components
● 2024 alloy:
high tensile strength,
fatigue resistance and
fracture toughness
upper wing parts
Applications of wrought alloys
3104 alloy:
Beverage cans

5182 alloy;
Lid stock
.
Applications of wrought alloys
Heat exchangers
1050, 3003, 5059, 6101 alloys
Good heat conductivity and in
the case of 3XXX, 5XXX and
6XXX alloys, high strength

Door, window and window blind

profiles and panels
3XXX, 5XXX and 6XXX
alloys
high corrosion
resistance,
weldability and
formability
Applications of wrought alloys

Ship hull structures

5XXX and 6XXX alloys
Good mechanical
properties and
corrosion resistance
5XXX alloys in sea
water atmospheres
Applications of wrought alloys

Car body panels

5754, 5182, 6016
alloys
High strength,
corrosion resistance
5754 inner panels,
6016 alloy in skin
panels owing to paint
bake hardening
Applications of wrought alloys
3XXX and 1XXX alloy panels
Corrugated roof sheet
Face panels
Sanwich panels
Applications of wrought alloys
6XXX alloys
High corrosion resistance and
formability
Various profiles
Wrought aluminium alloys
Non heat treatable aluminium alloys

Solid solution and deformation strengthening

to increase strength
1XXX: >%99 Al conductors; structural applications
in chemical and construction sectors

3XXX: Al-Mn Beverage cans and auto radiators

5XXX: Al-Mg Automotive structural applications

(body panels)
Wrought alloys
Heat treatable aluminium alloys

Precipitation hardening to increase strength

2XXX: Al-Cu-Mg Aerospace panels

Extrusion profiles; automotive

6XXX: Al-Mg-Si panels

High strength structural

7XXX: Al-Zn-Mg applications

8XXX: özel 8001 (Al-Ni-Fe) nuclear plant

structural applications
Aluminium wrought alloys
Alloy main Solid sol. Deformation Precipitation
group element hardening hardening hardening
1xxx >99 Al

treatable
 

Non heat
3xxx Mn  
4xxx Si  
5xxx Mg  

2xxx Cu   

treatable
6xxx Mg+Si   

Heat
7xxx Zn   
8xxx diğer   
Temper designations
XXXX-?
F as fabricated
O annealed (softened in furnace!)
H hardened by deformation
only for wrought alloys
W solutionized
T heat treated
(other than F, O and H tempers)
production routes
of wrought
aluminium alloys
(semi) continuous casting
direct chill (DC) casting
round section – billet  extrusion
slab – ingot  hot/cold rolling

semi-continuous casting

Twin roll casting (TRC)  cold rolling

Twin belt casting (TBC)  hot/cold rolling
continuous casting
Direct Chill (DC) casting
● DC casting was invented in the early 1930s (VAW-
Germany and Alcoa-USA).
● Today it is the premier process for producing
aluminium shapes suitable for subsequent
processing in extrusion, hot/cold rolling operations.
● Around ten million tons/year of aluminium is DC
cast worldwide.
● The process is also used to cast copper, zinc and
magnesium.)
DC casting
● DC casting of aluminium provides the link between
liquid metal, as obtained from reduction cells or
from scrap melting, and the semi-fabricator.
Products include:
● large rectangular sections known as rolling blocks,
rolling ingots or slab (typically ≈ 500 x 1500-2000
mm in section) which are used by rolling mills for
plate, sheet or foil production.
● Large circular section ingots (typically 150-400mm
dia) known as billets which are used by extruders
for various extrudates-profiles
DC casting/circular sections
DC casting/rectangular sections
DC casting/shaped sections
DC casting/rectangular sections
DC casting/rectangular sections
DC casting
● A furnace, or more often multiple furnaces, contain
the liquid metal allowing it to be alloyed.
● The furnace tilts, or a drain or plug hole is opened,
initiating a flow of metal along the launder.
● In-line treatment is usually employed to remove
dissolved hydrogen, alkali metals and solid
impurities prior to entering the casting station.
Basic layout of a typical vertical
direct chill casting
installation
DC casting
Alloyed and refined liquid metal is supplied to the
caster. Distribution can be by separate launders to
each mould with individual flow control or by a
flooded table,
where the moulds
are mounted in a
common water
jacket and the
metal flows
through a
refractory pan
mounted on top.
DC casting/circular sections

The casting
speed
depends on
alloy and size

It is typically in the 1-3

mm/s range.
DC casting
● DC casting produces ingots of uniform cross
section, initially by containment of the liquid
metal in a cooled mould and then by direct cooling
of the casting.
● the cooling medium is water, both for the mould
cooling (primary cooling) and the direct or
secondary cooling.
● The solid moves out of the mould, liquid is fed
into the mould opening and is contained by the
water cooled mould.
Surface
formation
during DC
casting
The direct chill
water spray
cools the ingot
as it emerges,
extracting
enough heat for the solid
shell to form above the
spray inside the mould and
contain the liquid.
DC casting
● At the start of casting, the open ended metal
mould has to be plugged with a starting head or
“dummy” block to contain the liquid and allow the
cast to proceed.
● Metal is poured into the water cooled mould,
freezing onto the starting head.
● After a delay, the starting head is lowered into a
pit.
● casting stops when the bottom of the pit is
reached.
Horizontal DC casting

Water Molten
chilled aluminium
mould
Water spray
Secondary cooling

Extrusion
log

In the horizontal version, a flying saw primary cooling

cuts the ingot to length as it emerges
and casting can be fully continuous
DC casting alloys
● All wrought alloys may be DC cast.
● Circular sections, known as rounds or billets, up to
1.1 m diameter, are usually sent to extrusion
operations but can be used to supply forging
presses.
● 6000 alloys are used for most extrusions, although
high Si foundry alloys, high conductivity 1000 series
(3000 and 5000) and high strength 2000 and 7000
series alloys can also be DC cast.
● Remelt ingots, both pure and alloyed, in small
rectangular sections (eg. 150 x 50 mm) or large T
sections (500 x 1200 mm), can be produced.
Surface temperature of DC cast ingots

impact point

distance
Effect of Casting Variables
● if one increases casting speed, heat input increases,
leading to increased temperature gradients and
greater diffusive heat flow, which balances the
increased heat input.
● Similarly, a consequence of larger ingot size is higher
heat input and a longer diffusion path. In practice,
casting speed is reduced as diameter increases.
● The casting temperature has a small effect on the
heat flow as the specific heat of the liquid is only
~4-5% of the total heat input.
● Latent heat accounts for about 35% of the heat input
and specific heat of the solid the remainder.
Effect of Casting Variables
● Since the specific and latent heats for the various
aluminium alloys are very similar, variation in
temperature distribution from alloy to alloy is
due to changes in thermal conductivity.
● As alloy content increases, thermal conductivity
decreases, the pool depth increases and
temperature gradients increase.
● Alloy content also determines the liquidus and
solidus temperatures, ie. the freezing range.
Solidification
● Under the influence of the temperature distribution,
solid forms where the liquid temperature goes below
the liquidus for a given alloy.
● TiB2 grain refiner is added to provide nucleation sites
for the formation of solid alpha aluminium crystals,
giving a very fine equiaxed structure.
● If casting is performed without grain refiner, the
classical grain structure of a columnar exterior and
equiaxed centre results.
● The smaller equiaxed grain size prevents cracking at
normal casting speeds.
Solidification
● In addition to the level of grain refiner, cooling rate
also determines the fineness of microstructural
features such as dendrite arm spacing (DAS), grain
size and intermetallic particle size.
● The cooling rate decreases from surface to centre as
the distance from the water spray increases.
● This gives rise to a variation in microstructure from
the surface to the centre which is particularly
apparent with larger castings.
● In many cases, this variation is not important.
● However, for some AlFe alloys it causes a change in
intermetallic particle phase producing a fir tree
structure.
Solidification
● This in turn causes anodising streak defects.
● The volume fraction, shape and size of
intermetallics will also vary due to cooling rate
variation from edge to centre.
● Very little can be done about this variation as it is
a function of the size and thermal diffusivity of the
ingot.
Solidification
Composition is the controlling factor for
microstructure.
Apart from composition,
ingot dimension
thermal conductivity
are the main
parameters
affecting cooling
rate and refinement
of microstructure.

Fine equiaxed structure

of a grain refined DC casting
Solidification

Measured grain size showing

coarse microstructural zone in
DC cast 3004 alloy.
Grain structure of a non
grain refined 178 mm diameter billet
Macrosegregation
● In larger DC castings, significant compositional
variation is found.
● Elements that form eutectics with aluminium rise
in concentration away from the edge of the
casting, with the centre being depleted.
● Elements that form peritectics with aluminium
show a reverse trend.
● This composition difference is likely to give rise to
a variation in properties across the section when
extruded or rolled.
Macrosegregation
Hot-Top Casting
● Insulation placed at the top of the mould was
introduced to control the location of the initial
contact point of the liquid against the mould.
● In this way, the liquid metal contact point was
fixed at a point below the insulation and was
independent of the metal level used.
● This minimizes reheating and improves surface
quality.
● Modern hot top moulds are similar in principle,
with a refractory header inserted into the top of
the mould.
DC casting/circular sections
Liquid metal
Hot top mould
Primary cooling
sıvı

liquid+solid Water jets

Secondary cooling
solid ingot

Casting speed
Simple hot top mould formed by
addition of thin insulating paper to
an
open
top
mould
Air Assisted Hot-Top

Gas pressurised
hot top process
DC casting
Electromagnetic Casting (EMC)
● The electromagnetic casting mould uses an
inductor coil through which a high frequency
(typically a few kHz) current is passed.
● The currents induced in the liquid metal interact
with the magnetic field of the coil.
● This produces a restraining force on the liquid
which acts against the metallostatic head pushing
the metal away from the mould.
● Lack of contact between liquid and mould
eliminates mould cooling and the problem of
reheating, producing very good surface
microstructures.
Electromagnetic casting
extrusion
extrusion
● The extrusion process involves a preheated billet
being squeezed through an opening in a steel die
forming the cross-section of the extrusion or
profile.
● This may be a simple or an intricate form and the
cross-section may be solid or hollow.
● The most widely-used extrusion alloys are 6xxx
series, being the easiest to extrude in very
complex cross-sectional shapes.
● Materials with a higher alloy content are more
difficult to extrude and are therefore not
available in complex shapes.
extrusion
● The extrusion process gives designers and users
unique opportunities:
● Cross-sections of profiles with all kinds of special
functions – such as grooves, joining details,
stiffeners – which reduce fabrication and
installation costs as compared to rolled steel
products
● Extrusion costs are relatively low.
● Extrusion is therefore already beneficial for small
production series
extrusion
Aluminium extrusion
● aluminium takes full advantage of the extrusion
process.
● Other metals can be extruded but few with the ease
of aluminium and its alloys.
● Aluminium’s high strength-to-weight ratio, and its
ability to be extruded into any shape – no matter
how complex, with tight tolerances, make it an ideal
material for design applications which require
maximum versatility from a cross-sectional area.
● Aluminium extrusions are also highly cost effective
since they need virtually no machining or
maintenance.
Aluminium extrusion
● Aluminium extrusions are produced by heating
aluminium billets to approximately 500°C and
forcing the hot metal through a steel die.
● As the extruded section emerges it is cooled and
cut to the desired length.
● Heat treatment is then used to optimise the
material’s inherent mechanical properties.
● Computer aided design and manufacture is used to
reduce design time, improve tolerances, and
control each stage of the process more accurately.
Benefits of extrusion
Less fabrication: there is greater design potential
because intricate shapes may be extruded, reducing the
need to manufacture component parts for future
assembly. Some shapes achievable by extrusion are
unattainable by any other process.
Low prototype costs: the cost of tooling aluminium
extrusions is low compared to that of roll forming,
casting, forging and moulding of competing materials.
Great structural efficiency: optimum structural
efficiency is possible, as, by using extrusions, metal can
be placed where it adds strength and omitted where it is
not needed.
Benefits of extrusion
Less weight: extruded aluminium is lightweight yet strong
and durable. Differences in properties between aluminium
and competing materials can result in aluminium structures
being up to half the weight of equivalent structures made
from other heavy materials that are not so readily
fabricated.
A wide range of attractive, corrosive-resistant finishes:
can be achieved through powder or electrophoretic coating;
designers can specify virtually any colour they wish. Natural
silver or colour anodized films are also available.
Less maintenance: aluminium is a naturally durable metal
and the surface finishing described above further enhances
durability.
Extrusion alloys
6xxx extrusion alloys
Role of Mg and Si
● 6XXX series alloys are typical heat-treatable
aluminium alloys which gain their strength from
thermal processing rather than mechanical
deformation.
● The key elements of these alloys are Mg and Si
which combine to form the Mg2Si precipitates.
● These precipitates occur in several forms which
may be divided into the following 3 categories.
6xxx extrusion alloys
Role of Mg and Si
●  (beta double prime) Mg2Si, the smallest type of
Mg2Si precipitate that is rod-shaped and
contributes most to mechanical properties when
densely dispersed.
●  (beta prime) Mg2Si: a larger version of rod-
shaped precipitate that grows from  category.
● The  precipitates have a negligible contribution
to mechanical properties.
●  (beta) Mg2Si: the largest Mg2Si precipitate that is
cube-like in shape and due to its size, contributes
nothing to mechanical properties.
6xxx extrusion alloys
● Most 6XXX alloys are designed to have either
balanced Mg and Si levels or an excess of Si.
● The diagonal line in the next Figure is for a balanced
composition, assuming that the Fe content in these
alloys is %0.16.
● Excess Si alloys are preferred over excess Mg alloys,
because, excess Mg does not add to the final
mechanical properties of the product.
● Excess Mg increases the flow stress of the alloy and
makes it difficult to extrude.
● Excess Si aids the artificial ageing response and so
increases the strength of the final product.
Extrusion alloys
● Hardening by Mg2Si precipitation
● Hardness increases with the increase in the
amount of Mg2Si!
● Fe content must be limited to improve the
surface quality (particularly in the case of
high extrusion speeds!)
● Mn and/or Cr is also added to the alloy in
the relatively higher strength 6061 and
6082 alloys to control recrystallization!
Extrusion alloys
Excess Mg Excess Si
Mg % 1.4
Medium strength AA 6082
1.2
AA 6061
1.0 AA 6063
0.8

0.6

0.4
AA 6005 A
AA 6060
0.2
Low strength
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 Si %
Role of alloying elements
Iron
● Iron is also present in 6XXX alloys and combines with
Si and Al to form AlFeSi intermetallics.
● These intermetallics do not contribute to the
strength of the alloy but, if they are not correctly
processed, they will have a detrimental effect on
the extrudability of the alloy.
● Accurate control of Fe contents in 6XXX series alloys
is important for surface finishing applications.
● Different levels of Fe will cause variations in colour
response during anodising. Fe will also reduce
conductivity.
Role of alloying elements
Manganese
● Mn is used in a number of ways in 6XXX series alloys. Mn
helps to reduce the homogenization times by promoting the
transformation of -AlFeSi to -AlFeSi and
● Helps to prevent coarse grain growth during post extrusion
heat treatments of medium strength alloys such as 6061 and
6082.
● Another benefit is that the fracture toughness can be
improved by additions of Mn as it helps to prevent the
nucleation of Si at the grain boundaries which embrittles
the material.
● In higher strength 6XXX seris alloys with significant Mn
additions (e.g. > %0.10), the detrimental effects of Mn are
an increase in flow stress of the billet which decreases
extrudability, as well as increasing quench sensitivity.
Role of alloying elements
Copper
● Cu additions may improve conductivity and
machinability of the extruded alloy
● counteracts the detrimental effect of room
temperature storage on the mechanical properties
of artificially aged high strength alloys,
particularly 6061.
● The corrosion resistance of 6XXX series alloys is
lowered by the presence of Cu once the level
exceeds %0.2.
Role of alloying elements
Chromium
● Cr acts in much the same way as Mn but its effect
on quench sensitivity is more pronounced than
Mn.

Zinc
● Zn is not known to have any detrimental effect on
the mechanical properties of 6XXX alloys.
● However, in amounts greater tha %0.03 Zn may
cause a differential effect known as “spangle”
during the anodising process.
Role of alloying elements
aluminium technologies
24.11.2015
Term papers
● Presentation of term paper assignments will start on
December 15.
● There will be 4 presentations each week:
December 15 / December 22 /December 29 /January 5
● Each presentation will last 30 minutes.
● There will be an additional 5 minutes for the
discussion of presentations.
● Papers will be handed in 1 week before the
presentation as a word file.
● You will be reponsible for the presentations in your
final exam.
Comparison of casting processes
● Elongation levels of conventional pressure die
castings are limited. Hence, pressure die cast
components are not suitable for safety critical
parts.
● High strength together with elongations much
higher than %10 have been obtained with casting
methods that use even higher pressures, such as
squezze and semi-solid casting.
● Hence, they are referred to as «high integrity
casting methods».
Primary and secondary alloys
● Primary alloys are produced by adding alloying
elements to pure aluminium.
● Secondary alloys, on the other hand, are produced
from recycled metal at much lower costs.
● Recycled material is almost always contaminated
with iron.
● Secondary alloys thus contain high levels of Fe
and other impurities. Fe has a negative effect on
castability and ductility and other properties.
● The Fe content must be controlled to a minimum
for these reasons.
Primary and secondary alloys
● The only exception to a low-Fe level is pressure
die casting alloys.
● In sand and permanent mold casting, for
applications that require high ductility, Fe must
be controlled below < 0.20 %. This actually
means primary alloy.
● Fe may be higher when ductility is not critical.
● When castability and machinability are important
Fe can be as high as %0.5 and even higher.
Secondary aluminium alloys can be used in such
cases.
casting alloy designations
Aluminum casting alloys are numbered in accordance
with a 3 digit-plus-decimal designation in order to
identify major alloying elements (and some alloy
combinations).
The digit following the decimal in each alloy number
indicates the form of product.
“0”: the chemistry limits applied to an alloy casting.
“1”: the chemistry limits for ingot used to make the
alloy casting.
“2”: the chemistry limits for ingot are different
(typically tighter).
casting alloy designations
Generally, the XXX.1 designation indicates the ingot
is supplied as a secondary product (e.g., remelted
from scrap),
whereas the XXX.2 designation suggests the ingot is
produced from primary aluminum.
Some alloy names are preceded by a letter so as to
distinguish between alloys that differ only slightly in
percentages of impurities or minor alloying elements
(e.g., 356.0, A356.0, B356.0 or F356.0).
Sand casting alloys
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Ni Zn Sn Ti
201.0 0.10 0.15 4.0–5.2 0.20–0.50 0.15–0.55 ... ... ... ... 0.15–0.35

204.0 0.20 0.35 4.2–5.0 0.10 0.15–0.35 ... 0.05 0.10 0.05 0.15–0.30

242.0 0.7 1.0 3.7–4.5 0.35 1.2–1.8 0.25 1.7–2.3 0.35 ... 0.25

295.0 0.7–1.5 1.0 4.0–5.0 0.35 0.03 ... ... 0.35 ... 0.25

319.0 5.5–6.5 1.0 3.0–4.0 0.50 0.10 ... 0.35 1.0 ... 0.25

328.0 7.5–8.5 1.0 1.0–2.0 0.20–0.6 0.20–0.6 0.35 0.25 1.5 ... 0.25

355.0 4.5–5.5 0.6B 1.0–1.5 0.50B 0.40–0.6 0.25 ... 0.35 ... 0.25

356.0 6.5–7.5 0.6B 0.25 0.35B 0.20–0.45 ... ... 0.35 ... 0.25

443.0 4.5–6.0 0.8 0.6 0.50 0.05 0.25 ... 0.50 ... 0.25

512.0 1.4–2.2 0.6 0.35 0.8 3.5–4.5 0.25 ... 0.35 ... 0.25

514.0 0.35 0.50 0.15 0.35 3.5–4.5 ... ... 0.15 ... 0.25

520.0 0.25 0.30 0.25 0.15 9.5–10.6 ... ... 0.15 ... 0.25

535.0 0.15 0.15 0.05 0.10–0.25 6.2–7.5 ... ... ... ... 0.10–0.25
Sand casting alloys
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Ni Zn Sn Ti
0.20 0.8 0.20 0.40–0.6 1.4–1.8 0.20– ... 2.7–3.3 ... 0.25
705.0
0.40
0.20 0.8 0.20 0.40–0.6 1.8–2.4 0.20– ... 4.0–4.5 ... 0.25
707.0
0.40
0.15 0.50 0.35– 0.05 0.6–0.8 ... ... 6.0–7.0 ... 0.25
710.0
0.65
0.30 0.50 0.25 0.10 0.50–0.65 0.40–0.6 ... 5.0–6.5 ... 0.15–
712.0
0.25
713.0 0.25 1.1 0.40–1.0 0.6 0.20–0.50 0.35 0.15 7.0–8.0 ... 0.25

0.15 0.15 0.10 0.10 0.8–1.0 0.06–0.2 ... 6.5–7.5 ... 0.10–
771.0
0.20
850.0 0.7 0.7 0.7–1.3 0.10 0.10 ... 0.7–1.3 ... 5.5–7.0 0.20

851.0 2.0–3.0 0.7 0.7–1.3 0.10 0.10 ... 0.30–0.7 ... 5.5–7.0 0.20

852.0 0.40 0.7 1.7–2.3 0.10 0.6–0.9 ... 0.9–1.5 ... 5.5–7.0 0.20
Permanent mold casting alloys
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Ni Zn Sn Ti
204.0 0.20 0.35 4.2–5.0 0.10 0.15–0.35 ... 0.05 0.10 0.05 0.15–0.30

208.0 2.5-3.5 1.2 3.5-4.5 0.50 0.10 … 0.35 1.0 … 0.25

222.0 2.0 1.5 9.2-10.7 0.50 0.15-0.35 … 0.50 0.8 … 0.25

242.0 0.7 1.0 3.7–4.5 0.35 1.2–1.8 0.25 1.7–2.3 0.35 ... 0.25

296.0 2.0–3.0 1.2 4.0–5.0 0.35 0.05 ... 0.35 0.50 ... 0.25

308.0 5.0-6.0 1.0 4.0-5.0 0.50 0.10 … … 1.0 … 0.25

319.0 5.5–6.5 1.0 3.0–4.0 0.50 0.10 ... 0.35 1.0 ... 0.25

332.0 8.5–10.5 1.2 2.0–4.0 0.50 0.50–1.5 … 0.50 1.0 ... 0.25

333.0 8.0-10.0 1.0 3.0-4.0 0.50 0.05-0.50 … 0.50 1.0 … 0.25

336.0 11.0-13.0 1.2 0.50-1.5 0.35 0.7-1.3 … 2.0-3.0 0.35 … 0.25

354.0 8.6-9.4 0.20 1.6-2.0 0.10 0.4-0.6 … … 0.10 0.20

355.0 4.5–5.5 0.6B 1.0–1.5 0.50B 0.40–0.6 0.25 ... 0.35 ... 0.25

356.0 6.5–7.5 0.6B 0.25 0.35B 0.20–0.45 ... ... 0.35 ... 0.25
Permanent mold casting alloys
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Ni Zn Sn Ti
357.0 6.5-7.5 0.15 0.05 0.03 0.45-0.6 … … 0.05 … 0.20

359.0 8.5-9.5 0.20 0.20 0.10 0.50-0.70 … … 0.10 … 0.20

443.0 4.5–6.0 0.8 0.6 0.50 0.05 0.25 ... 0.50 ... 0.25

513.0 0.30 0.40 0.10 0.30 3.5–4.5 … ... 0.35 ... 0.25

535.0 0.15 0.15 0.05 0.1–0.25 6.2–7.5 ... ... ... ... 0.10–0.25

705.0 0.20 0.80 0.20 0.4-0.6 1.4-1.8 0.2-0.4 … 2.7-3.3 … 0.25

707.0 0.20 0.80 0.20 0.4-0.6 1.8-2.4 0.2-0.4 … 4.0-4.5 … 0.25

711.0 0.30 0.7-1.4 0.35-0.65 0.05 0.25-0.45 … … 6.0-7.0 … 0.20

713.0 0.25 1.1 0.4-1.0 0.6 0.2-0.5 0.35 0.15 7.0-8.0 … 0.25

850.0 0.7 0.7 0.7-1.3 0.10 0.10 … 0.7-1.3 … 5.5–7.0 0.20

851.0 2.0-3.0 0.7 0.7-1.3 0.10 0.10 … 0.3-0.7 … 5.5–7.0 0.20

852.0 0.40 0.70 1.7-2.3 0.10 0.6-0.9 … 0.9-1.5 … 5.5–7.0 0.20

Pressure die casting alloys
● Fe is an intended impurity as it avoids die
soldering.
● Hence, the Fe content in this alloy group is
identified with a minimum limit.
● Generally this limit is minimum %0.6 Fe.
● Secondary alloys are appropriate for die casting for
this reason.
● The upper limit for Fe is determined by the level
of ducitility required for that particular
application.
● The upper limit is often between %1 and %1.3.
Pressure die casting alloys
● Pressure die castings are not heat treated because
of the hydrogen gas problem.
● Hydrogen gas whether in solution or trapped in the
casting having failed to escape during
solidification, lead to blistering problems during
solution heat treatments.

General purpose die casting alloys:

● A380 (AlSi8Cu3) Rp=160 MPa, Rm =325 MPa, A5=0.5-
3%
● A 383 (AlSi10Cu) Rp=150 MPa, Rm =310 MPa, A5=1-3%
Pressure die casting alloys
Special pressure die casting alloys
● A443 (AlSi5) Rp0.2%=110 MPa, Rm =230 MPa, A5=9%
● When high ductility in addition to moderate
strength is required; corrosion resistance is also
high owing to low Cu content!
● A413 (AlSi12) Rp=140 MPa, Rm =300 MPa, A5=0.5-2%
complex thin section components!
● A390 (AlSi17Cu4Mg) Rp=240 MPa, Rm=280 MPa,
A5=1%
a hypereutectic wear resistant alloy; used for
engine blocks, compressor parts, brakes.
Pressure die casting alloys
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Ni Zn Sn Ti
360 9.0-10.0 2.0 0.6 0.35 0.4-0.6 0.50 0.50 0.15 -
A360 9.0-10.0 1.3 0.6 0.35 0.4-0.6 0.50 0.50 0.15 -
380 7.5-9.5 2.0 3.0-4.0 0.50 0.10 0.50 3.0 0.35 -
A380 7.5-9.5 1.3 3.0-4.0 0.50 0.10 0.50 3.0 0.35 -
383 9.5-11.5 1.3 2.0-3.0 0.50 0.10 0.30 3.0 0.15 -
384 10.5-12.0 1.3 3.0-4.5 0.50 0.10 0.50 3.0 0.35 -
390 16.0-18.0 1.3 4.0-5.0 0.50 0.45-0.65 0.10 1.5 - 0.10
413.0 11.0-13.0 2.0 1.0 0.35 0.10 0.50 0.50 0.15 -
A413.0 11.0-13.0 1.3 1.0 0.35 0.10 0.50 0.50 0.15 -
443.0 4.5-6.0 2.0 0.6 0.35 0.10 0.50 0.50 0.15 -
Aluminium foundry alloys
alloy major Solid solution Precipitation
element strengthening strengthening

Non heat
tretable
1xx >99 Al 
4xx Si 
5xx Mg 

2xx Cu  

tretable
3xx Si + Mg (Cu)  

Heat
7xx Zn  
8xx Sn  
Foundry alloy-summary
Al-Cu alloys (2xx.x series)
● Heat treatable
● High-very high strength
● Low ductility
● Low corrosion resistance (sensitive to stress
corrosion)
● Limited fluidity
● Hot tearing susceptibility
applications
Cylinder heads for car and aerospace engines, pistons
for diesel engines, exhaust components
Foundry alloy-summary
Al-Si-Cu-Mg alloys (3xx.x series)
● Heat treatable
● High strength
● Low ductility
● Good wear resistance
● Limited corrosion resistance (Cu bearing alloys)
● Good fluidity and castability
● Good machinability (Cu bearing alloys)
applications
Cylinder block and cylinder heads, wheels, airplane
parts, compressor and pump components
Foundry alloy-summary
Al-Si alloys (4xx.x series)
● Non heat treatable
● Medium strength
● Moderate ductility
● Good wear resistance
● Very good castability
● Good corrosion resistance

applications
Pump cases
Thin section castings
Cooking utensils
Foundry alloy-summary
Al-Mg alloys (5xx.x series)
● Non heat tretable
● High corrosion resistance
● Good machinability
● High quality surface
● Perfect surface finish as anodised
● Adequate castability

applications
Various sand castings
Foundry alloy-summary
Al-Zn alloys (7xx.x series)
● Heat tretable
● High dimensional stability
● Good corrosion resistance
● Poor castability
● Good machinability (Cu bearing alloys)

applications
High strength applications: both civil and military
aerospace castings
Foundry alloy-summary
Al-Sn alloys (8xx.x series)
● Limited strength
● Perfect wear resistance
● Good machinability

applications
Single and bi-metal bearing applications
casting alloy selection
242.0 Cylinder heads, generator Applications where
A242.0 housings (aircraft), pistons strength and hardness
(aircraft, diesel, at high temperatures
motorcycle) are desirable.
319.0 Sand castings: crankcases Applications where
A319.0 (internal combustion and moderate strength is
B319.0 diesel Engines), pans (oil), required.
320 tanks (gasoline and oil) Mechanical properties
Permanent mold castings: are not adversely
engine components affected by slight
(various), heads (water- changes in impurity
cooled cylinder), housings content.
(rear axle)
casting alloy selection
356.0 Sand castings: brackets, blocks Applications where
(water-cooled cylinder), excellent casting
automotive transmission cases, characteristics are
fittings, housings (rear axle), required.
pump bodies In the –T6 condition for
Permanent mold castings: bodies marine applications where
(valve), blocks (engine), brackets pressure tightness and/or
(springs), elbows (fuel tanks), corrosion resistance are
fittings (fuselage, tank car), required.
hardware (marine), machine tool
parts, pump parts, rudder-control
supports
A356.0 Airframes, chassis parts (trucks), Applications where higher
machine parts, missile strength and higher
components, structural parts ductility (especially
elongation) are desirable.
casting alloy selection
alloy Typical applications remarks
A380.0 / Housings (lawn mowers), heads Applications for general-
B380.0 (air-cooled cylinders), gear purpose die castings with
cases, radio transmitters good mechanical properties.
A390.0 / Blocks (internal-combustion Applications where high
B390.0 engines), brakes, cylinder hardness, good wear
bodies (compressors), pistons resistance and low
(internal-combustion engines), coefficient of thermal
pumps expansion are required.
535.0 Brackets, c-clamps, computing Applications requiring
devices, instruments, machined strength, shock resistance,
parts ductility and dimensional
stability.
712.0 Castings (marine), farm Applications requiring good
machinery, machinetool parts strength, shock and corrosion
resistance, machinability and
dimensional stability
Heat treatment of castings
● Many castings are used in the as-cast condition,
but certain applications require higher mechanical
properties than the as-cast material.
● The proof stress of castings of alloy Al–Si7 Mg for
example, can be more than doubled by full heat
treatment.
● For sand, gravity and low pressure die castings, all
treatments are possible, though not all are
standardised.
● Pressure die castings are not solution treated.
Heat treatment of castings
● Pressure die castings made using special processes such
as vacuum die casting or squeeze casting contain
less gas and may be solution treated.
● All die castings may be quenched from the die,
precipitation treated and stress relieved without
suffering harmful effects.
● Some heat treatments are carried out close to the
melting point of the castings so accurate temperature
control is needed.
● Forced air circulation furnaces are used to ensure that
the temperature of all parts of the furnace is constant.
Heat treatment of castings
● the heat treatment of cast aluminium alloys is
carried out to increase their strength and
hardness and to change their physical, mechanical
and metallurgical properties.
● Different types of castings require different
thermal treatments.
● For example, improved mechanical and physical
properties can be produced in sand and
permanent-mold castings by heat treatment.
Heat treatment of castings
● By contrast, some alloys – such as 443.0 that
contain little or no copper, zinc or magnesium – do
not respond to heat treatment and do not exhibit
improvements in mechanical properties.
● Others, such as die castings, can only be given a
stress relief (and not solution heat treated)
because of their porous internal structure due to
fears of surface blistering and internal porosity.
Heat treatments for aluminium
castings
designation Heat treatment
M None; as-cast or as-manufactured
TB (T4) Solution treated and naturally aged
TE (T5) Artificially aged
TB7 Solution treated and stabilized
TF (T6) Solution treated and fully artificially
aged
TF 7 Solution treated and artificially aged
and stabilized
TS Stress relieved and annealed
Solution Treatment–TB (T4)
● Castings are heated to a temperature just below
the alloy melting point (dependent on chemical
composition) and held at this temperature
(dependent on alloy and cross-sectional thickness)
a sufficient amount of time to allow the alloying
elements to enter into solid solution.
● Upon quenching, these elements are in a
supersaturated metastable state.
● Quench media include water, boiling water or
polymer.
Solution Treatment–TB (T4)
● Choice of the quenchant is often a balance
between achieving mechanical properties and
managing distortion while avoiding the buildup of
internal stresses in the part.
● Although mechanical properties increase
somewhat by natural aging, precipitation
hardening (artificially aging) is typically employed
to achieve maximum benefit to the mechanical
properties
Precipitation (Aging) –
TE Condition (T5 or T51)
● Artificial aging treatment is carried out at
temperatures above ambient, typically in the
range of 150-200˚C, at relatively low
temperatures to eliminate growth.
● Strength and hardness are increased.
● With chill castings (made in dies), it is possible to
obtain some increase in strength of as cast
components by precipitation treatment since the
rapid cooling in the die retains some of the
alloying constituents in solution.
Precipitation (Aging) –
TE Condition (T5 or T51)
● too long a time at temperature will result in a
reduction in the mechanical properties.
● T5/T51 are also used to stabilize the castings
dimensionally (improving mechanical properties
somewhat) and to improve machinability.
● Soak (hold) times can vary between 2-24 hours
depending upon the alloy and the cross-sectional
thickness of the part.
● Lower temperatures and longer times promote
precipitation and often enhanced mechanical
properties.
Solution Treated and Stabilized –
TB7
After solution treatment, castings can be heated
into the range of 200-250˚C for stabilization and
homogenization of the alloying elements.
Times and temperature vary with the type of alloy
and mass of the component.
Solution Treatment and Precipitation
Hardening–TF(T6 or T61)
Solution treatment followed by precipitation (age)
hardening produces the highest strength and
mechanical properties (tensile and yield strength)
while retaining ductility (elongation).
Precipitation (age) hardening stabilizes the
properties.
Solution treated, quenched, precipitation treated and stabilised (TF
condition)
Castings used at elevated temperature, such as pistons, benefit from
stabilisation treatment at 200–250°C following precipitation treatment.
Some reduction in mechanical properties occurs.
Solution Treated and Stabilized –
TF7 Condition (T7 or T71)
Castings used for elevated-temperature service may
benefit from a solution treatment and stabilization
between 200-250˚C in order to stabilize mechanical
properties when the component is exposed to
temperatures close to or in this range.
This heat treatment improves mechanical
properties to a large degree, stabilizes the castings
and usually results in a slightly lower tensile and
yield strength but an increased elongation value
compared to the T6 series of heat treatments.
Stress Relief and Annealing-TS
● Castings with varying section or having complex
shape are likely to develop internal stresses in the
mould or die because of differential cooling.
● The internal stresses may be released when the
casting is machined, causing dimensional changes.
● Stress relief and annealing can be used to remove
stresses in a casting or to soften the component for
subsequent shaping or mechanical-working
operations.
● Stress relief is typically performed between 200-
250˚C for 5 hours followed by slow cooling in the
furnace. while annealing is done around 300-
400˚C.
 wrought
aluminium
alloys
Wrought alloys
 Wrought alloys
these alloys are hot and/or cold rolled, extruded,
forged to final shape following either DC casting of
ingots and billets or continuous casting of coiled
strip!
 Strip, sheet and foil via hot and/or cold rolling
 Profile, tube, rod via extrusion
 Forming into various shapes
 Components with superior mechanical
properties via forging.
Secondary alloying elements,
impurities
Effect of alloying elements
Iron
● The most common alloying element. Almost
always present in aluminium alloys.
● Its solubility in liquid aluminium is high. Dissolves
in the aluminium melt readily and its
concentration increases rapidly.
● Its solubility in solid aluminium is very low and
immediately forms coarse intermetallics upon
solidification.
● Its compounds help to refine the grain size
during rolling and subsequent interanneals.
Effect of alloying elements
Manganese
● Improves strength both in solid solution and as
intermetallic dispersoids.
● Helps to control the grain size.
● Promotes fibering during forming.
● Its dispersoids resists recovery and grain growth.
Increases recrystallization temperature.
● Increases quench sensitivity.
● Used to modify the morphology of Fe-based
intermetallics and compensate for their
embrittling effect.
Effect of alloying elements
Silicon
● Most common element in aluminium alloys after
Fe.
Calcium (Ca)
● Increases hydrogen solubility in liquid aluminium
up to 10 ppm.
● Promotes hot tearing.
● Increases conductivity and affects
recrystallization behaviour.
Scandium (Sc)
● helps to control grain size.
● Used in high performance aluminium alloys such
as bicycle profiles.
Effect of alloying elements
Titanium
● Present in commercial aluminium alloys as much as
10-100 ppm.
● Decreases electrical conductivity. This is
counteracted by the so called Boron treatment.
● Used as a grain refiner ve helps to limit cracking
during solidification.
● These favourable effects become pronounced when
added together with Boron.
Effect of alloying elements
Boron
● Helps to control grain size at addition rates of
0.005-0.1 %
● More effective when used with Ti. Commercial
grain refiners offer a Ti:B ratio of 5:1.
● Forms stable borides with transition elements
such as V, Ti, Cr, Mo. The borides are removed
from the melt through settlement leading to high
conductivity: Boron treatment
● This is the most critical treatment in the
manufacture of high conductivity aluminium alloys
1XXX and 6101!
Effect of alloying elements
Chromium
● Helps to refine the grain structure!
● Gives yellow colour after anodization.
● Reduces conductivity
● İncreases toughness
● İncreases strength
● İmproves resistance to intergranular and stress
corrosion.
Vanadium
● Offers grain refinement.
● Reduces electrical conductivity.
● İncreases recrystallization temperature.
Effect of alloying elements
Zirconium
● used up to 0.1-0.3 % in 7XXX alloys
● Forms very fine dispersoids and help to control
grain structure through its effect on recovery
and recrystallization reactions.

tin
● Leads to surface blackening after annealing
treatments when present up to 0.01%.
● Has a negative effect on susceptibility to
corrosion when it segregates to the surface.
Effect of alloying elements
Antimon
● Added to Al-Mg alloys at trace levels (0.01–
01 ppm.
● İmproves corrosion resistance in salt water by
forming a protective Sb-oxi chloride film on the
surface.
● Some bearing alloys contain as much as 4–6% Sb.
Sb can be used to replace Bi to avoid hot tearing
in Al-Mg alloys.
Effect of alloying elements
Berillium
● Harmful in packaging foil in contact with food
and beverages as it leads to poisoning and must
definitely be avoided.

Bismuth (Bi)
● Used in Al-Mg alloys as much as 20–200 ppm to
avoid hot tearing caused by Na.
Classification of wrought alloys
 The first digit indicates the alloy series
 The second digit indicates alloy modifications of an
already existing alloy.
 For 1xxx series, the 3rd and 4th digits indicate the 0.XX %
of aluminium higher than 99.00%. e.g. Al99.80 → AA 1080
 For the other series (2xxx to 8xxx) the 3rd and 4th digits
identify a specific alloy without physical significance. They
only serve to differentiate between various alloys.
 Note that the 8xxx series is not included in the diagram;
this series contains all alloys with formulations that are
special and fall out of the more standard formulations of
the 1xxx to 7xxx series. A suffix "A" indicates a national
variation of the alloy, e.g. EN AW-6005A.
Classification of wrought aluminium alloys
1XXX: AlFeSi
3XXX: AlMn Non heat
4XXX: AlSi treatable
5XXX: AlMg
8XXX: special
6XXX: AlMgSi
2XXX: AlCu
heat
2XXX: AlCuMg treatable
7XXX: AlZnMg
7XXX: AlZnMgCu
1XXX series

● technically pure with at least 99 % Al

● very low strength
● main impurity elements are Fe and Si
● Fe and Si increase the strength of the alloy
● Iron results in a slight increase of strength and
better creep characteristics at moderately
elevated temperatures, for example for electrical
conductors
● Iron also reduces the grain size
1XXX series
 fewer solute or precipitated alloy element species =
fewer barriers against dislocation mobility, allowing
easier plastic deformation.
 This leads to very high formability and workability.
 Superior corrosion resistance.
 Microstructure is largely free of intermetallics, the
protective native oxide film is less disrupted and
there are many fewer preferred anodic/cathodic
reaction sites where corrosion can occur .This also
makes these alloys very good for anodising.
 Highly reflective and decorative.
1XXX series
 Very high thermal and electrical conductivities
 the electrical and thermal conductivities fall as the
solute content rises
 very suitable for packaging electronic devices,
heating equipment (inertness and high conductivity
for heat exchanger strip, radiator tubes, etc),
 lighting applications (high reflectivity for reflector
casings, laser mirrors, etc) and
 decoration (high reflectivity and design appearance
for furniture fittings, etc), amongst others.
2XXX serisi

 material strengthening by precipitation hardening,

resulting in very strong alloys.
 Cu main alloying element (3–6 wt%), with or without
Mg as alloying consituent (range 0–2 %)
 Cu also improves the fatigue properties, the high-T
properties and the machinability of the alloy.
 Cu is however bad for the corrosion resistance.
2XXX serisi
 Cu tends to precipitate at grain boundaries, making
the metal very susceptible to pitting, intergranular
corrosion and stress corrosion.
 Cu is also very bad for anodising.
 The 2xxx series alloys are used for high strength
structural applications such as aircraft fittings and
wheels, military vehicles and bridges, forgings for
trucks, etc. The low melting phase elements, lead
and/or bismuth, facilitate machining of the 2xxx series
alloys, making them also suitable for applications
where hard extruded and machined parts are required
(screws, bolts, fittings, machinery components, etc).
3XXX serisi

● Manganese as main alloying element in the 3xxx

series (range 1–2 wt%) makes the alloys ductile,
resulting in good formability while still allowing
a wide range of mechanical properties through
various strain hardened tempers.
● The 3xxx series are medium strength alloys.
3XXX serisi
 a very typical application is the beverage can body due
to the alloys' good formability by pressing, roll forming
and drawing.
 Also in other packaging, building (esp. architectural
sheet), and home appliances’ applications these alloys
are frequently used for their good combination of
strength and formability, weldability, anodising
behaviour (for building applications) and corrosion
performance.
 Also for heating equipment, such as brazing sheet and
heating tubes, 3xxx series alloys perform well with their
relatively high thermal conductivity combined with
medium strength and good corrosion resistance.
3XXX serisi
 Mn fine precipitates (dispersoids) also stabilise grain
size during high temperature annealing which
improves strength and formability.
 Manganese makes the alloy ductile; in combination
with iron it improves the castability of the alloy and
reduces shrinkage during metal solidification.
 In some of the 3xxx alloys, the strengthening effect
of added Mn is supplemented by additions of
magnesium which offers further solid solution
strengthening (for example EN–AW 3004 and EN–
AW 3104).
 Iron is a minor alloying element giving a polishing
effect in fast deep drawing/ironing operations.
4xxx
serisi

● 4xxx series have high silicon (up to 12 wt%)

● silicon is present in the form of intermetallic
precipitates, but also as elemental silicon particles
making the material brittle.
● They have very low formability.
● They find only a limited number of applications as
wrought product, for example, as cladding alloy on
brazing sheet because of its lower melting point
than the core alloys of the 3xxx or 6xxx series or as
filler metal for welding.
4xxx serisi
● Mostly the high silicon containing alloys are used
for casting products where high rigidity/low
ductility is required.
● Aluminium-silicon alloys containing high levels of
Si are widely used in the foundry industry due to
their high fluidity during casting and also
because silicon reduces the shrinkage during
freezing and the coefficient of thermal
expansion of the cast product.
● High levels of Si make the alloy low ductile.
5xxx
serisi
● The presence of magnesium as main alloying element in the
5xxx series (used up to 6 wt%) leads to solute hardening of
the alloy, and efficient strain hardening, resulting in
medium strenght.
● These alloys are generally stronger than the medium
strength 3xxx series alloys, while having also very good
formability.
● Except for susceptibility to intergranular corrosion under
very unfavourable conditions (when the Mg level is > 3 wt%),
the 5xxx series alloys have good corrosion performance, and
especially their resistance in seawater and marine atm is
superior to the other alloy series.
5xxx series
● The good formability, combined with the medium strength
and excellent corrosion resistance, and the high quality
anodising ability and weldability, result in many
applications for outdoor exposure: in building architecture
sheet (anodised and electrocoloured facade panels, for
example), scaffolding, and especially marine applications
(ship building, platforms, etc).
● Also in automotive, 5xxx series alloys are used for press
formed body-parts and chassis components due to their
good combination of strength and formability.
● Magnesium results in solute hardening of the alloy and thus
increases the strength.
Alloys in the 5xxx series may contain from about 0.8 wt%
Mg to more than 5 wt% in the most highly alloyed variants.
 6xxx
series

● 6xxx series are high strength alloys that can be strenghtened

by heat treatment (precipitation hardening), through the
presence of their main alloying elements Si and Mg.
● These alloys are generally less strong than the 2xxx and 7xxx
series, but have good formability and are weldable.
● They also have excellent corrosion resistance.
● The very good combination of high strength, formability,
corrosion resistance and weldability results in a vast variety
of applications for these alloys: transport (automotive outer
body-panels, railcars, etc), building (doors, windows,
ladders, etc), marine (offshore structures, etc), heating
(brazing sheet, etc)
6xxx series
● Extruded 6xxx series alloys are also often used for
machined products; by adding low melting phase
elements such as lead, bismuth and/or tin 6xxx
series alloys show very good machinability.
● These alloys can be easily anodised (often hard
anodising for extruded parts of brake systems,
electronic valves, pistons, etc) where hard
surfaces, good corrosion resistance and high
strength are required.
● For up to 12 % silicon, precipitation hardening of
the alloys is possible when silicon is combined with
magnesium making the 6xxx series strong alloys.
6xxx series
● Magnesium and silicon form Mg2Si precipitates.
● Furthermore, Si improves the corrosion resistance
compared to other alloys except for those of the
1xxx series.
● Si also improves the fluidity of the molten alloy
and reduces the susceptibility to hot crevicing
during solidification and heating.
● More than 13 % Si reduces the machinability.
7xxx
series

● 7xxx series are very strong "heat treatable" alloys;

● they can be strengthened through heat treatment
(precipitation hardening) based on the combination of zinc
(mostly 4–6 wt %) and magnesium (1–3 wt %).
● Unfortunately these alloys are prone to stress corrosion.
● Important critical applications of these alloys are based on
their superior strength, for example in aerospace, space
exploration, military and nuclear applications.
● But also structural parts in building applications can be
from the 7xxx series, as well as high strength sports'
attributes such as ski poles and tennis rackets.
 7xxx series
● 7xxx series also have additions of magnesium to
maximise their age-hardening potential where the
precipitating phases are typically of the type
MgZn2. Such alloys give medium strength, but are
relatively easily welded.
● Aluminium-zinc-magnesium alloys have a greater
response to heat treatment than the binary
aluminium-zinc alloys resulting in higher possible
strengths.
● The additions of zinc and magnesium however
decrease the corrosion resistance.
● Chromium amounts generally less than 0.35 % are
added to increase the electrical resistivity.
7xxx series
● Cr also controls grain structure, by preventing
recrystallisation in Al-Mg-Si and Al-Zn alloys during
hot working or heat treatment.
● The fibrous structures thus retained reduce stress
corrosion susceptibility and improve toughness.
● Cr in solid solution or finely dispersed increases
strength slightly.
● The disadvantage of Cr in heat-treatable alloys
(6xxx and 7xxx) is the increase in quench sensitivity
when the hardening phase tends to precipitate on
pre-existing Cr-based particles.
● Cr also tends to colour an anodic film yellow.
Common Minors, Traces & Unwanted
Elements
Applications of wrought alloys
Applications of wrought alloys
Aluminium foil:
1050 and other 1XXX alloys:
high deformability and
excellent corrosion
resistance
Applications of wrought alloys
1350 alloy:
overhead cables-conductors
High electrical conductivity and adequate
strength; corrosion resistance
Applications of wrought alloys
● 2024 / 7475 / 6013 alloys:
● Fuselage applications owing to high fatigue resistance
and fracture toughness
● 7150 / 7449 / 7475 alloys:
● High fatigue resistance,
fracture toughness,
compressive strength and
stiffness özellikleri ile alt
underwing components
● 2024 alloy:
high tensile strength,
fatigue resistance and
fracture toughness
upper wing parts
Applications of wrought alloys
3104 alloy:
Beverage cans

5182 alloy;
Lid stock
.
Applications of wrought alloys
Heat exchangers
1050, 3003, 5059, 6101 alloys
Good heat conductivity and in
the case of 3XXX, 5XXX and
6XXX alloys, high strength

Door, window and window blind

profiles and panels
3XXX, 5XXX and 6XXX
alloys
high corrosion
resistance,
weldability and
formability
Applications of wrought alloys

Ship hull structures

5XXX and 6XXX alloys
Good mechanical
properties and
corrosion resistance
5XXX alloys in sea
water atmospheres
Applications of wrought alloys

Car body panels

5754, 5182, 6016
alloys
High strength,
corrosion resistance
5754 inner panels,
6016 alloy in skin
panels owing to paint
bake hardening
Applications of wrought alloys
3XXX and 1XXX alloy panels
Corrugated roof sheet
Face panels
Sanwich panels
Applications of wrought alloys
6XXX alloys
High corrosion resistance and
formability
Various profiles
Wrought aluminium alloys
Non heat treatable aluminium alloys

Solid solution and deformation strengthening

to increase strength
1XXX: >%99 Al conductors; structural applications
in chemical and construction sectors

3XXX: Al-Mn Beverage cans and auto radiators

5XXX: Al-Mg Automotive structural applications

(body panels)
Wrought alloys
Heat treatable aluminium alloys

Precipitation hardening to increase strength

2XXX: Al-Cu-Mg Aerospace panels

Extrusion profiles; automotive

6XXX: Al-Mg-Si panels

High strength structural

7XXX: Al-Zn-Mg applications

8XXX: özel 8001 (Al-Ni-Fe) nuclear plant

structural applications
Aluminium wrought alloys
Alloy main Solid sol. Deformation Precipitation
group element hardening hardening hardening
1xxx >99 Al

treatable
 

Non heat
3xxx Mn  
4xxx Si  
5xxx Mg  

2xxx Cu   

treatable
6xxx Mg+Si   

Heat
7xxx Zn   
8xxx diğer   
Temper designations
XXXX-?
F as fabricated
O annealed (softened in furnace!)
H hardened by deformation
only for wrought alloys
W solutionized
T heat treated
(other than F, O and H tempers)
aluminium technologies
1.12.2015
# Name Date Hours Presentation title
1 Cenk Eken 15 Aralık 10:50-11:20 Ultrasonic processing of aluminium melts

2 Murat Teke 11:30-12:00 Assesment of melt quality via K-mold method

3 Alper Güneren 22 Aralık 09:30-10:00 Friction stir processing of aluminium alloys

4 Haluk Erdemir 10:10-10:40 Additive manufacturing of aluminium alloys

5 Gazican Özkan 10:50-11:20 Squeeze casting of aluminium alloys

6 Mehmet Yasak 11:30-12:00 High integrity casting processes

7 Erkut Özer 29 Aralık 09:30-10:00 Casting of hypereutectic Al-Si alloys and their applications

8 Serhan Köktaş 10:10-10:40 Rheocasting of aluminium alloys and their applications

9 Kürşat Kambur 10:50-11:20 Severe plastic deformation processing of aluminium alloys

10 Engin Kılınç 11:30-12:00

11 Mehmet Ağılkaya 5 Ocak 09:30-10:00 Steel vs aluminium for automotive applications

12 Emre Baran 10:10-10:40 Production of aluminium foams

13 Berkay Oral 10:50-11:20 FSW of automotive aluminium

14 İzzet N. Demir 11:30-12:00 Casting of Al-Mg based foundry alloys and their applications
production routes
of wrought
aluminium alloys
(semi) continuous casting
direct chill (DC) casting
round section – billet  extrusion  profiles
slab – ingot  hot/cold rolling  sheet/foil

semi-continuous casting

Twin roll casting (TRC)  cold rolling  sheet/foil

Twin belt casting (TBC)  hot/cold rolling  sheet
continuous casting
Direct Chill (DC) casting
● DC casting was invented in the early 1930s (VAW-
Germany and Alcoa-USA).
● Today it is the premier process for producing
aluminium shapes suitable for subsequent
processing in extrusion, hot/cold rolling operations.
● Around ten million tons/year of aluminium is DC
cast worldwide.
● The process is also used to cast copper, zinc and
magnesium.)
DC casting
● DC casting of aluminium provides the link between
liquid metal, as obtained from reduction cells or
from scrap melting, and the semi-fabricator.
Products include:
● large rectangular sections known as rolling blocks,
rolling ingots or slab (typically ≈ 500 x 1500-2000
mm in section) which are used by rolling mills for
plate, sheet or foil production.
● Large circular section ingots (typically 150-400mm
dia) known as billets which are used by extruders
for various extrudates-profiles
DC casting/circular sections
DC casting/rectangular sections
DC casting/shaped sections
DC casting/rectangular sections
DC casting/rectangular sections
DC casting
● A furnace, or more often multiple furnaces, contain
the liquid metal allowing it to be alloyed.
● The furnace tilts, or a drain or plug hole is opened,
initiating a flow of metal along the launder.
● In-line treatment is usually employed to remove
dissolved hydrogen, alkali metals and solid
impurities prior to entering the casting station.
Basic layout of a typical vertical
direct chill casting
installation
DC casting
Alloyed and refined liquid metal is supplied to the
caster. Distribution can be by separate launders to
each mould with individual flow control or by a
flooded table,
where the moulds
are mounted in a
common water
jacket and the
metal flows
through a
refractory pan
mounted on top.
DC casting/circular sections

The casting
speed
depends on
alloy and size

It is typically in the 1-3

mm/s range.
DC casting
● DC casting produces ingots of uniform cross
section, initially by containment of the liquid
metal in a cooled mould and then by direct cooling
of the casting.
● the cooling medium is water, both for the mould
cooling (primary cooling) and the direct or
secondary cooling.
● The solid moves out of the mould, liquid is fed
into the mould opening and is contained by the
water cooled mould.
Surface
formation
during DC
casting
The direct chill
water spray
cools the ingot
as it emerges,
extracting
enough heat for the solid
shell to form above the
spray inside the mould and
contain the liquid.
DC casting
● At the start of casting, the open ended metal
mould has to be plugged with a starting head or
“dummy” block to contain the liquid and allow the
cast to proceed.
● Metal is poured into the water cooled mould,
freezing onto the starting head.
● After a delay, the starting head is lowered into a
pit.
● casting stops when the bottom of the pit is
reached.
Horizontal DC casting

Water Molten
chilled aluminium
mould
Water spray
Secondary cooling

Extrusion
log

In the horizontal version, a flying saw primary cooling

cuts the ingot to length as it emerges
and casting can be fully continuous.
DC casting alloys
● All wrought alloys may be DC cast.
● Circular sections, known as rounds or billets, up to
1.1 m diameter, are usually sent to extrusion
operations but can be used to supply forging
presses.
● 6000 alloys are used for most extrusions, although
high Si foundry alloys, high conductivity 1000 series
(3000 and 5000) and high strength 2000 and 7000
series alloys can also be DC cast.
● Remelt ingots, both pure and alloyed, in small
rectangular sections (eg. 150 x 50 mm) or large T
sections (500 x 1200 mm), can be produced.
Surface temperature of DC cast ingots

impact point

distance
Effect of Casting Variables
● if one increases casting speed, heat input increases,
leading to increased temperature gradients and
greater diffusive heat flow, which balances the
increased heat input.
● Similarly, a consequence of larger ingot size is higher
heat input and a longer diffusion path. In practice,
casting speed is reduced as diameter increases.
● The casting temperature has a small effect on the
heat flow as the specific heat of the liquid is only
~4-5% of the total heat input.
● Latent heat accounts for about 35% of the heat input
and specific heat of the solid the remainder.
Effect of Casting Variables
● Since the specific and latent heats for the various
aluminium alloys are very similar, variation in
temperature distribution from alloy to alloy is
due to changes in thermal conductivity.
● As alloy content increases, thermal conductivity
decreases, the pool depth increases and
temperature gradients increase.
● Alloy content also determines the liquidus and
solidus temperatures, ie. the freezing range.
Solidification
● Under the influence of the temperature distribution,
solid forms where the liquid temperature goes below
the liquidus for a given alloy.
● TiB2 grain refiner is added to provide nucleation sites
for the formation of solid alpha aluminium crystals,
giving a very fine equiaxed structure.
● If casting is performed without grain refiner, the
classical grain structure of a columnar exterior and
equiaxed centre results.
● The smaller equiaxed grain size prevents cracking at
normal casting speeds.
Solidification
● In addition to the level of grain refiner, cooling rate
also determines the fineness of microstructural
features such as dendrite arm spacing (DAS), grain
size and intermetallic particle size.
● The cooling rate decreases from surface to centre as
the distance from the water spray increases.
● This gives rise to a variation in microstructure from
the surface to the centre which is particularly
apparent with larger castings.
● In many cases, this variation is not important.
● However, for some AlFe alloys it causes a change in
intermetallic particle phase producing a fir tree
structure.
Solidification
● This in turn causes anodising streak defects.
● The volume fraction, shape and size of
intermetallics will also vary due to cooling rate
variation from edge to centre.
● Very little can be done about this variation as it is
a function of the size and thermal diffusivity of the
ingot.
Solidification
Composition is the controlling factor for
microstructure.
Apart from composition,
ingot dimension
thermal conductivity
are the main
parameters
affecting cooling
rate and refinement
of microstructure.

Fine equiaxed structure

of a grain refined DC casting
Solidification

Measured grain size showing

coarse microstructural zone in
DC cast 3004 alloy.
Grain structure of a non
grain refined 178 mm diameter billet
Macrosegregation
● In larger DC castings, significant compositional
variation is found.
● Elements that form eutectics with aluminium rise
in concentration away from the edge of the
casting, with the centre being depleted.
● Elements that form peritectics with aluminium
show a reverse trend.
● This composition difference is likely to give rise to
a variation in properties across the section when
extruded or rolled.
Macrosegregation
Hot-Top Casting
● Insulation placed at the top of the mould was
introduced to control the location of the initial
contact point of the liquid against the mould.
● In this way, the liquid metal contact point was
fixed at a point below the insulation and was
independent of the metal level used.
● This minimizes reheating and improves surface
quality.
● Modern hot top moulds are similar in principle,
with a refractory header inserted into the top of
the mould.
DC casting/circular sections
Liquid metal
Hot top mould
Primary cooling
sıvı

liquid+solid Water jets

Secondary cooling
solid ingot

Casting speed
Simple hot top mould formed by
addition of thin insulating paper to
an
open
top
mould
Air Assisted Hot-Top

Gas pressurised
hot top process
DC casting
Electromagnetic Casting (EMC)
● The electromagnetic casting mould uses an
inductor coil through which a high frequency
(typically a few kHz) current is passed.
● The currents induced in the liquid metal interact
with the magnetic field of the coil.
● This produces a restraining force on the liquid
which acts against the metallostatic head pushing
the metal away from the mould.
● Lack of contact between liquid and mould
eliminates mould cooling and the problem of
reheating, producing very good surface
microstructures.
Electromagnetic casting
extrusion
extrusion
● The extrusion process involves a preheated billet
being squeezed through an opening in a steel die
forming the cross-section of the extrusion or
profile.
● This may be a simple or an intricate form and the
cross-section may be solid or hollow.
● The most widely-used extrusion alloys are 6xxx
series, being the easiest to extrude in very
complex cross-sectional shapes.
● Materials with a higher alloy content are more
difficult to extrude and are therefore not
available in complex shapes.
extrusion
● The extrusion process gives designers and users
unique opportunities:
● Cross-sections of profiles with all kinds of special
functions – such as grooves, joining details,
stiffeners – which reduce fabrication and
installation costs as compared to rolled steel
products
● Extrusion costs are relatively low.
● Extrusion is therefore already beneficial for small
production series
extrusion
Aluminium extrusion
● aluminium takes full advantage of the extrusion
process.
● Other metals can be extruded but few with the ease
of aluminium and its alloys.
● Aluminium’s high strength-to-weight ratio, and its
ability to be extruded into any shape – no matter
how complex, with tight tolerances, make it an ideal
material for design applications which require
maximum versatility from a cross-sectional area.
● Aluminium extrusions are also highly cost effective
since they need virtually no machining or
maintenance.
Aluminium extrusion
● Aluminium extrusions are produced by heating
aluminium billets to approximately 500°C and
forcing the hot metal through a steel die.
● As the extruded section emerges it is cooled and
cut to the desired length.
● Heat treatment is then used to optimise the
material’s inherent mechanical properties.
● Computer aided design and manufacture is used to
reduce design time, improve tolerances, and
control each stage of the process more accurately.
Benefits of extrusion
Less fabrication: there is greater design potential
because intricate shapes may be extruded, reducing the
need to manufacture component parts for future
assembly. Some shapes achievable by extrusion are
unattainable by any other process.
Low prototype costs: the cost of tooling aluminium
extrusions is low compared to that of roll forming,
casting, forging and moulding of competing materials.
Great structural efficiency: optimum structural
efficiency is possible, as, by using extrusions, metal can
be placed where it adds strength and omitted where it is
not needed.
Benefits of extrusion
Less weight: extruded aluminium is lightweight yet strong
and durable. Differences in properties between aluminium
and competing materials can result in aluminium structures
being up to half the weight of equivalent structures made
from other heavy materials that are not so readily
fabricated.
A wide range of attractive, corrosion-resistant finishes:
can be achieved through powder or electrophoretic coating;
designers can specify virtually any colour they wish. Natural
silver or colour anodized films are also available.
Less maintenance: aluminium is a naturally durable metal
and the surface finishing described above further enhances
durability.
Extrusion alloys
6xxx extrusion alloys
Role of Mg and Si
● 6XXX series alloys are typical heat-treatable
aluminium alloys which gain their strength from
thermal processing rather than mechanical
deformation.
● The key elements of these alloys are Mg and Si
which combine to form the Mg2Si precipitates.
● These precipitates occur in several forms which
may be divided into the following 3 categories.
6xxx extrusion alloys
Role of Mg and Si
●  (beta double prime) Mg2Si, the smallest type of
Mg2Si precipitate that is rod-shaped and
contributes most to mechanical properties when
densely dispersed.
●  (beta prime) Mg2Si: a larger version of rod-
shaped precipitate that grows from  category.
● The  precipitates have a negligible contribution
to mechanical properties.
●  (beta) Mg2Si: the largest Mg2Si precipitate that is
cube-like in shape and due to its size, contributes
nothing to mechanical properties.
6xxx extrusion alloys
● Most 6XXX alloys are designed to have either
balanced Mg and Si levels or an excess of Si.
● The diagonal line in the next Figure is for a balanced
composition, assuming that the Fe content in these
alloys is %0.16.
● Excess Si alloys are preferred over excess Mg alloys,
because, excess Mg does not add to the final
mechanical properties of the product.
● Excess Mg increases the flow stress of the alloy and
makes it difficult to extrude.
● Excess Si aids the artificial ageing response and so
increases the strength of the final product.
Extrusion alloys
● Hardening by Mg2Si precipitation
● Hardness increases with the increase in the
amount of Mg2Si!
● Fe content must be limited to improve the
surface quality (particularly in the case of
high extrusion speeds!)
● Mn and/or Cr is also added to the alloy in
the relatively higher strength 6061 and
6082 alloys to control recrystallization!
Extrusion alloys
Excess Mg Excess Si
Mg % 1.4
Medium strength AA 6082
1.2
AA 6061
1.0 AA 6063
0.8

0.6

0.4
AA 6005 A
AA 6060
0.2
Low strength
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 Si %
Role of alloying elements
Iron
● Iron is also present in 6XXX alloys and combines with
Si and Al to form AlFeSi intermetallics.
● These intermetallics do not contribute to the
strength of the alloy but, if they are not correctly
processed, they will have a detrimental effect on
the extrudability of the alloy.
● Accurate control of Fe contents in 6XXX series alloys
is important for surface finishing applications.
● Different levels of Fe will cause variations in colour
response during anodising. Fe will also reduce
conductivity.
Role of alloying elements
Manganese
● Mn is used in a number of ways in 6XXX series alloys. Mn
helps to reduce the homogenization times by promoting the
transformation of -AlFeSi to -AlFeSi and
● Helps to prevent coarse grain growth during post extrusion
heat treatments of medium strength alloys such as 6061 and
6082.
● Another benefit is that the fracture toughness can be
improved by additions of Mn as it helps to prevent the
nucleation of Si at the grain boundaries which embrittles
the material.
● In higher strength 6XXX seris alloys with significant Mn
additions (e.g. > %0.10), the detrimental effects of Mn are
an increase in flow stress of the billet which decreases
extrudability, as well as increasing quench sensitivity.
Role of alloying elements
Copper
● Cu additions may improve conductivity and
machinability of the extruded alloy
● counteracts the detrimental effect of room
temperature storage on the mechanical properties
of artificially aged high strength alloys,
particularly 6061.
● The corrosion resistance of 6XXX series alloys is
lowered by the presence of Cu once the level
exceeds %0.2.
Role of alloying elements
Chromium
● Cr acts in much the same way as Mn but its effect
on quench sensitivity is more pronounced than
Mn.

Zinc
● Zn is not known to have any detrimental effect on
the mechanical properties of 6XXX alloys.
● However, in amounts greater tha %0.03 Zn may
cause a differential effect known as “spangle”
during the anodising process.
Role of alloying elements
Extrusion processing cycle
melting DC casting homogenization preheating

Extrusion cooling ageing

stretching
anodising
cutting
painting
storing
fabrication
forming
Extrusion processing cycle
Thermomechanical process
casting
Homogenization
soaking
cool-down : cooling rate is critical
Pre heating
Extrusion
quenching ageing (T5)

solutionizing
ageing (T6)
DC casting
Quality characteristics of cast
billet
● Minimum surface segregation;
● Shell zone as shallow as possible (<200 m)
● Section must be free of inclusions and porosity!
● Uniform structure across the section:
● Minimum segregation
● Fine and equiaxed grain structure, uniform
across the section (<200 m)
● Uniform distribution of intermetallic
compound particles
Cast billet
Thermal cycle of 6XXX series alloys
● 6XXX alloys obtain the maximum strength from the
following heat treatment cycles:
● Solutionizing during extrusion or solution heat
treatment
● Followed by quenching at a rate that is alloy
dependent and
● Then precipitation age hardening
● Maxiumum mechanical properties cannot be
obtained without accurate temperature control
which regulates the Mg2Si characteristics
throughout the process.
Extrusion processing cycle
700 C

600 C
580 C
2-3 h
440-490 C
200 -500 C/h Forced air
0.5-1 min /water
quenching
(5 s
deformation 185 C
5-45 min
200 C/h zone 5h
induction/
gas
DC casting homogenization preheating extrusion cooling ageing
Cast 6XXX alloy billet
Extrusion process cycle
pre extrusion rapid
heating soak cool down Heating cooling
solvus
temperature

quenching
gas

Cast ingot time

Heat treatments are not independent! The process
must be designed with a consideration of their effect
on the subsequent steps!
 Homogenization anneal
soak: segregations must be eliminated/
transformation must be completed 
Cool down: neither too fast nor too slow/ optimum
 400C/st
600
temperature (C)

300 heating soak cool down

300 660 900

time (min)
homogenization
550 C Temperature 580 C
2h
Annealing time

8h
homogenization
● Marked improvements must be achieved in the as-cast
structure:
● Detrimental effects of Fe must be reduced by encouraging
 transformation
● To minimize dendritic segregation
● To modify Fe-bearing compound particles
● To solutionize Mg2Si phase during soaking and precipitation
of Mg2Si phase in a suitable form during the cool down.
● Precise T control to avoid incipient melting (<570C).
Homogenization anneal

Cooling of billets to room temperature after homogenization

is a critical operation!
Cooling is performed with forced air or with water mist in
batch operations. It is difficult to maintain rapid cooling and
control cooling rates!
New technology cool down
homogenization
The as-cast billet consists of a solid Al matrix
containing dissolved Mg and Si as well as a network
of -AlFeSi intermetallics located at the grain
boundaries
homogenization
For 6XXX alloys not containing additions of Mn, longer holding
times in the homogenization cycle would be necessary to
transform -AlFeSi to -AlFeSi.
Typically, a cycle would be 4 to 8 hours at 575 C, followed by
similar cooling for Mn containing alloys.
 homogenization
● Homogenization cycle is specifically designed to modify the
as-cast structure to one which can be extruded at high
speed while achieving excellent surface finish and optimum
mechanical properties.
● For low strength 6XXX alloys containing Mn, a typical
homogenization cycle consists of heating the billet to 575C,
holding for 2 to 4 hours and then cooling the billet at a
controlled rate through the critical range of 450C to 200C.
● This cooling practice avoids the formation of -Mg2Si and -
Mg2Si precipitates in the microstructure which are
detrimental to the final mechanical properties of the
extrusion.
● The actual cooling rate used is dependent on the type of the
alloy and the billet diameter.
homogenization
Homogenization cycle:
● Transforms hard, needle-like -AlFeSi
intermetallics (detrimental to extruded surface
finish) to more globular -AlFeSi intermetallics.
● Ensures an even distribution of chemical
elements in the alloy.
● Nucleates a large number of fine, evenly
dispersed  and -Mg2Si precipitates that are
readily dissolved during extrusion.
homogenization
Cool down

600C/h 200C/h
350C/h
preheating
● Preheating must be carried out below the solvus
temperature!
● Preheating must be quick and be synchronized
with the extrusion press operation.
● Induction heating must be preferred as it is quick
and as it offers precise temperature control.
● In the case of gas preheating, the process must be
performed so as to minimize the time elapsed
above 360 C.
● Mg2Si precipitates rapidly above 360 C. It may be
difficult to solutionize these coarse precipitates
solely with the frictional heating inside the press.
preheating
Pre-heating
● The purpose of pre-heating billets for extrusion is to
lower the flow stress of the alloy to allow extrusion at
maximum speed while maintaining an excellent
surface finish and mechanical properties.
● The preheat temperature used must be sufficient to
dissolve -Mg2Si precipitates during extrusion.
● This will ensure that optimum final mechanical
properties are obtained subsequently with proper
press quenching and artificial ageing.
● A typical preheat temperature for dilute 6XXX alloys is
450 C but this may vary depending on how difficult a
section is to extrude, the alloy type and the particular
mechanical properties/surface finish requirements.
Pre-heating
● Two common type of billet preheaters are gas fired,
tunnel type furnaces and electrical induction heaters.
● The latter type of preheating is very rapid with billets
reaching temperature for extrusion in a matter of
minutes.
● The rapid heat up rates in induction heating allow for
littletime for the post
homogenized microstructure
of the billets to change.
● The homogenized
microstructure
mainly contains -Mg2Si
precipitates and some Mg
and Si in solution.
Pre-heating
Rapid induction heating: 200C/hr

Gas preheating: 20C/hr

Delayed gas preheating: 10C/hr

Graph of preheat rates and zones of  and -Mg2Si formation.

Pre-heating
● Mg and Si retained in solution will increase the
hot flow stress of the billet thus decreasing
extrusion speeds.
● However, the rapid heat up through the range
200C-450C is beneficial because it avoids the
formation of coarse -Mg2Si precipitates.
● Coarse -Mg2Si precipitates are not readily
dissolved during extrusion and avoiding this
phase enables optimum mechanical properties to
be reached.
● When using gas preheating the situation is almost
reversed.
Pre-heating
The slower heat-up allows the homogenized
microstructure to change so that Mg and Si may be
precipitated from
solution as  Mg2Si
which lowers the
hot flow stress of
the billet allowing
greater extrusion
speeds to be used.

Billet microstructure showing

coarse  Mg2Si formed during a
delay in gas preheating
Pre-heating
● The detrimental aspect of gas heating is the
possible reduction in final mechanical properties.
● Slower delayed preheating can coarsen the  Mg2Si
as the temperature approaches 400 C.
● Mg2Si begins to form at around 400 C.
● The coarse  Mg2Si requires higher exit
temperatures for dissolution and the  Mg2Si will
not dissolve during extrusion.
● The reduced amount of Mg and Si in solution will
result in less than optimum mechanical properties
after artificial ageing.
Direct extrusion process
extrusion
Manufacturing tubes via extrusion
Direct extrusion process
● Aluminium billets are heated to 450-500 C,
depending on alloy, extrusion shape and
extrusion ratio) and loaded into a pre-heated
container (420-470 C).
● A hydraulic ram pushes the billet through the die
aperture at pressures up to 680 MPa.
● The hot metal flows through the die to produce a
continuous extrudate with a cross-section
identical to the die aperture.
● The shapes may vary from complex hollows to
simple solids.
Factors affecting extrusion process
Press capacity
For maximum press productivity,
an extrusion press is operated
close to the maximum
running pressure which
usually corresponds to
maximum speed.

The solid line is the boundary between sufficient and

İnsufficient pressure to extrude through a given die over a
range of extrusion speeds and billet temperatures.
Factors affecting extrusion process
● This boundary may be moved to the left by using
soft (dilute) alloys or by utilising more available
pressure in order to maximise productivity.
● Harder alloys, higher extrusion ratios, or more
complex shapes will move the boundary to the
right.
● This will expand field A and reduce the extrusion
speeds (and productivity) obtained for a
particular press capacity (pressure).
● Using higher billet temperatures may compensate
for the reduction in extrusion speed but other
variables may limit the temperature increase.
Factors affecting extrusion process

Soft alloys

poor
surface

Surface finish
Factors affecting extrusion process
Surface finish
● Complex shapes, high extrusion ratios and hard alloys
move this boundary to the left reducing the extent of
field B (extrusion possible).
● This shift may also correspond to the surface
deterioration such as surface tearing, pick-up and
melting in some extrusions.
● These factors reduce the extrusion speeds and billet
temperatures that can be used before the surface
finish breaks down.
● Coarse Mg2Si particles formed either due to slow post
homogenization cooling or slow preheat, also move
the surface finish boundary to the left (large field C).
Factors affecting extrusion process
Mechanical properties
● Mechanical properties also impose some limits on the
extrusion process.
● The new boundary moves to the right by using billet
with coarse -Mg2Si precipitates, extrusion of thick
cross-sections and where higher mechanical property
levels are required.
● Extrusion speeds and billet temperatures must
therefore be increased for the extrusion to satisfy final
mechanical property requirements.
● This is to say the energy supplied to the billet to
dissolve Mg2Si must be increased.
Factors affecting extrusion process
Billet containing  and fine  Mg2Si, thin cross-section
extrusions and lower mechanical property requirements all
move the boundary to the left. Constraints on extrusion
speed and
billet
temperature
requirements
are reduced
and final
mechanical
properties are
more easily
attained.
Extrusion operation window
The combination of the press capacity (available
pressure) surface finish and final mechanical
properties
act as the
boundaries of
the operating
window
for a quality
product.
Extrusion operation window
● Where these boundaries are located depends on
actual product requirements for surface finish
and specific mechanical property limits.
● These boundaries also highlight where maximum
press productivity can be achieved.
● Extrusion speed and billet temperatures are
limited to within these boundaries.
● Other variables, such as alloy type, extrusion
ratio/shape and final extrusion properties, may
enlarge or reduce the size of the operating
window.
Press quenching/cooling
● Post-extrusion cooling rates must be fast enough
to retain Mg and Si in solid solution so that
mechanical properties are maximized by their
precipitation during subsequent age hardening.
● Cooling rates are determined by section size and
cooling type such as still air, fans, water mists or
water baths.
Press quenching/cooling
Schematic illustration of various cooling rates and
areas for precipitation of coarse Mg2Si.
Extrusion T

Log TIME
Typical cooling rates required
for some 6XXX alloys
Heat treatment of 6XXX alloys

Mg2Si wt%
solutionizing
● The material is heated above the solvus line in
the phase diagram and is held inside the single
phase region until all secondary phases are
solutionized.
● Mg2Si in 6XXX alloys (and Al2Cu preipitates in
2XXX alloys) is completely solutionized by the
end of solution soak.
● Solution heat treatment temperature is between
500-550°C so as to avoid both the melting and
eutectic temperatures.
Cooling-quenching
● Once the billet is solutionized, it is cooled to room
temperature rapidly enough to retain the Mg and Si in
solution.
● Hence, a supersaturated matrix is obtained.
● Quenching may be employed after a solution heat
treatment as well as after a high temperature forming
operation.
● For instance, the press exit temperature is often
higher than the solvus temperature and the extrudate
may be quenched right after extrusion.
● This quenching may be performed in a water tank as
well as with a fan.
precipitation
● There must be a fine distribution of Mg2Si
precipitates (actually ) to achieve high
hardness values!
● Formation of coarse Mg2Si precipitates before or
during extrusion will lead to low hardness levels.
● Formation of such coarse precipitates is
inevitable if the material is held between 230 C
and the solvus temperature, 500 C, too long.
Precipitation in Al-Mg-Si system
soft hardness  peak hardness overaged
solid coherent partially incoherent
solution zones coherent precipitates
precipitates
   (Mg2Si)
zones rods plates

Al atoms Mg/Si atoms

Artificial ageing
● The solutionized and quenched material is not
stable and is anxious to undergo precipitation.
● Mg and Si in solution is precipitated in forms so as
to maximize hardness.
● Room temperature natural ageing: hardness
increases in a marked fashion shortly after the
solution heat treatment and quenching with time
spent at room temperature.
● This hardness increase is prominent in the first
couple of hours but is markedly lower than the
hardness that can be achieved with an artificial
ageing treatment.
Natural ageing
● The material undergoes ageing-precipitation if
held at room temperature after the solution heat
treatment.
● The precipitation hardening that occurs under
these circumstances is prominent within the first
couple of hours after quenching. It slows down
with time and stops completely.
● The hardening thus obtained is much lower than
that obtained with artificial ageing.
Artificial ageing
● Precipitates that form during artificial ageing are
coherent with the matrix for a maximum hardness.
● In other words, the crystal structure of the
precipitates is the same weith that of the matrix.
● This leads to coherency stresses at the precipitate-
matrix interface and limits the mobility of the
dislocations producing high hardness.
● The coherency deterorates as the precipitates
grow and they finally form another phase.
● The coherency stresses are gradually reduced and
the matrix starts to soften.
Precipitation in Al-Mg-Si system
Solution
%100  solid solution
heat
retained upon cooling
treatment
temperature

Fine dispersion of
precipitates within grain
(retained upon cooling
Precipitation
heat treatment

Equilibrium structure:
time
coarse -Mg2Si
precipitates at 
grain boundaries
Precipitation in Al-Cu system
Solution %100  katı eriyiği
%100  solid solution
heat Hızlı soğutma ile oda
retained upon cooling
treatment sıcaklığında korunmuş
temperature

Fine dispersion of
Artificial Tane içlerinde
precipitates within grain
ageing:/precipit küçük çökeltiler
(retained upon cooling
ation heat
treatment

Equilibrium structure:
time
coarse -CuAl2
precipitates at 
grain boundaries
Precipitation in Al-Mg-Si/Al-Cu
systems

Peak hardness/optimum
precipitate size and
Hardness/strengtht

Supersaturated disitribution
solid solution

Over aged/
Under aged/ Coarse precipitates
Fine not developed
precipitates

Ageing time
aluminium technologies
8.12.2015
Precipitation in Al-Mg-Si/Al-Cu
systems

Peak hardness/optimum
Hardness/strength

precipitate size and

Supersaturated disitribution
solid solution

Over aged/
Under aged/ Coarse precipitates
Fine not developed
precipitates

Ageing time
Precipitation in Al-Cu system
Supersaturated  solid solution matrix phase
GP1 zones  zones enriched with Cu
GP2 ( precipitates) zones: bigger than GP1 zones
 phase: incoherent precipitates with tetragonal crystal structure
 (CuAl2) phase: equilibrium phase; incoherent precipitates with body
centred tetragonal structure
Al matrix Cu  Matrix  phase
 phase
atom atom particle
precipitate

supersaturated  solid transient/ equilibrium  particle

solution precipitate inside  matrix
Age-precipitation hardening

under peak over

ageing strength ageing
/ /
hardness

Maximum
/ hardness/strength is
GP obtained when the
zones precipitates are
crystallographically
coherent with the
Log (ageing time) matrix.
ageing
● The ageing of 6XXX alloy extrusions is necessary if
an increase in the mechanical properties of the
material is desired.
● The extent of the increase in properties is
dependent on the alloy type and the ageing
conditions.
● These conditions may range from natural ageing,
which occurs at room temperature, to a variety
of elevated temperature treatments known as
artificial ageing.
ageing
● The strength of 6XXX alloys is directly related to
the ability of the material to resist the
movement of dislocations during deformation.
● Dislocations from and travel through a material
when a stress is applied to it.
● As the stress increases the number and intensity
of the dislocations travelling in the material
increases until evetually the material fails.
● Dislocation travel is hampered by the presence
of Mg2Si precipitates and the material strength is
increased.
ageing
● The size and density of these precipitates is
controlled by the ageing conditions.
● A few fine  Mg2Si precipitates can do little to
stop dislocations but when in greater numbers the
precipitates inhibit the dislocation movement thus
increasing the strength of the material.
● If the precipitates grow too large, they will
become fewer in number.
● Dislocations may easily by-pass these precipitates
and the strength will be reduced.
Alloys that exhibit age hardening

2xxx
7xxx
6xxx
Precipitation hardening in Al-Cu
precipitation/Al end of Al-Cu phase diagram
precipitation
precipitation
Ageing treatment
325
Temperature, C

300

275

250

225
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Ageing time, h
ageing
For peak mechanical properties artificial ageing conditions
must be set
to achieve
a large
number of
 Mg2Si Peak aged:  Mg2Si
precipitates. SSSS + clusters Overaged:
For 6XXX +fine  Mg2Si  Mg2Si +  Mg2Si
alloys
typical
conditions
are Solid solution-
170C-8 h supersaturated
or 185C- 6 h.
ageing
TEM micrograph of
under aged 6063 alloy
showing a small number
of fine  Mg2Si
precipitates that do not
contribute greatly to
mechanical strength.
ageing

Peak aged 6063 alloy with large over aged 6063 alloy with small
number of  precipitates that number of coarse  and 
prevent dislocation travel and thus precipitates that are easily by-
increase strength passed by dislocations
Temper designations
Heat treatable alloys:
Mechanical properties may be improved by
deformation and then by heat treatment.
This practice is possible with alloys that under
precipitation upon heat treatment such as 2XXX,
6XXX and 7XXX serises.
There is variety of microstructures and
corresponding tempers that can be obtained simply
by tuning the time and temperature of the heat
treatment and that offer mechanical properties
over a wide range.
Temper designations
Non heat treatable alloys:
Mechanical properties of these alloys are adjusted
by hot and/or cold forming operations.
Strength is obtained through deformation
hardening.
Mechanical properties are controlled via
deformation operations such as cold rolling and by
heat treatments such as final softening anneal.
Alloys of this group:
1xxx, 3xxx, 4xxx and 5xxx series.
Temper designations
There are 3 basic temper groups for
aluminium alloys:
"O"
Full soft (i.e. Fully annealed)
"T"
Heat treated (i.e. For alloys that are age
hardened)
"H"
Hardening by deformation (i.e. For alloys that
donot undergo precipitation hardening)
Temper designations
T-tempers
Alloys that are strengthened substantially by
precipitation hardening; alloys that receive solution
heat treatment and subsequently precipitation heat
treatment (ageing).
Major tempers among the 9 different tempers:
T3
T4
T5
T6 ve
T7
Temper designations
T1
Quenching after high temperature forming operation
+ room temperature storage for a stable structure /
natural ageing
T2
Quenching after high temperature forming operation
+ cold deformation + room temperature storage for
a stable structure / natural ageing
Temper designations
T3
Solution heat treatment + cold deformation +
storage at room temperature for stable structure /
natural ageing
T4
Solution heat treatment + storage at room
temperature for stable structure / natural ageing
T5
Quenching from the high temperature forming
operation + artificial ageing
Temper designations
T6
Solution heat treatment + artificial ageing
T7
Solution heat treatment + artificial ageing beyond
the peak hardness (to increase ductility at the
expense of strength!)
T8
Solution heat treatment + cold forming + artificial
ageing
T9
Solution heat treatment + artificial ageing + cold
forming
Applications of extrusion profiles
%16 other
%51
construction
%18
engineering

%16
transport
6XXX extrusion alloys
alloy Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Zn Ti other tot.

6060 0.30- 0.10- 0.10 0.10 0.35- 0.05 0.15 0.10 0.05 0.15
0.60 0.30 0.60
6063 0.20- 0.35 0.10 0.10 0.45- 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.05 0.15
0.60 0.90
6063A 0.30- 0.15- 0.10 0.15 0.60- 0.05 0.15 0.10 0.05 0.15
0.60 0.35 0.90
6082 0.70- 0.50 0.10 0.40- 0.60- 0.25 0.20 0.10 0.05 0.15
1.30 1.00 1.20
6061 0.40- 0.70 0.15- - 0.80- 0.04- 0.25 0.15 0.05 0.15
0.80 0.40 1.20 0.35
6101A 0.30- 0.40 0.05 - 0.40- - - - 0.03 0.15
0.70 0.90
6463 0.20- 0.15 0.20 0.05 0.45- - 0.05 - 0.05 0.15
0.60 0.90
Aluminium profiles
Aluminium profiles
Extrusion parameters
factor strength surface Dimens. Extrusion
speed
Alloy high high high
billet high high
homogen medium high high
cooling high high
preheating high high
extrusion high high high
(die)
quenching medium high
(distor)
stretching high
ageing high
Extrusion rating of aluminium alloys
Alloy rating Alloy rating
rolled products
Rolled products
● Rolled products, i.e. sheet, plate and foil
constitute almost 50% of all aluminium alloys used.
● The starting stock for most rolled products is the
DC (Direct Chill semi-continuous cast) ingot.
● The size of the ingot depends on the size of the DC
unit available, the hot rolling mill capacity,
volume required for a particular end use and to
some extent the alloys being cast.
● Ingots up to over 20 tons in weight, 500-600 mm
thick, 2000 mm wide and 8000 mm long are
produced.
DC casting of slabs
Hot rolling process cycle
DC casting preheating Hot rolling

2-5mm

Preheating
pusher “reversing” hot Tandem hot coiler
furnace rolling mill rolling mill

1 mm

1XXX / 2XXX / 3XXX / 4XXX

5XXX / 6XXX / 7XXX alloys
Cold rolling
Rolling deformation
● When a piece of metal is rolled in between two
rolls, the thickness is reduced as a result of the
compressive stresses exerted by the rolls and it
can be treated as a two-dimensional deformation
in the thickness and length directions neglecting
the width direction.
● This is due to the fact that the length of contact
between the rolls and workpiece is generally much
smaller than the width of the sheet passing
through and the undeformed material on both
sides of the roll gap is restraining the lateral
expansion along the width direction.
Rolling route
● The DC ingot is usually cooled after casting to room
temperature and then re-heated to around 500 °C
prior to successive passes through a hot rolling mill
where it is reduced in thickness to about 4-6 mm.
● The strip from the hot rolling mill is coiled for
transport to the cold mill.
● Cold mills, in a wide range of types and sizes are
available; some are single stand, others 3 stands and
some 5 stand.
● Cold rolling speeds vary but modern mills operate at
exit speeds as high as 3000 m per minute and alloys
may be cold rolled to thickness of around 0.05 mm.
Hot rolling
● “Hot” rolling means rolling at a metal
temperature high enough to avoid strain-
hardening (work-hardening) as the metal is
deformed.
● “Cold” rolling means rolling the metal at a
temperature low enough for strain-hardening to
occur, even if the alloy would feel hot to human
senses.
● In practice, hot-rolling temperatures may decline
enough during rolling to permit some strain-
hardening to occur.
Hot rolling
● The distinction between hot rolling and cold rolling depends
on the processing temperature with respect to the material
recrystallization temperature.
● Hot rolling is performed above the recrystallization
temperature.
● In hot rolling, large reductions can be successively repeated,
as the metal remains soft and ductile.
● The hardness of the material after hot rolling is a function
of chemical composition and the rate of cooling after
rolling.
● The hardness is generally lower than that of cold rolling and
the required deformation energy is lesser as well.
● However most metal will experience some surface oxidation
resulting in material loss and poor final surface finish.
 Sawing and scalping
● First the ingots move to a slab saw, which removes the ends
of the ingots to increase its surface quality.
● A scalper then removes the surface layer of the entire ingot
to eliminate surface oxides, ensuring a uniform, high-quality
surface finish.
Pre-heating
Next, the ingot is sent to a pusher furnace, which
pre-heats it above its recrystallization temperature
( 500°C) in order to prepare it for hot rolling.
This process is
called annealing,
and helps to even
out differences in
microstructure and
ensure a
homogeneous
structure within
the ingot.
Hot rolling
● Finally, we pass the sheet ingot back and forth
between the rolls of a breakdown hot mill, which
reduces the ingot's gauge until it approaches that
of a strip with the desired thickness for cold
rolling.
● The tandem hot mills for hot rolling guarantee
that coils are uniform, precisely cut and have a
high-quality surface finish.
Hot rolling
The hot rolling process is
used to convert ingots into
coils with a gauge suitable
for the cold rolling
process.
Hot rolling
● One specific problem common to both
configurations is related to the coating of the rolls
which in turn can lead to surface quality issues on
the finished strip.
● Hot rolling mills for aluminum have roll coating
problems, as aluminum powder sticking to the
surface of the work rolls affects the surface
quality of the rolled strips.
● Countermeasures for this include the installation
of brush rolls to maintain the cleanliness of the
rollers.
Hot rolling
● There are numerous configurations of rolling mills
including single stand mills and tandem stand mills.
● The configuration of rolling mills varies depending on
the intended amount of production.
● Single stand mills are used for the production of
wide variety products in small quantities, whereas
tandem-stand mills are used for mass production.
● In recent years, a notably common practice has been
to commence operation with single-stand mills in
order to minimize initial investment and add rolling
mills in line with rising demand to make the
transition to tandem-stand mills.
Hot rolling
Hot rolling is executed in several different ways
depending on the production quantity:
Small quantity: on a single reversing mill

“reversing” hot mill

High quantity:
Combinations of Reversing break down hot mill and
“2-4 high” tandem hot mill

Tandem hot mill

Hot rolling
Hot rolling cycle consists of 2 stages
Roughing mill The ingot thickness is reduced %95 by
reversing the direction after every pass. In the
meantime, the length of the ingot is increased 20 times.
The ends of the ingot are cut to obtain square
dimensions.
Tandem hot mill: Material which has extended to nearly
150 meters is hot rolled to an intermedaite gauge in
successive steps in a hot rolling operation where
temperature, rolling oil, rolling velocity, tension and
reduction forces are precisely controlled. The strip is
coiled at approximately 300- 360°C and subsequently
cooled to room temperature.
Hot rolling
Single stand mill
Coiler & uncoiler

slab
Roughing cum finishing mill (reverse mill)

tandem stand mill (1+1 tandem)

Coiler & uncoiler

slab Coiler &

roughing mill finishing mill uncoiler
(reverse mill) (reverse mill)
Hot rolling
tandem stand mill (4+1 tandem)

Coiler
slab
roughing mill finishing mill
(reverse mill) (tandem mill)
Hot rolling
● The hot rolling operation is performed at the highest
possible temperature to lower flow stress in order to
reduce loads and to achieve high reductions.
● An upper temperature limit is imposed by the need for
controlling recrystallization and precipitation, dependent
on the alloy, as well as by the occurrence of pick-up.
● During conventional rolling, the coarse as cast structure
changes to a deformed and recrystallized structure
having a considerably finer grain size.
● Coarse primary precipitates are crushed and become
distributed more evenly.
● Decreasing temperatures during rolling and an increase in
vacancy concentration in the lattice due to deformation
lead to a further precipitation of secondary phases.
 Hot rolling
● With regards to microstructure, hot rolling can be
seen as a succession of deformation and annealing
steps.
● The most dominant metallurgical features are
recrystallization and the development of preferred
crystal orientations (texture).
● Both processes are interrelated and influenced by
ongoing precipitation.
● Recrystallization is particularly determined by the
alloy system and the processing conditions. In high
purity aluminum, the grain boundary mobility is high
and the material already shows rapid recrystallization
during processing (dynamic recrystallization).
Hot rolling
● However, in customary industrial alloys, dynamic
recrystallization may be observed only at extremely
high temperatures, where the effect is mainly caused
by local bulging of grain boundaries and not by
nucleation and growth.
● For these materials, recrystallization typically takes
place during inter-stand times or after rolling at
elevated temperatures (post dynamic or static
recrystallization).
● In commercially pure alloys such as AA1050, typically
used for packaging foil or lithographic sheet, elements
with low solubility, like Fe and Si, interact with grain
boundaries and efficiently obstruct recrystallization
when present as finely dispersed precipitates.
Hot rolling
● The presence of Mn and Cr causes the same effect
unless the elements are already bound in coarse
particles.
● Within the Al-Mg-Mn alloy system, used in considerable
amounts for beverage cans or automotive
components, recrystallization covers a broad range
within the scope of industrial conditions and thus can
be influenced to a large degree by the choice of
rolling parameters.
● In industrial practice, the recrystallized structure can
be obtained in a separate annealing treatment, but
more sophisticated technologies utilize self-annealing
on the coil from the rolling heat.
Hot Rolling–Metallurgical Effects
In a traditional hot mill, aluminum ingots are soaked in
furnaces before they are brought to the Reversing or Break-
Down Mill to be reduced to a long and slender strip.
Hot rolling has at least two significant metallurgical
effects:
1. It welds pores left by casting, creating a denser,
stronger metal.
2. It breaks up and distributes hard constituents
of iron and silicon which have formed at grain
boundaries. This action transforms brittle cast
alloy into ductile wrought alloy, because fragmented
and distributed constituents offer less resistance to the
internal metal flow necessary to ductility.
Hot Rolling–Metallurgical Effects
● Reduction schedule or reduction per pass
and directionality of rolling has a very important
impact on some of the damage characteristics of
the high strength aircraft alloys.
● Rolling temperature also influences the
appearance and structure of the final product.
● Lower hot rolling temperatures yield relatively
brighter product surfaces and elongated alloy
grains, while higher hot-rolling temperatures can
induce recrystallization in the metal.
Hot Rolling–Metallurgical Effects
● The rolling temperature is selected according to
the product properties that are to be achieved.
● Too high a temperature can weaken grain
boundaries and cause boundary cracking.
● Consequently, rolling temperature is below a
certain limit (10 to 50° C)— the “solidus” or
solidification temperature — of each alloy.
Tandem Hot Rolling
Configuration of rolling mills
Hot rolling process cycle
DC casting preheating Hot rolling

2-5mm

Preheating
pusher “reversing” hot Tandem hot coiler
furnace rolling mill rolling mill

1 mm

1XXX / 2XXX / 3XXX / 4XXX

5XXX / 6XXX / 7XXX alloys
Cold rolling
Endless Hot Strip Rolling Process
● When the head and tail ends of the strip are finish-rolled,
both ends run out to the coiler without any tension
between the coiler and finishing mill.
● Thus both ends of the metal strip tend to pass through the
roller table unstably and this tendency increases with
decreasing thickness.
● This is one of the reasons that hot strips with thickness less
than 0.8mm cannot be produced using the conventional
method.
● The size, profile and properties of the two ends of the strip
are different from those from the middle due to the in
stability in the finishing rolling.
● Hence the ends are usually cut off to produce a uniform
product. This results in a yield loss that is equivalent to the
amount of material being cut off.
Endless Hot Strip Rolling Process
To improve on the yield and productivity, the method of continuous rolling
of several slabs, i.e. endless rolling, is being adopted. This process consists
of three reheating furnaces, a sizing press that reduces the slab width,
three roughing mills, a coil box, a joining device (sheet bar welder), a 7-
stand finishing mill, a strip shear and two down coilers.
Hot Rolling
Changes in the grain structure of cast or of large-grain
wrought metals during hot rolling. Hot rolling is an effective
way to reduce grain size in metals, for improved strength and
ductility. Cast structures of ingots or continuous casting are
converted to a wrought structure by hot working.
Cold rolling-softening anneal
● The thickness of the coiled strip that exits the
hot mill is reduced further at the cold mill.
● The strip is cooled to room temperature from
100C at the cold mill exit.
● An interannealing treatment at 300-360C is
carried out when the strip is deformation
hardened excessively to facilitate further
thickness reduction.
● The material is submitted to a partial anneal at
the final gauge if higher than usual elongation
values are needed.
Cold rolling
● It takes more energy, of course, to roll cold metal
than metal which is softened by a high enough
temperature.
● Cold rolling can provide a smoother final surface
and different tempers than hot rolling.
● The thinnest products must be cold rolled to their
final thickness.
● Hot mills currently roll sheet at rates approaching
600 m/min.
● Cold mills can roll sheet at rates up to 2135
m/min or more.
Cold rolling
● The strip from the hot rolling mill is coiled
for transport to the cold mill.
● They are rolled to the final gauge and their
mechanical properties adjusted to suit our
customers' precise needs for premium
applications.​
● Cold rolling speeds vary but modern mills
operate at exit speeds as high as 3000 m/
min and alloys may be cold rolled to
thickness of around 0.05 mm.
 Cold rolling
● When the rolling temperature is below the RX
temperature, the process is called cold rolling.
● Cold rolled sheet and strip have a smoother surface
(better surface finish) than those of hot rolling and the
strength, hardness as well as the elastic limit are
increased.
● However, the ductility of the metal decreases due to
strain hardening thus making the metal more brittle.
● The metal must be heated from time to time
(annealed) during the rolling operation to remove the
undesirable effects of cold working and to increase the
workability of the metal.
Cold rolling
Cold mill
Critical parameters:
Thickness at entry and exit:
reduction-deformation ratio
Unwinder and coiler tension
Rolling velocity
Oil cooling practice
Work and support
roll camber
Shape control
break down
pass after
casting > %50
Cold mill

Reduction/pass
interannealing
thickness
as-cast and final
gauge
Deformation
hardening response
of the material
must be considered
when planing the down stream processing.
Deformation in the roll gap
Deformation in the roll gap
● The elastic deflection of the work rolls results in an
uneven widthwise distribution of the workpiece
thickness in such a way where the thickness is
greater at the center of the width and smaller at the
edges.
● In order to solve the bending of the work rolls,
several methods can be adopted.
● Smaller work rolls are more prone to greater
bending under high roll-separating forces from the
vertical stresses induced by the workpiece.
● Back-up rolls are used to counter this phenomenon.
Deformation in the roll gap
● Another method to reduce or eliminate elastic roll
deflection is to use materials of high elastic
modulus for the work rolls, such as sintered
carbide.
● A more common method to counter the effects of
roll bending is the usage of cambered rolls.
● The degree of cambering depends on the width of
the metal piece, flow stress of the material and
the reduction per pass.
● However certain problems arise with improper
work rolls cambering.
Deformation in the roll gap
● Lack of camber or insufficient cambering of the
work rolls results in producing a workpiece that has
a thicker center than the edge.
● The thicker center implies that the edges are
plastically elongated more than the center.
● This induces a residual stress pattern of
compression at the edges and tension along the
centerline of the workpiece.
● The consequences of this uneven distribution of
stress within the workpiece can be centerline
cracking, warping or edge wrinkling of the final
metal sheet.
Rolling defects
insufficient camber

Residual stress

Center cracks

warping

Edge wrinkling
Rolling defects
Deformation in the roll gap
● In the case where the work rolls are over-
cambered, the edges of the workpiece will be
thicker than the center and the residual stress
pattern is exactly the opposite of that of
insufficient cambering, i.e. tension at the edges
and compression along the centerline.
● Possible undesirable results of the workpiece
being produced in such a manner are edge
cracking, splitting or centerline wrinkling.
Rolling defects
Over-cambered

Residual
stress
Edge cracks

splitting

Centre buckling
Rolling defects

Square gap Flat sheet

Uniform roll gap

Rolling defects

Higher reduction at Edge waves

the edges
Quarter buckle

Higher reduction at
Centre buckle Centre buckle
the centre
Rolling defects
Centre buckle Edge waves
Rolling defects
Roll gap profiles
roll force

ingot

straight rolls crowned rolls

Shape control in rolling
Texture formation in rolling
Cold Rolling–Metallurgical Effects
● On the atomic level, solid metals have a “crystal
lattice” structure: its atoms are arranged in a
regular pattern which can be considered, ideally,
as a stack of flat planes.
● When the metal is deformed, as it is in flat rolling,
regions of the crystal “slip” past each other along
these “glide planes”; such “slip lines” are
sometimes visible on the metal surface.
● The lattice planes are never ideal.
● There are breaks and offsets in them, called
“dislocations”, which tend to block slippage and
so resist deformation.
Cold Rolling–Metallurgical Effects
● Cold rolling tends to break and offset the lattice
planes, thereby increasing the number of
dislocations which resist force and making the
metal stronger and harder.
● This effect is deliberately induced as “~hardening”
(work hardening) to strengthen aluminum alloy
products.
● Various applications of strain hardening are
included in the “H-tempers” and some of the “T-
tempers” of aluminum.
A rolling mill
coolant
lubricant
system
sheet/foil rolling
cold mill Cold mill

6 mm 1 mm 1 mm 0.1 mm
 
 
 
 
 

Tav fırını
Cold deformation Softening anneal Cold deformation
Deformation recovery + Deformation
hardening recrystallization hardening
Rolled flat elongated softening Rolled elongated grains
grains
Difficult to continue
rolling!
Process design
We want to produce from a 6mm thick cast 1050
coiled strip 1mm thick H14 temper sheet.
What is the thermomechanical process to achieve
this 1050 sheet material.?

Final gauge is 1mm and the temper required is H14;

(x-1)/x= %40 = 0.4
x-1 = 0.4x x=1.66mm
The strip must be interannealed at 1.66mm!
Process: 6mm cold mill 1.66mm / anneal / 
cold mill1mm
Process design
We want to produce from a 6mm thick cast 1050
coiled strip 1mm thick H24 temper sheet.
What is the thermomechanical process to achieve
this 1050 sheet material?

Final gauge is 1mm and the temper required is H24;

Process:
6mm  cold mill 1.0mm / final anneal to half
hard temper
Deformation hardening in
aluminium alloys
deformation
Tensile
strength strength under loading
alloys
MPa
Saf alüminyum

Pure aluminium
Elongation
in 50 mm ductility

alloys
Slip planes
% reduction
Softening anneal
Strip that is over hardened upon cold rolling is softened with
an annealing treatment.
This anneal first leads to recovery with partial softening
and then to full recrystallization which is accompanied by the
formation of
new strain
free grains.
Softening anneal

Elongated grains Recovery - subgrains

Recrystallization-new grains Grain growth

anisotropy
Extent of earing can be judged
from planar isotropy constant
(R):
• R=0 no earing.
• R>0 more earing with
increasing R.
Forming limit diagrams-FLD
Bending/folding
One of the important forming operations with aluminium sheet
is bending.
Bent sheet must not exhibit
cracking along bending axis
and orange peel on the outer surface

Pure bending: only bending stresses!

concave bending: may lead to tearing!

Convex bending: katlanmaya yol açabilir!

rolling aluminium sheet
Roll presure in sheet rolling is a function of the
resistance of the material to deformation and
depends on the following factors:
● Yield strength of the material,
● Thickness of the sheet at the roll entrance,
● Reduction ratio,
● Friction coefficient between the material
and the work rolls,
● Back and front tension,
● Roll diameter,
● Rolling rate.
Production of aluminium foil
● The conventional DC casting and hot rolling process has
been entirely replaced by continuous TRC and cold rolling
in recent years.
● Production process starts with the continuous casting of
reroll stock in the thickness range of 4-10mm.
● Aluminium foil is generally produced from aluminium alloys
where Fe and Si are the major alloying elements.
● Al-Mn (3XXX) and Al-Mg (5XXX) alloys are also used to
produce aluminium foil when strength and deep drawability
are required.
● The coils are placed in a batch furnace and is annealed for
homogenization particularly if the foil application requires
some ductility and formability.
Production of aluminium foil
● Rapid solidification involved in the strip casting process
offers several outstanding features:
● The addition rate of grain refiners is minimized owing to
the fast cooling rates during solidification. This is a major
advantage in foil production since the Ti borides that are
intorduced into aluminiummelts for grain refinement are
the leading cause of pin holes in thin foils.
● The surface quality of the reroll stock is not inferior with
respect to that obtained in hot rolling.
● Alloying elements are distributed across the secion rather
uniformly. Hence, a seperate homogenization is not
required unless formability and deep drawability is
critical.
Production of aluminium foil
● The melt treatment operations employed in the strip
casting of foil stock must be executed with utmost
care.
● One should keep in mind that during cold rolling the
aluminium strip to foil gauges, almost the entire
section is turned into fresh surfaces.
● This is why the cleanliness and the overall quality of
the strip planned for foil is very critical and the process
is very demanding.
● Rafination of the melt, degassing, fluxing, drossing and
filtering must all meet certain standards.
● A strip crowded with inclusions porosities will yield a
foil crowded with pinholes.
aluminium foil rolling
● Chemical polishing of the surfaces is not practical
for foils since the foils are extremely thin.
● A high quality, shiny surface can be best obtained
only during rolling.
● Factors that affect the surface quality and
appearence such as Roll surface, temperature,
rolling rate, rolling oil viscosity must be fine tuned
since a shiny surface is essential for aluminium
foil.
● Foils thinner than 10 m are submitted to pack
rolling (rolling double layers).
aluminium foil rolling
● The surface of the foil that is in contact with the
other foil exits the mils with a matt appearence
while the top surface that is in contact with the
work rolls are polished to a shiny surface.
● Any scracthes, burs, shivers, water stains, dust
particles, aluminium fines willbe embeded into the
surface and will appear elongated on the foil
surface after rolling.
● Therefore the strip to be used for foil manufacture
must not only have a clean microstructure but also
very clean, defect-free surfaces.
aluminium foil rolling
● rolling a sheet material to even thinner gauges
once a rather thin sheet has already been obtained
has some characteristic features.
● Roll pressure, roll gap that are key parameters in
sheet rolling, are of secondary value in foil rolling
owing to the thiness of foil.
● Tension and rolling speed that are not very critical
in sheet rolling, on the other hand, are the key
parameters in foil rolling.
Foil rolling
● The upper and lower rolls are in full contact with
each other even when idle.
● The roll gap has no effect on foil thickness but
impacts the flatness of the foil web.
● Parameters such as back tension, rolling speed,
rolling oil (lubrication) are used to control the
reduction process and the thickness of the foil.
● Wavy edges, folding, wrinkling ve longitudinal
tearing may be encountered during foil rolling
leading to breaking of the foil web, if a uniform
reduction is not maintained across the foil web.
aluminium foil rolling
● The effect of roll pressure on reduction ratio
decreases with decreasing sheet thickness.
● It is no longer possible to reduce the thickness of the
material no matter how high the roll pressure is once
the critical thickness (hc) is achieved.
● Hence, negative roll gap must be employed to achive
further reduction once the thickness is reduced to a
critical limit.
● The bottom and top work rolls not only touch but
pressed against each other and become flat.
● It would not be wrong to state that the roll gap is
negative under these circumstances.
Sheet rolling foil rolling

reduction=
f(tension, mill
velocity, rolling oil)

reduction= EXTREME ROLLING, DARK ROLLING, CONTACT

f(roll gap) ROLLING, NEGATIVE ROLL-GAP ROLLING.
 aluminium foil rolling
● Since roll gap adjustments are ineffective in
determining the foil gauge, rolling speed and back
tension are the two critical parameters employed to
control foil thickness.
● If the target thickness cannot be achieved with
rolling rate, it can be controlled by back tension
adjustment.
● Increasing back tension will reduce the exiting foil
thickness at a constant roll pressure.
● However, too much or too little tension will cause
problems. If the tension is too high, the foil will
break anf if it is too little, foil will wrinkle.
● Front tension also reduces foil thickness.
aluminium foil rolling
● Foil thickness decreases with increasing rolling speed
provided that the roll gap is maintained constant.
This is referred to as the «speed effect».
● The temperature increases with increasing rolling
rate and the resistance of foil to deformation drops
due to an increasing temperature of the material.
● Faster rolling draws higher quantities of rolling oil in
between the work rolls and thus reduces the
effective rol gap due to a thicker oil film.
● Thicker oil film reduces friction and the roll torque
is used entrely in the deformation and reduction of
the foil.
aluminium foil rolling
● Uniform distribution of stresses across the web is
alot more critical in foil rolling than is sheet
rolling since foils are very prone to tearing.
● Non uniform distribution of residual stresses
across the web creates several problems.
● If the edges of the foil are under tensile stresses,
the edges may suffer cracks that develop into
tears.
● Edge waves and loose bellies, tense regions,
longitudinal fractures are encountered unless the
stresses are distributed uniformly.
aluminium foil rolling
● Foil rolling process employes thin film lubrication
contrasting the sheet rolling process.
● The viscosity of the lubricant used in foil rolling is
lower than that used in sheet rolling.
● Thin film lubrication is essnetial to ensure
mechanical polishing of the foil surface for a shiny
appearence.
Foil rolling
Gauge and tension control
must be fine tuned.
The final pass is performed
as a pack rolling operation. 12m
6 m
Foil webs are double-
packed before the
mill and are
seperated after the
mill.
Aluminium is rolled
down to 5-6 μm.
Hair:12 μm
aluminium technologies
8.12.2015
Conventional route
● The conventional way of producing rolling slabs is
DC (Direct Chill) semi-continuous casting
although some slabs are produced by pouring
molten metal into a permanent mould.
● After DC casting, the rolling slabs are re-heated
to about 500°C and hot rolled to a coilable
thickness between 4 mm and 6 mm.
● The biggest advantage of the continuous process
is the saving of several production steps in the
production of strip or foil.
Conventional:
DC casting of slabs
scalping

preheating

hot rolling

cold rolling
continuous casting
Conventional technology:
Melting  DC-casting  hot rolling  coiling  cold
rolling (possibly including several thermal
treatments)  foil or canstock

Continuous technology:
Melting  strip casting  coiling  cold rolling
(possibly including several thermal treatments) 
foil or canstock
Continuous casting
● Continuous casting process converts molten
aluminium alloys directly into an endless coiled
strip suitable for cold rolling or wire-bars for wire-
drawing.
● It effectively eliminates the operations associated
with traditional mould casting (discontinuous
process) or D.C. casting (a semi continuous process)
and subsequent hot mill deformation.
● Therefore the capital investment and operational
costs are significantly lower than in a conventional
production process.
Continuous casting
● Continuous casting is the preferred casting method
in many modern plants because it offers higher
productivity.
● continuous casting process is mostly used for the
production of strip, for cold rolling to foilstock
building sheet and canstock. (also used to cast
endless wire bar stock.)
● Among the continuous casting technologies the
strip casting processes now account for a
remarkable share of the worlds output of rolled
aluminium semifabricated coilstock
(approximately 30%).
Strip casting
● strip casting technologies are suitable for the
casting of wrought alloys and allow the production
of strip from 3 mm to 20 mm thickness and up to
2150 mm width.
● Molten metal enters between two rolls, solidifies
there and exits the roll gap as a continuous strip.
● After casting the strip can be directly coiled – or
it can be immediately (without down cooling)
rolled into a coilable gauge.
Strip casting

Caster roll

Caster roll

solidification
continuous casting
processing costs are only 1/3 to ½ as high,
operating and investment costs are only 1/4 to 1/3
as high,
there are smaller space and labour requirements.
less energy is required because it is no longer
necessary to preheat the ingot before hot rolling.
The productivity is 15-20% higher;
the material consumption is 1.5 - 2% lower.
Newer casters enable very thin strip to be produced
(< 3 mm thick).
This leads to even less rolling stages, e.g. when
producing thin foil or beverage canstock.
continuous casting
The most serious of these disadvantages is the
difficulties that exist in casting alloys with high alloy
content.
Due to the wide freezing range of these alloys there
is a danger of cracks in the strip.
If not all the metal is solidified at the narrowest
point of the casting machine, liquid or semisolid
metal can leave the casting mould.
It is possible to avoid this with a lower casting rate,
but even this solution is limited because, if the
casting rate is too low, it is possible to have
solidification in the direction of the casting tip.
continuous casting
the casting rate of alloys is lower than that of
commercially pure aluminium.
Therefore only alloys with a low alloy content can
be cast, for example
" Commercially pure aluminium Al99.2 to Al 99.6
(series 1000);
" AlMn (max. 2% Mn, Series 3000);
" AlMg (max. 2 to 3% Mg, exception Alusuisse Caster
II with max. 5%
Mg, Series 5000),
" AlFe (max. 2% Fe) or
" AlMnFe (max. 1% Fe, max 1% Mn).
Continuous casting (DC vs TRC)
DC Casting + hot rolling route
scalping &
Tandem hot mill
homogenization
2 - 5 mm 1 mm

600 mm ingot
Break down mill Cold mill

Twin Roll Casting + cold rolling route

Cold mill
1XXX
3XXX t = 5 - 6 mm 1 mm
4XXX
5XXX
6XXX alloys
continuous casting
Usually the various strip casting technologies are
divided according to the dimensions of the
finished product into processes
" for wide strip casting (width up to 2150 mm),
" for narrow strip casting (maximum width 800 mm)
" for strip, that can be coiled immediately after
casting (gauge max. 10 mm),
" for strip to be hot rolled after leaving the casting
machine (gauge between 20 mm and 40 mm)
" for thin gauge casting (gauge under 3 mm)
Twin roll strip casting
The twin roll caster, which has considerable
commercial application includes a source of molten
metal which feeds into the space between a pair of
counter- rotating, internally cooled
drums (hollow rolls). In a
very short time after
leaving the casting
nozzle the molten metal
solidifies due to the
contact with the
water-cooled rolls.
Twin roll casting (TRC)
15
Molten solidification
aluminium
Cast strip

Water cooled rolls

tundish
sarıcıya  bobin

Casting rolls
Twin roll casting (TRC)
Twin roll casting (TRC)
Twin roll casting (TRC)
Twin roll strip casting
● The casting direction can be horizontal or vertical.
● An homogeneous distribution of the melt must be
obtained in the casting nozzle.
● The solidification zone is 10 mm to 20 mm long and
is followed immediately by a zone of hot-rolling in
the same gap.
● All such methods are in fact roll casting processes
● because the strip thickness can be reduced of 5% to
20% in-situ by hot rolling.
● The strip usually has a temperature between 400°C
and 550°C and can be directly coiled at hot
temperature.
Casters with horizontal casting
direction
● Examples of this construction are the Alusuisse I,
and Jumbo 3C (Pechiney, Scal 3C) casters.
● The casting rate usually depends on the alloy,
between 1 (0.8) m/min to 5 m/min (for example
typically 1 m/min at 6 mm gauge for Alusuisse I).
● Well over 100 of casters with horizontal casting
direction are installed worldwide.
● The cast strip emerges horizontally from the
caster and is directly wound into coils while hot.
● The coil size is adapted to the following cold
rolling mill.
Casters with horizontal
casting direction
Horizontal Casters
● most suitable for alloys with a short range of
solidification, for example the 1000, 3000 and 5000
series (with up to 2.5% Mg content).
● casting rate must be significantly reduced, leading to
an uneconomic productivity. for casting higher alloy
contents
● They can be used when a good quality of scrap is to be
recycled.
Casting direction at an angle
Another and one of the most popular concept, is the
Fata-Hunter Caster with its main feature of the
unique 15° tilt back stand.
This allows the molten metal to flow into the caster
in a smooth and non-turbulent manner.
The large diameter to width ratio caster rolls
maintain very close strip profile tolerances.
The latest development is the Fata-Hunter
SpeedCaster that was developed to meet the
demand for lighter gauges and increased
productivity.
Twin roll casting (TRC)
Twin roll casting (TRC)
Cooling
suspension
spray
Tip table

Casting machine

load cylinders
Twin roll casting (TRC)

Casting machine Shear coiler

FATA Hunter SpeedCaster
2-Hi Thin-Gauge/High-Speed casting machine is 2184
mm wide and can produce a trimmed cast strip
width of 2134 mm.
FATA Hunter SpeedCaster
The machine is rated to run at speeds as high as 38.1
m/min and at gauges as low as 0.635 mm.
The development of Thin-Gauge/High-Speed casting
technology could be utilised to produce foil products
in a cost-effective manner.
It is suited for an aluminium Mini-Mill plant.
The process is supplying thin-gauge material directly
to an intermediate foil mill, followed by a finishing
foil mill.
The cost of the proposed Mini-Mill is significantly
lower than a SuperCaster based plant because an
expensive breakdown cold rolling mill is not
required.
FATA Hunter SpeedCaster
2-Hi Thin-Gauge/High-Speed casting machine is 2184
mm wide and can produce a trimmed cast strip
width of 2134 mm.
Ceramic casting tips-tip
in-line melt treatment
melting furnace grain refiner
holding furnace addition
degassing unit casting station
filter box
reroll stock
in-line melt treatment
ALCAN compact
continuous degasser
(ACD)
in-line melt treatment
SNIF continuous degasser
Spinning Nozzle Inert
Floatation
in-line melt treatment
In-line melt treatment
degassing
Twin roll casting
● Since the solidification is rapid in TRC
● Aluminium matrix is spersaturated.
● Grain size is fine.
● The population of structural defects (dislocations
and point defects) is relatively high.
● Segregation is prominent at the centerline as well
as at the surface.
● The material is not in the soft state (at least
quarter hard)
● These features have a great impact on the
response of the materia to thermomechanical
processing.
shape vs continuous casting

process Cooling rate, K/s DAS, µm

Shape casting 0.01-0.1 100
DC casting 0.5-20 12-15
Die casting 20-80 5
Twin roll casting 200-700 1-2
Twin belt strip casting
two moving thin steel belts are provided which
create a moving mould for the metal to be cast.
The belt is subjected to extremely high thermal
gradients, with molten metal in contact with the
belt on one side and
a water Belt quench system
coolant
in contact
with the
belt on
the other
side.
TBC process technology
Twin belt caster Hot / warm rolling

Cold mill
Annealing Annealing
funace  furnace
 

  

  

  

  

 
Twin belt casting
Twin Belt Casting
(TBC) HAZELETT

b
Twin belt casting (TBC)
Twin belt casting (TBC)

b
Hazelett Caster
the melt solidifies between two rotating thin steel
belts (about 1.5 mm thickness) which are cooled
during the contact with the melt.
With this technology slabs are produced from 15 mm
to 25 mm thickness and up to 2000 mm width.
The machines are used for long lengths of plate and
strip up to 1750 mm wide (bus bars, stock for sheet,
foil and cans).
The principle of operation is to pour the molten
metal into the space between the belts via a casting
nozzle, with the same width as the strip to be cast.
The casting rate is 5 m/min to 9 m/min.
Hazelett Caster
After leaving the machine at a temperature of
420°C to 460°C the strip is immediately (in line)
hot-rolled down to a coilable gauge between 2 mm
to 6 mm. Thus this caster has – like block casters -
at least two hot rolling stands in tandem with the
casting machine. This strip is coiled with a
temperature of about 200°C.
The alloy range is wider than in the case of twin
drum casters with a limit for the Mg content at 3%.
But the best results are obtained with pure
aluminium and AlMn alloys. The product is not
suitable for applications desiring extra high surface
quality.
block caster
chilling blocks is mounted adjacent to each other on
a pair of opposing tracks.
Block casters employ precise dimensional control to
prevent flash caused by small gaps between the
blocks leading to sliver defects when the strip is hot
rolled.
Alusuisse Caster II
The technology is suited for a wider range of alloys,
for example for aluminium with up to 5% magnesium.
It is used for casting canstock (Al-Mg-alloys) and for
recycling used beverage cans (UBC).
The machine can be used for casting materials that
are likely to suffer chill cracks in the case of fast
cooling.
It is possible to cast strip or slab.
The annual capacity for such casters can reach 100
kt/year with three-shift operation.
block caster
Alusuisse Caster II
The caster has two sets of blocks, which rotate to form a
moving mould cavity into which the liquid metal is poured.
Due to the contact with the chilling blocks the metal
solidifies. The strip is transported together with these blocks
until it is cool enough to leave the caster. Than the blocks lift
off and return. On their way back the heat absorbed by the
blocks is removed by external cooling.
This cooling section with its unique construction is the reason
of the ability to produce a wider range of alloys. The heat
flow in the moulds is reversed. Block temperatures between
50°C and 200°C can be used. It is possible to control the
casting process on several ways: the solidification rate by
cooling, the casting rate, the surfaces of the moulds and
coating of the moulds.
aluminium technologies
15.12.2015
Continuous casting
● Continuous casting offers substantial savings in the
production of aluminium sheet.
● Processing cycle is much shorter since the melt is
converted into 2-10 mm thick strip that can be
cold rolled to sheet gauges without the need for
hot rolling.
● However, continuous casting is not suitable for
every alloy group. Only those alloys that can
solidify in a short time while passing through the
caster rolls. Those alloys are the alloys with a
rather narrow solidification range.
Strip casting/cold rolling route
TRC homogenization Cold rolling mill
T 500-600C

t = 5 - 6 mm 
 1-2 mm

 
 
 


Annealing
furnace
Softening anneal Cold rolling mill Partial anneal
T 250-400C T 150-250C
   
 



<1 mm 


   
   
 

Annealing furnace Annealing furnace

Structure and properties of
strip castings
Main features of all continuous casting technologies
are a high solidification and cooling rate, which
affect the structure compared to conventional
products (DC casting followed by hot and cold
rolling).
In particular, the very much higher solidification
rates have an effect, as does the formation of two or
more solidification fronts.
For example the dendrite spacing and cell sizes are
decreasing with higher cooling rate.
Structure and properties of
strip castings
● Continuous cast products show a supersaturation of
alloying elements or impurities, that can have an
effect on subsequent thermal treatments.
● Other features are a higher density of
imperfections (especially dislocations, dislocation
loops, vacancies and vacancy clusters), a fine grain
size, surface segregation and a centreline
segregation.
Comparison of casting processes
Structure and properties of
strip castings
Strip casting offers several metallurgical advantages
due to rapid solidification –
A fine cast structure is obtained with fine dendrites
and a fine grain size.
Segregation is lessened. Therefore some alloys could
have better properties than conventional produced
foil stock.
After the casting the material has to be cold rolled,
where a high degree of deformation brings a good
quality of the surface.
Cast strip has a light plastic deformation.
Behaviour of cast strip in
further processing
(rolling,thermal treatment)
In further processing the special features of the material
must be taken into account. Due to the rapid
solidification the strip can show a significant
supersaturation, that influences all processes of rolling
and the thermal treatment.
Cold rolling
Strip casting shows essentially the same behaviour as
conventional strip under a cold deformation. With an
increasing degree of cold work the tensile strength
increases, while the elongation decreases.
Recrystallization
● materials undergo recovery, recrystallization and
grain coarsening.
● The RV/RX temperatures for the cast strip are
higher than those of the other materials because of
the higher supersaturation that delays the RV/RX
processes.
● With a homogenisation cycle before cold rolling the
supersaturation can be reduced.
● With increasing alloy content the effect of a
delayed recrystallization becomes more and more
significant.
Recrystallization of commercially
pure aluminium Al99,5 and AlMn1Fe1
strip cast materials
Homogenization anneal
Homogenization anneal

x = D.t
X: diffusion distance
D: diffusivity (Fe/Al)
t: time
Time required for homogenization is estimated by measuring
the dendrite arm spacing, x:
t=x2/D
Homogenization after a cold rolling pass is recommended!
Recrystallization of commercially
pure aluminium Al99,5 cold rolled
90% and annealed for 1 h
Wire bar casting
● The continuous casting of wire bars is also of great
economic importance.
● As is the case for strip casting some production
steps are saved.
● For the alloy content the same limitations apply.
That is why mainly commercial pure aluminium is
cast.
● Other alloys, eg AlMn and AlMgSi, are produced.
● All these materials are although used in electrical
engineering.
Properzi continuous rod casting
Properzi Caster
● The Properzi-Caster (invented by Ilario Properzi,
Italy, 1950) has a great importance for industrial
production of wire bar from aluminium (or
copper) for electrical engineering.
● The usual alloys are electrical conductors grades,
for example commercially pure aluminium 1350,
alloys of the 3000 series and 6101(AlMg1SiCu),
Aldrey (AlMgSi Type).
Properzi Caster
● The mould is formed between the grooved periphery
of the rod casting wheel and the endless steel belt.
● The casting wheel is water-cooled.
● The molten metal solidifies between the belt and
the casting wheel, whose diameter can be up to
2600 mm.
● The cast bar has a triangular or trapezoidal cross
section (up to 3120 mm²) and a temperature of
about 350°C after leaving the casting wheel.
● It is immediately hot rolled down to coilable wire
stock. The cast, shaped strands are usually rolled
and drawn to wire, and then coiled.
Properzi Caster
Properzi rod is usually delivered at 12 mm diameter
to be drawn by dry drawing machines to a final
diameter of
0.3 mm to
4.0 mm
depending
on the
application.
temper designations for wrought
alloys
XXXX -F as fabricated
-O annealed to soft condition

hardening only by cold work

Non heat treatable alloys/
XXXX -H1 cold worked only
-H2 cold worked and annealed
-H3 stabilized with a low temperature
anneal after cold work
-HX2 quarter hard
-HX4 half hard
-HX6 three quarter hard
-HX8 full hard
-HX9 extra hard
H temper designations
Hxy x: secondary treatment
1 Cold work – no anneal!
2 Cold work + partial anneal!
3 Cold work + "stabilization"
4 Cold work + baked
3104-H19
Al-Mn alloy/ can body stock
Produced in the extra hard temper by cold rolling!
H temper designations
H-tempers
Non heat tretable aluminium alloys are hardened by
cold work.
H tempers are represented by 2 digit codes.

H x y (degree of hardening)
2: 1/4 hard: quarter sert (%15-20 reduction)
4: 1/2 hard: half hard (%30-40 reduction)
6: 3/4 hard: 3 quarter hard (60-65 reduction)
8: 4/4 hard: full hard (%80 reduction)
9: extra hard (%90 reduction)
 H temper designations
 H1X tempers are produced by cold rolling as the
final step with a reduction ratio to ensure the
degree of hardening required.
 H2X tempers, on the other hand, are first cold
rolled to a full or extra hard temper and then
annealed under precisely selected conditions to
partially soften the material to achieve the required
hardness level.
 Although the hardness levels achieved with the H1X
and H2X tempers are the same, the elogation values
in the H2X tempers are relatively higher owing to
the annealing treatment at the end of the process.
H1X vs H2X processes

  Softening
anneal

Cold rolling Cold rolling

% 30-40 % 70-80
% reduction % reduction
H14: half hard H24: half hard
typical applications of rolled aluminium sheet and plate alloys
Strain-hardening alloys
1050, 1060 Chemical equipment, Tankers, Printing (litho) plates
1100 Cooking utensils, Decorative panels
1200 Foil (household, packaging)
8006 Finstock

3003, 3004 Chemical equipment, Storage tanks, Beverage can bodies, Heat
Exchanger Sheet

5005, 5050, 5052, 5657 Automotive trim, Architectural applications

5085, 5086 Marine structures, Storage tanks, Rail cars
5454, 5456 Pressure vessels, Armour plate, Automotive sheet wheels,
Chassis parts
5182, 5356 Cryogenic tanks, Beverage can ends, Automotive panels

Heat-treatable alloys
2219 High temperature (e.g. supersonic aircraft)
2014, 2024 Airframes, Autobody sheet

6005, 6009, 6010, 6016, 6061, Marine structures, Heavy road transport, Rail cars, Autobody
6063, 6082, 6351 sheet, Bumpers, Crash elements

7003, 7004, 7005, 7019, 7010 Missiles, Armour plate, Military bridges, Bumpers
7075, 7079, 7050, 7010, 7150 Airframes, Tooling plate
Aluminium rolled products
● Rolled products, i.e. sheet, plate and foil constitute
almost 50% of all aluminium alloys used.
● In North America and Western Europe, the packaging
industry consumes the majority of the sheet and foil
for making beverage cans, foil containers and foil
wrapping.
● Sheet is also used extensively in building for roofing
and siding, in transport for airframes, road and rail
vehicles, in marine applications, including offshore
platforms, and superstructures and hulls of boats.
● Also, while relatively little is currently used in the
manufacture of high volume production automobiles,
it is expected that the next decade will see an
increase of aluminium sheet used for body panels.
Selection of Rolling Alloys
Selection of Rolling Alloys
Selection of Rolling Alloys
aluminium sheet
Rolled aluminium is widely used in many industries
including:
Aircraft: Structural members, cladding and many
fitments.
Aerospace: Satellites, space laboratory structures
and cladding.
Marine: Superstructures, hulls, interior fitments.
Rail: Structures, coach panelling, tankers and freight
wagons.
Road: Car chassis & body panels, Buses, truck
bodies, tippers, tankers, radiators, trim, traffic signs
and lighting columns.
aluminium sheet
Building: Insulation, roofing, cladding and guttering.
Engineering: Welded structures, tooling plate,
cladding and panelling, and heat exchangers.
Electrical: Transformer windings, busbars, cable
sheathing, and switchgear.
Chemical: Process plant, vessels and chemical
carriers.
Food: Handling and processing equipment, and
hollowware.
Packaging: Cans, bottle caps, beer barrels,
wrapping, packs and containers for a wide range of
food and non-food products.
Printing: Lithographic plates
aluminium forging
Forging aluminium alloys
● The forging of aluminium alloys is the process of
converting a uniform blank shape into a final
product by hammering the material between shaped
or flat dies.
● This process may take place in one stage or in
several stages.
● The great majority of aluminium forgings are made
from the heat-treatable alloys, but forgings in pure
aluminium and in some of the non-heat-treatable
alloys find application in certain fields.
Forging aluminium alloys
● precision forgings are used for many highly stressed
parts, such as in aircraft undercarriage gear,
internal combustion engines and other power units.
● forged components have an advantage of near net
shape, minimising further machining.
● the process encourages increased ductility and
decreased pore size.
forging process
● Blanks are cut from extruded stock or from ingot
and, before forging, are preheated to temperatures
in the range of 400-500°C.
● In the production of hand forgings the blank is hot
worked between flat dies, usually on a pneumatic
hammer or a press.
● care is taken to ensure that the degree of
deformation is sufficient to provide adequate
breakdown of the original cast microstructure.
● The rough outline of the component is developed,
with the grain flow or fibre of the material in the
direction of stressing.
forging process
● Hand forgings are usually associated with small
quantity requirements or prototypes which do not
warrant the cost of dies.
● Since these forged pieces are produced without
shaped dies they cannot be subjected to strict
dimensional accuracy.
forging process
● Die-forgings, i.e. pressing and drop-forgings or
stampings, are usually subjected to open die
forgings.
● Simple components may be pressed or stamped
directly from extruded stock.
● Die forgings are produced using shaped dies,
giving a product with a high degree of dimensional
consistency which considerably reduces the
machining to the finished form.
● Such forgings have the advantages of good
mechanical properties and structural integrity.
forging process
● The technology of die forming has advanced to
produce close-to-form forgings with higher
standards of dimensional accuracy.
● In the non heat treatable alloys where mechanical
properties depend on the degree of cold working
it is possible to cold forge.
● Hydraulic presses of up to 12,000 tonnes capacity
and hammers weighing as much as 20 tonnes are
in use for the largest forgings.
Aluminium forgings
● combination of good mechanical properties,
dimensional accuracy and surface finish means
that aluminium forgings are used in highly
stressed parts where structural integrity is of
paramount importance.
● The alloys commonly used for these highly
stressed applications are from the 2000, 6000 and
7000 series.
● The aerospace industry is a major end user.
Forging aluminium
High performance and strength
● used in applications where performance and
strength are critical.
● Forged components are commonly found at points
of stress and shock.
● Pistons, gears and wheel spindles in high
performance automobiles and aircraft are often
made from forged aluminium.
Forging aluminium
Forged aluminum perfect for aerospace
● challenging and harsh environments in space
necessitate lightweight structures that are strong
and durable.
● Forged aluminium’s low density relative to steel
makes it an ideal candidate for aerospace
applications.
Forging aluminium
Forging tools
● Hammers, presses and upsetters are the basic
types of equipment used in the forging process.
● Hammers can apply a driving force of up to 25
tons where presses can exert a force of up to
50,000 tons.
● Upsetters are basically presses used horizontally
to increase the diameter of a work piece by
reducing its length.
Forging aluminium
Mark of quality
● "Forged" is the mark of quality in hand tools and
hardware.
● Pliers, hammers, wrenches, garden implements
and surgical tools are almost always produced by
forging.
General principle of forging
● Forging is a massive forming process!
● the temperature of the workpiece is increased to
such an extent that the deformation forces
required are considerably less than would be
needed to cold work it.
● The two most important forging processes are
open-die forging (in which forming of the work
piece takes place locally and mostly using simple
dies) and closed-die forging (where the work piece
is fully enclosed in a die whose form determines
the shape of the forging).
Types of forging
Open-die forging
● Ideal for processing large pieces of aluminium,
● open die presses do not constrain the aluminium billet
during the forging process and utilize flat dies free of
pre-cut profiles and designs.
● Aluminium blocks weighing up to 100 tons and 30 m in
length can be open-die forged to create large aluminium
components with optimal structural integrity.
● While welding and joining techniques are useful in
creating large components, they cannot match the
strength or durability of a forged part.
● Open-die forgings are limited only by the size of the
starting stock.
Open die forging
http://aluminium.matter.org.uk/content/html/eng/default.asp?catid=198&pageid=
2144416773
Types of forging
Closed-die forging
● Closed-die forging, also known as impression-die
forging, can produce an almost limitless variety of
shapes that range in weight from mere ounces to
more than 25 tons.
● As the name implies, two or more dies containing
impressions are brought together as forging stock
undergoes plastic deformation.
● Because the dies restrict metal flow, this process
can yield more complex shapes and closer
tolerances than open-die forging.
● Impression-die forging accounts for the majority of
aluminum forging production.
Closed die forging
Types of forging
Rolled-ring forging
● Employed when industrial applications call for a high
strength, circular cross section component.
● The process typically begins with an open-die forging
to create a ring preform, shaped like a doughnut.
● Next, several rollers apply pressure on the preform
until the desired wall thickness and height are
achieved.
● Configurations can be flat, like a washer or feature
heights of more than 2 meters.
● Rings can be rolled into numerous sizes, ranging from
roller-bearing sleeves to large pressure vessels.
Rolled-ring forging
General principle of forging
● For large-scale production, closed-die forging is
usually used because it is a very reliable process.
● Thanks to the superior mechanical properties
obtained, the process can compete with the most
advanced casting processes.
● Compared with casting, however, the range of
possible shapes that can be produced is more
limited.
● In particular, it is difficult to produce sharp
corners, undercuts and cavities by use of forging.
General principle of forging
The forging process usually consists of the following
steps:
● sawing the extruded or continuously cast
feedstock,
● heating the blank
● upsetting or bending
● forging (rough and final forging)
● deburring and, if necessary, punching
● heat treatment ,
● pickling or blasting and
● final inspection.
Aluminium Forging
Aluminium Forging features
● High level of strength
● Porosity
elimination
● Lightweight
● Surface finish
that can
be easily
enhanced
● Low material
costs
Aluminium Forging
Strength
● When forged and heat treated, aluminium alloys
exhibit some mechanical properties comparable with
many grades of steel. (SG=7.8).
● The strength to weight ratio is therefore far superior.
For example, the alloy 2014-T6 has a typical UTS of
485 MPa, exceeding that of many grades of steel, and
all commonly used Al and Mg casting alloys.
● Unlike some casting processes, forging is always
porosity free thus allowing relatively straight forward
heat treatment processes that significantly improve
selected mechanical characteristics.
Aluminium Forging
Lead-Time
● A typical forging die can be designed and
manufactured in about 6 weeks.
● Some alternative light metal fabrication
techniques require more complex tooling, which
require upwards of 10 weeks for tooling design and
manufacture, and often much longer.
● “Time to market” is a common catch-cry, and the
forging industry is well positioned to provide quick
lead-time solutions.
Aluminium Forging
Surface Finish
● A wide range of surface finishes can be produced
with forging, from very smooth surfaces to
relatively sharp serrations, and this may facilitate
further surface finishing or be a functional
attribute of the part design.
● Some alloys, like 6061, have desirable anti-
corrosion characteristics without any further
surface treatment at all.
Aluminium Forging
Cost
● In applications where several fabrication options
are viable from the functional perspective, cost
will be a major driver.
● Forging tooling is generally cheaper than, for
example, high-pressure die cast tooling, and the
production rate is higher.
● Offsetting this is generally higher raw material
costs, associated with the necessary alloying of
raw materials to provide desirable heat treatable
characteristics. Consequently, many aluminium
forgings are used in highly stressed applications.
Aluminium Forging
Design Flexibility
● not all shapes can be forged, As with all fabrication
options, it is important to review the
“manufacturability” of a proposed design as soon
as possible in the design process to ensure that
optimum contours are suggested.
● The increased use of 3D modelling packages and
related 2D drawings allow a client to electronically
transfer models to a forging business early in the
design phase to have suggestions on, for example
bend radii and parting-line position to provide
optimum strength and die life.
Aluminium Forging
Design Flexibility
● if a product is migrating from a steel equivalent,
then a review of fatigue stresses may be desirable
so that all performance criteria are met with a
new aluminium part.
● Although most aluminium forging in Australia is
“closed-die”, the history of aluminium forging sees
a large number of very large “open die” forgings
used in the aircraft industry.
● Consequently the physical size of the component
may not restrict the use of a forged component
although initially it may appear a daunting task.
disadvantages of aluminium forgings
● Possible atmospheric reactions
● Warping or variations may develop in cooling
process
● Additional machining may be necessary
applications of aluminium
forgings
● Aluminium forgings are used in many automotive
and aerospace applications due to their favorable
weight to strength ratio.
● A variety of commercial tools and medical
implements are created using aluminium forgings
as these products are strong, lightweight, offer
resistance to corrosion, and can be polished to an
aesthetically pleasing finish.
High performance with forged
components
Wheels Built for Speed, Performance and Safety
● forged aluminium wheels are a great choice for
the punishing conditions of competitive racing.
● Built for speed and performance, forged wheels
are extremely lightweight, very strong and
exceptionally stiff.
● Forged aluminium wheels are found off the
racetrack too.
● High performance sports models from Porsche,
Lamborghini and Audi can all be outfitted with
these sleek and high performance wheels.
Characteristics of automotive forgings
Aluminium forgings are used to save weight of
components which require
● high functional durability,
● high structural integrity,
● high fatigue resistance, and
● high toughness and ductility.
Aluminium forgings in automotive applications are,
therefore, generally chosen for components which are
essential for the safety of the vehicle:
● system components of front and rear axles: e.g.
control arms, knuckles, wheels,
● components of the brake system: e.g. caliper,
hydraulic system components.
automotive
forgings

Control arm, alloy

6082-T6

Concentric slave
cylinder, alloy EN AW-
6082-T6 Couplings for drive shaft, alloy 6082-T6
automotive forgings

Control arm
alloy 6082-T6

Control arm
alloy 6082-T6
Forging alloys
While in principle all wrought aluminium alloys can
be die or hand forged, only a limited selection of
alloys is commonly used.
The preferred alloys include:
● Non-age-hardening alloys:
EN AW-5754-H112 (AlMg3)
EN AW-5083-H112 (AlMg4.5Mn0.7)
● Age-hardening alloys:
EN AW-2014-T6 (AlCu4SiMg)
EN AW-2024-T4 (AlCu4Mg1)
EN AW-6082-T6 (AlSi1MgMn)
EN AW-7075-T6, -T73 (AlZn5.5MgCu)
Forging alloys
For reasons of strength, age-hardening alloys are
used for structural applications. Due to its excellent
corrosion resistance alloy EN AW-6082-T6 is almost
exclusively used for automotive suspension and
chassis components. :
Element Weight-%
Si 0.7 - 1.3
Fe 0.50
Cu 0.10
Mn 0.40 - 1.0
Mg 0.6 - 1.2
Cr 0.25
Static properties
● Optimum characteristics are achieved subsequently
by a complete heat treatment cycle (solution heat
treatment incl. quenching and age-hardening).
● In particular, if the heat treatment is carried out
continuously within the production line, the
obtained strength levels are significantly higher than
the minimum standard values.
● In a batch process with good process control high
values above minimum standards can also be
achieved.
● The reason for this improvement of strength is the
avoidance of room temperature ageing between
quenching and artificial ageing.
Static properties
"L" denotes properties in direction of fibres "T"
denotes properties transverse to fibre direction
Forging stock
Forged component

casting extrusion

Pre-form round preform round

part cont part cont sürekli cont

Foundry Wrought alloys
alloys

?
Process chain for automotive forgings
Forging practice
Extrusion

Forging stock

Preheating

Forging

Solution heat treatment

ageing
Forging stock
forging sequence
forging+T6/ grain structure
extrusion + forging
forging+ T6
Extruded forging stock+
preheating
profile 500 C 525 C 550 C
ekstrüzyon denemeleri
pres çıkış sıcaklığı: 490 C
dövme sıcaklığı: 500 C
T6 ısıl işlemi
ekstrüzyon denemeleri

pres çıkış sıcaklığı: 490 C

dövme sıcaklığı: 430 C
T6 ısıl işlemi
section structures
forging temperature (°C)
480 520
As-forged
T6
section structures
Press exit temperature: 500 C

Forging temperature ( °C)

430 460 500 520 540
forged
T6
evolution of grain structure
ekstrüzyon

yüzey
merkez 

ağır deformasyonlu yüzey tabakasında Ekstrüde olmuş fiber taneler

dinamik yeniden kristalleşme ile çok ince eş
eksenli tane yapısı

dövme

Yüzeydeki çok ince tanelerin Fiberlerin yeniden Fiberlerin yeniden kristalleşmesi ile oluşan eşeksenli
büyümesi ile aşırı iri tane yapısı kristalleşmesi ile ince tanelerin ezilmesi ile yassı taneler
eşeksenli ince
ısıl işlem taneler

iri tane yapısı kararlı eşeksenli ince Yassı tanelerin yeniden iri tane yapısı kararlı eşeksenli ince Yassı tanelerin yeniden
tanelerin kristalleşmesi ile ince tanelerin kristalleşmesi ile oluşan
büyümesi ile aşırı eş eksenli taneler büyümesi ile aşırı ince eş eksenli tanelerin
iri taneler iri taneler büyümesi ile iri taneler
Cast forging stock

42mm
1

42mm
2
Cast forging stock
Profil  dövme  T6

500µm

500µm

500µm
Cast forging stock
Cast forging stock
profil dövme T6
ekstrüzyon
döküm
fatigue
Kesit yapısı makul bir kusursuzlukta
ise, yorulma hasarı daima yüzeyde
başlar! Yorulma ömrünün >%90’ı
çatlak başlamasında geçer!
Production of forging stock
Design of forgings
rules which should be considered in the design of
forgings.
● Fibre orientation should follow the principle load
direction of the part.
● Fibre orientation is determined by the type of the
forging stock, its position in the die and the
parting line of the die.
● these factors largely determine costs and
properties of the part
Design of forgings
Die partitioning:
Partitioning of the part's cross section into the die
halves affects the fibre flow:
Good fibre flow and low
tooling costs. However,
the relatively deep and
narrow cavities are difficult
to fill.
Undisturbed fibre flow and
good filling of cavities. But
there will be higher tooling
costs because of protrusion of
one die face into the other.
Design of forgings
Mass distribution on metal flow
Mass distribution and plane parting faces:
Symmetric mass distribution over the partition of the
die is favourable for good material flow
Design of forgings
Mass distribution on metal flow
Mass distribution and plane parting faces:

However, if this requires broken parting faces, higher die

costs, wear and tolerances are to be expected.
Large changes in cross section produce high transverse
flow (large flash!) with concomitant danger of fold
formation, higher tool wear and detrimental effects on
mechanical properties.
Effect of radii
on metal flow:
designing with large
radii and soft shape
transitions is
important.
Small radii lead to
overshooting of the
metal at corners and
may produce
uncomplete cavity
filling and dangerous
folds.
Design of forgings
Behaviour of forgings under misuse and crash
conditions
Aluminium automotive forgings show a high structural
integrity and perform well under conditions of misuse
or maltreatment, i.e., they deform without
disintegration to a point where the proper function is
lost so that the part must obviously be replaced.
Furthermore, it is a speciality of aluminium and its
alloys that its ductility increases with increasing
deformation rate, see diagram below.
Aluminium forgings are, therefore, particularly suited
for parts which are vital to the safety of the vehicle
under critical driving situations.
Behaviour of forgings under
misuse and crash conditions
Front axle housing (6082-T6) with linkage arm
deformed by "misuse"

Forged
front axle
housing,
alloy 6082-
T6
Fatigue behaviour of forgings
Forgings exhibit optimum fatigue strength if the
main loading direction coincides with the fibre
direction. For a given life time, forged components
endure about twice the strain amplitude of cast
material.
Fatigue behaviour of forgings
Forgings exhibit wrought
optimum fatigue
strength if the main
loading direction
coincides with the cast
fibre direction. For a
given life time,
forged components
endure about twice
the strain amplitude
of cast material.
Aluminium Alloys for Forging
● With the high-strength aluminium alloys
available, it is possible to use aluminium to its
full advantage for technological applications.
● A large number of aluminium alloys, ranging from
pure aluminium up to the high strength
aluminium alloys, can be forged effectively.
● Forgings are mainly used for structural
engineering parts, so that aluminium forging
alloys are mostly of the heat-treatable type with
medium to high strength.
Aluminium Alloys for Forging
Aluminium Alloys for Forging
● After cooling down from a forging temperature of
about 400°C, the forgings are in a soft annealed
state. For the non-heat-treatable alloys, this
corresponds to the final condition required for the
application.
● Heat-treatable alloys, on the other hand, are always
heat treated in order to deliver the most suitable
service properties.
● The strength of unalloyed aluminium Al99,5 is only
65 N/mm² and thus too low for many technical
applications.
● The so-called high-strength aluminium alloys have
tensile strengths exceeding 600 N/mm²
Aluminium alloys for forging
Non heat treatable alloys

heat treatable alloys

Microstructure
Influence of Fiber Structure
● strength values are not isotropic over the bulk of the
forged part, being higher in the direction of grain
flow (longitudinal) than transverse to it.
● This is analogous to the "press effect" observed in
extruded rods.
● The difference between longitudinal and transverse
strengths increases with increasing alloying element
content and increasing strength.
● The reason for this anisotropy is the textured
structure and the geometrical location of the grain
boundaries.
Microstructure
● Grain boundaries are regions of lower ductility
since they are a preferred location for coarse
precipitated phases.
● When a force is applied in the longitudinal (grain-
flow) direction, only a small fraction of grain
boundaries are exposed to normal stress.
● Conversely, a force applied transverse to the
grain-flow direction causes a stress normal to a
large fraction of grain boundary area, which can
lead to a more brittle behaviour.
Microstructure
● Experienced designers and forging experts use this
behaviour to full advantage by fabricating forgings
so that the grain-flow direction corresponds to the
direction of maximum stressing.
● This increases safety or leads to metal saving.
● Forming in a die leads to an elongation of grains
in the direction of flow.
● Grains which were originally equiaxed are now
elongated to fibres.
● If, as is the case with extrusions, a fibre structure
exists already, this is further enhanced.
influence of fiber structure
Defects due to Non-Uniform Flow
● In order to obtain a uniform, undisturbed fibre
structure, the metal must flow uniformly during
forging.
● Defects can occur if dies with sharp radii or
unfavorable die separations (partings) are used. When
the radius is large enough, the material flows uniformly
and continuously filling up the die cavity fully from the
bottom to the top.
● If the radius is too small, the material curls away from
one side of the wall, is reflected and flows back again.
● In this case, the die cavity is filled from top to bottom,
causing forging folds
Characteristic Temperatures for
Certain Aluminium Forging Alloys
● Forging temperatures depend on melting
temperature ranges of the forging alloys.
● High strength alloys, i.e. alloys with high solute
contents, have an extended melting range and,
therefore, require lower forging temperatures.
● Strictly speaking, a defined recrystallisation
temperature does not exist, since this is
influenced by the degree of deformation and
annealing time.
Characteristic Temperatures and
Mechanical Data for Aluminium Alloys
Forging Temperature and Die
Temperature
● The forming temperature lies between 320 and 480 °C,
depending on the alloy.
● As far as temperature is concerned, the forging of
aluminium is simpler than for most other materials.
Dies can be preheated to forging temperature without
appreciable loss of strength.
● Heating the die prevents cooling of the forging stock.
The forging temperature range is, however, very
limited.
● Exceeding the solidus temperature leads to irreparable
damage caused by melting at the grain boundaries,
leading to embrittlement of the material.
Forging Temperature and Die
Temperature
● Since the real temperature in the forging stock
during forming depends on the cooling and
heating effects caused by the conversion of
forming energy to heat, the temperature set for
the start of forging depends on the logarithm of
deformation and the deformation speed.
● Care must be taken that the critical temperature
is not exceeded anywhere within the forging.
● Thus, the starting temperatures for hammer
forging is lower than for press forging.
Forging Temperature and Die
Temperature
● Too low temperatures lead to cracks, unfilled die
cavities and high stresses.
● When the temperature decreases, the formability
decreases and the flow stress increases.
● In some cases a higher forging temperature is
chosen, e.g. 500 to 520 °C for forging AlMgSi1,
in order to utilise the forming heat for heat-
treatment.
● The forging is quenched immediately after the
forging process.
Forging Temperatures for some
Aluminium Alloys
Process steps in die forging
Fabricating Processes of Forging
● The term forging is used to define a group of
processes which are mainly forming processes.
● Additionally included are processes of separating
(splitting) and joining, if large or complicated
workpieces are built up out of individual parts.
● The exact processes of separating and joining are
not listed here in detail.
● According to the characteristic differences in free
forming (or unrestricted forming) and die forming
(restricted forming), forging can be divided into
open-die forging and die forging.
Processes for changing cross-
sections
● The processes for changing cross-sections build-up
the fundamentals of forging.
● According to the law of constant volumes,
changes in cross-section lead to corresponding
changes in length.
● The cross-section can be changed by material
displacement and material accumulation, whereby
the processes of material displacement dominate.
Processes for changing cross-sections
Processes for changing direction
These processes include bending processes (free
bending, die bending) and shear forming processes
Characteristics of open die
forging
Characteristics of die forging
Special forging processes and their
aims
Closed die forging without flash
Failure and damaging of forging dies