7.

DESIGN AND STABILITY

7.1 The stability of excavations – Local stability

There are various demands on stability depending on what use the excavation will be put to.
A stope in a mine only needs to be stable as long as there is some activity in the stope. On the
other hand, an underground subway station that is used daily by thousands of persons must be
one hundred percent stable throughout its entire life. There is an important basic difference
between deep mines and excavations nearer the surface, for example subway stations, as
regards stability. In mines at great depth where the primary stresses are large the strength of
the intact rock can be exceeded. In underground installations situated near the surface where
the primary stresses are low the stability problems are mainly caused by joints or zones of
weakness in the rock.

In general, for all types of installation in rock the following rock mechanics system is
followed to obtain a stable excavation:

− Optimize the shape and placement of the excavation in the bedrock so that the stability
problems are minimized.
− Excavate with methods that damage the contours of the excavation (walls, roof and floor) as
little as possible.
− Use the right type of rock support for potential or actual stability problems.
− Monitor movements in the roof and walls of the excavation.

In addition to this, measures are required to control the flow of water. Tunnels and
excavations are usually sealed so that water can not force its way in, or they are drained.

7.1.1 Optimization of the shape and positioning of the excavation.

Optimization of the shape of the excavation is carried out by means of a rock mechanics
analysis that comprises stress and deformation analyses. This is usually done by means of a
numerical analysis that is linked to a suitable failure criterion.
If possible the excavation is situated in the part of the rock that is the most favourable. This
can be done following pilot studies of the area where the excavation is to be made.
Positioning of the excavation is effected so that zones of crushed rock and bodies of rock with
many joints are avoided. In many cases it is not possible to select the positioning of the
excavation. Pilot studies can then provide information, used for example, to orientate the
longitudinal axis of the excavation perpendicular to the orientation of the dominant joint set.
Based on an analysis of the orientation of the joints the direction and sequence of excavation
are also determined (Figure 7.1).

Figure 7.1 Suitable direction of excavation of the Dinorwig pump power plant in Wales.
7.1.2 Methods for minimizing damage to the contour of the rock excavation.

A very important factor when building an excavation in rock is not to damage the walls and
roof more than necessary. Incautious blasting damages the rock in a zone of about 1 metre
around the contour of the excavation. By drilling the contour holes closer together as well as
charging with a weak explosive, damage can by and large be avoided. Powerful blasts also
cause vibrations that can lead to block-falls. In recent years it has become common to bore
tunnels with full-face boring. Boring of a tunnel gives very small damage to the contour of
the tunnel and this reduces the need for reinforcement.

7.1.3 Various types of reinforcement systems

Reinforcement is used to prevent stability problems arising. Common reinforcement methods

− Rockbolts that are set into drillholes with cement.

These reinforcement systems are used when potential or arisen stability problems shall be
resolved. It is, however, very important to use the right sort of reinforcement system.
Different types of stability problems require different types of reinforcement systems. Loose
blocks that are formed by joints are fixed by rockbolting if they are of a certain size. When
the distance between joints is small so that the rock mass forms fine blocks surface
reinforcement is necessary, for example by applying a layer of shotcrete. Surface
reinforcement prevents small wedges of rock between the rockbolts from falling out. In the
‘Q’ system there are recommendations regarding various types of reinforcement which relate
to the quality of the rock, the size of the excavation as well as to use (Figure 7.2).

Permanent reinforcement is designed on the basis of joint mapping and rock quality. On the
basis of a comprehensive survey of all the large joints (1-2 metres) a wedge analysis is carried
out where all potentially unstable wedges are identified (Figure 7.3). A classification of the
rock is carried out in the excavation whereby the rock quality is determined.

Figure 7.2 The ‘Q’ system with recommendations of reinforcement systems (Grimstad and
Barton, 1993).

It should be added that usually a temporary reinforcement of the roof and walls is carried out
after blasting of each individual round at a rock excavation. The wedge analysis process is
shown in APPENDIX G.
Figure 7.3 Mapped joints with potential wedges in the roof surveyed at the Dinorwig pump
power station in Wales. (Hoek and Brown, 1982)
Rock excavations with stability problems caused by stress-related failures, for example
spalling, require considerable reinforcement. Usually bolts are used in combination with
fibre-reinforced shotcrete or steel mesh to temporarily stabilise the excavation (common in
mines). To obtain an entirely stable excavation where stress related failures occur one first
allows a certain degree of disintegration and then applies substantial reinforcement. When a
tunnel is to cross a known water bearing crush zone, grouting can be used to seal and stabilise
the rock mass in front of the tunnel. The grout, usually cement, is pumped into drillholes
around the planned cross section ahead of the next round in the tunnel. The cement forms a
dense screen that primarily prevents the passage of water but which also stabilizes the rock
mass.

7.1.4 Monitoring of movements

To be certain that the excavation is sufficiently reinforced and stable various monitoring
systems can be installed. Extensometers are the most common instrument for measuring
movement. Levelling of reference points in the excavation or on the surface above the
excavation is a further example of a method for monitoring movement. Continual mapping of
cracking in rock or in the shotcrete is also a type of monitoring.

7.2 Global stability at mines

In a mine in addition to requirements of local stability of tunnels and stopes come demands of
global stability. Installations of a more permanent nature such as ramps, crusher stations, and
workshops must be placed at a certain distance from the ore body so that they are not affected
by large deformations or changes in stress caused by mining. If the ore is mined with no
monitoring large volumes of rock can be affected so that serious damage to the permanent
installations at the mine may arise. Subsidence or collapse that affects the surface can lead to
damage to the mine buildings and to industrial installations. In the worst case a town with
buildings is present which may be damaged by the subsidence. A lake above the ore that is
affected by subsidence and cracking in the bottom of the lake can lead to the lake leaking and
filling the whole mine with water.
In a mine, the mining is planned so that global stability is achieved by pillars being left in the
ore. Alternatively the stopes are backfilled with tailings sand or rock fill so that the
surrounding rock remains stable. With certain mining methods such as sub-level caving the
surrounding rock is allowed to fail in controlled or predictable ways. A very important
method for controlling the failure of rock as well as movements around the mine is to mine in
a certain mining sequence. The mining sequence depends on the mining method but is
adapted so that the stress concentrations are minimized and so that the rock movements take
place successively and predictably. In mines where pillars are left for the sake of stability it is
important not to mine the pillars too much so that they can no longer withstand the load.

Numerical stress and deformation analyses have here a very important role to play in the mine
planning. Monitoring and continual follow-up of damages are also very important instruments
during for the rock mechanics design of mining.