Ought to

Supply the appropriate examples from the set below.

1. Ought is a defective verb having only this form. It is used to express (moral)
obligation, duty, desirability, advice or recommendation.
1.1 Followed by the present infinitive ought refers to the present or the future:
1. ……………………………………………………………….
2. ……………………………………………………………….
3. ………………………………………………………………..
4. ………………………………………………………………..
5. ………………………………………………………………..
1.2 Followed by the perfect infinitive ought refers to the past and indicates that an action
considered desirable was not carried out:
1. ………………………………………………………………….
2. ………………………………………………………………….
3. ………………………………………………………………….
1.3 Ought not + perfect infinitive expresses that an action considered undesirable was
carried out:
1. ……………………………………………………………………
2. ……………………………………………………………………
3. ……………………………………………………………………
2. The verb ought may also be used to express strong probability:
1. ……………………………………………………………………..
2. ……………………………………………………………………..
3. ……………………………………………………………………..
3. In reported speech ought remains unshifted:
1. ………………………………………………………………………
(NB Ought and should are highly synonymous. Ought is more formal, more
emphatic and less frequent than should.)
Examples:
1. Considering how much you have studied, you oughtn't to fail in your examination.
2. She said I oughtn't to worry.
3. If you show the receipt, there ought not to be any difficulty getting your money back.
4. He started at nine, so he ought to have been there an hour ago.
5. We oughtn't to have agreed without knowing what it would cost.
6. Such things ought not to have been allowed.
7. She ought to tell him not to be so rude.
8. You ought to fight for your country.
9. He ought to help his friends.
10. You oughtn't to have told him the truth.
11. We ought to be more careful in future.
12. They ought to have given them the money yesterday.
13. She ought to have been more tactful.
14. You ought to have apologized.
15. She oughtn't to work so much.
 Need

1. Need may be used as a transitive lexical verb having the meaning be in need of,
require; in this sense it is usually followed by an object (a noun) and inflected as a
regular verb:
1. She needs a new dress.
2. He doesn't need that money.
3. Do you need my help?
It may also be followed by a gerund or by a passive infinitive as object:
1. The watch needs mending.
2. The watch needs to be mended.

2. Need followed by an infinitive denotes necessity or obligation having the meaning

be obliged, or be compelled.
Used in this meaning it is either constructed as a modal verb ( it has only one form; it is
followed by the bare infinitive and can make question-tags:
Need he work so much? / You needn't do that, need you? )
or as a lexical verb ( it is followed by to-infinitive and conjugated like an ordinary verb:
He needs to work more to make money. / Do I need to answer your question? ).

2.1 In affirmative statements need is mostly constructed as a lexical verb:

e.g He needs to work harder in future.

2.1.1 Need constructed as a modal verb can be used affirmatively:

a) with adverbs which have negative implications ( such as hardly, scarcely,
never): I need hardly / scarcely say how much I enjoyed the party at your
place. / You need never wait for us.
b) with expressions of doubt: I wonder if he need be present.
c) With negative determiners and pronouns: No soldier need do it.
Nobody need be afraid.
( Non-assertive forms can also be implied: All you need do is ……..
( = You need do no more than …………. )

2.2 In negative, interrogative and negative-interrogative sentences need is either

constructed as a modal auxiliary or as a lexical verb:
Needn't he go now? / Doesn't he need to go now?

2.2.1 The negative forms:

(a) He needn't come.
(b) He doesn't need to come.
may have exactly the same meaning:
(a) is, however, often used for one particular occasion, and
(b) for habitual lack of necessity.
a) You needn't come to the lecture today if you don't want to.
b) People don't need to be rich to be happy.
2.2.2 The interrogative forms:
a) Need I work the whole day today?
b) Do I need to buy anything for lunch?
a) shows that the speaker hopes for the answer no.
b) is uncoloured by emotion, i.e. it does not imply anything about the speaker's feelings.

2.2.3 Absence of obligation in the past:

a) didn't need + to-infinitive: suggests that the action was unnecessary, so probably not
done;
b) needn't + the perfect infinitive: suggests that the action did in fact take place, but it
was necessary;
a) I didn't need to pay for the necklace because it was put on my husband's account.
b) She needn't have come in person - a letter would have been enough.

Dare

1. Dare can be used as a regular transitive verb:

1. He dared me to jump over the stream. (= He challenged ….)
2. She dares me to do it again.
3. Strike! I dare you.
4. He will dare any danger. (= He will face … )
2. In the meaning be brave enough to do sth dare can be constructed either as a modal
auxiliary ( with bare infinitive and with no inflected -s form) or as lexical verb (followed
by an infinitive with or without to and with inflected -s form; the structure with a to-
infinitive is more common, and the structure with a bare infinitive is rare).

2.1 The modal verb construction is used especially in negative and interrogative
sentences. The lexical verb construction can always be used and is more common than
the modal verb construction.

2.1.1 In affirmative sentences the following forms occur:

Present Tense Past Tense
1. He dare do it. (rare) 1. He dared do it. (rare)
2. He dares to do it. (the usual form) 2. He dared to do it. (the usual form)
3. He dares do it. (rare)

2.1.2 In interrogative and negative sentences dare is constructed either as a modal

auxiliary or as a lexical verb:
Present Tense
1. Dare he do it? - No, he daren't do it.
2. Does he dare (to) do it? - No, he doesn't dare (to) do it.
Past Tense
1. Dared he do it? - No, he dared not do it.
2. Did he dare (to) do it? - No, he didn't dare (to) do it.

2.2 In the compound tenses dare + to-infinitive is the usual structure. It is, however,
possible to omit to:
1. No one will dare (to) oppose.
2. I would almost dare (to) swear.
2.3 Uninflected dare refers to the past when used after a reporting verb in the past tense:
1. He told me that he daren't tell the truth.
2. We wondered if he dare come.
(Idioms: Don't you dare (do sth): you must not or I will be very angry:
e.g. Don't you dare touch the vase.
How dare you, he, she, etc: used to express indignation at the actions of others:
1. How dare you suggest that I copied your notes!
2. How dare he take my bicycle without even asking !
I dare say: I expect that; it is probable that:
1. You are hungry, I dare say.
2. I dare say, you are right.