BIOLOGY

PROJECT

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 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Anuja Roy, student of class XII of Sudarsanam Central
School has successfully completed the project in biology on the topic ‘Microbes
In Human Welfare’ for the year 2022-2023 under the guidance of Mrs. Heera
Raj.

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 Acknowledgement

I thank God Almighty for this kindest blessing showered upon me to fulfil this
project successfully.

I express my sincere gratitude your principal Mrs Bincy Susan Titus for giving
me the opportunity undertake this project.

I am greatly indebted to my respected teacher Mrs Heera Raj Department of

Biology under whose guidance this work had been carried out.

I am thanking to all the staff for their selfless and dedicated service which enabled
me in completing this project.

I would also like to thank my parents and friends who helped me a lot in finishing
this project within the limited time through their valuable suggestions and
support.

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4
 CONTENTS

❖ ABSTRACT
❖ INTRODUCTION
❖ THEORY
➢ USES IN FOOD
➢ USES IN WATERTREATMENT
➢ USES IN ENERGY
➢ USES IN PRODUCTION OF CHEMICALS,
ENZYMES
➢ USES IN WARFARE
➢ USES IN SCIENCE
➢ IMPORTANCE IN HUMAN HEALTH
➢ IMPORTANCE IN ECOLOGY
➢ HYGIENE
❖ CONCLUSION
❖ BIBLIOGRAPHY

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 ABSTRACT

A microorganism is a microscopic living organism, which may

be single celled or multicellular. Microorganism was discovered in 1674 by
Antoine van Leeuwenhoek, using a microscope of his own design. They are very
diverse and include all the Bacteria and archaea and almost all the protozoa. They
also include some fungi, algae, and certain animals, such as rotifers. Microbes are
present everywhere – in soil, water, air, inside our bodies and that of other animals
and plants and even in Hot springs and Oceans. Some are even observed in
vacuum under certain test conditions. Microorganisms are crucial to nutrient
recycling in ecosystems as they act as decomposers. As some microorganisms
can fix nitrogen, they are a vital part of the nitrogen cycle. Microorganisms are
also exploited in biotechnology, both in traditional food and beverage
preparation, and in modern technologies based on genetic engineering. Microbes
are vital to humans and the environment as they participate in the carbon and
nitrogen cycle as well as fulfilling other vital role in virtually all ecosystem such
as recycling other organism’s dead remains and waste products through
decomposition.

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 INTRODUCTION

A microorganism or microbe is a microscopic organism that comprises

either a single cell (unicellular), cell clusters, or multicellular relatively complex
organisms. The study of microorganisms is called microbiology, a subject that
began with Anton van Leeuwenhoek's discovery of microorganisms in 1675,
using a microscope of his own design. Microorganisms are very diverse; they
include bacteria, fungi, algae, and protozoa; microscopic plants (green algae); and
animals such as rotifers and planarians. Some microbiologists also include
viruses, but others consider these as non-living. Most microorganisms are
unicellular(single-celled), but this is not universal, since some multicellular
organisms are microscopic, while some unicellular protists and bacteria, like
Thiomargarita namibiensis, are macroscopic and visible to the naked eye.
Microorganisms live in all parts of the biosphere where there is liquid
water, including soil, hot springs, on the ocean floor, high in the atmosphere and
deep inside rocks within the Earth's crust. Microorganisms are critical to nutrient
recycling in ecosystems as they act as decomposers. As some microorganisms
can fix nitrogen, they are a vital part of the nitrogen cycle, and recent studies
indicate that airborne microbes may play a role in precipitation and weather.
Microbes are also exploited by people in biotechnology, both in traditional food
and beverage preparation, and in modern technologies based on genetic
engineering. However, pathogenic microbes are harmful, since they invade and
grow within other organisms, causing diseases that kill humans, other animals
and plants. But they have a lot of uses too. Let’s discuss about some of them.
Microorganisms are vital to humans and the environment, as they
participate in the Earth's element cycles such as the carbon cycle and nitrogen
cycle, as well as fulfilling other vital roles in virtually all ecosystems, such as
recycling other organisms' dead remains and waste products through
decomposition. Microbes also have an important place in higher-order
multicellular organisms as symbionts. Many blame the failure of Biosphere 2 on
an improper balance of microbes.

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 THEORY
USES IN FOOD

Microorganisms are used in brewing, winemaking, baking, pickling

and other food- making processes. They are also used to control the fermentation
process in the production of cultured dairy products such as yogurt and cheese.
The cultures also provide flavour and aroma, and inhibit undesirable organisms.
Fermentation in food processing typically is the conversion of
carbohydrates to alcohols and carbon dioxide or organic acids using yeasts,
bacteria, or a combination thereof, under anaerobic conditions. Fermentation in
simple terms is the chemical conversion of sugars into ethanol. The science of
fermentation is also known as zymology, or zymurgy. Fermentation usually
implies that the action of microorganisms is desirable, and the process is used to
produce alcoholic beverages such as wine, beer, and cider. Fermentation is also
employed in the leavening of bread (CO2 produced by yeast activity), and for
preservation techniques to produce lactic acid in sour foods such as sauerkraut,
dry sausages, kimchi and yogurt, or vinegar (acetic acid) for use in pickling foods.

❖ Cheese Making Process

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 Milk is often pasteurized to destroy pathogenic microorganisms and to
eliminate spoilage and effects induced by bacteria. The milk is then inoculated
with fermenting microorganisms and rennet, which promote curdling.
The fermenting microorganisms carry out the anaerobic conversion of
lactose to lactic. In the presence of lactic acid, rennet, or both, the milk protein
casein clumps together and precipitates out of solution; this is the process known
as curdling, or coagulation. Coagulated casein assumes a solid or gel like
structure (the curd), which traps most of the fat, bacteria, calcium, phosphate, and
other particulates. The remaining liquid (the whey) contains water, proteins
resistant to acidic and enzymatic denaturation (e.g., antibodies), carbohydrates
(lactose), and minerals.
Enzymes released by the bacterial cells also influence flavour
development during ripening. The curd is then gently heated, causing it to shrink.
The degree of shrinkage determines the moisture content and the final consistency
of the cheese. Whey is removed by draining or dipping.
Most cheese is ripened for varying amounts of time in order to bring
about the chemical changes necessary for transforming fresh curd into a
distinctive aged cheese. The ripening of cheese is influenced by the interaction of
bacteria, enzymes, and physical conditions in the curing room. The speed of the
reactions is determined by temperature and humidity conditions in the room as
well as by the moisture content of the cheese.

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 ❖Wine Making Process
The process of winemaking involves numerous stages starting with the
grapes being harvested, taken into a winery and then prepared for fermentation.
At this stage, red wine is created during the fermentation of the pulp (or "must")
and skins of the red or black grapes, which gives the wine its colour. White wine,
on the other hand, does not include the grape skins in the fermentation process;
only the juices are extracted. To start primary fermentation, a process that
typically takes between one to two weeks, yeast is added which converts the
sugars in the grape juice into alcohol and carbon dioxide, which then evaporates
into the atmosphere.
The produced liquid, which is known as "free wine," is then pumped
into tanks and the skins are pressed in order to extract the remaining wine and
juice. This wine, known as the "press wine," can be added to the free wine to
bring more character and longevity to the wine. Secondary fermentation is the
next step, which is the bacterial fermentation involving the conversion of malic
acid to lactic acid. This decreases the amount of acid in the wine and softens the
taste. The wine can then be transferred to oak barrels for maturation, with further
adjustments to taste and colour being made prior to filtering and bottling.

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 ❖Curd Making Process

Curds are a dairy product obtained by coagulating milk in a process

called curdling. The coagulation can be caused by adding rennet or any edible
acidic substance such as lemon juice or vinegar, and then allowing it to sit. The
increased acidity causes the milk proteins to tangle into solid masses.
Lactobacillus is a genus of bacteria which can convert sugars into lactic acid by
means of fermentation. Milk contains a sugar called lactose, a disaccharide
(compound sugar) made by the glycosidic bonding between glucose and
galactose (monosaccharide). When pasteurized milk is heated to a temperature of
30-40 °C, or even at room temperature or refrigerator temperature, and a small
amount of old curd or whey added to it, the lactobacillus in that curd or whey
sample starts to grow. These convert the lactose into lactic acid, which imparts
the sour taste to curd. Raw milk naturally contains lactobacillus. And in this way
Curd is made.

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USES IN WATER TREATMENT

Specially-cultured microbes are used in the biological treatment of

sewage and industrial waste effluent, a process known as bioaugmentation.
Bioaugmentation is the introduction of a group of natural microbial strains or a
genetically engineered variant to treat contaminated soil or water. Usually, the
steps involve studying the indigenous varieties present in the location to
determine if bio stimulation is possible. If the indigenous variety do not have the
metabolic capability to perform the remediation process, exogenous varieties
with such sophisticated pathways are introduced. Bioaugmentation is commonly
used in municipal wastewater treatment to restart activated sludge bioreactors.
Most cultures available contain a research-based consortium of Microbial
cultures, containing all necessary microorganisms (B. licheniformis, B.
thurengensis, P. polymyxa, B. sterothemophilus, Penicillium sp., Aspergillus sp.,
Flavobacterium, Arthrobacter, Pseudomonas, Streptomyces, Saccharomyces,
Triphoderma, etc.). Whereas activated sludge systems are generally based on
microorganisms like bacteria, protozoa, nematodes, rotifers and fungi capable to
degrade biodegradable organic matter.

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Sewage Treatment consists of three stages called Primary, Secondary and
Tertiary Treatment.

• Primary treatment
In the primary sedimentation stage, sewage flows through large
tanks, commonly called “pre-settling basins”, “primary sedimentation
tanks” or “primary clarifiers". The tanks are used to settle sludge while
grease and oils rise to the surface and are skimmed off. Primary settling
tanks are usually equipped with mechanically driven scrapers that
continually drive the collected sludge towards a hopper in the base of the
tank where it is pumped to sludge treatment facilities.

• Secondary Treatment
Secondary treatment is designed to substantially degrade the
biological content of the sewage which are derived from human waste,
food waste, soaps and detergent. The majority of municipal plants treat the
settled sewage liquor using aerobic biological processes. To be effective,
the biota requires both oxygen and food to live. The bacteria and protozoa
consume biodegradable soluble organic contaminants (e.g. sugars, fats,
organic short-chain carbon molecules, etc.) and bind much of the less
soluble fractions into floc. Secondary treatment systems are classified as
fixed-film or suspended-growth systems.

• Tertiary Treatment
The purpose of tertiary treatment is to provide a final treatment
stage to further improve the effluent quality before it is discharged to the
receiving environment (sea, river, lake, wet lands, ground, etc.). More than
one tertiary treatment process may be used at any treatment plant. If
disinfection is practised, it is always the final process. It is also called
“effluent polishing.”

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USES IN ENERGY

Microbes are used in fermentation to produce ethanol, and in biogas

reactors to produce methane. Scientists are researching the use of algae to produce
liquid fuels, and bacteria to convert various forms of agricultural and urban waste
in to usable fuels. Ethanol fermentation, also referred to as alcoholic
fermentation, is a biological process in which sugars such as glucose, fructose,
and sucrose are converted into cellular energy and there by produce ethanol and
carbon dioxide as metabolic waste products. Because yeasts perform this
conversion in the absence of oxygen, ethanol fermentation is classified as
anaerobic. Ethanol fermentation occurs in the production of alcoholic beverages
and ethanol fuel, and in the rising of bread dough.

Cellulosic ethanol is a biofuel produced from wood, grasses, or the

non-edible parts of plants. It isa type of biofuel produced from lignocellulose, a
structural material that comprises much of the mass of plants. Lignocellulose is
composed mainly of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. Corn stover,
switchgrass, miscanthus, woodchips and the by-products of lawn and tree
maintenance are some of the more popular cellulosic materials for ethanol
production. Production of ethanol from lignocellulose has the advantage of
abundant and diverse raw material compared to sources like corn and cane sugars,
but requires a greater amount of processing to make the sugar monomers
available to the microorganisms that are typically used to produce ethanol by
fermentation.

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 Algae fuel is an alternative to fossil fuel that uses algae as its source of
natural deposits. Several companies and government agencies are funding efforts
to reduce capital and operating costs and make algae fuel production
commercially viable. Harvested algae, like fossil fuel, release CO 2 when burnt
but unlike fossil fuel the CO2 is taken out of the atmosphere by the growing algae.
High oil prices, competing demands between foods and other biofuel sources, and
the world food crisis, have ignited interest in algaculture (farming algae) for
making vegetable oil, biodiesel, bioethanol, bio gasoline, bio methanol,
biobutanol and other biofuels, using land that is not suitable for agriculture.
Among algal fuels' attractive characteristics: they can be grown with
minimal impact on fresh water resources, can be produced using ocean and
wastewater, and are biodegradable and relatively harmless to the environment if
spilled. Algae cost more per unit mass (as of 2010, food grade algae
costs~$5000/tonne), due to high capital and operating costs, yet are claimed to
yield between 10 and 100 times more fuel per unit are a than other second-
generation biofuel crops. One biofuels company has claimed that algae can
produce more oil in an area the size of a two-car garage than a football field of
soybeans, because almost the entire algal organism can use sunlight to produce
lipids, or oil. The United States Department of Energy estimates that if algae fuel
replaced all the petroleum fuel in the United States, it would require 15,000
square miles (39,000km2) which is only 0.42% of the U.S. map, or about half of
the land area of Maine. This is less than 1⁄7 the area of corn harvested in the
United States in 2000. However, these claims remain unrealized, commercially.
According to the head of the Algal Biomass Organization algae fuel
can reach price parity with oil in 2018 if granted production tax credits. Use in
production of chemicals, enzymes etc.

➢ Algae Fuel
Algae fuel or algal bio fuel is an alternative to liquid fossil fuels that
uses algae as its source of energy-rich oils. Several companies and government
agencies are funding efforts to reduce capital and operating costs and make algae
fuel production commercially viable. Like fossil fuel, algae fuel releases CO2
when burnt, but unlike fossil fuel, algae fuel and other bio fuels only release CO2
recently removed from the atmosphere via photosynthesis as the algae or plant
grew. The energy crisis and the world food crisis have ignited interest in alga
culture (farming algae) for making biodiesel and other bio fuels using land

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unsuitable for agriculture. Among algal fuels' attractive characteristics are that
they can be grown with minimal impact on fresh water resources can be produced
using saline and wastewater, have a high flash point and are biodegradable and
relatively harmless to the environment if spilled.

➢ Cellulosic ethanol
Cellulosic ethanol is a biofuel produced from wood, grasses, or
the non-edible parts of plants. It is a type of biofuel produced from lignocellulose,
a structural material that comprises much of the mass of plants. Lignocellulose is
composed mainly of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. Corn stover,
switchgrass, miscanthus, woodchips and the by-products of lawn and tree
maintenance are some of the more popular cellulosic materials for ethanol
production. Production of ethanol from lignocellulose has the advantage of
abundant and diverse raw material compared to sources like corn and cane sugars,
but requires a greater amount of processing to make the sugar monomers
available to the microorganisms that are typically used to produce ethanol by
fermentation. The main advantage of Cellulosic ethanol is that it reduces
greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) by 85% over reformulated gasoline.

➢ Biogas
Biogas, naturally occurring gas that is generated by the
breakdown of organic matter by anaerobic bacteria and is used in energy
production. Biogas is primarily composed of methane gas, carbon dioxide, and
trace amounts of nitrogen, hydrogen, and carbon monoxide. Biogas differs from
natural gas in that it is a renewable energy source produced biologically through
anaerobic digestion rather than a fossil fuel produced by geological processes.
Biogas occurs naturally in compost heaps, as swamp gas, and as a result of enteric
fermentation in cattle and other ruminants. Biogas produced in anaerobic
digesters can be burned to generate heat or used in combustion engines to produce
electricity. Organic material used to produce biogas industrially includes animal
waste, such as manure and sewage, and municipal solid waste (MSW) harnessed
from landfills.
Animal and plant wastes can be used to produce biogas. They are
processed in anaerobic digesters as a liquid or as a slurry mixed with water.
Anaerobic digesters are generally composed of a feedstock source holder, a
digestion tank, a biogas recovery unit, and heat exchangers to maintain the

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temperature necessary for bacterial digestion. Heat is usually required in digesters
to maintain a constant temperature of about 35 °C (95 °F) for bacteria to
decompose the organic material into gas. The use of biogas is a green technology
with environmental benefits. Biogas technology enables the effective use of
accumulated animal waste from food production and of municipal solid waste
from urbanization. The conversion of animal waste into biogas reduces
production of the greenhouse gas methane, as efficient combustion replaces
methane with carbon dioxide.

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USE IN PRODUCTION OF CHEMICALS, ENZYMES

Many microbes are used for commercial and industrial production

of chemicals, enzymes and other bioactive molecules. Examples of organic acid
produced include:
• Acetic acid
Produced by the bacterium Acetobacter aceti and other acetic acid
bacteria (AAB) Acetic acid bacteria (AAB)are bacteria that derive their
energy from the oxidation of ethanol to acetic acid during fermentation.
They are Gram-negative, aerobic, rod-shaped bacteria. They are not to be
confused with the genus Acetobacterium, which are anaerobic
homoacetogenic facultative autotrophs and can reduce carbon dioxide to
produce acetic acid, for example, Acetobacterium woodii.

ACID AGENTS USED IN

PREPARATION
Acetic acid (Vinegar) Yeast and acetobacter aceti bacteria

Lactic Acid Streptococuslactis; Lacto bacillus

Citric Acid Aspergillus niger and mucus

Gluconic Acid Aspergillus Sps, Penicillium

• Butyric acid (butanoic acid)

Produced by the bacterium Clostridium butyricum. Clostridium
butyricum is a strictly anaerobic endospore-forming Gram-positive butyric
acid producing bacillus subsisting by means of fermentation using an
intracellularly accumulated amylopectin-like α-polyglucan (granulose) as
a substrate. It is uncommonly reported as a human pathogen and widely
used as a probiotic in Asia (particularly Japan). C.butyricum is a soil

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 inhabitant in various parts of the world, has been cultured from the stool of
healthy children and adults, and is common in soured milk and cheeses.

• Lactic acid
Lactobacillus and others commonly called as lactic acid bacteria
(LAB). The lactic acid bacteria (LAB) comprise a clade of Gram-positive,
low-GC, acid-tolerant, generally non-sporulating, non-respiring rod or
cocci that are associated by their common metabolic and physiological
characteristics. These bacteria, usually found in decomposing plants and
lactic products, produce lactic acid as the major metabolic end-product of
carbohydrate fermentation. This trait has, throughout history, linked LAB
with food fermentations, as acidification inhibits the growth of spoilage
agents. Proteinaceous bacteriocins are produced by several LAB strains
and provide an additional hurdle for spoilage and pathogenic
microorganisms. Furthermore, lactic acid and other metabolic products
contribute to the organoleptic and textural profile of a food item. The
industrial importance of the LAB is further evinced by their generally
recognized as safe (GRAS) status, due to their ubiquitous appearance in
food and their contribution to the healthy microflora of human mucosal
surfaces.

• Citric acid
Produced by the fungus Aspergillus niger. Aspergillus niger is a
fungus and one of the most common species of the genus Aspergillus. It
causes a disease called black mould on certain fruits and vegetables such
as grapes, onions, and peanuts, and is a common contaminant of food. It is
ubiquitous in soil and is commonly reported from indoor environments,
where its black colonies can be confused with those of Stachybotrys
(species of which have also been called "black mould").

Anti4biotics are chemical substances, which are produced by some

microbes and can kill or retard the growth of other (disease-causing) microbes.
You are familiar with the commonly used antibiotic Penicillin. Alexander
Fleming while working on Staphylococci bacteria, once observed a mould
growing in one of his unwashed culture plates around which Staphylococci could
not grow. He found out that it was due to a chemical produced by the mould and
he named it Penicillin after the mould Penicillium notatum. However, its full
potential as an effective antibiotic was established much later by Ernest Chain
and Howard Florey. This antibiotic was extensively used to treat American
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soldiers wounded in World War II. Fleming, Chain and Florey were awarded the
Nobel Prize in 1945, for this discovery.
Microbes are used for preparation of bioactive molecules and
enzymes. Streptokinase produced by the bacterium Streptococcus and modified
by genetic engineering is used as a clot buster for removing clots from the blood
vessels of patients who have undergone myocardial infarctions leading to heart
attack. Cyclosporin A is a bioactive molecule used as an immunosuppressive
agent in organ transplantation Stains produced by the yeast Monascus purpureus
is commercialised as blood cholesterol lowering agents which acts by
competitively inhibiting the enzyme responsible for synthesis of cholesterol.

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BIOACTIVE MOLECULES

BIOACTIVE MOLECULES

MONASCUS PURPUREUS: -
Satin is used for blood cholesterol lowering agents. It acts by competitively inhibiting
the enzyme responsible for the synthesis of cholesterol.

Microbes are used for preparation of bioactive molecules and enzymes.

Streptokinase produced by the bacterium Streptococcus and modified by genetic
engineering is used as a clot buster for removing clots from the blood vessels of
patients who have undergone myocardial infarctions leading to heart attack.
Cyclosporin A is a bioactive molecule used as an immune suppressive agent in
organ transplantation Stains produced by the yeast Monascus purpureus is
commercialised as blood cholesterol lowering agents which acts by competitively
inhibiting the enzyme responsible for synthesis of cholesterol.

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USES IN SCIENCE:

Microbes are also essential tools in biotechnology, biochemistry,

genetics, and molecular biology. The yeasts (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and
fission yeast (Schizosaccharomyces pombe) are important model organisms in
science, since they are simple eukaryotes that can be grown rapidly in large
numbers and are easily manipulated. They are particularly valuable in genetics,
genomics and proteomics. Microbes can be harnessed for uses such as creating
steroids and treating skin diseases. Scientists are also considering using microbes
for living fuel cells, and as a solution for pollution.

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USES IN WARFARE

In the Middle Ages, diseased corpses were thrown into castles

during sieges using catapults or other siege engines. Individuals near the corpses
were exposed to the deadly pathogen and were likely to spread that pathogen to
others. Biological warfare (also known as germ warfare) is the use of biological
toxins or infectious agents such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi with intent to kill
or incapacitate humans, animals or plants as an act of war.
Biological weapons (often termed "bio- weapons" or "bio-agents") are living
organisms or replicating entities(viruses) that reproduce or replicate within their
host victims. Entomological (insect) warfare is also considered a type of
biological warfare. Biological weapons may be employed in various ways to gain
a strategic or tactical advantage over an adversary, either by threats or by actual
deployments. Like some of the chemical weapons, biological weapons may also
be useful as area denial weapons. These agents may be lethal or non -lethal, and
may be targeted against a single individual, a group of people, or even an entire
population. They may be developed, acquired, stockpiled or deployed by nation
states or by non-national groups. In the latter case, or if a nation-state uses it
clandestinely, it may also be considered bioterrorism.

AGENTS IN BIOLOGICAL WARFARE

Bacterial Agents Viruses Biological Toxins

• Anthrax
• Small Pox • Botulinum
• Brucellosis
• VEE • Staph Entero-B
• Cholera
• VHF • Ricin
• Plague
• T-2 Mycotoxins
• Tularaemia
• Q Fever

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IMPORTANCE IN HUMAN HEALTH

Microorganisms can form an endosymbiotic relationship with

other, larger organisms. For example, the bacteria that live within the human
digestive system contribute to gut immunity, synthesise vitamins such as folic
acid and biotin, and ferment complex indigestible carbohydrates.

The human microbiome (or human microbiota) is the aggregate of

microorganisms that reside on the surface and in deep layers of skin, in the saliva
and oral mucosa, in the conjunctiva, and in the gastrointestinal tracts. They
include bacteria, fungi, and archaea. Some of these organisms perform tasks that
are useful for the human host. However, the majority have no known beneficial
or harmful effect. Those that are expected to be present, and that under normal
circumstances do not cause disease, but instead participate in maintaining health,
are deemed members of the normal flora. Though widely known as "microflora",
this is, in technical terms, a misnomer, since the word root "flora" pertains to
plants, and biota refers to the total collection of organisms in a particular
ecosystem.

Recently, the more appropriate term "microbiota" is applied,

though its use has not eclipsed the entrenched use and recognition of "flora" with
regard to bacteria and other microorganisms. Both terms are being used in
different literature. Studies in 2009 questioned whether the decline in biota
(including microfauna) as a result of human intervention might impede human
health

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IMPORTANCE IN ECOLOGY

Microbes are critical to the processes of decomposition required to

cycle nitrogen and other elements back to the natural world. Decomposition (or
rotting) is the process by which organic substances are broken down into simpler
forms of matter. The process is essential for recycling the finite matter that
occupies physical space in the biome. Bodies of living organisms begin to
decompose shortly after death. Although no two organisms decompose in the
same way, they all undergo the same sequential stages of decomposition. The
science which studies decomposition is generally referred to as taphonomy from
the Greek word taphos, meaning tomb. One can differentiate abiotic from biotic
decomposition (biodegradation). The former means "degradation of a substance
by chemical or physical processes, e.g., hydrolysis). The latter one means "the
metabolic break down of materials into simpler components by living organisms
“, typically by microorganisms.
One of the most important roles of microbes is breaking up the
complex substances in decaying plants and animals so that they can be used again
by living plants. This involves microbes as catalysts in a number of natural cycles,
among the most prominent being the nitrogen, and sulphur cycles.
Proteins are the basic stuff of organic tissues, and nitrogen is an
essential element of all proteins. The availability of nitrogen in forms that plants
can use is a basic determinant of the fertility of soils; the role of microbes in
facilitating the nitrogen cycle is therefore of great importance. When a plant or
animal dies, microbes break up the complex proteins, polypeptides, and nucleic
acids in their bodies and produce ammonium, ions, nitrates, and nitrites that plants
then use to build their body tissues.
Both bacteria and blue-green algae can fix nitrogen directly from
the atmosphere, but this is less vital to plant development than the symbiotic
relationship between the bacteria genus Rhizobium and leguminous plants and
certain trees and shrubs. In return for secretions from their host that encourage
their growth and multiplication, Rhizobia fix nitrogen in nodules of the host
plant’s roots, providing nitrogen in a form usable by the plant.
Microbes also participate in the sulphur cycle, mostly by breaking
up the naturally abundant sulphur compounds in the soil so that this vital element
is available to plants. Sulphur cycle, is the circulation of sulphur in various forms

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through nature. Sulphur occurs in all living matter as a component of certain
amino acids. It is abundant in the soil in proteins and, through a series of microbial
transformations, ends up as sulphates usable by plants.
Sulphur-containing proteins are degraded into their constituent amino
acids by the action of a variety of soil organisms. The sulphur of the amino acids
is converted to hydrogen sulphide (H2S) by another series of soil microbes. In
the presence of oxygen, H2S is converted to sulphur and then to sulphate by
sulphur bacteria. Eventually the sulphate becomes H2S.

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HYGIENE

Hygiene is the avoidance of infection or food spoiling by eliminating

microorganisms from the surroundings. As microorganisms, in particular
bacteria, are found virtually everywhere, the levels of harmful microorganisms
can be reduced to acceptable levels. However, in some cases, it is required that
an object or substance be completely sterile, i.e., devoid of all living entities and
viruses. A good example of this is a hypodermic needle. In food preparation
microorganisms are reduced by preservation methods (such as the addition of
vinegar), clean utensils used in preparation, short storage periods, or by cool
temperatures. If complete sterility is needed, the two most common methods are
irradiation and the use of an autoclave, which resembles a pressure cooker.

There are several methods for investigating the level of hygiene in a

sample of food, drinking water, equipment, etc. Water samples can be filtrated
through an extremely fine filter. This filter is then placed in a nutrient medium.
Microorganisms on the filter then grow to form a visible colony. Harmful
microorganisms can be detected in food by placing a sample in a nutrient broth
designed to enrich the organisms in question. Various methods, such as selective
media or PCR, can then be used for detection.

The hygiene of hard surfaces, such as cooking pots, can be tested by

touching them with a solid piece of nutrient medium and then allowing the
microorganisms to grow on it. There are no conditions where all microorganisms
would grow, and therefore often several different methods are needed. For
example, a food sample might be analysed on three different nutrient mediums
designed to indicate the presence of “total" bacteria (conditions where many, but
not all, bacteria grow), moulds (conditions where the growth of bacteria is
prevented by, e.g., antibiotics) and coliform bacteria (these indicate a sewage
contamination).

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 CONCLUSIONS
Microbes are a very important component of life on earth. Not all
microbes are pathogenic. Many microbes are very useful to human beings. We
use microbes and microbially derived products almost every day. Microbes are
essential in processes like Wine making and Cheese making. Bacteria called
lactic acid bacteria (LAB) grow in milk to convert it into curd. The dough, which
is used to make bread, is fermented by yeast called Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
Certain dishes such as idli and dosa, are made from dough fermented by microbes.
Bacteria and fungi are used to impart particular texture, taste and flavour to
cheese.
Many microbes are used for commercial and industrial production
of chemicals, enzymes and other bioactive molecules. Antibiotics like penicillin
produced by useful microbes are used to kill disease-causing harmful microbes.
For more than a hundred years, microbes are being used to treat sewage (waste
water) by the process of activated sludge formation and this helps in recycling of
water in nature. Microorganisms are used in fermentation to produce ethanol, and
in biogas reactors to produce methane Methanogens produce methane (biogas)
while degrading plant waste. Biogas produced by microbes is used as a source of
energy in rural areas. It is clear from the diverse uses’ human beings have put
microbes to that they play an important role in the welfare of human society.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Following websites and books were a source for this project:

1. www.Google.com
2. www.wikipedia.com
3. www.seminarsonly.com
4. NCERT Biology text of class XII

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