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KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF OPEN LEARNING

ECT 308
TEACHING SUBJECT METHODS:
GEOGRAPHY

SAMSON ROSANA ONDIGI

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL COMMUNICATION

AND TECHNOLOGY

Website: maktaba.elab.co.ke WhatsApp: +254 704 986 447 Email: info@elab.co.ke

 Preamble
This module aims at discussing how a geography teacher should be prepared for the task
of teaching geography in an institution of learning so as to a achieve the highest level of
teaching and learning in a classroom setting. This is important because if the teacher is to
meet the national goals of our education, then teaching and learning should not be seen a
means of preparing “a student for academic learning but both academic and
professional/vocational attainment in this competitive world of self-reliance and self-
sufficiency.

Purpose of the module

Is to provide a systematic approach to comprehensive and holistic teaching in topics
including: the relationship between geography and other disciplines, steps involved in the
teaching of geography, the values of learning geography, the resources used in the
teaching of geography, the syllabus, the schemes of work, the lesson plan and record of
work, problems encountered in the teaching of geography, assessment and the role of
research in geography.

It is to be used for better understanding on how a teacher-trainee can be effective in

his/her teaching career, how do overcome likely problems in the teaching of geography
so as to be effective and efficient in classroom teaching.

How do Study the Module

Read each unit carefully, refer to other reading resources that discuss similar issues so
that you can have a comprehensive, exhaustive and a wider knowledge base on the topics
covered herein.

Each unit will be presented with a summary of the main points, an activity or range of
activities to be carried out for a better understanding. These activities are aimed at
helping you to understand the concepts/ terms as used in geography. It is important and
necessary that you attempt all activities in each unit before moving to the next topic/unit.
Where necessary consult your lecturer for comments, guidance or illustration.

Assumptions of the Module

In writing the module, I assumed that you have some knowledge in the field of geography
and all that you needed is the approach to handling the content to students in a classroom
setting. This module alone will not make you very knowledgeable in geographical
content, as this is merely a step-to-step familiarization on how you can be an effective
teacher. I therefore, wish you good luck.
Thanks
Dr. Ondigi, Samson Ph.D. E-mail ondigi @yahoo.com
Education and Communication & Technology Department, Kenyatta University.

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OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE

• To make the students aware of the role of geography as a discipline,

relationship of geography to other subjects.
• To acquit the students with the skills of development of the syllabus;
preparation of the schemes of work, lesson plans and records of work.
• To familiarize the students with the various learning resources: acquisition,
preparation, management and use.
• To draw the students’ attention to the contemporary issues they are likely to
encounter in the teaching of geography.
• To acquit the students with the purpose and styles of assessment of
geography.
• To show interest, enjoyment and professionalism in teaching geography.

COURSE OUTLINE
• The nature of geography and its relationship with other subjects taught in
schools.
• The functions and value of teaching geography in secondary schools.
• The methods suitable for the teaching of geography with emphasis on local
environment.
• Learning resources; selection, acquisition, preparation; management and
use.
• The geography syllabus for secondary schools, development, structure etc.
• Preparation for teaching schemes of work, lesson plans.
• Contemporary issues one can encounter in the teaching of geography.
• Assessment of geography (knowledge, skills, attitudes) – purpose; styles
(subjective, objective, formative, summative).
• The role of research in the field of geography.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE .................................................................................... iii
COURSE OUTLINE ......................................................................................................... iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS................................................................................................... iv
LESSON ONE .................................................................................................................... 1
EFFECTIVE STEPS TO THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY....................................... 1
1.0 Introduction................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Objectives ................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 The Teaching Process ................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Important Processing Skills to Teach ........................................................................... 3
1.4 Question ........................................................................................................................ 3
LESSON II.......................................................................................................................... 4
THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY................................................................................ 4
2.0 Introduction................................................................................................................... 4
2.1 Objectives ..................................................................................................................... 4
2.2 Task............................................................................................................................... 4
2.3 Question ........................................................................................................................ 6
2.4 Activity ......................................................................................................................... 6
LESSON III ........................................................................................................................ 7
THE FUNCTIONS AND VALUES OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY IN SCHOOLS ..... 7
3.0 Introduction................................................................................................................... 7
3.1 Objectives ..................................................................................................................... 7
3.2 Functions of Geography................................................................................................ 7
3.3 Task............................................................................................................................... 8
3.4 Why Teach Geography in Schools?.............................................................................. 8
3.5 Values of teaching Geography in Schools .................................................................... 9
3.6 Activity ....................................................................................................................... 10
LESSON IV ...................................................................................................................... 11
METHODS USED IN THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY......................................... 11
4.0 Introduction................................................................................................................. 11
4.1 Task............................................................................................................................. 11
4.2 Traditional/Expository Approach ............................................................................. 11
4.3 Empirical/Scientific Approach.................................................................................... 11
4.4 Activity ....................................................................................................................... 12
4.4.1 Activity ................................................................................................................ 13
4.4.2 Activity ................................................................................................................ 14
4.5 Students activities as they related to strategies of teaching: ................................... 14
LESSON V........................................................................................................................ 17
GEOGRAPHY TEACHING RESOURCES .................................................................... 17
5.0 Introduction................................................................................................................. 17
5.1 Objectives ................................................................................................................... 17
5.2 Task............................................................................................................................. 17

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5.3 The Learning Resources ............................................................................................ 18
5.4 Learning Activity ........................................................................................................ 19
5.5 Types of Learning Resources Used in Schools Today ............................................... 19
5.6 Brief Discussion of Some of the Learning Resources ............................................... 20
5.6.1 The Printed Media............................................................................................... 20
5.6.2 [i] The Graphics .................................................................................................. 22
5.6.3 Audio-Visuals and Broadcasted Resources ......................................................... 24
5.6.4 Community Resources and Guest speakers ......................................................... 25
5.6.5 Three dimensional materials ................................................................................ 26
5.6.6 Instruments........................................................................................................... 26
5.6.7 The geography room or laboratory/library .......................................................... 26
5.6.8 Information technology....................................................................................... 26
LESSON VI ...................................................................................................................... 28
THE GEOGRAPHY SYLLABUS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS .............................. 28
6.0 Introduction................................................................................................................. 28
6.1 Objectives ................................................................................................................... 28
6.2 Task......................................................................................................................... 28
6.3 The aims of the syllabus ............................................................................................. 28
6.4 The Construction of the Syllabus................................................................................ 28
6.5 Statement of Objectives .............................................................................................. 29
6.6 Activity ....................................................................................................................... 29
6.7 Preparation of the Syllabus ......................................................................................... 29
6.8 The Uses of the School Syllabus ................................................................................ 30
6.9 Features of the Geography Syllabus ........................................................................... 30
6.10 The Structure of the Geography Syllabus................................................................. 30
6.11 Assignment ............................................................................................................... 31
LESSON VIII.................................................................................................................... 32
PREPARATION OF SCHEMES OF WORK .................................................................. 32
7.0 Introduction................................................................................................................. 32
7.1 Objectives ................................................................................................................... 32
7.2 Task............................................................................................................................. 32
7.3 Designing a Schemes of Work.................................................................................... 32
7.4 Activity ....................................................................................................................... 33
7.5 Some Practical Consideration ..................................................................................... 33
7.6 Caution........................................................................................................................ 33
7.7 Question ...................................................................................................................... 34
LESSON VIII.................................................................................................................... 35
PREPARATION OF A LESSON PLAN AND RECORD OF WORK ........................... 35
8.0 Introduction................................................................................................................. 35
8.2 Task............................................................................................................................. 35
8.3 Principles of Learning................................................................................................. 35
8.4 Caution........................................................................................................................ 36
8.5 Record of Work........................................................................................................... 36
8.5 Why is it Necessary to Keep a record of Work .......................................................... 37
8.7 Question ...................................................................................................................... 37
LESSON IX ...................................................................................................................... 38

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PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY.................... 38
9.0 Introduction................................................................................................................. 38
9.1 Objectives ................................................................................................................... 38
9.2 Task............................................................................................................................. 38
9.3.1 Inadequate Resources........................................................................................... 38
9.3.2 School Administration ......................................................................................... 39
9.3.3. Student Oriented Problems ................................................................................ 39
9.3.4 Curriculum Based Problems ................................................................................ 39
9.3.5 Teacher Oriented Problems.................................................................................. 40
9.3.6 Political Factors ................................................................................................... 41
9.4 The Challenges Facing Geography Teachers ............................................................. 41
9.5 Question ...................................................................................................................... 41
LESSON X........................................................................................................................ 42
ASSESSMENT OF GEOGRAPHY: KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS AND ATTITUDES:
SUBJECTIVE, OBJECTIVE, FORMATIVE AND SUMMATIVE ............................... 42
10.0 Introduction............................................................................................................... 42
10.1 Objectives ................................................................................................................. 42
10.2 Task........................................................................................................................... 42
10.3 Evaluation and Measurement.................................................................................... 42
10.4 Purposes for Evaluation and Measurement............................................................... 42
10.5 How to make Tests.................................................................................................... 43
10.6 Types of Tests ........................................................................................................... 43
10.7 Question .................................................................................................................... 43
10.8 Grading papers and Minimizing Students’ Complaints About Grading................... 43
10.9 Preventing Academic Dishonesty. ............................................................................ 44
LESSON XI ...................................................................................................................... 45
THE ROLE OF RESEARCH IN GEOGRAPHY ............................................................ 45
11.0 Introduction............................................................................................................... 45
11.1 Objectives ................................................................................................................. 45
11.2 The Role of Research in Geography......................................................................... 45
11.3 Task........................................................................................................................... 46
11.4 Steps to Follow when Doing Research ..................................................................... 46
11.5 Learning activity. ..................................................................................................... 46
11.6 Seven Ares of Scientific Dishonesty......................................................................... 46
11.6 Project Work ............................................................................................................ 47
References......................................................................................................................... 48

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 LESSON ONE

EFFECTIVE STEPS TO THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY

1.0 Introduction
The teaching of geography is a challenging, involving, and exciting adventure. A teacher
experiences successes, discouragement, delights and frustrations. But, both students and
teachers can overcome these frustrations, difficulties and disappointments, and thus enjoy
the pleasures of the discipline by taking a keen interest in understanding the subject
matter and apply the knowledge and skills learnt very effectively and adequately.

Therefore, the teacher is expected to be fully prepared and ‘well-baked’ to be able to

handle the content in class and prepare the students in the best way possible, that is, to
say enable the students gain the knowledge and necessary skills in the discipline which
will make tem useful in the community as they participate towards national building and
pursuing a better life filled with happiness and joy. In essence the teaching and learning
of geography does not only take place in the classroom, but in all spheres of life.

1.1 Objectives
By the end of this lesson, the learner should be able to:
(i) Identify the steps undertaken in effective classroom
teaching.
(ii) Discuss each of the steps as pursued in class for effective
learning.
(iii) Describe the required general and specific competencies of
a geography teacher.

1.2 The Teaching Process

Effective teaching in the classroom involves a rigorous process and thus is not as easier
as entering into a dance in a dancing hall for dancing has no formula. In fact, learning to
be an effective teacher is complex – even more difficult than undoing a puzzle, making a
co-web or learning geography. In order to be successful in teaching a lesson in class,
there are general steps, which a teacher needs to understand as one prepares to undertake
the tasks of guiding and directing students in the classroom.

Task 1

(a) Think through a teaching process and diagrammatically outline the steps you
Below iswill undertakeflowchart
a schematic to achieve effective
that classroom
illustrates teaching.
the many factors involved in he teaching
(b) Compare your outline
of geography (see figure 1.0). with the one discussed herein and show the weaknesses
and strengths of the two outlines.
Figure 1.0: Showing processes of instruction

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 Teacher
From previous Instruction To subsequent instruction

Feedback
Determine objective of Evaluate achievement
instruction and instruction

Choose strategies to gain Implement plans in the

objective classroom

Develop unit / lesson

and daily teaching plans
Source: Adopted and modified from Donovan and Gerald [1972).

Step 1:
The teacher is required to articulate very specific objectives that direct the students to
what they should know (concepts), do (skills) and feel (attitudes). Therefore instructional
objectives must be:
(a) Clearly stated,
(b) Be precise,
(c) Achievable, and
(d) Measurable.

Step II
The teacher must determine appropriate strategies for instruction in order to achieve the
stated objectives in Step I above. The teacher ought to be careful and thoughtful in
choosing appropriate pedagogical strategies, i.e. those that befits the lesson or unit or
topic that is being offered in class at that given time.

Step III
The teacher must develop the unit or lesson by studying the relevant content, make notes,
define concepts and be ready for teaching.

Step IV
It is upon the teacher to implement the teaching plans in the classroom. The teacher and
the student must work together to make the learning process a success. Therefore, the
strategy chosen must be one that meets the prevailing circumstances in the classroom and
nature of the topic offered.
Step V

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The teacher has the task of finding out if the objectives articulated for a particular lesson
have been achieved. The teacher therefore has to evaluate his work by assessing the
students' understanding on the topic or lesson. Evaluation is important in providing both
the teacher and the student with a feedback on the performance and achievement of both
the parties involved in the learning process.

These steps are necessary and must be undertaken for geography like any other discipline
of study is concerned primarily with learning of ideas, processes of reasoning and
synthesizing of information that prepares one for a particular task or opportunities in life
and in nation building. Therefore, there is need for the teacher to prepare his students in
all ways of thinking and organizing knowledge in both the social and scientific manner of
reasoning. Geography like any other disciplines taught in schools ought to prepare
students who are organized in their work, way of reasoning (critical thinkers) and
visionary in articulating geographical issues, that is, being creative thinkers.

1.3 Important Processing Skills to Teach

As the teacher thinks about his lesson, it is important to pass on to the students among
other skills, the following:
(a) Comprehension skills, that is, those skills which enable the students to read and
understand complex issues in the discipline and how these knowledge relates to
other disciplines
(b) Document literacy skills such as those students might need to read geographical
charts and tables in order to make a meaningful life, and
(c) Quantitative skills just like those a customer might need to apply in filling out an
order form or in managing a savings or current account with a bank.
There are several other categories of skills including interpersonal, organizational,
communication skills, drawing skills among others that teachers must impart in students.
These skills are necessary in the student's life and therefore the teacher must carefully
think about how to pas these skills to the students in the course of teaching.

1.4 Question
[a] How can a geography teacher train students with knowledge and
skills that provide for individual/student opportunities that:
(i) Could help the student improve career productivity,
(ii) Contribute towards strengthening Kenya’s
competitiveness in the global economy and
(iii) Be self-reliant and self-sufficient in improving the
environment around him/her.
[b] Suppose students have difficult following a lecturer, how can
the teacher improve his/her lesson for the benefit of both the
students and the teacher?

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 LESSON II

THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY

2.0 Introduction
In essence, the teaching of geography just like in any other subject taught in schools
ought to be taken seriously and with ultimate concern. At times, the teaching of
geography is never taken seriously as some teachers think that geography does not need a
scientific approach in handling its content. According to Gopsill (1973), any technique
of teaching must be true to the nature of the subject. He further observes that the only
way of discovering what is true to the nature of the subject is by:
(a) Taking a critical philosophical examination of the subject, and
(b) Looking at the assumptions about the subject as implied in the existing
techniques of inquiry into the disciplined.

2.1 Objectives

By the end of this lesson, the learner should be able to describe the
general and specific competencies expected in the teaching of
geography.

2.2 Task

(a) In your own understanding, take a deep thinking into the

discipline of geography, and list several characteristics that
you can give geography.
(b) Among these characteristics how do you think geography
relates t other disciplines taught in institutions of learning.
(c) State several reasons how you think geography is different
form the stated disciplines in (b) above.

It is important to observe that those who propose to teach geography in schools or train
geographers in other institutions of higher learning should consider three basic questions,
that is:
(a) What is the nature of their subject in view here?
(b) What aim do they have in view when teaching the discipline? and
(c) How do they set about their job?

In all spheres of life, revolution is not limited only to politics, social systems or science,
but can occur in the field of education as well. Therefore, teachers in general need to
assess and rethink about the following:
(a) Change in philosophical restatements in their disciplines,
(b) Modifications in techniques/strategies of teaching and

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 (c) Technological needs of a nation.
It is also important that teachers approach their professional practices and responsibilities
with some degree of efficiency which according to Meachan et al (1969) must involve:
(a) Using systematic and logical method that permits a teacher to promote the
greatest possible amount of learning by his students in the shortest time possible,
(b) Using a technique that takes full account of the individuality of each student,
(c) By the teacher providing an atmosphere in which creativity must flourishly, and
(d) The teacher maintaining the highest possible degree of objectivity in observing
his student’s behaviour.

In the modern forms of teaching, and as given in the new 8-4-4 syllabus in the Kenyan
system of education, there is need for teachers to emphasize on knowledge and skills that
give the student operative techniques in their area of specialization. In addition, teachers
must focus on the national goals of education, use technology in their teaching and use of
local examples so as to give the students first-hand information about their environment.
In essence, the teacher has a responsibility to:
(a) Interpret the facts of the content to his learners.
(b) Correlate the life of man with his environment, and
(c) Explain the interaction of human and natural agencies in utilizing the
environment.

However, geography cannot be taught independently without relating it to other subjects.

This is because geography does not exist on it’s own, but it co-exists with other
disciplines (see Ondigi 2000, chapter IV). According to Morris (1968), geography has
been described as “the field that deals with the association of phenomena that give
character to particular places, and with the likeness and differences among places. More
importantly, the author herein observes that any body of knowledge that tells us anything
about man and his environment hinges on and/or diverges out from geography as a
specialized field of study (see figure 2.1)

etc

Medical geography
Statistical geography
Geography

Historical geography Population geography

As geographers, we can best understand the relationships between geography and other

disciplines taught in schools by using:

5
 (a) a comparative approach in the analysis, and
(b) both a sociological and scientific approaches as discussed by (Ondigi 2002,
chapter IV).

2.3 Question
1. As a geography teacher, how will you make your students in
the geography class understand the relationship between
geography and other discipline taught in schools today?
2. What can make the geography teacher not to be successful
in the teaching of geography in schools?
3. Give several suggestions on how a geography teacher can
improve his teaching so as to be a successful teacher.

2.4 Activity

Plan for geographical trip to a nearby market place, institution of

learning, community project and
(a) Observe the activities taking place.
(b) List all possible activities,
(c) Slot this activities into various disciplines taught in schools,
and
(d) Finally try to establish the relationship between geography
and the disciplines listed in (c) above.

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 LESSON III
THE FUNCTIONS AND VALUES OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY IN SCHOOLS
3.0 Introduction
The teaching of geography in schools is very important and has a lot of implication
towards understanding our environment better than merely training for man-power
development alone. We best understand the contribution of geography to education
through:
(a) The structure of the discipline.
(b) Its unique relationship to other fields of study, and
(c) Its method(s) of approach to existing problems.

3.1 Objectives

By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

(i) Build upon knowledge and experience encountered in
previous geography courses in the department of
geography to explain the need for teaching the course in
institutions of learning,
(ii) Discuss the various skills that the teacher passes on to
the students pursuing geography.
(iii) Explain/give reason why geography must be regarded as
one of the competitive disciplines to be taught in our
schools.

3.2 Functions of Geography

Therefore, the aims of teaching geography in schools should be:
(a) To provide useful geographical knowledge and skills which will enable
geographers to keep abreast of times,
(b) For better understanding of our environment and how best we can conserve it,
(c) To contribute towards the general goals of education,
(d) To arouse the imagination of the learners and to awaken his curiosity about the
world around him, and
(e) To develop in the students habitual methods of working and ways of thinking
which are specifically geographical.

Majasan (1971) argues that apart from contributing to the general development of the
student, geography develops the following qualities in the student:
(i) Ability to understand and to explain the common marvels of nature e.g.
sunrise and sunset, the winds, rain, thunder and lightening, earthquakes,
floods and eclipses etc.,
(ii) Have a sound knowledge of their environment,
(iii) Ability to appreciate the problems of other people and to understand why
people are different from one another with various peculiarities in a wide
world,

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 (iv) Geography makes its students think, i.e. it enables the students to go beyond
the mere acquisition of information to understand the past and to forecast the
future,
(v) With the right emphasis on problem-solving approach in geography, students
develop the critical thinking which urges them to examine all statements in
accordance with reason and logic,
(vi) A good geography teaching can produce students who can think, people who
can react to different situations and make use of acquired knowledge and
skills in an original way, and
(vii) Good geography teaching provides young workers who can contribute to the
growing of the economy of their country.

3.3 Task
Imagine you were a geography student eagerly waiting to be
introduced into the discipline, list some of your expectation in
geography and how you think the knowledge and skills gained
will help you in your future career.

3.4 Why Teach Geography in Schools?

The school curriculum and the geography syllabus are very clear on what should be
taught in our schools. The teacher is under all obligations to deliver knowledge and skills
as required by these guidelines. Once, the content and skills are carefully taught, then
geography fulfills among other functions:
(i) Used as a vehicle for the child’s development, fostering individual
development, self-fulfillment an social equality, that is, just to help the student
acquire the art of using knowledge or learning something new about his
heritage, values and priorities,
(ii) Helps the student to live, place himself in the world, to learn his true position
and what his duties are in making the world a better place to live in,
(iii) It furthers international understanding and gaining of necessary background
knowledge in the geography of other countries,
(iv) Provide knowledge for future citizens to imagine accurately the conditions of
the great world stage and to help them think safely about political, socio-
economic and cultural problems in the world, e.g. the bombing of the world
trade center in New York city on September 11th 2001, the war between USA
and Iraq, May 2003 among other things;
(v) Geography is taught at present because it exists in the school curriculum;
(vi) To meet the national goals of education to which society subscribes greatly,
i.e. fostering national development; in socio-economic, political and cultural
aspects, and
(vii) Geography is a bridging subject that joins the natural sciences and social
humanities, i.e. geography assists in establishing the relationship between
scientific and humanistic disciplines.

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3.5 Values of teaching Geography in Schools
In short, there are several reasons for teaching geography in schools among these,
teachers have:
(i) To stress the need for rethinking that should lead to a major change in our
attitudes towards the teaching of geography as well as the general attitude
towards the subject,
(ii) To stimulate the imagination of students and to involved them in the new
process of learning though concepts, philosophical thinking, modes and
quantification of geographical information; whereby the student basically
gains knowledge about his environment;
(iii) To help students understand how best to organize the subject from other fields
that relate to geography e.g. economic geography, medical geography etc.,
(iv) To groom students for further studies in geography and research work in the
discipline so as to be professionals for career advancement and intellectual
satisfactions. These expenses are facilitated by fieldwork.
(v) Help students to develop a knowledge and understanding of geography as a
scholarly discipline and to establish geography as a science subject among
other disciplines taught in schools; so as to develop a working knowledge of
the basic methodology in understanding of the meaning and utility of the
regional concepts, formal and functional regions.
(vi) To bring school teachers in touch with the growing tip of geographical
information and attempt to involve them in the process that brings change to
the subject continuously;
(vii) Provide a deeper appreciation for the physical biotic and cultural diversity of
our planet, to show the need of human society for survival purposes and how
to work out an acceptable connection with the earth’s resources,
(viii) The teaching of geography brings the students’ aptitude into play through
importing the skills of observation, memorization and reasoning.
(ix) With great creation, geography offers the opportunity of aesthetic experiences.
There is fundamental beauty in the great natural phenomena e.g. glaciers,
waterfalls, or volcanoes offer something more than items of intellectual
explanations. There is also emotional experience during adventures.
(x) It infuses a seeing eye’ to the students who become travelers, i.e. the eyes that
can give students the opportunity to enjoy leisure, read symbols on
typography, hills, ridges, mountains, rivers etc. The students who have
studied geography can get more satisfaction and enjoyment from their ability
to visualize accurately the conditions in many places in the earths surface with
which they come in contact with through reading novels, journals, magazines.

However, there are three obvious questions that geography teachers ought to ask
themselves as they handle the disciplines and these include:
(i) As teachers, are we relating our lessons to the current problems as understood
in the society?
(ii) Are we applying fresh thinking to fresh problems? and
(iii) Do our approaches to the subject encourage critical thinking and sober
reflections?

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Indeed, these questions require deep thoughts, self-examination and co-operative
research, if one is to be successful in the teaching of subject.

3.6 Activity

1. As a geography teacher, you are supposed to give the

discipline a facelift. List all the possible ways you will
engage your students during a class- session to make sure
that your teaching has been meaningful to the students.
2. Suggest any shortcomings in achieving your listed
objectives and offer solutions on how to overcome these
shortcomings so as to make geography meaningful to your
students.
3. Ask your students after a lesson, to describe in details what
they feel you have accomplished as a teacher.

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 LESSON IV

METHODS USED IN THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY

4.0 Introduction
In the teaching of geography as a discipline, there is no one recommended
strategy/method and techniques of handling a topic in the classroom. The teacher has a
responsibility of choosing a strategy/technique that best fits a particular lesson/unit or
topic. This chapter explores the various methods of teaching employed in our schools
today.
4.1 Task

As a teacher, think through the approaches or strategies

commonly used in the teaching of geography then:
a. List these strategies/approaches.
b. Discuss in details each of these in (a) above.
c. Discuss possible shortcomings and remedies to
each of these strategies.
d. What general questions do you normally have in
mind before choosing a particular strategy/approach
or method to use in the teaching of geography and
why?

There are basically tow approaches commonly used in the teaching of geography in our
schools today that is,
(a) Traditional approach, which is purely expository and
(b) Empirical or scientific approach as based on experimentation.

4.2 Traditional/Expository Approach

Traditional/expository approach is the more traditional form of teaching which involves
the lecture method which can be highly structured (formal method and/or informal
method that which involves demonstrations, informal lectures, and class participation by
students, use of textbooks for reference in class, asking questions and answering
questions in class, use of diagrams and sketch maps, wall maps and atlases in class, use
of guest speakers and community resources. In this situation, students are passive
learners and the teacher is in control of the lessons.

4.3 Empirical/Scientific Approach

Empirical/scientific approach is amore modern of teaching commonly referred to as
Heuristic approach, that is, one where the student is actively involved in the learning
process and the teacher is, passive, in other words, the teacher only facilitates learning.
The questions that are commonly asked in regard to the strategies used in teaching
geography include:
(a) What methods do teachers use in the classroom?
(b) Are teachers creative in using any one of these teaching methods?

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 (c) What resources do teachers use in the classroom? and
(d) What have teachers done in giving the discipline a scientific approach?

4.4 Activity
Given the table below fill in the columns the required details to justify whether you are
using traditional approach or scientific approach in your teaching.

Traditional Scientific Comments

Resources 1. Printed materials,
books, journals, maps,
sketches.
2. Audio-visual resources:
radio, TVs, transparencies
etc
3. Use of computers and
computer assisted
programs
Method 1. Lecture.
2.Demostration or
experimentation.
3. Historical
4. Answering and
questioning method
5. Supervised studies
6. Discovery method

Other 1. Guest speakers

2. Realia
3.Community resources

It is apparent that numerous methods are available to teachers, and they are free to select
from the range of methods available. However, in modern teaching, there is more
emphasis put in the use of more scientific approaches to teaching so as to give geography
a scientific look among other sciences such as Biology, Physics and Chemistry. In
essence, teachers should not be letting their students retell the subjects matter of the day’s
lesson, but rather must discuss content with them and examine to what extent the students
have grasped the content covered, that is, the use of heuristic approach in the teaching of
geography is highly recommended.

In essence, teachers should discuss chiefly the contents of the lesson, try to solve some
problems that may arise out of the discussions and highlight essential geographical issues
arising from the lecture in order to get feedback from the students. Essentially, it is
important to use work-books and teamwork assignment, i.e. give individual active
projects on which to work on, but never give detailed guidelines that might provide
answers or give clues. In order to train students well, text students using written

12
examination, give group projects, teamwork assignments, individual projects and
facilitate fieldtrips. Whenever necessary teachers should ask students to work in the
geography room or library for this is where the geographer's tools as those of other
scientists are found. It is also important to use scientific methods of questioning and
answering, i.e. questions involving investigations, analysis, synthesis and induction of
general ideas among other approaches should be used in class.
Experts in the field of geography are designing new approaches to the subject proposing
far-reading change both in the content and in the teaching of the subject. But to be
successful as a geography teacher, there is need to:
(a) Use a separate classroom for geography i.e. a geography room or resource room
that is equipped well with the tools of a geographer.
(b) Have a collection of resources used in the teaching of geography including
maps, atlases, photographs and pictures, models, specimen etc. in the
geography room or laboratory.
(c) Be more creative and resilient in choosing and utilizing whichever learning
resources are available for the benefit of the learners,
(d) Engage students in the learning process and let them participate where
necessary in choosing materials for learning a particular topic or in identifying
resources for the geography room e.g. collection of pictures, clippings,
documentaries, specimen etc and
(e) Be more acquitted to the local studies and field tours .

If the discipline is properly taught, students are normally interested in philosophical

issues such as truth, fairness and personal identify. In essence, students can and should
learn to think for themselves and at the same time be able to:

(a) Explore alternatives to their own viewpoints, and

(b) Consider evidence to make distinction and draw conclusions. Therefore, teachers
should avoid spoon-feeding students and instead train them to be creative thinkers
in the discipline.

4.4.1 Activity

1. As a geography teacher, identify the methods you

commonly use in the teaching of geography and analyze
the shortcomings of each of the methods used,
2. Offer recommendations for overcoming these
shortcomings, and
3. Design some strategies that could be used in the
classroom teachings today to give geography a scientific
approach.

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4.4.2 Activity
1. List possible activities you will engage your students in during a
lesson assuming you used each of the methods as indicated in the
continuum of the strategies used in the teaching of geography.
2. Will each of these activities yield to expository or heuristic teaching
and why do you think otherwise.

4.5 Students activities as they related to strategies of teaching:

The following are the likely student activities the teacher can engage his students in
during a lesson.
Table 4.2
Method used Type of activities Type of strategy
1. Lecture method - Verbal communication
- Formal or informal - Note-taking.
lectures - Answering/asking
- Traditional or questions.
empirical approach
2. Demonstration or - Performing experiment
experimentation action.
- Is used by the teacher to - Manipulating working tools.
guide learners on how to - To show skills acquired.
achieve given - Verbal explanations.
educational goals - Watching a demonstration
through demonstration - Listening
- Teacher user diagrams, - Note-taking.
apparatus, specimen, - Answering/asking questions
models etc. etc.
- Teacher outlines
procedures
systematically and then
allows learners to
participate through
performing the
experiment.
3. Historical methods - -narration , explanation
- Invite guest speakers to (cognitive knowledge)
give historical accounts or - evaluative technique.
facts in their specialties - Answering and asking
e.g. politicians, authorities questions.
in the topic or unit - Reading skills.
covered - Note-taking.
- Story telling – to reflect
on the past and forecast

14
 the failure.
4. Discussions, answering - Problem leading/question
and asking questions probing.
- Problem-solving approach - Asking and answering
where the teacher poses a questions.
problem and students - Questions, classifying,
have to share their comparing facts/issues,
thoughts. - Giving reasons, applying
- Teacher gives clues, knowledge and
directions and guides - Drawing of conclusions.
discussion.
- Solves some questions on
the blackboard.
5. Assignment and - Preparing assignments for
supervised study individuals
- Teacher guides - Group work
assignments, - Studying resources – paper,
- Guidelines and pencil, solving problems in
supervises the fieldwork writing
assignment - Performing experiments.
6. Discovery approach - Providing resources.
- Student-oriented - Projects.
- Teacher only plays - Group discussions.
minimal role as the - Workshops.
student undertakes the - Performing experiments.
studies. - Seminars
- Student consults with - Role playing
the teacher. - Dramatizing.
7. Note-taking - Writing notes from
- Teacher introduces textbooks, blackboard
lesson. dictation,
- Refers to chapter, pages - Observation of specimen,
of units in the textbooks models.
from where students - Reading textbooks or atlases
make notes. - Group discussion etc.
- Writes notes on the - Studying in the library.
blackboard.
- Uses models, realia or
specimens and students
have to make notes as
they discuss amongst
themselves.
Supervises students read
sections of textbooks, maps,
atlases as they make notes.
- Use reference books in

15
 the library.

In conclusion teachers should use:

(a) A holistic approach in teaching and not a piecemeal approach for a holistic
approach will give students a complete picture of content covered,
(b) Critical thinking approach based on the students total (intelligence) intellectual
functioning not a set of defined skills, and
(c) Discussion approach, that is, students should be continually challenged to develop
an inquiry attitude and a critical frame of the mind.

16
 LESSON V
GEOGRAPHY TEACHING RESOURCES

5.0 Introduction
Learning resources are the materials used by both the teacher and the students in the
classroom or outside the classroom to facilitate the learning process. These learning
resources are either acquired locally through improvisation, specimens, realia or
commercially obtained, through purchasing. The learning resources are paramount in that
they motivate learners, facilitate learning, make learners come into contact with real
things, and all aspects of phenomena. By using of varied learning resources, retention
among students is high (Romiszowski, 1968; Ondigi 2002).

There are several types of resources from which the teacher or the students have to make
a choice and these include: printed materials e.g. students notebooks textbooks, journals,
magazines, charts, atlases, maps, pictures and photographs, audio-visual materials such as
TV’s, radio and cassettes, computers, films, projectors and transparencies, instruments,
realia, guest speakers, field trips, geography room and library, chalkboards, globes,
models, community resources, etc.

5.1 Objectives
By the end of this lesson, the learner should be able to:
(i) Define the term learning resources as used in the
classroom context.
(ii) List different types of the learning resources used in the
teaching and learning of geography in the classroom,
and
[iii] Discuss the importance and shortcomings of each of the
identified resources in (ii) above and further suggest how
these shortcomings can be overcome.

5.2 Task

(i) Identify the learning resources commonly used in the

schools today,
(ii) Classify these resources into different categories as
learnt in this unit,
(iii) Discuss the selection, acquisition, preparation,
management and use of these resources,
(iv) What are the strengths and weaknesses of using each
of these resources listed here, and
(v) What are the shortcoming associated with the use for
these learning resources? Suggest possible solution to
these shortcomings.

17
5.3 The Learning Resources
As stated earlier, resources are items and persons living or man-made used during the
learning process and these materials are intended for use by the teacher / the students to
improve or extend his teaching or the learning process. Davies (1975) defines a learning
resources as an item or environment that has been structured so that a user may be
expected to learn from it to achieve one or more defined goals. Therefore, a classroom
teaching-learning process is a systems approach, whereby all the elements of the system
must work in harmony to achieve the stated goals of education or objectives of
learning. The learning resources being one of the elements should be in harmony with
others in order to achieve these goals.

According to Ondigi (2002) there is a wide range of learning materials which a teacher or
a student can use or choose from and to be successful in utilizing these resources, there
are some factors to be considered which among these include: the selection, acquisition,
preparation, management and use. The teacher has to consider these factors carefully in
order to get resources with meaningful information (knowledge) which the learners are
expected to achieve in the course of learning. Among the issues to be considered when
selecting the resource to acquire include: the availability of the resources, that is, are the
resources intended for use available at the time of teaching the topic, unit/lesson, the
relevancy of the materials to the content or topic to be taught, that is, the resource should
contribute highly to the understanding of the students; the number of students in the class
will determine the sharing of the resources for ease usage; the cost of the resource based
on demand or supply for the choice of the resource has to be cost effective; the
convenience and storage of using and accessing the resource; by either the teaching staff
or the students, consider the durability, acceptance of appropriateness, and flexibility to
improvise planning and management of the resources (see discussion in Ondigi 2002:
42). Above all these, the teacher should be aware of the entry behaviour of the learners
and the content to be taught before selecting the appropriate media to use in class.
Finally, the decisions made on the materials to buy should be based on the experience and
preparedness of the teacher to sacrifice in some cases (Ondigi 2002, Romiszowki, 1968).
The selection can be compounded by the fact that: there are too many resources from
which to selects; making a decision on the kind of materials to be bought or used might
prove difficult, and how these resources are to be acquired can prove challenging.

However, the acquisition of these teaching resources can be through the established
institutional (school) procedures or can be through for example, improvisation of those
materials one cannot buy due to costs or are not readily because of being out of stock; in
this case, models/realia can be utilized, by collecting and using the locally available
materials such as specimens/samples including rocks, crops-tea, coffee, sugarcane, or
soil samples, making charts, sketch-maps and diagrams for use in class. It is
recommended that teachers be innovative and resilient in utilizing the available local
resources so as to reduce the costs, use resources, easy to adjust to the learners’ level and
teachers’ needs in class, and where possible use personal creativity in developing some
resources.

18
Ondigi (2002) argues that the decision on the learning resources to acquire and how many
depends on a range of factors as discussed earlier, but these problems can be overcome
by getting information on required and recommended textbooks; as for Kenyan's case, it
will be from the Ministry of Education in conjunction with the publisher including: KIE,
Kenya Literature Bureau, the Jomo Kenyatta Foundation, British Council, books in print
and a book list in Educational products information exchange (EPIEC), catalogues such
as local newspapers, library services and book stores. The preparation, management and
use of the resources is best organized by the departmental head, the respective teachers or
by the librarian based on the need and usage of the resources, that is, required textbooks
are normally issued to the students with copies given to the subject teacher and reference
copies are either put in the department library, geography room or the main school library
for reference by all users. It is important that, no such books should be kept by the
teacher, or by the head of department as this might cause some accessibility problems or
inconveniences to other users of the resource(s).

5.4 Learning Activity

(i) List the type of teaching-learning resources used in
your school and consider what factors were taken into
account when acquiring these resources, and
(ii) Consider the possible shortcomings encountered in the
use of these resources, then offer the best solutions to
overcoming these problems as of today.

5.5 Types of Learning Resources Used in Schools Today

Basically, these learning resources can be divided into three broad categories:- printed
media which includes textbooks, magazines and journals, graphic media which includes
maps, atlases, drawings and diagrams, charts and graphs, and cartoons; such as posters
and blackboards, and information technologies which is basically the use of computers
especially internet in teaching and learning. Three dimension materials such as realia,
models, objects, samples and specimens; community resources and guest speakers; and
audio-visual materials including slides, films strips and documentary films, tapes,
projectors, television and radios, and display material.

According to Asiach and Oketch (1988; 133) resources could be further categorized as:
students individual learning resources which include: the learners’ notebooks, pens and
pencils among others; the teacher’s resources which include all that the teacher need to
sue for the purposes of facilitating the process of teaching and learning, these include the
teachers guide books; manuals and textbooks, chalkboard, reference and finally the
instructional resources which are basically teaching aids: maps and globes, apparatus etc.

Ogonda (1988:50-51) has further identified these categories of the geographical raw
materials as:

(a) First hand geographical raw materials which are basically geographical
features that can be observed in the field as opposed to those that can be

19
 observed in the classroom. These resources are called first hand information
because students see he real features in their true settings.
(b) Second-hand geographic raw materials are those that can be observed in
photographs and pictures, documentary films and film-strips. These resources
are called second hand because they are in pictorial form; and
(c) Third hand geographical raw materials are those that are already recorded and
can be observed in the form of maps, diagrams, statistical accounts or census
data, models among others. The observation of such information should be
done with a lot of care and interest since some information may be faulty or
out of date.

Whereas these resources are important in enhancing the learning process, Davies
(1975:6) has classified hierarchically all learning resources by learning potency, that is,
how powerful the resources are likely to be in assisting the learner gain useful knowledge
and skills, for these resources are arranged from weak to powerful and has graded them
as:
(i) Latent – these are potentially useful resources but only when used with or
applied to an information carrying resources, for example, a tape recorder
without any recorded tape or a television without electricity (power) or a
documentary film and vice versa.
(ii) Passive – this contain information which is not specifically organized to
facilitate retrieval and use of that information by a particular person, for
example, an ordinary book that does not relate to the discipline, and
(iii) Active – they are organized to facilitate use of either, direct or via a mediator,
by particular people or groups, for example a learning programme or a set of
teaching notes.

5.6 Brief Discussion of Some of the Learning Resources

As indicated here, a variety of learning resources are used in the teaching and learning of
geography in schools. Some of these resources have strengths and weaknesses that will
be highlighted here and among these include:

5.6.1 The Printed Media

These resources include: textbooks, booklets, maps, atlases, periodicals, newspapers,
magazines, journals and supplementary textbooks among others.
[i] Textbooks
This is the most commonly used teaching and learning resource used in the
schools. There are normally required and recommended textbooks for any
discipline taught in schools. A good textbook should be one authored by a subject
specialist, must assist the teacher in achieving the learning objectives in the
classroom, should be of technical quality, with legible print, be up-to-date, well
bound, should contain visual images such as good photographs and pictures,
statistical data and graphs among other qualities. It is recommended that each
student gets a textbook or at least share a book amongst three students at most.
This will enable the students to gainfully utilize the resource without
inconveniences. Textbooks are categorized into the conventional textbooks which

20
 give a complete logical account of the subject matter without providing
suggestions for further readings and problems or practical exercises to work on;
textbooks stressing individual and group work by emphasizing on directed
observation, each lesson including appropriate texts, photographs and other
illustrative materials with suggestions for questions and exercises to be worked
out; and finally textbooks combining the two categories above and these are more
of manuals that just guide the students in his study. This type of resource consist
of content that is connected and leading to general conclusions, whereby the
student learns by doing. The third category, is the most recommended resource to
use for it gives the student the opportunity to gain knowledge and skills through
the discovery approach during the learning process (See further discussion in
Ondigi 2002 45-48; and UNESCO sourcebook 1965).

(ii) The Students’ Notebooks

According to UNESCO’s (1965) sourcebook, some teachers favour a single notebook
containing both class notes and exercises done by the student. This is important because
the notebook provides an orderly arrangement of class notes, fieldwork notes and maps
as inserted in the appropriate parts of the topics or lessons covered. More importantly,
this is personal work that is in good order and readily available for revision. The teacher
should assign students a lot of practical exercises such as map-making, drawing sketches
and diagrams to enable students seek for more information as this will make their work
more comprehensive in nature. In all aspects, the notebook is very important to the
student as it contains a lot of information from lecturers, personal studies and practical
works.

(iii) Pictures
These are visual representatives or images painted, drawn or photographed or otherwise
rendered on a flat surface (Ondigi 20002; UNESCO, 1965). When effectively utilized in
class during the teaching and learning of geography, pictures provide an important link
between outdoor and indoor study. If carefully selected and according to the theme of
study, pictures help students to fill-in gaps in their knowledge and in creative
imagination or thinking within the discipline. Since pictures help students to create
mental pictures, they are able to recall information very vividly and accurately.
Therefore, pictures can help students to correct any false images they might have formed
through mishearing or misunderstanding of the verbal descriptions in class.

Pictures in the teaching of geography form the most integral part of the lesson, as
materials for study and can be used for illustrations on items which are unfamiliar to
students about which they need to know and they present valuable supplement to verbal
description of the geographical features. Pictures chosen for use in the classroom must
be useful and apparently rich in geographical content, should be sharp and clear, and
must be used for questioning and discussion exercises. It is generally recommended that
the teacher use coloured pictures because they are normally the best and these pictures
are attractive to the users.

21
(iv) Photographs
A photograph is usually an image especially a negative print, recorded by a camera and
reproduced on a photosensitive surface. Like, pictures, they are used for teaching various
geographical information especially in photographic work. These photographs help
students to interpret information correctly and vividly. Photographs assist students in
creating a mental picture of what they are seeing and learning. A good photograph must
interest and attract the learner, must be bright and clear of any distortion, should show a
variety of details and stimulate a desire in the student to know more. The photographs,
should somehow appeal to the emotions of the learner, his interest to know more and
appreciation of the knowledge gained. Photographs form an important learning resource.

(v) Chalkboard
The chalkboard remains first and foremost the most important leaning resource of all the
resources utilized in the learning process. It is an essential equipment necessary for
classroom use, where the teacher records observed points during the lecture, difficult
concepts, terminologies, drawing, diagrams and sketch-maps or any cartographic works.
The teacher should use the blackboard neatly and in a very orderly way and clarity.

According to Nacino et al (1982) a teacher should have some good and effective
techniques of using the chalkboard and among these include: not cluttering the board
with unnecessary materials, write neat and legible handwritings, ensure that every
student is able to see the board; underline, circle or draw a frame round main points to
focus attention of learners on important information, avoid unnecessary erasing of
information written on the board or before students can complete writing notes or
making corrections with a finger, by ensuring that you do not cover the information on
the board with your body or by the use of a stick or a ruler when pointing out to some
information on the board.
The chalkboard has to be painted in black, lighting on the board must be good enough for
students to see and be free of reflections. It is recommended that teachers use different
colours when indicating some important features in a diagram, sketch-map or charts, but
traditionally white chalk is used for writing notes, concepts and terminologies.

5.6.2 [i] The Graphics

According to Wittich and Schuller (1962:110), graphics are instructional resources that
summaries significant information and ideas through some combination of drawings,
words, symbols and pictures. Graphics are among the most useful and powerful aids that
a teacher can use in the classroom for teaching because they are:- easy to use, easily
made, portable and can be used in all subject areas, and in different levels or age groups
in a classroom setting.

Generally speaking, graphics have a lot of advantages and quite useful in teaching when
integrated with other learning resources such as textbooks and statistical data. Some of
the advantages include: making abstract ideas more realistic, highlighting the most
important information more vividly and more importantly, by creating a mental picture
(s) in the minds of the reader, for example, graphics summarize certain types of

22
information like statistical data into charts/graphs which motivate the learner is trying to
make sense of the information contained in the resource. There are many types of
graphs used as both teaching and learning resources and these include; charts, diagrams,
maps, posters, cartoon and comedies. The graphics used must be well presented and
labeled to avoid any misinterpretation of information.

According to Patel and Mukwa (1993:34) charts are combination of pictorial, graphic,
numerical and/or visual materials designed to present a clear visual summary of an
important process or sets of relationship under study. It is important that while selecting
a chart for use in teaching and learning, ensure that the chart is: clear and well-defined for
the purpose intended, should concentrate on one main idea or concept to avoid mixing of
issues or ideas, has important information so as to achieve the desired outcome, a
summary treatment of the information contained in the chart, and it is of an adequate size
for the principle features to be seen across the classroom. There are several categories of
charts and among these include:- outline charts, tabular and flow charts, and
organizational charts.

(ii) Diagrams
Diagrams are representations on papers that include drawings and sketches. In essence, a
diagram is a drawing illustrating the main features of an object, process or a given area.
These are widely used by the teachers and students in the teaching and learning of
geography as in other disciplines taught in schools. Most printed materials have
diagrams showing processes such as weathering, erosion, mining, physical processes of
landforms such as folding and faulting in Vulcan city among others. These diagrams or
sketches as commonly referred to are important in creating a mental picture in the
students’ minds.
(iii) Graphs
Graphs are visual representations of numerical data are usually idea for presenting
information quickly and effectively. A graph further reveals important relationships in
data use such as trends and variations as commonly used in the study of climate, mining,
agricultural and forestry production, population census among others. There are several
types of graphs including line and bar graphs, circle or pie chart and pictorial graphs
(Patel and Mukwa 1993: 32-33).

(iv) Maps
These are flat representations of part or the whole of earth’s surface on a piece of paper
drawn to scale. Maps are the major tools for geographical teaching as they form the
geographer’s important working tool-kit. They are of different types, that is, sketch-
maps, topographic maps, atlases, and wall-maps. There is a wide range of wall-maps used
in schools and these show physical relief, political and administrative boundaries, natural
features and human activities, population distribution and human settlement patterns,
rainfall, patterns, natural resources and historical sites among other geographical aspects.

It is advisable that schools should have a collection of wall-maps, chosen in the light of
the syllabus/unit/topics/lesson taught and must be of good quality; simple and easy to
read; be of adequate size and visible by all students in class, with a legible and

23
conventionally accepted symbols and effective use of internationally accepted colours,
that is, blue for water, green for vegetation and the shading must conform to map-
interpretation guidelines. Good wall-maps must show relationships between geographical
features and the acts of man in the utilization of the environment.

(v) Atlases
An atlas is a vital resource for the learning process and therefore, it is desirable that each
student be a signed a copy of the school atlas suitable for his level of learning. Atlases
form an important part of the geographers learning toolkit as they are used for reference
and as an important source of geographical information. The atlases used in classroom
teachings should be constructed with the regards to the teaching requirements e.g. have
an internationally accepted conventional signs and symbols and colours, and must be
clear of any ambiguity which might cause misinterpretation of information.

(vi) Globes
In essence globes are necessary tools with which the teacher can convey the concepts of
the earth’s shape to the students. Globes also form part of the introductory materials
necessary for the students to use in learning to interpret information more vividly and
accurately. This resource should be used frequently to let students understand the
exaggerations and distortions found in maps, for example, the globe is important for
teaching the student to understand the difference between longitudes and latitudes and
how these are used to explain the differences in times of the days or nights in different
parts of the word. Globes are made of different materials: wood, plaster, plastic or
rubber. They help the students have a 3-dimenstional view of the earth as a whole end,
therefore, forming a good conception of the earths shape and structure.
There are three types of globes, that is
• Political globes designed primarily to show the location and boundaries of
countries, cities, trade routes and other important geographical features,
• Physical-political globes which show some political features with major
emphasis on land elevations and ocean depths by means of attitude tints. This
type of globe also shows the relationship between physical and political
features, and
• Slated outline globes – these enable students and instructors to write on them
with chalk indicating features such as locations, air masses, sea and land. This
type of globes have an advantage sine they permit the teacher to be focused on
one thing at a time and are also suitable for directing the student activities.
Globes have a smooth surface and are molded to show the relief features, depths of the
seas and oceans. They should be kept safely for they are every expensive and delicate to
handle

5.6.3 Audio-Visuals and Broadcasted Resources

These are basically resources such as educational radio and pre-recorded programs,
recorded tapes, projectors, documentary films, and television programs. These are
materials pre-recorded and can be played, by tape records, or VCR broadcast in radios or
viewed on TV for purposes of learning. The most commonly used of these resources is
the radio and perhaps to a very limited extent televisions, videos and films for urban.

24
Schools where there is electric power. Audiovisual materials are very useful in the
teaching and learning of geography since they display real facts and are more specific
than real words in printed media.

5.6.4 Community Resources and Guest speakers

More scientific techniques call for the use of heuristic approach in teaching as this gives
students a chance to utilize the resources within the local environment, that is, the
community. These are common places experiences within a community or outsides the
school which will enable a learner to get first hand experience of his/her environment.
According to Wittich and Schuller (1973:233), utilizing community resources is the most
effective way to help students to become informed about their social and natural
environment as it provides for them a learning experience which is real or life-like and
one available to all learners for firsthand scrutiny, questioning and cognition.

There are commonly four types of community resources utilized in the teaching of
geography and these include:- visiting by resource persons, places, activities or events
and things. Guest speakers or resource persons consist of two groups that is, the
professional group with specialized knowledge by virtual of training and the other
professional group that has gained experience over time due to association with a
particular environment. The teacher should choose persons who are informed and
knowledgeable in particular areas. A person chosen to give such a speech must be:
• Knowledgeable in the topic.
• A reputable speaker and highly respected in that area or discipline.
• Must be an authority, and
• Ready to accommodate the students’ Individual differences in the classroom.

Fieldtrips are essential in letting students visit places to see, experience and form opinion
so as to offer some solutions to existing environmental problems. Therefore, places are
varied locations within a community which can be used for gaining useful concepts and
ideas about the community, and these include: forests, agricultural plantations (tea,
coffee, sugar cane), factories, landforms, irrigation schemes/projects, game reserves and
parks. A simple project will involve engaging students in collecting specimen, samples,
souvenirs data and have them, record the data, analyze it and write a report using the
fieldtrip report writing techniques. This will form part of the learning process. Students
can also be engaged in photographic video recording or taking pictures as part of
cartographic learning.

Events will include going to agricultural shows which are relevant to geographical
teaching. The teacher should guide the students and prepare them as for fieldtrips when
the students are going to attend such function. After the show, the students could be
asked to do a class-project either individuals or group projects.

Things in the community that students can learn from include artifacts which they can
collect as specimens, samples, collect rocks, plants, do paper-clippings as part of
geographical learning.

25
5.6.5 Three dimensional materials
These fall under the first hand and second hand geographical materials used in learning,
and these include: specimen, objects, and realia which give students a real experience in
their own environment. These materials can be viewed either in their natural settings or
as samples brought to class. According to Wittich and Schuller (1973) these materials
can be seen and handled, smelt and tested and in this way they provide a more complete
perpetual experience.

Museum are other places where a collection of original objects and specimen are
preserved for both scholarly, research and for educational displays can give students a
chance to learn about their environment.

Models are also three-dimensional resources commonly used in the class to assist
students to conceptualize ideas for better understanding. Models may represent real
things that are infinitely large, e.g. the earth or the solar system or real things that are
very small liked the atom. In essence, a model is a simplified representation of reality
which is intended to show certain qualities of the real world (Ogonda 1988:123). There
are models showing the stags in the evolution of relief, geographical features such as
mountains, plateaux, hills, coastal and lowland features, gulfs, bays and ports.

5.6.6 Instruments

These form part of the most important learning resources ever used in some schools.
These resources include, apparatus measuring temperatures, atmospheric pressure,
precipitation among others, magnetic compasses, elementary mapping kits, drawing
materials and instruments such as seissemographic equipments, models of the earth’s
orbit for teaching the eclipse materials that will enable the student gain insights and skills
in class.

5.6.7 The geography room or laboratory/library

This is an important learning resource. A geography room is a necessary tool required by

a geography as those required by any scientists in a laboratory [see discussion in Ondigi
2002, UNESCO 1965).

5.6.8 Information technology

The use of information technology in the teaching of geography is the most sought for
and most expensive resource if we are to catch-up with the rest of the world.
Unfortunately, this new form of resource is not most common in schools in Kenya
because of several factors attributed to lack of capital resources to purchase the
computers and programs that go with the lessons, the manpower to maintain and run
these computers and above all lack of electric power in most schools across the
community.

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However, these new technology is venturing into the field of geography and quite
significantly tertiary institutions have greatly invested in this new learning resource, some
secondary schools are following suit and perhaps primary schools need to explore the
resource. In professional schools especially in major towns and cities in Kenya, the use
of computers is a plague or a fire that has caught the forest of new entrants into
technology.

Perhaps, more importantly is to underscore the fact that in modern teacher training in the
field of geography, there is an emphasis that geography should be given a scientific look
by using scientific approaches of acquiring knowledge and skills.

5.6.9 Learning Activity

(i) Take time, say a period of one month and visit about ten
schools in a given area or community and do an observation
of the types of learning resources that are used in those
schools. It is advisable you categorize the resources as
disused herein,
(ii) Look at each case of these resources, how selection,
acquisition, management and use of these resources is done
across the ten schools, then list down the strengths and
weaknesses observed in the use of these learning resources,
(iii) At your best, offer solutions and possible problems that are
likely to emerge from your solutions as discussed,
(iv) Based on your assessment, what is the way forward on how
these schools are utilizing the resources if we are to catch-up
with the rest of the world and
(v) Are the students from these schools observed in (i) above
likely to compete favourably with students in Europe, Asia or
the Americas, and if not, what is the way forward?

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 LESSON VI
THE GEOGRAPHY SYLLABUS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS

6.0 Introduction
By definition a syllabus is an outline or a brief statement of the main parts of a course of
study, as would be covered by the teacher. The syllabus contains the following:
(a) National goals or objectives of education and
(b) The specific objectives of a particular subject which the teacher is expected to
teach.

6.1 Objectives

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

(i) Define the syllabus as used in our educational setting.
(ii) List the major components of the syllabus.
(iii) Discuss the structure of the syllabus and its major
components.
(iv) Discuss how the syllabus is prepared and
(v) Finally discuss the purposes for which it is used in
achieving the national educational goals.

6.2 Task
Get a copy of the geography syllabus 2002 edition and study the
orientation and structure of the document. List and discuss the
aims and structure of this document.

6.3 The aims of the syllabus

Gopsill (1973) argues that the teacher must be perfectly clear in his mind as to the aims
he has in view when teaching geography. When the aims are clearly held, then a syllabus
can be used in organizing the teaching in a particular discipline, in this case geography.
The syllabus thus aims at assisting the teacher to put his work and philosophy about the
discipline into practice. The syllabus also guarantees the teacher a systematic progression
of topics or units in order of difficulty as provided. Thus the teacher must observe this
systematic arrangement of units and topics during the teaching in class.

6.4 The Construction of the Syllabus

Long (1966) argues that it is important for the teacher and the student to understand and
consider why the syllabus is constructed and the purpose of having or using a syllabus
during the teaching and learning of geography. It is therefore important to bear in mind:
(i) Why geography is being taught in schools,
(ii) The preparation of the syllabus is based on the psychological development of
the students.

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 (iii) The construction of the syllabus, include all aspects of geography, i.e.
physical human, historical, political and economic geography among other
aspects.
(iv) Teaching time available must be borne in mind and it is normally
recommended that geography be allocated at least 26 hours a term; and
(v) The syllabus must match the quality and interest of the students who are to use
it.

6.5 Statement of Objectives

The Kenya syllabus for geography in secondary schools 2002nd edition indicates that: At
the end of the course of 4 year study, the learner should be able to:
(i) Understand and use the immediate environment for the individual, national
and international development,
(ii) Identify relevant aspects of development from other aspects of the world,
(iii) Identify, understand and have respect for the difficult ways of life influencing
development at local, national and international levels,
(iv) Know the basic principles and methods of geography in order to help him
solve the problems of national development, and
(v) Demonstrate the acquisition of appropriate attitudes and values which will
make him a useful member of the society.

6.6 Activity
(i) Take the geography syllabus 2002 edition and study it
through, then make a summary of the specific objectives as
outlined in the document.
(ii) What observations do you make from these specific objective
on how the syllabus is prepared and the purpose as it intended
for.
(iii) Discuss the limitations of the syllabus as presented to you
(iv) What suggestions can you make for its improvement?

6.7 Preparation of the Syllabus

There are some preliminary considerations taken into account in the drafting of the
school syllabus and these include:
(a) Meeting the needs of the society, i.e. socio-economic and political,
(b) Identifying the means of the society (resources)
(c) Availability of personnel,
(d) Availability of resources,
(e) Nature of the learners,
(f) Educational theories of learning according to Bloom’s taxonomy of learning –
psychomotor, cognitive, affective, and social domains, and
(g) National goals of education, and
(h) the relationship to other disciplines among other things.

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The syllabus is prepared by a team of experts as commissioned by the government and
these experts includes:
(i) Ministry of education representatives,
(ii) Representatives from the Kenya national examination council,
(iii) KIE staff (curriculum developers) and
(iv) Authorities in education representing specific fields of study, e.g. geography
experts.

The syllabus only details the areas to be studied, but it doesn’t instruct the teacher what
kind of discussion question he should engage students in when transmitting the
knowledge. It is prepared in a manner that it gives the teacher a chance to be more
creative in his approach the discipline.

6.8 The Uses of the School Syllabus

There are general uses of the school syllabus and all these are based on an individual
discipline, but among these uses are:
(i) It helps the teacher to have a broad view of his subject leaving it up to him to
decide what topics to cover each term, or throughout the year.
(ii) It helps the teacher to work out his teaching strategies for a week, a term or a
whole year,
[iii] It guides the students in their efforts to systematically gain
knowledge, especially when preparing for their examination, and
[iv] The syllabus also serves to keep the educational standards
uniform throughout the country.

6.9 Features of the Geography Syllabus

The geography secondary school syllabus has been prepared in a manner that:-
(a) It is environmental friendly/consciousness,
(b) Gives local emphasis –dealing with problems and how to overcome them,
(c) Puts emphasis on developing countries and development issues;
(d) Puts emphasis on field study, i.e. using examples from within, say school,
immediate neighborhoods, before going abroad.
(e) Puts emphasis on map reading and photographic interpretation, and
(f) Puts emphasis on mathematical/statistical geography.

6.10 The Structure of the Geography Syllabus

The 4 year secondary school geography syllabus is structured into:
(a) Lower form I and II which emphasizes on local geography.
(b) Upper forms III and IV which emphasizes the geography of other lands through
sample studies.
(c) Physical and human geography as syllabus is organized
(d) Fieldwork is emphasized throughout the syllabus and
(e) Map reading and photographic interpretation is given weight in the studying of
geography.

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6.11 Assignment

In a thorough examination of the school geography syllabus:

[i] discuss the necessary shortcomings, and
[ii] offer suggestions for improving it to meet both students ,
societies and national goals.

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 LESSON VIII
PREPARATION OF SCHEMES OF WORK

7.0 Introduction
A schemes of work [SOW] is defined as a clear and orderly statement of the work which
the teacher plans to cover over a period of time which maybe a term or a year. It is
necessary for the teacher to prepare a schemes of work as this orderly outline assists both
the teacher to be organized in presenting his lessons in class and for the students to have
an orderly form of acquiring knowledge and skills in the course of study.

7.1 Objectives

By the end of this lesson, the learner should be able to:

[i] Define the schemes of work,
[ii] Outline the components of a comprehensive schemes of
work.
[iii] Prepare a detailed schemes of work to be used in the
teaching and learning process, and
[iv] Discuss the practical considerations undertaken when
preparing the schemes of work.

7.2 Task

With the help of a syllabus:

[i] prepare a detailed schemes of work for any one of the classes
and include all the necessary details, that is, a SOW for either FI,
II, III or IV, and
[ii] In about 3 paragraphs explain why topics/units are arranged in
the order they are arranged in the syllabus.

7.3 Designing a Schemes of Work

A workable schemes of work should be based on the psychological growth of the student,
that is, the entry behavior and should be designed to provide continuity during the
learning process. Therefore indispensable psychological teaching demands that a teacher
should proceed from:
(a) Known to the unknown,
(b) The particular to the complex,
(c) The simple to the complex, and
(d) The concrete to the abstract.

When preparing the SOW, the teacher should bear in mind:

32
[i] the continuity of the work to be covered, because true teaching is nothing but arousing
and directing the learning activities of the student, so that the student must constantly
learn by his own activities.
[ii] Should present a piecemeal development of topics/units, region by region as
brought together at the end of the lesson to emphasize the synthesis of the whole.
[iii] Construction must exhibit the ability of the teacher who is best placed to know
the needs of his students, their backgrounds and the environment, as well as the
particular scope of his school's needs at a given period.
[iv] Units taught must meet the needs of the student and
[v] Finally the national goals of education.

7.4 Activity

a. Look at the organization of the topics in the school syllabus

and draw a schematic presentation of the relationship
between and among the topics covered.
b. What lesson of you learn from these relationships and how
do they related?

7.5 Some Practical Consideration

The organization of the schemes of work must be conditioned by the following
considerations:
(a) Time allocated to the subject, that is, the number of hours per week which can be
allocated to a particular subject, and for all subjects taught in the school
curriculum. It is suggested that there should be a minimum of three teaching
periods per week,
(b) The possibility of organizing fieldwork periods, the field being the district in
which the school is located or the country side or neighbouring area of
geographical importance.
(c) The possibility of organizing special periods for practical work over and above
the lesson. Periods, especially where only two teaching periods are available,
(d) The possibility of dove-tailing the geography syllabus with those of other
subjects taught, for instance, lessons on measurement, latitude, longitude and
time can be taught by the mathematics teacher, lesson on rocks by the natural
science teacher, lesson on growth of societies by the history teacher etc.
(e) The ability of students in a class, and
(f) The availability of resources including textbooks.

7.6 Caution
Before the teacher starts to prepare his/her schemes of work, one must:-
(i) Study the syllabus carefully,
(ii) Be clear in his/her mind the area which he is expected to cover/teach in class
so as to decide the scope,
(iii) If the topic/unit is too wide, then the teacher has to determine the best
strategy/methods to use in order to cover the syllabus,

33
 (iv) Re-arrange topics/units in such a way that students are able to make
connections (continuity), that is, the teacher should avoid unnecessary
repetition use of audio-video/aids materials are important and should be built
in fairly early in the SOW, and
(v) The SOW should help the teacher to have a logical organization of topics that
are contained in the syllabus thus, this leads to logical presentation of the
lesson.

7.7 Question

Is it necessary for the geography teacher to prepare the

schemes of work? Give reasons for your response.

34
 LESSON VIII
PREPARATION OF A LESSON PLAN AND RECORD OF WORK

8.0 Introduction
A lesson in class cannot be orderly or make any meaning to a student if the teacher is not
organized in a manner he delivers the content. Therefore, preparing a lesson plan (LP) is
necessary as this is a mere guide to the teacher on what he/she is supposed to cover
within a given period in the classroom. It is therefore, an assignment of study or that,
which is taught and learned at one time in class.

The LP provides administrative details and the leaning objectives to be achieved at the
end of a lesson. It is divided into 4 sections, that is, time, content, learning activities and
resources/reference columns.

8.1 Objectives

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

[i]Define the lesson plan, and a record of work.
[ii]Consider what is taken into account when preparing a
comprehensive lesson plan, and record of work
[iii] Prepare a detailed lesson plan to be used in class, and a
record of work.
[iv]Discuss the possible student/learning activities included in the
lesson plan.

8.2 Task

Imagine you are going to teach form III at 10.00-10.40 a.m. Pick a
topic and outline the main instructional objectives for that
particular lesson. Draw a detailed lesson plan and include all the
necessary information for a lesson in class.

8.3 Principles of Learning

Learning tends to take place when certain conditions are satisfied. This appears to
happen:
[i] When the purpose of the lesson is made clear to the learners,
[ii] When the purpose of the lesson or a series of lessons are apparent to the students who
are taking part in the learning,
[iii] When there is a sense of positive achievement, that is, if the lesson is split up into
manageable portions, and
[iv] When the lesson materials are presented in a manner which appeals to the learner,
and which stimulates his interest, then the learner prepares to learn more or likes his
discipline.

35
Remember that:
• Education is a preparation for life and life promises to be stern and unrelenting
unless learning is taken seriously.
• Sound education should be training in the discipline of hard graft, enduring the
burden of toil whether interesting or not, and
• Students should prepare for rigorous lessons that have yet to come.
[v] Involving students in learning activities is important as students are actively engaged
in searching for information instead of waiting for it to come to them.
It is arguable that the actual process of seeking and getting knowledge and skills by those
so engaged must be:
• Mentally alert, i.e. they must be alert for if they are not, then the search
finishes abruptly,
• Be alert at all times, i.e. the facts found by searching tend to stick in the
mind and these facts are remembered far more readily,
• Searching to reveal unlikely possibilities and new interest, hitherto
unsuspected, and
• Students are by nature equipped with a positive liking for searching
knowledge.

[vi] When work is so arranged that it meets the individual aptitudes and abilities of the
student concerned in it, then the student is motivated to learn more, and
[vii] When the focus of the teacher reflects students’ attention upon the most significant
items in a learning situation, then the learners become independent.
The teacher’s main function is really to teach the students how to learn and once the
habits of studying are formed, the teacher may withdraw a little more and show the older
and more able students how to learn by themselves. In essence, to provide students with
opportunities for learning is not enough; the teacher has a moral responsibility to monitor
the learning process. Secondly, it is possible for students to learn and to achieve very
little. This happens when direction from the teacher is missing.

8.4 Caution
The knowledge of a teacher in his subject helps him/her:
(i) To prepare a comprehensive lesson plan,
(ii) To present his/her materials in the classroom,
(iii) To gauge the amount of information to give to the students as too little or too
much information, shortages of materials/resources or too many resources and
lack of organization of points is not a healthy habit,
(iv) To take into account the time element, the most realistic approach to the
lesson/topic; and
(v) Finally to be able to provide for individual differences in the classroom.

8.5 Record of Work

By definition is simply a summary of the work done or covered in class at the end of
every lesson. After teaching, the teacher writes down what has been covered and this is
called a Record of Work (ROW). The teacher actually evaluates his performance and it is

36
therefore, a true record of his feelings about the lesson, and the student’s learning
progress. Thus, the teacher must keep a summary of the work covered and do so every
day after the lesson. The table below is an example of a record of work.
Table 8.1 Showing Record of Work Outline Record of work
Subject………………………………………. Class …………………………
Date Work actually covered Remarks/comments
Dec. 10th 2003 Lesson 1 Lesson 1
Covered tea growing in Kericho. Students had difficult
Drew a map of Kenya indicated drawing a neat map of
Kericho tea estates Kenya
Measure: To work with the
students on the drawing
skills.
Dec. 14th 2003 Lesson 2 Lesson 2
Discussed climatic donations Students were clear about
necessary for tea growing. the environmental
Discussed problems experienced conditions necessary for
by tea farmers. growing tea and the
problems experienced by
farmers but had a problem
conceptualizing how the
Nyayo tea estates was a
political policy aimed at
providing jobs or
community.
Measure: Invite a guest
speaker to talk to the
student.
8.5 Why is it Necessary to Keep a record of Work
It is necessary to keep a record of work because this helps the teacher to learn about he
ability of his students, especially when the record of work reveals the number of
assignments, tests and examinations that the teacher has given in his class. It also helps
the teacher to adjust and draw up a more appropriate schemes of work, lesson plan and
even re-evaluate his teaching strategies/methods of teaching used in the classroom. By
keeping the ROW, the teacher becomes successful in his teaching career. Lastly, the fact
that this record of work can be used in case of any eventualities, immediate transfer, un-
expected death, escape for green pastures, prolonged sickness among other things, makes
it important for the teacher to prepare one very time a lesson is taught.

8.7 Question

Suppose you were given a syllabus for your discipline,

recommended and required textbooks and/or other learning
resources, schemes of work, a lesson plan and record of work,
prepare a schematic diagram to show the existing relationships
and explain this relationship(s)

37
 LESSON IX
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY

9.0 Introduction
Geography is one of those valuable subjects taught in our learning institutions today.
More often than not, people argue that geography is an easy subject to teach for it
involves naming places, geographical features etc. In essence, geography apart from
being labeled as a social science subject, recent studies have shown that geography is
more of a natural science than a social discipline. It leans heavily towards scientific
inquiry than understanding the pattern of things and relationships among or between
different phenomena.

Therefore, the problems encountered in the teaching of geography could range from
inadequate resources, school administration, curriculum-oriented, teacher student
oriented, problems among many others.
9.1 Objectives
By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
(i) Identify the problems commonly experienced by the teachers when
teaching geography,
(ii) Discuss with examples each of these problems identified in (i)
above and how they impact the learning of the students in the
classroom,
(iii) List and discuss some recommendations on how to overcome these
shortcomings and
(iv) List most probable problems that could arise by trying to solve the
problems above

9.2 Task

List as many problems as you will imagine and offer many

solutions as you can on how to overcome these shortcomings
experienced in the teaching of geography in schools today.

9.3 There are several problems that a geography teacher is likely to experience in the
course of teaching the discipline in schools and these include among others:-

9.3.1 Inadequate Resources

(a) Physical conditions of the classrooms. The physical conditions of a classroom
plays an important role in the leaning process, for example, if the classroom is
leaking, poorly ventilated, not furnished well, congested among other things, will
make it uncomfortable for students to learn.
(b) Inadequate learning resources including textbooks and teaching aids. Lack of
textbooks, maps, atlases, TVs among other resources hinder the smooth-learning
and teaching of the students in the classroom. Some textbooks are outdated or

38
 some schools have no electricity for use of TV or computers. This is not healthy
in situations where the teacher will want to use Information Technology in
presenting a lesson.

9.3.2 School Administration

(a) Denial for trips. Sometimes there are no funds for geographical trips, the
principal of the school, the Head of Department among other things might be
antagonizing the teachers, there could be no motivation or proper guidance on
what teachers should be doing, and this can affect the smooth learning.
(b) Streaming/tracking of students – when students are not streamed according to
their abilities, the slow-learners can pull-back the efforts of the gifted students or
providing for individual differences becomes a problem in unstreamed classes,
and thus learning is affected negatively,
(c) Lack of teacher consultation. It is quite important for teachers to consult each
other or dovetail their lessons to share the expertise of each other. This can only
be possible if the administration has natured this kind of climate.
(d) Interference of extra-curricula activities. Sports, music, drama festivals, political
rallies, the death of one of the teachers/students or a neighbour can interrupt the
smooth learning in the school. Thus, teachers end up not completing the
syllabus or they rush through the content as such activities affect the teacher’s
long-term and short-term goals.
(e) Personal grudges – between teachers themselves or between teachers and
students can create an atmosphere that is not conducive to learning. Hatred
among working staff does not built a good working relationship and therefore
neither the teachers nor the students would be motivated to do better.

9.3.3. Student Oriented Problems

(a) Student entry behavior affects the efforts of the teacher positively for gifted
students, and negatively for the slow learners. Sometimes students can influence
the pace at which the teacher covers the lesson.
(b) Peer Pressure
When students’ peer pressure overrides their learning ambitions, this can threaten
the teaching mode of the teacher and thus, affect the learning process. Some peer
group members can avoid group work, reject the teacher’s academic standards or
dressing styles thus escalating to indiscipline behavior amongst the students. In
essence learning cannot take place in such situations.
(c) Negative notion on the subject. In some instances, a group of students have
developed a negative attitude towards the discipline. However, much the teacher
is informed, if the students have no intrinsic motivation, which is a very
significant element in the learning of geography, very little success will be
achieved.

9.3.4 Curriculum Based Problems

(a) Insufficient time allocation. In most cases, geography is only allocated 3
lessons per week. This allocation is not enough as there is too much to cover in
the discipline. Occasionally, teachers have to rush through the syllabus.

39
 (b) Evaluation is theoretical. Geography is a science subject with heavy attachment
to practical works. The practical aspects for instance, identifying different types
of rocks in the lab is never tested in an examination. Consequently, students fail
to pay attention to practical work during learning.
(c) Constant changes of the syllabus. There have been several commissions
appointed since independence to review our education system. This has caused
unprecedented interferences in what is covered in the discipline. At times,
changes in the syllabus are done without consulting parents and teachers who
are on the ground. The changes in the syllabus is normally a top-down
approach whereby the teacher’s voice is unheard.
(d) Overloading of the teacher. This is normally true where there are too many
classes to teacher, the death of some teachers/transfers without replacement. In
cases where the teacher is teaching more than the required classes, then the
teacher gets exhausted and lacks time for prior preparation, thus affecting
efficiency.
9.3.5 Teacher Oriented Problems
(a) Lack of instructional strategies. It is argued hat the teacher could be having the
content, but may lack the best way of delivering this content to the learners.
This in essence affects the learning process in a particular discipline.
(b) Poor subject mastery. The geography teacher may lack the proper skills and
knowledge or desired attitudes to impart to learners. This could be due to lack of
exposure, being poorly trained or not widely read and thus, this lack of exposure
puts the teacher in a collusion path with the students who might be gifted in this
discipline.
(c) Lack of experience, that is, a fresh graduate from college without the necessary
teaching experience will have problems in presenting information to students or
handling content in class.
(d) Ignorance on usage of aids e.g. computer, projector, etc., might cause
embarrassment or result to a teacher avoiding to use technology when teaching.
(e) Poor prior preparation due to moon-lighting or search for survival. If a teacher
does not prepare in advance, he will find difficulties in his presentation of the
content in the classroom. He will appear disorganized and lacking logical flow of
ideas. It would sound irrational for a geography teacher to teach off head without
lecturer notes.
(f) Grudges with other teachers or students – indifferences with teachers or student
may affect the teaching-learning atmosphere.
(g) Inadequate time, for individual differences. Learners have different learning
abilities. Some are above average while others are very slow learners. Due to
overloading, teachers do not have extra time for the slow-learners, and
consequently, this has an advance effect on teaching.
(h) Personal attributes - Hygiene and etiquette. The physical appearance of the
teacher – in terms of dressing and cleanliness is very crucial. A female teacher
with miniskirts, trousers or tight and transparent clothes in a boys’ school would
cause a stir amongst the boys. Equally, a dirty teacher, smelling sweat all over
will vandalize the learning atmosphere. Use of abusive or rude language by
teachers, discourages learners or affects the teacher-student relationship.

40
 (i) Lack of patience. Geography as a discipline is too wide and involves practical
work. The teacher ought to be patient to handle students during supervised
studies, field trips among other demands. Impatient teachers fail to deliver
skillfully the content required.

9.3.6 Political Factors

Interferences by the head of state to direct the Ministry of Education matters, change of
the curriculum or syllabus can affect the smooth learning of the education programs.
Political instability, for example, the tribal clashes of 1992 in Kenya and the indefinite
lecturer strike in the Public universities in 2003/2004 affected the learning processes.
This had a negative forward effect.

9.4 The Challenges Facing Geography Teachers

Even with the more qualified teachers, there are also other challenges that face the
profession and these include:-
(a) Making geography relevant to the development of the student’s individualities,
capabilities and personal success in life,
(b) Making geography relevant to the students’ equipment for and contribution to
solving the problems of society and good citizenship; and
(c) Retaining the student interest in class.

In essence, learning largely depends on the teacher and the student. No matter how
pressing the problem can be, the teacher should not allow the students to manipulate him
or her. The teacher should be ready to appreciate the changes and take initiatives in
overcoming the existing and likely problems.

9.5 Question

(i) List some of the likely recommendations you will make

on how to overcome these problems discussed here.
(ii) In details, discuss how each of these recommendations
can improve the teaching situation in schools today.

41
 LESSON X
ASSESSMENT OF GEOGRAPHY: KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS AND ATTITUDES:
SUBJECTIVE, OBJECTIVE, FORMATIVE AND SUMMATIVE

10.0 Introduction
According to Johnson and Rising (1972), evaluating a student's achievement is a
teacher’s constant duty. It is a time consuming and frequently a tedious activity, because
of the clerical work involved. It also requires the teacher’s professional value judgment.
A learner carries out certain activities with the invention of bringing in a change in his
behavior and thus the teacher has to ascertain this by evaluating and measuring the
student’s wealthy of knowledge and skills achieved.
10.1 Objectives

By the end of this lesson, the learner should be able to:-

[i] Differentiate evaluation from measurement by giving relevant
examples of each,
[ii] Discuss the purposes of evaluation and measurement,
[iii]List the types of tests used in evaluating students in schools
today, and
[iv] Discuss the merits and demerits of each of these tests.

10.2 Task

Outline some of the skills a geography student is likely to

master in the course of study. Comment with relevant
examples the reasons why students are given examinations

10.3 Evaluation and Measurement

Evaluation is the appraisal of the student’s achievements that are not quantified but are
gained during the course of study e.g. honesty, dishonesty, curiosity, social interaction,
students' attitude among the many virtues. A teacher can only comment on these
qualities e.g. by saying the student is very honest, hardworking or social. Whereas those
abilities which can be quantified are measured by assigning a mark, % or a grade, e.g.
30points, 30% equivalent to an ‘F’ – failure, 0r 80% equivalent to an ‘A’.

10.4 Purposes for Evaluation and Measurement

There are several reasons for evaluating students or measuring their abilities and among
these include:
[i] Advising students,
[ii] Reviewing both the teacher/student performance
[iii] Knowing the entry behavior of the students,
[iv] Feedback for the teachers and the students,
[v] Certification of the students,
[vi] Promotion of students to the next class,
[vii] Career advancement,

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[viii] Employment search and
[ix] Promotion for further studies among others.

10.5 How to make Tests

Tests are generally used to measure the students' ability in class or in the overall national
examinations. When constructing a test, there are a lot of things to taken into account in
order to balance the purpose of the examination and these factors include:-
[i] Make good questions, i.e.
- state the questions very concisely
- do not be ambiguous when writing the questions
- do not set questions answerable by Yes or No
- do not set questions involving a few ideas, and
- do not set questions requiring students to copy from the textbook or notes
among other things.
[ii] Test as many aspects of education as possible, e.g. memory, reasoning, imagination,
application to life, attitudes, emotions and levels, e.g. facts, procedures, concepts, rules,
application, skills etc.
[iii] List down specifically the responses you want your students to make and then form
the questions that exactly ask for only these responses.
[iv] Determine the marks for each response and hence for the full answers and show the
marks for each questions,
[v] Avoid trivial and tricky questions
[vi]Make your tests not in the evening – before the test, but as you teach each topic, and
[vii]Make your marking scheme as you set questions and finish teaching a topic.

10.6 Types of Tests

There are several types of tests given to students and these include:
(i) Essay type of test
(ii) Objective type of test – blank, true/false, matching, multiple choice type, fill-
in completion type of test etc, and
(iii) Continuous assessment tests (CATs),

10.7 Question

listed in 10.6 above. Where necessary, draw on examples. List

and discuss the merits and demerit of the type of tests

10.8 Grading papers and Minimizing Students’ Complaints About Grading

According to Davis (1993) it is generally recommended that when grading the student’s
papers:
(i) Begin by reading the paper once in order to identify its strengths and
weaknesses – note them down, but do not correct problem areas, just read for
an overall impression,
(ii) Avoid over-marking or under-marking,

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 (iii) Do not write the students' papers just indicate the major problems or mistakes
in the paper,
(iv) Comment on the quality of the writing,
(v) Use symbols e.g. "WW" for wrong word "IRR" for irrelevant,
(vi) Focus on errors and balance your comments,
(vii) Avoid modifying your grading policies, and
(viii) Keep accurate records f the students’ grades.

10.9 Preventing Academic Dishonesty.

In general practice, plagiarism is one of the student’s main course of dishonesty in their
work or cheating in the classroom during examination. In order to avoid unnecessary
chaos during examination, Davis (1993) suggests that the teacher has to:-
(i) Inform the students of the academic standards for scholarly conduct and
sanctions incase of any of any mischief of cheating,
(ii) Explain how cheating will harm the student’s status in the school once
caught,
(iii) Minimize the opportunity for cheating and plagiarism
(iv) If cheating occurs, respond swiftly with disciplinary measures and formal
action,
(v) Make students feel as though they can succeed in your class without having to
resort to dishonesty,
(vi) Directly confront students who are cheating in class,
(vii) Make sure you are in the room all the time,
(viii) Seat students randomly in alternative chairs,
(ix) In large classes, check students photo IDs,
(x) Take action if you observe ‘wandering eyes’ in the room,
(xi) Spend more time in the back of the classroom,
(xii) Clearly mark incorrect answers,
(xiii) If you permit re-grading of examinations, take precautions,
(xiv) Return examinations and assignments to students in person,
(xv) Clearly state your policies about accepting excuses, and
(xvi) Recognize that the excuse ‘my grandfather died’ is more likely to be valid
than fraudulent.

10.10 Learning Activities

Imagine of a situation where students anticipated to perform very

well in KCSE exam paper, but unfortunately, the results are
disappointing and the parents, the public, the school
administration, the government and students are ridiculing you.
How can you save your face in this situation?

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 LESSON XI
THE ROLE OF RESEARCH IN GEOGRAPHY

11.0 Introduction
By definition research is a deep study or investigation, the quest for information through
the examination of source materials and inquiry. In geography, research can be defined
as fieldwork, organized in the context of the problem-solving approach as recommended
in geography teaching and in line with scientific inquiry approaches to research work.

In order to make geographical investigation, one has to be versed with the processes of
research investigation, that is, in both quantitative and qualitative approaches. The
teacher must be capable of guiding students through the research processes and
methodologies which include among other things: choosing a topic for study, the research
design, sampling procedures, content analysis, hypothesis formulation and testing,
research statistics such as descriptive/inferential statistics, case studies, surveys, focus
groups and field experiments (Ondigi, 2002).

11.1 Objectives
By the end f this lesson, the learner should be able to:
(i) Define research as understood in geography,
(ii) List the processes of conducting research in geography, and discuss
each of these steps,
(iii) Discuss the role of research in geography,
(iv) Outline problems one can encounter when conducting research, and
(v) Be able to conduct research work in a given topic.
11.2 The Role of Research in Geography
Teaching by use of research needs to be emphasized as a technique of obtaining fresh
geographical information, and therefore no geography teacher can afford to dispense his
teaching activities without the use of this technique. The teacher should ensure that
teaching geography should be based on scientific investigation, that is, mainly through
research and by insisting that students be involved in fieldwork, or discovery approach in
learning. Students must therefore be involved in investigating issues that relate to our
environmental problems and thus come up with solutions to these problems.

In essence therefore, research in geography is arrived at:

(i) Helping geographers to investigate issues, problems, search for new
information in the field of geography so as to keep teachers abreast with
changes and new information in the academic field.
(ii) Research helps students to acquire first hand information and therefore
develop experiences in conducting research, in areas such as HIV/ADIS
pandemic, urban growth etc.
(iii) Bridging the research gap in the field of geography, that is, unless regular
and continuous research in the field is carried on, by researcher/students and
those authorities in the field, nothing new will be gained other than recycling
information.

45
 (iv) Rekindling fresh thinking and redirecting the students in the discipline. It is
arguable therefore that a discipline cannot co-exist with other disciplines if
new information is not acquired and measured in the light of new changes
taking place.
(v) Providing students with knowledge and skills of doing research in all aspects
of geography, thus, preparing them for a meaningful career in their lives as
modern employment needs people who are skillful and knowledgeable.
(vi) It offers the teacher a chance to depart from traditional teaching and therefore,
can be used as a deductive/inductive approach to teaching. Involving students
in research gives the teacher the opportunity to assess the students on
fieldwork skills, and
(vii) Research in the field offers to the student occasions for healthy outdoor work
and very necessary knowledge of what is happening on the ground, that is,
students have an opportunity to see, experience and form mental pictures
which is an everlasting learning experience.

11.3 Task
Take an opportunity to evaluate each of the roles that research
play in geography as listed above and discuss the shortcoming
of each of the roles. Give reasons for your opinion.

11.4 Steps to Follow when Doing Research

When conducting research, there are several questions a researcher asks himself and
these include:
Q. What is the problem you are investigating?
A. Your answer should be in the introduction section, that is, Chapter I.
Q. How did you learn about the problem?
A. Your answer should be in the literature review section, that is,
Chapter II
Q. How did you study and analyze the problem?
A. Your answer should be in the methodology section, that is,
Chapter III.
Q. What did you find out from your study?
A. Your answer should be in the reporting results section, that is,
Chapter IV, and
Q. What do these findings mean to the audience?
A. Your answer should he in the summary, conclusion and recommendation, section, that
is, Chapter V
11.5 Learning activity.
[a] Draw a comprehension outline of the steps undertaken when
doing research, and in each step detail what is expected of the
student to accomplish a scholarly work.
11.6[b] Briefly
Seven Aresoutline and Dishonesty
of Scientific discuss in details the different types of
research
In research, work
there are based on your
several ways study of dishonesty
of committing this topicand
you have
these include:-
covered.

46
[a] Plagiarism,
[b] Fabrication and falsification of data,
[c] Non-publication of data,
[d] Faulting data and or the gathering procedures,
[e] Poor data analysis, storage and retention.
[f] Misleading authorities, and
[g] Sneaky publication practices.

11.6 Project Work

Pick a topic of your choice and carry out a study based on your
understanding on the steps followed in doing research work. This
work must be a scholarly project for publication and therefore, the
student must use the APA manual when doing citations.

47
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