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OnlyIAS ART AND CULTURE
S.NO CHAPTER NAME PAGE NO

1 PAINTINGS 1
2 INDIAN LANGUAGES 6
3 INDIAN ARCHITECTURE 9
4 MAURYAN ARCHITECTURE 13
5 POST MAURYAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE 18
6 GUPTA AGE ART AND CULTURE 26
7 TEMPLES ARCHITECTURE IN INDIA 29
8 PHILOSOPHICAL SCHOOL IN INDIA 57
9 LITERATURE IN INDIA 73
10 INDIAN MUSIC 85
11 INDIAN DANCE 91
12 PUPPETRY IN INDIA 95
@Akash_Singhh
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1. PAINTINGS
INTRODUCTION OF THE TOPIC
• Painting is among the 64 Arts enumerated by Vatsyayana in his Kama Sutra and he mentioned six
limbs of Painting (shadangas).
SHADANGAS FEATURES
Rupabheda The knowledge of appearances.
Pramanam Correct perception, measure
and structure
Bhava Action of feelings on forms.
Lavanya Infusion of grace, artistic
Yojanam representation
Sadrisyam Similitude
Varnikabhanga Artistic manner of using the
brush and colors
PREHISTORIC PAINTINGS
• Earliest record of paintings belongs to prehistoric timei.e., rock paintings.
• Petro glyphs mean Paintings created by engraving rock.
• Colours used - black, red, yellow & white.
• Most dominant scenes: Hunting, depiction of human figures with bows and arrows.
• Important sites – Jogimara (Chhattisgarh), Lakhudiyar (Uttarakhand), Mirzapur (UP), Kollagela
Gundu (Telengana).
• MURALS are large works executed on the walls of solid structures.

• FRESCO is a technique of mural painting executed upon freshly laid lime plaster. It is done on
wet plaster and that is why it is more durable work than Mural. Murals are painted on already
dried surfaces.
BHIMBETKA PAINTINGS
• One of the oldest paintings in India and the world.
• Upper Paleolithic - Linear representations of animals and stick-like human figures.
• Mesolithic period -depicted Hunting animals and family life.
• Chalcolithic Period-association of cave-dwellers with the agricultural communities.
BUDDHIST CAVE PAINTING
PAINTING/ SPECIAL FEAUTURE COLOUR AND THEME PATRON

MURAL
AJANTA & • Mural & Fresco paintings. • Colors- Yellow &Red from • Satvahana
ELLORA • Used Different hairstyles ochre, black from lamp soot, • Vakataka
[5TH AND 6TH for every female emotion. lime from white. lapis lazuli • Shunga
CENTURY] • Ellora paintings showed for blue which came from
diversity and had Buddhist, Afghanistan.
https://onlyias.com/ info@onlyias.com /+91-7007931912 1

MAHARASHTR Brahminical and Jain • Themes –Buddhism.
A paintings too.
• Both declared UNESCOs
world heritage site in 1983.
• Represent “golden age” of • Walls and ceilings were • Satvahana
BAGH [MP] Indian classical art. covered with a thick mud,
• Bagh paintings were similar this is also known as tempera
to Ajanta & are more technique.
secular than Ajanta.
INDUS VALLEY PAINTINGS

• Created on ornamental terracotta utensils, decorated with human figures, birds and animals and
geometrical pattern.
• These terra cotta utensils are smooth and shining.
• The base is generally red with decorative lines in black.
OTHER PAINTINGS
PAINTING Virupaksha Sittannavasal Kanchipuram Badami Armamalai

[Hampi] [Tamil nadu] [Tamil nadu] [Karnataka] [Tamilnadu]
Period 15th century 9th century/ 7th century/ Caves at vatapi 8th century
Brihadeshwara kailasanatha
temple temple
Patron Vijayanagar Raja raja chola Pallava Chalukya --
empire
Feature Stories of god Paintings of king Wall paintings Decorated Petro glyphs
and guru murals and rock art
Color& Epic theme of Guru is given Shiva and Shiva parvati/ Stories of
Theme procession of importance and Parvati Jain tirthankara Jainism
sage king is shown Adinatha
vidyaranya standing behind
him
MINIATURE PAINTINGS/ MEDIEVAL PAINTINGS
• Miniature paintings are executed on a very small scale for books or albums.
• Buddhist text, Prajnaparamita, is the earliest known example of this.
1. PALA SCHOOL

• Paintings are in the form of a large number of manuscripts on palm-leaf related to the Buddhist
themes (Vajrayana)
• Example -Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita
• Paintings are characterized by sinuous line and subdued tones of color.
• Imp painters– Dhimman&Vitapala.
• Spread to Sri Lanka, Nepal, Burma, Tibet, and South-East Asian countries.
2. WESTERN JAIN / APABHRAMSA SCHOOL

• The Maru-Gurjar painting is one term which collectively denotes all the paintings in Rajasthan.
• The earliest painting - 8th century.
• Mewar Jain painting style developed in the form of small illustrations of the Jain Tirthankaras and
some themes from the Kalpasutras.
3.MUGHAL SCHOOL
• Synthesis of indigenous Indian style of painting & Safavid school of Persian painting.
• Themes - Nature, court, hunting scenes etc
• Fine and delicate drawing along with
• calligraphic text descriptions, generally on border.
• Primarily aristocratic & Mostly Secular.
• Miniature paintings reached its zenith during Jahangir reign.
• Under Shahjahan architecture got more imp than Paintings. Painting gained technical perfection but
became stereotype, static & less lively. Used charcoal, pencil to draw paintings and importance was
given to portraiture.
• During the rule of later Mughals quality of the Mughal painting declined.
4. RAJASTHANI PAINTING’S
• Also known as Rajput style of paintings& are broadly of two type
viz. Courtly and Literary.
• Origin – sultanate period- early 16thcentury
• Themes – Sanskrit & folk literature, Vaishnavism & Jainism,
Ragmala, court scenes, Gita Govinda by Jayadeva and Bhagavat
Purana.
• Created on – Tadapatra (Palm leaves) and paper
• Used mostly natural colors.
• Marwar paintings have more Mughal features &kishangarh,
Bikaner, Bundi, Nagaur, are sub schools of it.
SOUTH INDIAN PAINTINGS

DECCAN SCHOOL
• The turbulent medieval times saw an exodus of artists to the South. These artists were patronized
by the Deccani Kingdoms– Bijapur, Ahmednagar & Golconda.
• The school preferred dense composition and attempted to create an aura of romance, which
invariably expressed itself in an idiom that was eloquently natural and vivid. Ex - “Lady with the
Mynabird”, the “Lady smoking Hooka” & “princes in the company of maids”.
MYSORE AND TANJORE SCHOOL OF PAINTING
Mysore school of painting by Wodeyar Tanjore school of painting by Nayaka rulers

dynasty and Maratha Rulers
Gesso work is Low in relief & intricate Thick gold relief and background colour always
green or red.
Gesso is prepared by mixing whitelead powder, Raw lime powder is used along with a paste made
gamboges and glue. of powdered tamarind seed for Gesso work.
Base is Paper on Cloth and wood Cloth with wood as base [PALAGI PADAM]
Lighter in weight Heavier in weight
Emphasis is on finelines and delicate detail Lesser emphasis
Has no gem settings and glass embellishments Has gem settings and glass embellishments
COMPANY STYLE
• Asynthetic style was born in which the Indian artists imitated the English style of paintings.
• Subjects Landscapes and views of nature, Monuments – The Delhi paintings specially had Mughal
monuments as subject matter, Indian People, dancers, fairs and festivals and costumes
• Techniques varied but mostly were drawn upon western water colour technique, from which
“transparency of texture, soft tones and modelling in broad strokes” were borrowed from west.
• Paper was mostly used for these paintings. Ivory was also used.
• The most important early production center was Calcutta.
• Important artist; Sewak Ram (c. 1770-c. 1830), Ghulam Ali Khan.
PAINTINGS OF RAJA RAVI VARMA

• He was a famous Oleography painter.
• Oleography: Method of reproducing an oil painting on paper in a way that exact color and texture
recorded. Also called stone or litho-printing.
• Subject - Indian mythology, epics and puranas.
• He tried to re-establish the Indian art through western styles and technique.
• Famous paintings were – DUSHYANTAAND SHAKUNTALA, NALA AND DAMAYANT.
BENGAL SCHOOL OF ART

• Rejected the art of Raja Ravi Varma as imitative
• and westernized.
• They broke away from the tradition of oil painting and the realistic style of Raja Ravi Varma and
company artists and focused on traditional style.
• The turned to the inspiration to medieval Indian traditions of the miniature paintings and ancient
art of mural paintings in Ajanta Caves.
ABAINDRANATH TAGORE
• Traits/ features: Spiritual values in the art.

• Famous paintings: Arabian Nights series (1930], Bharat Mata, The Passing of Shah Jahan.
FOLK PAINTINGS
State Folk painting

Andhra Kalamkari
Maharashtra Warli
Bihar Madhubani or Mithila, Manjusha [Bhagalpur]
Jharkhand Paitkar painting
Odisha Pattachitra, SAURA
West Bengal Patua Art, Kalighat Painting
Sikkim Thangka
Telangana Cheriyal Scroll Paintings
Madhya Pradesh Pithora painting
STUDENTS NOTE:

2. INDIAN LANGUAGES
CLASSICAL LANGUAGE
STATUS OF CLASSICAL LANGUAGE:

In 2004, the Government of India declared that languages that meet certainrequirements would be
accorded the status of a “Classical Language ofIndia”.
CRITERIA:
The following criteria were laid down to determine the eligibility of languages to be considered for
classification as a “Classical Language”:
1. High antiquity of its early texts/recorded history over a period of 1500-2000 years;
2. A body of ancient literature/texts, which is considered a valuable heritage by generations of
speakers;
3. The literary tradition to be original and not borrowed from another speech community;
4. The classical language and literature being distinct from modern, there may also be a discontinuity
between the classical language and its later forms or its offshoots.
LANGUAGES SO FAR DECLARED TO BE A CLASSICAL LANGUAGE ARE:

1. Tamil in the year 2004
2. Telugu in the year 2008
3. Malayalam in the year 2013
4. Sanskrit in the year 2005
5. Kannada in the year 2008
6. Odia in the year 2014 (latest)
The Government has been criticized for not including Pali as a classical language as experts argue that
it fits all the above-mentioned criteria.
WHY DO WE NEED FOR PROTECTING LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY ?

• One must understand that there is interconnectedness between culture and language.
• One’s culture is reflected through language, as the language is resultant of words which come from
the thoughts.
• Language reflects Geography, Environment and also forms part of Human rights as it ensures a
sense of Identity to an Individual. It enables transfer of history from generation to generation which
might go extinct with languages if not protected.
• Therefore, any threat to Language endangers culture. Hence needs to be protected.
INITIATIVES TO PROTECT THE LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY

• The Indian literature abroad (ILA) project has been initiated by the Ministry of culture, Government
of India, to support and facilitate translation and promotion of literary heritage and contemporary
literature from the Indian Languages into major foreign languages (especially those recognized by
UNESCO).
• ILA aims to project and promote the plurality of Indian language and literatures internationally.
EFFORTS TO PROTECT ENDANGERED LANGUAGES FROM GETTING EXTINCT:

• Galvanized by the grim situation of less known languages in the country, the Scheme for Protection
and Preservation of Endangered Languages (SPPEL) was instituted by Ministry of Education
(Government of India) in 2013.
• The sole objective of the Scheme is to document and archive the country’s languages that have
become endangered or likely to be endangered in the near future.
• The scheme is monitored by Central Institute of Indian Languages (CIIL) located in Mysuru,
Karnataka.
• The CIIL has collaborated with various universities and institutes across India for this mission.
Rig-Vedic society Later-Vedic society

• Foundation of social life was family. • Eldest male memberheaded the
Family: • Eldest member known as Grihapati family.
who exercised full authority. • Thus, family was patriarchal and
• Thus, family was patriarchal but women were discriminated.
women were not discriminated.
• There was no purdah system. • Slowly lost their equal position.
Women: • Child marriage was absent. • Not allowed to take part in political
• Freedom in choosing their husbands. life.
• Widow Remarriages were allowed • Excluded from inheriting
property.
• Practises like Sati,child marriage,
• Purdah system crept into society.
• Divided into four varnas. • More rigid.
Varna system: • But discriminatory caste system did • More or less hereditary
not exist.
• Pastoralists. Agriculture was • Agriculture became the chief
Economic life secondary occupation. occupation.
• Barter system. Nishka (made of • Barley, wheat, rice and few grains
ornament like material) coins were and beans began to be cultivated.
present. • Trade was practised.
• Anybody can choose any profession. • Guild system.
• The cow as a unit of value was
gradually replaced. Many cities
have sprung up.
• Aryans lived in Tribes called Jana. • Vast empires and Royal power.
Political life Kingship was not hereditary. • Monarchy and hereditary.
• King was elected by the members of • Elaborate bureaucracy.
Jana. • Regular army.
• Women were part of Sabha. Sabhas
worked on democratic lines.
• No regular taxation system.
• Voluntary tributes.
• No evidence of bureaucracy and
standing army.
Religious life: • Material happiness. • Rituals became prominent. Cult of
• Polytheistic. Priestly class was absent sacrifice.
• Towards the end of the period,
there was strong resistance
against the sacrificial practises and
rituals.

• Many sects like Ajivikas,
Buddhism, Jainism, etc arose.

3. INDIAN ARCHITECTURE
ARCHITECTURE:
• It is not a modern phenomenon, since as soon as the early cave man times.
• Combination of needs, imagination, capacities of the builders & capabilities of the workers.
WHAT IS DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SCULPTURE AND ARCHITECTURE?
Architecture: • Architecture involves the Design & construction of buildings with various
type of material used like Stone, wood, glass, metal etc.
• Involves engineering, mathematics & depends upon measurement.
Sculpture: • 3 D work of art made of a single piece of material.
• Involves creativity, imagination & may not depend on measurement.
INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION OR HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION

• It was one of the three early civilizations of the world. It flourished in the basins of the Indus River,
one of the major rivers of Asia, and the Ghaggar - Hakra River, which once coursed through
northwest India and eastern Pakistan.
• The cities of Harappa in the north and Mohenjo-Daro in the south showcase one of the earliest
examples of civil planning. While Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro are situated in Pakistan, the important
sites excavated in India are Lothal and Dholavira in Gujrat, Rakhigarhi in Haryana, Ropar in Punjab,
Kalibangan and Balathal in Rajasthan, etc. At its peak, the Indus Civilization may have had a
population of over five million.
HARAPPAN SEALS:
• Size and shape -Usually in Square, Rectangular, Circular & Triangular shapes with an average size
of ‘2 x 2.’
• Materials- Steatite, Agate, chert, copper, faience, terracotta, gold, ivory.
• Motifs – Great variety with most of them being animals, including those of bull, elephant, tiger, goat
and also monsters. Sometimes trees or human figures were also depicted. But NO cow (always Bull)
Significance of seals:
Seals are used as a unit of Trade – their presence in Mesopotamia indicates the possible trade. An
amulet, believed that its used to ward off the evil, Educational tool as there are evidences of
educational symbols on seals written in the direction of right to left.
SCULPTURE:
• Terracotta Sculptures Indus Valley Civilization. It is a fire baked clay & is
handmade using pinching method. Ex: - Mother Goddess, Toy carts with wheels
etc.
Bronze Sculptures:
• The technique used for casting is known as “Lost Wax Technique.”
• Bronze dancing girl located at Mohenjo-Daro.
• It is a naked girl wearing only ornaments which include bangles, armlets,
necklace & amulets.
• The Right hand is on the hip & made using “Lost Wax Technique.”

What is lost wax technique?

Wax figures are covered with a coating of clay and allowed to dry. Then it is heated & the molten wax
is allowed to drain out through a tiny hole at the bottom of the clay. The hollow mould is then filled
with bronze or any other metal. Once the metal is cooled, the clay is removed. Ex: - ‘Dancing Girl’ &
buffalo with its uplifted head back & horns.
Other stone Sculpture:

• 2 Stone male figures at MOHENJODARO -Torso in red sandstone & Bust of a bearded man in steatite.
POTTERY
• Colour used - Mainly plain, red & black painted. Under red & black pottery,
red colour was used to paint background. While black colour to draw designs
of trees, birds, human figures & geometrical patterns.
• Made using – Mostly wheel very few are made of hand.
What was the use of pottery during Harappan Period?

• It’s made for the household purpose like storage of water, food grains etc.
• Also used for decoration- Miniature vessels used for decoration which are
less than 1/2 inch, it also highlights the skills and technology of that period.
• It was also used as perforated pottery i.e. large hole at the bottom & small holes all over the wall,
• & probably was used for straining liquor.
ORNAMENTS AND THEIR IMPORTANCE:

• Made of a large variety of materials like precious metals,
gemstones bone & even baked clay.
• Necklaces, armlets & finger rings were common & worn by
male & female. But earrings wore only by females.
• Evidences of dead bodies buried along with ornaments have
also been found.
• Conscious of Fashion
• Cinnabar was used as a cosmetic lipstick.
• Face paint & eyeliner were also known.
• Spinning of cotton & wool was common.
TOWN-PLANNING

Great Bath:
• The most impressive structure excavated at Mohenjo-
Daro. Constructed with kiln-burnt bricks.
• This monument bath is a pool.
• Dimensions - 12 m long x 7 m wide x 2.5 m deep
• Gypsum has been used along with mortar to make the
floor and sides of the pool water-tight.
• The pool is in the centre of a large open quadrangle with
rooms and galleries on all sides.
• A flight of steps at either end connects it to the rooms,
probably meant for religious rites.
• It may have been used by the people for changing their
clothes.
• The pool was fed by a well nearby and the dirty water
was drained into the city’s sewage system through a large
corbelled drain 1.83 m high.
Granary @ Harappa:
• Made of burnt brick.
• Built close to the river Ravi to make transportation easy.
• Comprised of 2 blocks.
• Each block has 6 storage rooms of 15m long x 6m wide.
• 2 blocks are separated by a passage
• Air-ducts are provided under the wooden floor.
• The row of triangular openings may have been for
ventilation.
• Granary complex: 55m x 35m
• Presence of huge granaries suggests an organized
collection and distribution system.
Assembly Hall:
• Covers an area of 750 sq.m.
• 4 rows of fine brick piers and pillars at the corners
suggest that it was used as an assembly hall.
Citadels:
• Each city in the Indus Valley was surrounded by massive
walls and gateways.
• The walls are built to control trade and also to stop the
city from being flooded.
• Each part of the city was made up of walled sections.
• Each section included different buildings such as public
buildings, houses, markets, craftworkshops etc.
City Planning:
• The Harappans were great party planners.
• They based their city streets on grid system.
• Streets were oriented east to west.
• Each street had a well-organized drainage system

• If the drains were not cleaned, the water ran into the houses and silt built up.
• Then the Harappans would build another storey on top of it.
• This raised the level of the city over years and today archaeologist call these high structures as
“mounds”.
Wells:
• Although not every Harappan housed had a well, they are
quite common and comprise oneofthe most recognizable
features of Harappan urbanism.
• Over the years, the level of streets and houses were raised
owing to the accumulation of debriswhich necessitated
raising the height of the wells.
• This is the reason why tall wells are often seen at Harappa
and in surrounding areas.
MAIN FEATURES OF ARCHITECTURE OF INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION:

• The cities were based on town planning and followed a grid layout.
• Roads were laid at exact right angles.
• Baked bricks were used for building houses. Bricks were all of fixed sizes.
• Most of the buildings are designed to be functional rather than decorative.
HOW CAN WE RELATE OUR CURRENT MODERN URBAN PLANNING TO THE HARAPPAN TOWN
PLANNING?
• Grid system: Roads were well cut dividing the town into large rectangular blocks. Lamp posts at
intervals indicate the existence of street lightning. The citadel of Harrapan provides ingredients to
the modern day social structure.
• Drainage system: The drains connecting from all the houses are connected to a nearby central
drain. Drains were made up of mortar, lime and gypsum and covered with large brick slabs for easy
cleaning. It shows developed sense of health and sanitation.
• Clustered buildings: The workers building of Harappa resembles to coolie lines of modern-day tea
estates in structure.
The importance of planning has been established long back 2000 years ago, the haphazard urbanisation
in current days is resulting in traffic congestions, and urban floods etc. which can be avoided by
adopting planning for the future in advance.
STUDENTS NOTE:

4. MAURYAN ARCHITECTURE
• Beginning of the Buddhist School of architecture in India.
• Ashoka, first Mauryan to “think in stone”.
• Most of the shapes & decorative forms employed were indigenous in origin; some exotic forms show
the influence of Greek, Persian and Egyptian cultures.
• Chinese traveller Fa-hien stated that “Ashoka’s palace was made by spirits” and that its carvings are
so elegantly executed “which no human hands of this world could accomplish.”
• Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador of SelucasNikator, who visited the Mauryan court described
Chandragupta Maurya’s palace as an excellent architectural achievement.
MAURYAN COURT ART

Implies architectural works (in the form of pillars, stupas and palaces) commissioned by Mauryan
rulers for political as well as religious reasons.
• Palaces: Greek historian, Megasthenes, described the palaces of the Mauryan Empire as one of the
greatest creations of mankind and Chinese traveller Fa Hien called Mauryan palaces as god gifted
monuments.
• Persian Influence: The palace of Chandragupta Maurya was inspired by the Achaemenid palaces
at Persepolis in Iran.
• Material Used: Wood was the principal building material used during the Mauryan Empire.
• Examples: The Mauryan capital at Pataliputra, Ashoka’s palace at Kumrahar, Chandragupta
Maurya’s palace.
• Pillars: Ashoka pillars, (usually made of chunar sandstone), as a symbol of the state, assumed a
great significance in the entire Mauryan Empire.
• Objective: The main objective was to disseminate the Buddhist ideology and court orders in the
entire Mauryan Empire.
• Language: While most Ashoka pillar edicts were in Pali and Prakrit language, few were written in
Greek or Aramaic language also.
ARCHITECTURE
Mauryan pillars mainly comprise of four parts:
1. Shaft: A long shaft formed the base and was made up of a single piece of stone or monolith.
2. Capital: On top of shaft lay the capital, which was either lotus-shaped or bell-shaped.
3. Abacus: Above the capital, there was a circular or rectangular base known as the abacus.
4. Capital Figure: All the capital figures (usually animals like a bull, lion, elephant, etc) are vigorous
and carved standing on a square or circular abacus.
INFLUENCE OF ACHAEMENIAN ON MAURYAN ARCHITECTURE?

Similarities with Persian (Achamenian) Pillars:
• Polished Stones and Motifs: Both Maurya and Achaemenian pillars used polished stones and have
certain common sculpture motifs such as the lotus.
• Proclamations: Maurya’s idea of inscribing proclamations (related to Buddhist teachings and court
orders) on pillars has its origin in Persian pillars.
• Third Person: Inscriptions of both empires begin in the third person and then move to the first
person.
Though influence has been there, there are Differences with Persian (Achamenian) Pillars.
ARCHIMEDEAN VS ASHOKAN PILLARS:

The shaft of Ashokan pillars is monolithic whereas the Archimedean pillars

SHAFT have joints. The shaft of Ashokan pillars tapers from bottom to top whereas
Archimedean pillars are cylindrical. The shaft of Ashokan pillars is smooth
whereas that of Archimedean pillars has got grooves.
SUPPORT BASE Ashokan pillars are erected without any support base whereas Archimedean
pillars have a support base.
The bell-shaped part of Ashokan pillars is at top while that in Archimedean
BELL SHAPED PART pillars is at bottom. In reality, the so-called bell-shaped part of Ashokan
pillars is an inverted lotus.
The Ashokan pillars were not a part of any other structure. The purpose
PURPOSE behind their construction was to engrave instructions. But Archimedean
pillars were part of the palace and their job was to support the roof.
The Ashokan pillars have capitals which have sculptures of lions, elephants
CAPITALS and bulls. But the Archimedean pillars have no capitals and only images of
humans are engraved on their shafts.
PILLAR EDICTS AND INSCRIPTIONS:

• Ashoka’s 7 pillar edicts: These were found at Topra (Delhi), Meerut, Kaushambhi, Rampurva,
Champaran, Mehrauli:
• Pillar Edict I: Asoka’s principle of protection to people.
• Pillar Edict II: Defines Dhamma as the minimum of sins, many virtues, compassion, liberality,
truthfulness, and purity.
• Pillar Edict III: Abolishes sins of harshness, cruelty, anger, pride, etc.
• Pillar Edict IV: Deals with duties of Rajukas.
• Pillar Edict V: List of animals and birds which should not be killed on some days and another list
of animals which have not to be killed at all.
• Pillar Edict VI: Dhamma policy.
• Pillar Edict VII: Works done by Asoka for Dhamma policy.
MINOR PILLAR INSCRIPTIONS:

• Rummindei Pillar Inscription: Ashoka’s visit to Lumbini & exemption of Lumbini from tax.
• Nigalisagar Pillar Inscription, Nepal: It mentions that Asoka increased the height of stupa of
Buddha Konakamana to its double size.
MAJOR PILLAR INSCRIPTIONS:

• Sarnath Lion Capital: Near Varanasi was built by Ashoka in commemoration of Dhamma
chakrapravartana or the first sermon of Buddha.
• Vaishali Pillar, Bihar, single lion, with no inscription.
• Sankissa Pillar, Uttar Pradesh
• Lauriya-Nandangarth, Champaran, Bihar.
• Lauriya-Araraj, Champaran, Bihar
• Allahabad pillar, Uttar Pradesh.
STUPA ARCHITECTURE
Questions to Ponder: What is stupa? Reasons behind construction of stupa? How it differs from the
Vedic-period?

Stupa:
• Stupas were burial mounds prevalent in India
from the Vedic period.
• The concept of Stupa started in the Vedic Period.
• It is a conventional representation of funeral
cumulus, in which the ashes of the dead are
buried.
• It is a Buddhist monument which is a hemi
spherical dome with Buddha’s relics & ashes
inside.
• Originally 9 stupas were built after the death of
Buddha; 8 of them over the relics & 9th over the vessel in which the relics were originally deposited.
• King Ashoka the Great constructed more than 84,000 stupas in his reign.
• The early stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut were plainexcept for the stone railings, which resembled
a bamboo or woodenfence, and the gateways, which were richly carvedand installed at the
fourcardinal points. Worshippers walked around the mound in a clockwisedirectionkeeping the
mound on the right, imitating the sun’s coursethrough the sky.
• The new stupas had a circumambulatory path, a stone railingaround it, two staircasesleading up
to it, the summit and a stoneumbrellaover it.
• The entire structure was enclosed in stone railings and toran dwars on all four sides. Sculpture
decoration was found on the railings and the gateways. Examples are the stupas at Sanchi-II,
Bharhut, Nagarjunkonda, Amravati, etc.
• Earlierstupasused to have a solid core. However, a transition was made towards havinga spoke
wheelplanat the centre made of bricks and the spaces filled with mud. Spoked wheel is a symbol
of Buddha’sfirst sermon. Bhattiprolu stupa (200 BC) is from intermediate phase having central
wheel plan (no spokes).
• In AP stupas, at the 4 cardinal points of the raised platform, 5 free standing pillarswere erected.
These represent the 5 important events in Buddha’s life birth, renunciation, enlightenment, first
sermon, death.
• Jaina stupa is also found in Kankali at Mathura which is called Devanirmit Stupa.
Architecture of stupa:
• Stupas consist of a cylindrical drum with a circular andaand a harmika and a chhatraon the top.
• The stupa originated as a simple semi-circular mound of earth, later called anda. Gradually, it
evolved into a more complex structure, balancing round and square shapes.
• Above the anda was the harmika, a balcony like structure that represented the abode of the gods.
• Arising from the harmika was a mast called the yashti, often surmounted by a chhatri or umbrella.
Around the mound was a railing, separating the sacred space from the secular world
Material Used:
• The core of the stupa was made of unburnt brick while the outer surface was made by using burnt
bricks, which were then covered with a thick layer of plaster and medhi and the toran were
decorated with wooden sculptures.
Examples:
• Sanchi Stupa in Madhya Pradesh is the most famous of the Ashokan stupas.
• Piprahwa Stupa in Uttar Pradesh is the oldest one.
• Stupas built after the death of Buddha: Rajagriha, Vaishali, Kapilavastu, Allakappa, Ramagrama,
Vethapida, Pava, Kushinagar and Pippalivana.
• Stupa at Bairat, Rajasthan: Grand stupa with a circular mound and a circumambulatory path.

Stupas:
Why did Sanchi survive while Amravati did not?
• Amravati was discovered before scholars understood the value of the finds. Only later on they
realised how critical it was to preserve things where they had been found instead of removing
them from the site.
• In British times, there was a practice of collecting ancient sculptures ex-situby removing them
from archaeological sites likeAmravati. Request of Europeans to take away the easternGateway of
Sanchi was refused by Shahjehan Begum. She evenprovided money for preservation. No such
ruler existed for Amaravati.
Depiction of Buddha at Stupas:

• Symbols: In the early stages, Buddha was represented through symbols that represented the
different events of Buddha’s life like footprints, lotus thrones, chakras, stupas, etc.
• Jataka Stories: Later on, Jataka stories (stories associated with the previous birth of Buddha) were
portrayed on the railings and torans of the stupas.
• The Jataka stories that find frequent depiction are Chhadanta Jataka, Sibi Jataka, Ruru Jataka,
Vessantara Jataka, Vidur Jataka and Shama Jataka.
• The chief events from Buddha’s life which are narrated in the arts are birth, renunciation,
enlightenment, the first sermon (dharma chakra pravartana) and mahaparinirvana (death).
POPULAR ART
Apart from the court art or royal patronage, cave-architecture, sculpture, and pottery took the
expressions of art by individual effort.
Evolution of Cave Architecture:

• During the Mauryan period, caves were generally used as viharas, i.e. living quarters, by the Jain
and Buddhist monks.
• Key Features: The caves during the Mauryan period were marked by a highly polished finish of
the interior walls and decorative gateways.
• Example: The seven caves (Satgarva) in the Makhdumpur region of Jehanabad district, Bihar, were
created by Mauryan emperor Ashoka for the Ajivika Sect:
• Barabar Caves (4 caves): Karna Chipper, Sudama Cave, Lamarshi (Lomas Rishi) Cave, Vishwamitra
(VishvaZopri) Cave Nagaragunja Caves (3 caves): In Bihar were formed during the time of
Dasharath, grandson of Ashoka, Gopi Cave, Bahayak Cave and Vedantika Cave.
Ajivika Sect:
• It was founded by Goshala Maskariputra (a friend of Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism)
and was contemporary of Jainism and Buddhism.
• Ajivika sect is based on the philosophy that the affairs of the entire universe were ordered by a
cosmic force called Niyati (Sanskrit: “rule” or “destiny”) that determined all events, including an
individual’s fate.
Sculpture during Mauryan Period:

Sculptures: • Two of the most famous sculptures of the Mauryan period are those of Yaksha and
Yakshi.
• They were objects of worship related to all three religions – Jainism, Hinduism,
and Buddhism.
• The earliest mention of yakshi can be found in Silappadikaram, a Tamil text.
• The torso of the nude male figure found at Lohanipur at Patna.

• DidargunjYakshi was found at Didargunj village at Patna.
• Pottery of the Mauryan period is generally referred to as Northern Black Polished
Ware (NBPW).
Pottery: • Mauryan pottery was characterized by black paint and highly lustrous finish and
was generally used as luxury items.
• Kosambi and Patliputra were the centres of NBPW pottery.

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5. POST MAURYAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE

• With the decline of the Mauryan Empire several small dynasties rose to power. Among them,
Shungas, Kanvas, Kushanas and Shakas in the north and Satvahanas, Ikshavakus, Abhiras, and
Vakatakas in Southern and Western India gained prominence
• The architecture in the form of rock-cut caves and stupas continued, with each dynasty introducing
some unique features of their own.
• Similarly, different schools of sculpture emerged and the art of sculpture reached its climax in the
post-Mauryan period.
Rock-cut Caves:
• The construction of rock caves continued as in the Mauryan period.
• However, this period saw the development of two types of rock caves – Chaitya and Viharas.
• Chaitya was a rectangular prayer hall with a stupa placed in the centre, for the purpose of prayer
and Viharas were used as the residences of the monks.
• Examples-Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves in Bhubaneswar, Odisha were patronized by the Kalinga
king Kharavela and are also known for the Hathigumpha inscription (in Brahmi script).
• Ranigumpha cave in Udayagiri is double-storied and has some beautiful sculptures.
Stupas:
• Post Mauryan period stupas became larger and more decorative and wood and brickwork were
replaced by stone.
• Torans: In the post-Mauryan period, the Shunga dynasty introduced the idea of torans (Torans
reflect the Hellenistic influence) which were beautifully decorated gateways to the stupas.
• Examples-Bharhut stupa in Madhya Pradesh.
Sculpture:
• Post Mauryan empire three prominent schools of the sculpture came into prominence in three
different regions of India namely Gandhara, Mathura, and Amravati schools.
1. GANDHARA SCHOOL OF ART (50 B.C. TO 500 A.D.)

• The Gandhara School of Art or Greco-Indian School of Art (First
sculptural representation of Buddha in human form) has its
origin in Greco tradition (Greek invaders brought with them the
traditions of the Greek and Roman sculptors) which was further
merged with the regional or local art of the time.
• Initial Development: Gandhara School was developed in the
western frontiers of Punjab.
• Patronage: This school was patronized by both Shaka and
Kushan rulers, North West Frontier.
• Major centers of Gandhara school of art were Jalalabad
(Eastern Afghanistan), Hadda (ancient region of Gandhara), Begram (Parwan province of
Afghanistan) & Taxila (Pakistan).
• Material used: Grey sand stone. Images using stucco with lime plaster are found in later stages.
Key Features:
• Hellenistic, Greco Roman influences- wavy hairs, large forehead, large ears.
• In meditating position, half eye closed
• Features: Calmness, draped in cloth, less ornaments, yogi position, protrubence on his head, grey
sandstone.

• Carved Spiritual Buddha → represents calmness, Bearded, Moustache, wearing ornaments, Wavy
hair (Greek).
Buddha was depicted in Gandhara Art, through four types of hand gestures called Mudras:
1. Abahaya mudra: Indicates fearlessness
2. Dhyana mudra: Indicates meditative position
3. Dharma chakra mudra: Means turning the wheel of law.
4. Bhumi sparsha mudra: Touching the earth with right hand and calling it to witness truth.
2. MATHURA SCHOOL OF ART (50 B.C. – 500 A.D.)

• Mathura: The sculptures of the Mathura school were influenced by all the three religions Buddhism,
Hinduism, and Jainism.
• Initial Development: Developed in and around Mathura.
• Patronage: This school was patronized by Kushan rulers.
• Major Centres: Mathura, Sonkh and Kankalitila.
Key Feature:
• Symbolism in the images was one of the key features of the Mathura school of art like Shiva was
represented using linga and mukhalinga.
• Halo around the head of Buddha was decorated geometrical patterns and Buddha is shown to be
surrounded by two Bodhisattvas
• Padmapani (holding a lotus) and Vajrapani (holding a thunderbolt).
3. AMRAVATI SCHOOL OF ART (200 B.C. – 200 A.D.)

• Amravati: Unlike Gandhara and Mathura schools which focused on single images, Amravati School
laid more emphasis on the use of dynamic images or narrative art (like jataka tales).
• Initial Development: Amravati School was developed on the banks of the Krishna river.
• Major Centres: Amravati and Nagarjunakonda.
• Patronage: This school was patronized by Satvahana rulers.
• Tribhanga posture, i.e. the body with three bends was used excessively by Amravati school in its
sculptures.
COMPARISON BETWEEN MATHURA AND SARNATH SCHOOL OF ART

• In north India, Mathura, remained the main art production site whereas Sarnath and Kosambi also
emerged as important centresof art production.
• Many Buddha images in Sarnath have plain transparent drapery covering both shoulders, and the
halo around the head has very little ornamentation whereas the Mathuraimages continue to depict
folds of the drapery in the Buddhaimages and the halo around the head is profusely decorated.

• Sarnath introduces not only a delicacy and refinement of form butalso a relaxed attitude by bending
the body in the case of thestanding figure thus imparting to it a certain litheness andmovement in
contrast to the rigidity of similar Mathura works.
• Even in the case of the seated figure, the slender physiognomyconveys a feeling of movement.
CAVE ARCHITECTURE
QUESTIONS TO PONDER:
1. Difference between ajanta and ellora caves
2. Evolution of cave Architecture?
3. List out the differences between Buddhist Caves and Jain Caves?
NAME FEATURES CAVE

• Location - Barabar hills @ Bihar
• Sudama and Lomas Rishi Caves
represent the earliest example of
Sudama / Nyagodh rock-cut architecture.
Cave • 3rd Century -Maurya Period
• Ashoka dedicated some cave
chambers to Ajivikas.
• Circular vaulted chamber with a
rectangular mandapa.
• Also called the Grotto of Lomas
Rishi
• Barabar and Nagarjuni hills [Rock
Lomasa Rishi Cave: cut caves] @ Bihar
• 3rd Century BC
• Built during Ashoka period as a
part of sacred architecture of
Ajivikas
• 3 caves discovered - Gopi cave,

Mirza Mandi, VedathikaKubha
Nagarjuni hills: • Dedicated to monks of Ajivika sect
by Dasaratha (grandson of
Ashoka)
• Largest cave - Gopi cave or
Milkmaid’s cave
• Oldest Deccan Cave
• Deep upsidal wall
• Octagonal pillars
• Location – Lonavala, Maharashtra
• Curved ribs – barrel vaulting of
wooden buildings
Bhaja Cave: • Gate – façade like a gable
• End – small stupa
• Belongs to the Hinayana Buddhism
sect
• Hinayana faith
• Has wooden ceiling over Chaitya-
griha
• Stupa has a hole on top, for
inserting wooden umbrella
• Great Chaitya hall
• Pillars – square stepped plinth
• Capitals of horses/elephants to
support roof which has ribs to
Karle Cave: represent barrel vaulting.
• Sangharama - monastery
• Related with the Mahasaṃghika
sect of Buddhism
• Location-Karle, Maharashtra
• Location - Aurangabad,
Maharashtra.
• Discovered in 19th century.
• Built on Perpendicular Cliff.
• Since the caves are on
perpendicular side there are not
many chaityas.
• 25 viharas + 4 chaityas
Ajanta Caves:
USE OF FRESCO ART:
• Outlines-red colour and then other
colours
• Blue colour is not seen in Ajanta
• Theme-Jataka stories
• Fahien and Hiuen Tsang are
mentioned in Ajanta.
• 5 caves - Hinayana Buddhism.
• 25 caves - Mahayana Buddhism.
FAMOUS PAINTINGS
• Dying Princess
• Flying Apsara
• Preaching Buddha

• Excavation of this cave was caused

by Varahadeva
• Varahadeva -minister of Vakataka
king Harisena
Vihara Cave 16: • Cave 16- Monastery
(Ajanta)
• Brahmi inscription cave 17

excavated under Harisena
• Cave 17 - monastery
• Cave 17 is similar to cave 16 except
Vihara Cave 17: wheel of life “Bhava Chakra”
(Ajanta)
• Standing image of Buddha

• Mahayana Buddhism
Chaitya Cave 19 of • 2 life size Yaksha images on
Ajanta Group: either sides of the chaitya vatayana
(arch)
•
• Location -Bagh, M.P

• Group of 9 rock-cut monuments
• Caves - Buddhist Viharas
Bagh Caves: • Cave 4 - Rang Mahal (Palace of
Colors)
• Excavated by Satavahanas.
• Location - Aurangabad,
Maharashtra
Ellora Caves: • Locally known as ‘Verul Leni’
• Cut by Buddhists - Rock cut
monastery

• Famous for the largest monolithic
excavation in the world- the great
Kailasa
• Sahayadri ranges of Deccan
• UNESCO World heritage site
• Buddhist, Hindu and Jain
monuments
• Cave 16 features the largest single
monolithic rock excavation in the
world, the Kailasha temple, a
chariot shaped monument KAILASHNATH TEMPLE
dedicated to Shiva
• Hinduism - 17 caves
• Buddhism - 12 caves
• Jainism - 5 caves
Imp caves:
• Cave no 10: Chaitya dedicated to
Lord Vishnu
• Cave no 16: Kailash temple- 3
storied
• Jaina caves: Indrasabha ELLORA CAVES
• Mural and fresco paintings.
• Contribution by Rashtrakuta is
seen in these caves
• 3 storeyed caves are also present.
• Located on Elephanta Islands in
Mumbai
• 7 cave excavations in the
Elephanta cave: Elephanta group
• Trimurti of Shiva
• Carved from solid basalt rock
• UNESCO World Heritage Site
• Tirumurti Temple
• Built by Mahendravarman I
Cave temple of • 1st cave temple of Tamil Nadu
Mandagapattu: • Holds a significant position in the
history of architecture of the
Pallavas
• Location -Gujarat
• Buddhist religion
Junagadh Caves: • Uparkots 30-50 ft high artificial
platforms connected by a staircase
to the hall

• Location-Maharashtra
• 25 caves
• Hinayana Buddhism
• 1st Century AD
Nashik Caves: • Also called as Pandava Leni /
Trirashmi
• Spiritual presence of Buddha is
denoted by a throne and footprints
• Most of the caves are Viharas
• 18th cave – Chaitya
• Location -Mount Poinsur in
Borivali, Maharashtra
• River Dhaisa
Montperir • 8th century cut rock dedicated to
Caves/Mandapeshwar Shiva
• Only Brahmanical Cave to be
converted into a Christian Cave
(Portuguese)
• Near Sanchi, M.P.
• Tall statue ofVishnu's Boar
Avatar
• This image was in the personal
Udayagiri Cave temple of Chandragupta II
temple: • Total - 20 caves
• 1 cave – Jainism
• 19 caves – Hinduism
• Located -Mamallapuram
• It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site
• Bas relief was present
• Connected to the Arjuna’s penance
also known as ‘Descent of Ganga’
PanchaPandava built by pallava’s
cave: • It’s a raw and unfinished structure.
Bas Relief
Udayagiri and • Location – Bhubaneshwar, Odisha
Kandhagiri caves • Built by jains and it is famous for
Ranigumpha, Hathigumpha and
Ganeshagumpha caves.
EVOLUTION OF BUDDHIST CAVE ARCHITECTURE:

• Phase-1: It began with the construction of Lomas rishi andSudama caves in Barabar hills by Ashoka.
These were simplecaves and the cave ran parallel to the rock face after entry. There was one large
rectangular room followed by a smaller circular room.

• Phase-2: The second stage (100 BC) showed up at Konditve. Thecave was cut perpendicular to the
rock face and the inner roomnow contained a stupa and a circumambulatory path around it.
• Phase-3: The next stage was when rows of pillars were builtparallel to the walls creating a
circumbulatory passage right afterentering. Bhaja, Pitalkhora, Bedsa caves are examples.
• Phase-4: During the Satavahanatime, caves got royal patronageand became more elaborate and
ornamented. The basic features ofprevious phase continued. A variety of mithun couples
werecarved on the gates. Multi-storied caves came up. Double storiedviharas came up at Karle and
triple storied at Ajanta. Otherexamples are Nasik caves, Junnar, Kanheri caves, Pitalkhora.
LIST OUT THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BUDDHIST CAVES AND JAIN CAVES?
• Jaina caves were cut in sandstone which is easy to cut but not good for sculpting. But Buddhist caves
were cut into hard rocksand were better for sculpting.
• The Jaina caves had no congregation halls or rock cut shrines. TheBuddhist caves on the other hand
had clear halls and the shrinearea.
• The Jaina cave cells were cut wherever the rock permitted, therewas no planning. The Buddhist cave
structure on the other handwas well laid out.
• The Jaina caves were simple and reflected the asceticism of Jainamonks. The Buddhist caves on the
other hand were an elaborateand spacious affair.
• In terms of similarities, the sculptures use similar motifs likeanimals, plants. The honeysuckle style
is similar too. Examples ofsuch caves are Khandgiri and Udaigiri in Puri.
STUDENTS NOTE:

6. GUPTA AGE ART AND CULTURE

• The Gupta period witnessed a tremendous progress in the field of art, science and literature and on
account of this it has been called a golden age. A few scholars even call this period a period of
renaissance. The cultural progress witnessed during the Gupta period may be called the culmination
of Indian intellectual activities.
ACHIEVEMENTS:
• Both the Nagara and Dravidian styles of art evolved during this period. The most famous examples
of Gupta art that still remain are the numerous seated and standing images of Buddha from Sarnath
and Mathura.
• Metallurgy had also made a wonderful progress during the Gupta period. The craftsmen were
efficient in the art of casting metal statues and pillars. The Delhi Iron pillar of the Gupta period is
still free from rust.
• The paintings of the Gupta period are seen at Bagh caves and Ajanta. They illustrate the life of the
Buddha as depicted in the Jataka stories. The paintings at Sigiriya in Sri Lanka were highly
influenced by the Ajantha style.
• The Gupta coinage was also remarkable. Samudragupta issued eight types of gold coins. The figures
inscribed on them are illustrative of the skill and greatness of Gupta numismatic art.
• The Sanskrit language became prominent during the Gupta period. Numerous Epics, lyrics, drama
and prose were written in Sanskrit. Poetry and drama flourished at the court of Vikramaditya, at his
new capital of Ujjain who kept the Nine Gems, at his court. His court included Kalidasa, whose plays
are some of the most famous works of Indian literature.
• The Gupta period witnessed a brilliant activity in the sphere of mathematics, astronomy, astrology
and medicine. Aryabhatta explained scientifically the occurrence of solar and lunar eclipses and
accurately described the earth as a sphere. Chandragupta II sponsored work on medicine especially
Sushruta Samhita also dates to this period.
GUPTA ADMINISTRATION:
• Gupta kings adopted pompous titles such as 'Parameshwar', 'Maharajadhiraja', which signify they
ruled over lesser kings in their empire. Element of divinity in kingship was present.
• Council of ministers existed. The empire was divided into 'Bhukti' (province) placed under the
charge of an 'Uparika' (viceroy), Bhuktis were divided into districts, placed under the charge of
'vishyapati'. The sub-districts were called 'Peth' and the village was under 'Gramika'.
• Guptas did not maintain vast bureaucracy like that of Mauryas. Kumaramatyas were most important
officers in Provinces.
• A large part of the empire was administered by feudatories. Fiscal and administrative concessions
to priests and administrators.
• Civil and criminal laws were clearly demarcated.
• They issued large number of gold coins in ancient India called 'dirun' and silver coins called
'rupayaka'.
SOCIAL CONDITIONS:
• Brahman supremacy continued.
• Religious functionaries were granted land called agrahara, free of taxes for ever. They were
authorised to collect taxes in those lands.
• Though women were idolised in literature, mother goddess were worshipped, they were accorded
lower position. Gupta era saw child-marraiges, denial of education, etc. The first examples of sati
also came from this period.

• Position of shudras improved, but number of untouchables and out-castes increased. The practise
of untouchability intensified.
GUPTA ART:
• Samudragupta is represented on his coins playing the lute (Veena).
• Two metre high bronze image of Buddha belonging to the Mathura school. The Buddha sitting in his
Dharma Chakra mudra at Sarnath belongs to Gupta period. Buddhas at Bamiyan.
• Vishnu reclining on the serpent Shesha (Ananta), Dashavatara Temple 5th century.
• Padmapani paintings at Ajanta paintings and Paintings at Bagh belong to this time. The Colossal
Trimurti at the Elephanta Caves.
• Images of Vishnu, Shiva and other Gods were created first in this time.
• Nalanda University.
GUPTA LITERATURE
• Love stories: Meghdoot and AbhigyanaShakuntalam by Kalidasa. Mrichhkatikam by Shudraka. It is
love story.
• Erotic literature: Kamasutra by Vatsayana.
• Inspiring literature: Panchatantra by Vishnu Sharma.
• Religious literature: Similarly, the Puranas, the Mahabharata and the Manusmriti were recast in
their present form in the Gupta period.
• Buddhism: In addition to these the important Buddhist books Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa were also
compiled in the Gupta Age.
• Development of Kavya style. Sanskrit now as a secular literature. Sanskrit grammar based on Panini
and Patanjali was developed.
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY DURING GUPTA AGE

• Aryabhatta wrote Suryasiddhanta and Aryabhatiya. His most valuable contribution to Mathematics
is the theory of zero and the decimal place value system. He also discovered the earth was spherical;
it rotates on its axis causing day and night, reason for eclipses, etc.
• Brahmagupta was a great mathematician. He wrote BrahmasphuticSiddhanta in which he hinted
at law of gravitation. He also discovered the area of cyclic quadrilateral.
• Medical science also flourished during this period. The highly specialised science of transplantation
of internal organs was knows to the Guptas. Susruta was known as father of surgery. Highly
specialised surgical Instruments were in use. Dhanvantri was famous for Ayurveda knowledge.
• Veterinary science and treatment had also developed. A book named Hastyayurved was written in
this period.
GUPTA SCULPTURE
• Gupta period witnessed the culmination of all the artistic trends practiced until then. Thus, Gupta
art is an outcome of the earlier arts of Amravati, Mathura and Bhahrut, although completely
different in its own way.
• The focus now moved to the female figure, making human as a pivot of Gupta sculpture. The art of
sculpture making reached perfection. Deities of Hindu and Buddhist faiths were now perfectly
sculpted along with other images to be placed in shrines and temples.
• The excellence of Gupta sculpture lies in not merely in the amalgamation of all previous arts but in
attaining a balance between major schools of art. Poise and grace are visible in all of the sculptures.
To mention a few, a relief of Goddess Ganga from Besanagar, variety of sculptures from Bhumra,
gandharva couple from Sondani etc.

• The finest example of the Gupta sculpture is unmistakably the seated Buddha from Sarnath. The
standing Buddha from Mathura and the colossal copper statue of Buddha some more superior
examples of the Gupta sculpture.
• The standing statue of Sakyamuni is now clothed in a monastic robe, with a carved halo around the
Buddha’s head.

7. TEMPLES ARCHITECTURE IN INDIA

• The temple building architecture reflects a synthesis of arts, ideals of dharma, beliefs, values and
the way of life cherished under Hinduism.
• Nagara, Dravida, Vesara, etc., are different styles of temple architecture.
• Pallavas (7th century-9th century) and Cholas (9th century-11th century) were the major kingdoms
which epitomized the Dravidianarchitecture.
• Chalukyas (7th century-11th century) followedVesara style of architecture in the Karnataka region.
• Chalukya art was followed by Hoysala art (13th century).
CLASSIFICATION OF INDIAN TEMPLES:
BASIC FEATURES OF THE HINDU TEMPLES:

The basic form of the Hindu temple comprises the following:
• Sanctum Sanctorum (garbhagriha literally mean ‘womb-house’):
➢ It was a small cubicle with a single entrance which grew into a larger chamber in time.
➢ The garbhagriha is made to house the main icon.
• Entrance to the temple:
➢ It may be a portico or colonnaded hall that incorporates space for a large number of worshippers
and is known as a mandapa.
• Freestanding temples tend to have a mountain-like spire:
➢ It can take the shape of a curving shikhar in North India and a pyramidal tower, called a vimana,
in South India.
THE VAHAN
• It was mount or vehicle of the temple’s main deity along with a standard pillar or dhvaj is placed
axially before the sanctum.
• Many Hindu temples, feature mithun (embracing couple) sculptures, considered auspicious.
Usually they are placed at the entrance of the temple or on an exterior wall or they may also be
placed on the walls between the mandapa and the main shrine.

NAGARA SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE

Q. Discuss the different types of Nagara School of Architecture and their features.
• Nagara style popular in northern India.
• A square temple with a number of graduated projections (rathakas)
• A tower (sikhara) gradually curving inwards & capped by a spheroid slab with ribs roundthe edge
(Amalaka) give the elevation
• Nagara temples have 2 distinct features: In plan, the temple is a square with a no. Ofgraduated
projection in the middle of each side giving a cruciform shape with a no. of reentrant angles on each
side.
• In elevation, a Sikhara, i.e., tower gradually inclines inwards in a convex curve in north
• & eastern India magnificent temples were also constructed and the style followed bythem is
referred to as the Nagara style.
• Most of them consisted of the shikaras (spiral roofs), the garbhagriha (sanctum) andthe mandap
(pillared hall).
Division of 3 subtypes of Nagara temples based on the shape of Shikhara:
1. REKHA PRASAD:
• Simple Shikhara; Square at the base & the walls curve inward to a point
on the top.
• Latina types are mainly used for housing the garbhagriha.
• Top is called ‘latina’ or the ‘rekha-Prasad ‘type of Shikhara.
2. PHAMSANA:
• They broader & shorter than Latina buildings.
• Roofs are composed of several slabs that gently rise to a single point
over the center ofbuilding, unlike the Latina ones which look like
sharply rising tall towers.
• Do not curve inwards; instead, they slope upwards on a straight
incline.
• In North Indian temples it is used for mandapa & Latina for Garbhgriha.
3. VALABHI
• Rectangular building with a roof that rises into a vaulted chamber.
• Usually called as wagon vaulted buildings.

3 sub schools developed under Nagara style:
1. ODISHA SCHOOL
• Located in ancient Puri & Konark.
• Shikhara, called deul in Odisha, is vertical almost until the top when it suddenly curves sharply
inwards.
• Deuls are preceded, as usual, by mandapas called ‘jagamohana‘ in Odisha.
• Ground plan of the main temple is square, which, in the upper reaches of itsSuper structure becomes
circular in the crowning mastaka.
• Exterior of the temples are lavishly carved, their interiors generally quite bare.
• Usually have boundary walls.
• The sun temple at Konark was built in 13th century by the eastern Ganga ruler
• Narshimha Deva I.
• The temple is dedicated to Sun & has been designed as a twelve-wheeled chariot.
• Ex: - Lingaraja temple built by the Ganga rulers & the Mukteshwara temple atBhubaneshwar & the
Jagannath temple at Puri.
2. KHUJURAHO SCHOOL
• Khajuraho temples are known for their extensive erotic sculptures.
• Regarded as one of world’s greatest artistic wonders.
• Shaivite temple known as Kandariya Mahadev, built around 10th century by King. Ganga was the
finest among them.
• Standard type of Khajuraho temple has a shrine room, an assembly hall, and an entranceportico.
• Entities were treated as a whole, whereas in the Odishan style they were conceived as separate
elements.
• Sikhara is curved for its whole length, & miniature sikharas emerge from the central tower.
• Halls & Porticos of the temple are also crowned with smaller towers which rise progressively upto
the main tower.
• Ex: - The temple complex at Khajuraho was built by Chandella rulers between the tenth and eleventh
centuries in the Bundelkhand region of Madhya Pradesh. Most important among them is the
Kandariya Mahadev temple.

3. SOLANKI SCHOOL
• Patronized by Solanki rulers of Gujarat (11th to
13th century).
• Vimala, Tejpala&Vastupala temples at Mount Abu
exhibit this style.
• These were built in pure white marble & adorned
with exquisite sculpture.
• Ex: Dilwara temple in Mt. Abu, dedicated to Jain
Tirthankaras.
TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE IN SOUTH INDIA – DRAVIDA STYLE

Q. Discuss the Evolution of south Indian Temple Architecture?
• Deployed for Hindu temples in Tamil Nadu
from the 7th to 18th century, characterized byits
pyramidal tower
• Unlike the Nagara temple, the Dravida temple is
enclosed within a compound wall.
• The front wall has an entrance gateway in its
centre, which is known as Gopura/Gopuram
• Consists of a square-chambered sanctuary
topped by a superstructure or tower (Vimana)
• Consists of an attached pillared porch or hall (Mandapa) which precedes the door leadingto the
nucleus cell.
• The Vimana is like a stepped pyramid that rise up geometrically rather than the curvingshikhara of
north India.
• Each story is delineated by a parapet of miniature shrines, and barrel-vault roofs at thecentre.
• The tower is topped by a dome-shaped cupola and a crowning pot and finial.
• A large water reservoir or a temple tank enclosed in the complex is general in southIndian temples.
• Brihadeshwara temple at Thanjavur.
THE ORIGINS OF THE DRAVIDA STYLE CAN BE OBSERVED IN THE GUPTA PERIOD.
• The earliest examples include 7th century rock-cut shrines at Mahabalipuram and a developed
structural temple, the Shore Temple at the same site.
• Finest examples are Brihadeshwara temple at Thanjavur, built about 1010 by Rajaraja 1,
• & temple at Gangaikondacolapuram, built about 1025 by his son Rajendra Chola.
• Subsequently, a number of successive court enclosures, each with its own gateway
• (Gopurams) were added.
• By the Vijayanagar period (1336–1565) the Gopurams had increased in size so that they dominated
the much smaller temples inside the enclosures.
Sub Styles of Dravida Temples:
PALLAVA SCHOOL
Four stages of temple architecture had been observed in South India –
Mainly during thePallava’s rule, around 6th century AD which are as
follows:
Stage 1- Mahendra Group:

• Marked the beginning of Rock cut cave architecture
• Word Mandap was used instead of temple.
Stage II–Narsimha Group:

• Major development during this period was initiation of Decoration
in rock cut cavestructures
• The architecture is represented by Monolithic rocks.
• Mandap’s now became ‘Ratha’s’ which is a refined cave, famous for
beauty.
• The biggest Ratha was called as Dharamraj Rath and smallest one
was called as Draupadi Rath.
• Dharamraj Rath is considered as precursor of Dravidian style of
temple making.
Stage III–Rajsimha Group:

• At this stage the real structural development of temple’s started
and it moved outside thecave, earlier temples were part of caves.
• Example: Shore temple at Mahabalipuram, (TN) Kailashnath
temple atKanchipuram→ largest single work of art ever
undertaken in India.
• Shore temple at Mahabalipuram
• Kailashnath temple at Kanchipuram
Stage IV – Nandivarman Group:

• It is said to be the declining stage of south Indian temple
architecture and only smalltemples were constructed in this
period.
• Notable examples → Vaikundaperumal temple, Tirunelveli and
Mukteswara temple
CHOLA SCHOOL
• Cholas continued the pallava style of Architecture with improvements.
• Cholas built magnificent temples such as Gangaikondacholapuramtemple, Airavateshwara temple
at Darasuram, Brihadeshwara orRajarajeshwara temple. The temple construction reached zenith
duringtheir period.

TANJORE TEMPLE
Notable features of chola architecture:
• Started using stones instead of bricks.
• Walls were decorated with sculptures and paintings of deities, kings and queens. Some of the Chola
temples contain life sizeportraits of kings and queens.
• They also have an audience hall known as Mandap.
• The deity room is known as Garbhagriha.
• The chief feature was the Vimana which is 5-7 storeys above chiefdeity room. In Brihadeshwahra
temple the vimana was close to70m.
• Shikhara above the Vimana. Rajarajeshwara temple has Shikharastone weighing almost 90 tonnes.
• Chola temple pillars were constructed with greater refinementthan Pallavas.
• Metal art showed remarkable development and was used forfurther decoration of temples. Ex:
Nataraja.
• Monolithic Nandi bull in Brihadeshwara temple is second largestin India after Lepakshi temple
Nandi bull.
WHAT WERE THE FUNCTIONS OF TEMPLES?

• It functioned as a place for Religious Worship.
• It acted as an Administrative centre
• Controlling vast areas of land in terms of revenue collection
• Centre of education
• Various sources of revenues of temples - donation and revenue collection
• It was built as a result of pride and symbol of victory and status of kings.
CHOLA SCULPTURE:
NATRAJ:
• Shiva’s dancing position is associated with the end of the cosmic world
• Shiva has been shown balancing himself on his right leg and suppressing the
apasmara, the demon of ignorance or forgetfulness, with the foot of same leg.
• Shiva raises his left leg in bhujangtrasita stance, which represents tirobhava
that iskicking away the veil of maya from the devotee’s mind.
• His four arms are outstretched and lower right hand is posed in Abhayahasta
mudra.
• The upper right-hand a Damaru
• The upper left hand is held in dola hasta and connects with the Abhaya hasta of the righthand.
• His Hair flocks fly on both the sides touching the circular jwala mala or the garland offlame, which
surrounds the entire dancing figuration.
VESARA STYLE/CHALUKYA STYLE/KARNATAKA STYLE
• This style has features of both Nagara and Dravidian style.
• It consists of two principal components like Dravidian style i.e., Vimana & Mandap.
• Departing from Dravidian style it does not have covered ambulatory around the sanctum.
• Example: Lad Khan temple at Aihole, Temples at Badami, Virupaksha temple –
• Pattadakal, Hoysala temples at Karnataka
DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN NAGARA, DRAVIDA AND VESARA STYLE OF TEMPLE

ARCHITECTURE.
NAGARA DRAVIDA VESARA

Northern Region Southern Region Deccan Region. Between the
Vindhyas and Krishna river
Developed regionally each Developed dynastically Admixture of two styles Hybrid
region manifesting its own style. It was developed both
particular qualities regionally and dynastically
Curvilinear tower (Shikhara Pyramidical Tower (Vimana) The shape of tower was
built over garbhagriha) with several stories in receding Pyramidical but height was
gradually curving inward dimension reduced (Miniature vimanas)
Multiple Shikharas Subsidiary shrines are either Multiple shrines are present
incorporated within the main side by side
temple tower, or located as
distinct, separate small shrines
beside the main temple
Garbhagriha is generally At some of the most sacred
situated below the tallest tower temples in South India, the main
(Shikhara) temple in which the
garbhagriha is situated has, in
fact, one of the smallest towers.
Terracotta panels & figurine on Sculptures of fierce dvarapalas
exterior walls were built at the front of the
temple
Squared hall Squared hall Squared hall
Sanctum Garbhagriha Sanctum Garbhagriha Sanctum Garbhagriha
Gopurams are absent Gopurams are present Gopurams may or may not be
present
A water tank may or may not be A water tank is present at front A water tank may or may not be
present of the temple from where water present
is drawn for sacred purposes
Compound walls are absent Dravida temple is enclosed Compound walls may or may
within a compound wall not be present
Examples – Dashavatara temple Examples – Shore temple Examples – Badami temple,
(Deogarh), Vishwanatha temple (Mahabalipuram), Durga temple (Aihole),
(Khajuraho), Lakshman temple Brihadiswara temple Virupaksh temple (Pattadkal),
(Khajuraho), Jagannath temple (Thanjavur), Meenakshi temple Keshava temple (Somnathpur)
(Puri) (Madurai)

OTHER SCHOOLS OF TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE
NAYAKA SCHOOL:
• Best example - Meenakshi temple at Madurai.
• Meenaksi was the daughter of a pandyan king who married
Sundereswara (Siva).
• All the features of Dravidian style are present.
• Additional feature – Prakarns.
• Prakarn - huge corridors along with roofed ambulatory
passage ways.
• On the walls of temples Interior carvings can be seen.
• Also, there was an addition of the Tank.
• Constructed with the Initiative of Tirumalai in mid 17th century.
VIJAYANAGARA STYLE:
• Some variations from Dravidian style in temple
architecture.
• Gopuram now enlarged.
• High enclosure walls.
• More decoration.
• Sculpture of motif of supernatural horse.
• God's chief wife AMMAN was provided with a
separate shrine.
• Kalyana mandapam.
• Mandapa - 1000 pillared hall
• Decorative motifs like prancing horses, leoglyphs
and monsteres were added.
• These additions can be seen at Vittalswami
temple at Hampi.
• Secular structures - vijayanagar throne room gateways in Rajasthan and entrances to wells in
Gujarat
• Concept of secular buildings was introduced by Vijayanagar Empire. Ex: lotus mahal.
HOYSALA ART:
• Southern Region of Karnataka
• ‘Stellate Plan’
• After the fall of the Cholas, temple building continued
under Chalukyas and Hoysalas.
• Best example: Chennakesava temple at Belur.
Features:
• Ground plan was star-shaped or polygonal, within which
was accommodated the entire temple, the whole complex
being built on a raised platform known as “Jagati”

• This effect was emphasized by the extensive surface plastic
decoration.
• Star-shaped plan provided more wall space for sculpture
than would a rectangular plan.
• Most curious feature- wide, squat pillars.
• Multiple shrines were built around a central pillared hall.
• Soft sope stone (Chorite Schist) was the main building
material.
• Central ceiling of the main hall has a delicately carved
HALEBID TEMPLE
pendentive in the centre.
• All the chambers had “Shikaras” which were interconnected by an arrangement of horizaontal lines
and mouldings. This resolved the tower into orderly succession of tires.
• Temples are adorned with exquisitvely carved bracket figures both inside and outside.
• Walls and stairs of the temple followed a zigzag pattern.
• Most typical and complete example of the fully evolved Hoysala style is Keshava temple at
Somnathpur near Mysore.
PALA SCHOOL
• In Bengal region, this style of architecture came to known as Pala School.
• Developed under the patronage of Pala and Sena dynasties.
• Palasare followers of Buddhism.
• Senas used to follow Hinduism.
• Pala School of architecture reflected the influence of both the religions.
Pala-
• Universities at Nalanda, Jagaddala, Odantapuri and Vikramshila.
• Somapura Mahavira monastery in Bangladesh.
Sena-
• Dhakeswari temple, Bangladesh.
Features:
• Buildings had a curve or sloping roof (like bamboo huts) - popularly known as “Bangla roof” and
was later adopted by the Mughal architects.
• Principal building material - Terracotta bricks.
• Tall, curving shikara crowned by a large Amalaka.
• Sculpture - Metal + Stone [Major component]
• Example: Siddheswara Mahadeva temple in Barakar.
JAINA ARCHITECTURE:
STATUE OF GOMATESHWARA
• Built by Ganga dynasty minister Chamundaraya.
• Location: Vindyagiri hills, Shravanbelagola.
• Statue of: Bahubali, the Son of Rishabadevaand the younger
brother of Bharata Chakravartin.
• Monolith- carved out from single stone.
• Mahamastakabhisheka- Grand event every 12 years.

PALITANA TEMPLE
• JAINA temple @ shatrunjaya hill, near Bhavnagar, Gujrat
(Shatrunjaya hills= sacred for svetambara Jains)
• Main Temple- 1st tirthakara- Rishabhadeva- Holiest shrine for
svetambaraMurtipujaka.
• Unique feature- Chaumukh temple designs.
SHIKHARJI
• Parasnath Hills, Jharkhand
• Most imp Tirtha for Jaina- 20/24 tirthakaras attained Moksha
here.
MUNGI TUNGI HILLS

• Twin hills in Sahyadri hills, Tehrabad, Near Nasik.
• World’s largest Jain statue -108 ft tall of Rishabhadeva. It is also
called as Statue of Ahimsa
• Jaina Belief- 99 crore monks attained moksha here (including rama, hamumana)
DILWARA TEMPLE
• Located at Mount Abu
• Build by Vimal Shah (minister of Solanki ruler of Gujurat)
• Built in 11th to 13th Century
INDO ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE IN MEDIEVAL INDIA
INDO ISLAMIC / INDO SARACENIC STYLE

• Advent of Islam in the Indian subcontinent around the 7th century.
• Indo-Islamic architecture → a mixture of Indian, Persian, Arab and Turkish.
• The early buildings of the Slave dynasty consisted of false domes and false arches.
• Introduction of true arches and true domes started to appear with construction of Alai
• Darwaza by the side of Qutub Minar (By Allaudin Khilji).

Distinguishing features of Indo-Islamic
architecture:
• kiosks (chhatris)
• Tall towers (minars)
• Half-domed structure
• Jali work, calligraphy, Pietra dura
Islamic style incorporated many elements:

• from the traditional Indian style viz
• Decorative brackets
• Balconies
• Pendentive decorations
• As human worship and its representation is
not allowed in Islam, the buildings and otheredifices are generally decorated richly in geometrical
and arabesque designs.
• These designs were carved on stone in low relief, cut on plaster, painted or inlaid. Theuse of lime as
mortar was also a major element distinct from the traditional building style.
• The tomb architecture is another striking feature of the Islamic architecture → Practice ofthe burial
of the dead.
FEATURES OF INDO ISLAMIC MEDIEVAL ART

• Arch & Dome method.
• Presence of Minor.
• Use of mortar as cementing agent.
• Avoided representation of Human being.
• Avoided Spaciousness, massiveness & Breadth.
• Generally decorated richly in geometrical & arabesque methods.
• Use of figures & animals discouraged.
• Use of geometry in terms of Symmetry & for drawing geometrical pattern.
• Use of gates in the premises in the form of courtyard pools & fountains.
• Charbagh style.
• Pietra dura technique.
• Foresightening technique.
Tomb Architecture:
• The general pattern of the tomb architecture is consisted of:
➢ A domed chamber (hujra)
➢ A cenotaph in its centre with a mehrab on the western wall.
➢ The real grave in the underground chamber.
• To this general tomb architecture, the Mughals added a new dimension by introducinggardens all
around the tomb.
• The Mughal tombs are generally placed at the centre of a huge garden complex, being sub-divided
into square compartments, known as char-bagh style.
• Scholars trace the evolution of the char-bagh pattern of gardening to the original land of the
Mughals, the Kabul Valley.
• The Mughals are also credited to have introduced the double dome system of dome architecture and
the Pietra-dura style of inlay decorations.

Arabesque Designs:
• Arabesque means geometricized vegetal
ornament.
• It is characterized by continuous stem which
splits regularly producing a series of counter.
• poised, leafy secondary stems.
• Secondary stems split again into tertiary stems to
be reintegrated into the main stem.
Prominent Indo-Islamic architectural styles:

1. The Imperial Style (Delhi sultanate)
2. The Provincial styles (Malwa, Bengal, Jaunpur)
3. The Mughal Style (Delhi, Agra and Lahore)
4. The Deccani style (Bijapur and Hyderabad)
IMPERIAL STYLE DURING ISLAMIC ERA IN INDIA
SLAVE DYNASTY (1206-1290)

• Also known as Ilbari dynasty, as all the ruler’s belonged to
Ilbari tribe except QutubuddinAibak. The Style developed
by them is called Mamluk Style.
• They started converting existing structures into the
Mosque’s on Qila Rai Pithora (1st of 7 historical cities of
Delhi)
• The Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque was constructed by Qutub-
ud-din Aibak around 1192 AD by the demolished material
of Hindu and Jain temples.
• Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque – first mosque built in Delhi after the Islamic conquest of India

• The Qutub Minar of Mehrauli was built around
1199 by Qutub-ud-din and finally completed by his
son-in-law and successor IItutmish (1210-35).
• Another well-known mosque is Adhai-din-ka-
Jhonpra at Ajmer which was also constructed from
the material obtained after demolishing Hindu
temples.
KHILJI DYNASTY (1290-1320)

• The Style developed by them is called as Seljuk style.
• Enlarged the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque and built a gateway known as
Alahi Darwaja to
• the enclosure of the mosque.
• Allaudin Khilji also established the 2nd city of Delhi at Siri and dug a vast
reservoir atHauz Khas (Hydraulically structured) around 1311 AD.
• Prominent features of Seljuk Style adopted by the Khiljis were –
➢ the true arch in the form of a pointed horseshoe
➢ broad dome, recessed arches under the squinch
➢ perforated windows, inscriptional bands
➢ use of red sandstone relieved by marble
TUGHLAQS
• Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320-1325 AD) built Tughlaqabad, the 3rd historical city of Delhi.
• Tomb of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, built of red sandstone, is an irregular pentagon in its
• exterior plan & is of the pointed or “Tartar” shape, crowned by a finial.
• Tughlaqs introduced the concept of slopping walls known as “Battar”, combining the
• principles of arch and the lintel as shown below.
Seven cities of Delhi:

1. Qila Rai Pithora by Rajput king
2. Siri by Alauddin Khilji
3. Tughlaqabad by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.
4. Jahanpanah by Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq.

5. Firozabad by Feroz shah Tughlaq.
6. Delhi Sher shahi/ Shergad by Sher shah Suri
7. Shahjanabad by Shahjahan.
• Delhi’s 4th city Jahanpanah was built by Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq in mid-14th century. FirozShah
Kotla ground is the only remnant of its past glory. He is also credited with founding thefortified cities
of Jaunpur, Fathehbad and Hissar.
• Arch of this period is heavy, massive, rugged and simple.
• Used grey sandstone and employed minimum decoration.
• This period was called as ‘crisis period of architecture’ because focus was onstrength rather than
beauty.
SAYYID PERIOD
• The Sayyid period was too short to evolve elaborate
buildings, but the octagonal tombs ofthe time possess
a distinct architectural character.
• The decorative features of these tombs consist of the
use of blue enameled tilesenhancing the color effect.
• The Lotus motif crowning the tomb and free use of
Guldasta’s used in this periodconsiderably influenced
the style of subsequent period.
• The Tombs of Mubarak Sayyid (1434 AD),
Muhammad Sayyid (1444 AD) and Sikander
• Lodi (1517 AD) are all of the octagonal type.
LODI’S STYLE
• Enamel tile decoration tended to be richer and more lavish.
• The tomb architecture of this period is of two types, though both have grey granite walls.
Student Note

• One is octagonal in design having a verandah; the

other is square in plan, having noverandah.
• A spacious somewhat ornamental walled garden
encloses the tombs, which gives thewhole ensemble
elegance.
• Sikander Lodhi established the city of Agra and made
it as his capital. He also repairedQutub- Minar.
• The Tomb of Isa Khan (1547 AD), the Tomb of
Adham Khan (1561 AD), Moth ki Masjid
• (C.1505 AD), Jamala Masjid (1536 AD) and the Qila-
i-Kuhna Masjid (c.1550 AD) belong to thefinal phase
of the Delhi style of architecture.
PROVINCIAL STYLE DURING ISLAMIC ERA IN INDIA
BENGAL SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE

• Islamic monuments of Bengal are consistent in design as
of other regions, withdistinguishing features such as
material used & designs execution.
• Brick was the chief building material with the use of
stone being limited largely to pillarsfor
trabeate/Arcuate construction, mainly obtained from
demolished temples.
• The so-called “Bengal” roof with sloping cornices, which
originated from the bambooconstruction was adopted
by the Muslims and later it spread widely, even in other
regions.
• Covered brick & glazed tiles were usually pressed into service for decoration.
• Ex: - kadam Rasul mosque in gaur, Bengal & Adina Masjid at Pandna, Bengal.
MALWA SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE (MP & RAJASTHAN)

• Followed arcade style majorly with elegant use of arch with pillar and beam;
• Lofty terraces approached by well-proportioned stairways,
• Impressive size of buildings, use of various colored stones & marbles with minor use ofbright
colored glazed tiles.
• Minaret is absent in this style.
• Ex: - Rani Rupmati pavilion, Ashrafi Mahal, Hindola Mahal &Jahaz Mahal.Rani Rupmati pavilion
(Mandu)

JAUNPUR SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE (UP)
• Developed by Sharqi Dynasty hence also called as Sharqi
style. It was influenced by thebuildings of Tughlaq
period.
• During the rule of Shamsuddin Ibrahim (1402-1436 AD)
Atala Masjid was built in 1378.
• Ex: - Atalla Masjid
GUJARAT SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE

• Gujarat witnessed significant architectural activity for
over 250 years starting fromMuzaffar Shah’s declaration
of independence from Delhi & the formation of
theSultanate of Gujarat in 1307 AD until the conquest of
Gujarat by the Mughal EmperorAkbar in 1500 AD.
• Ahmedabad is a city full of architectural masterpieces
which include Sayyid Alam’smosque (1412), Teen
Darwaza (1415), Tomb of Ahmed Shah (1440), Rani-ka-
Hujra(1440), the Jami Masjid.
• Qutubuddin’s mosque (1454), Rani Sipri Mosque (1505),
Sidi Bashir’s Mosque (1510),Rani Rupmati Masjid at
Mirzapur (built between 1430 & 1440) & the Kankaria
Lake,constructed in 1451 by Sultan Qutb-ud-Din.
BIHAR SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE

• Sasaram in Bihar – Sher Shah’s Tomb, tomb of his father, Hasan Sur Khan built in 1535, tomb of his
son Salim Shah & tomb of Alwal Khan, the chief architect of Sher Shah.
• Completion of the sixth city of Delhi called the Shergarh or Dilli Sher Shai around thePurana Qila
area in 1540s.
• Purana Qila has 3 main gates – the Humayun Darwaza, TalaqiDarwaza andBaradarwaza. Qila-i-
kuhna Masjid built by Sher Shah Suri in 1541 AD in the Purana Qila.
DECCAN STYLE ARCHITECTURE IN ISLAMIC ERA

• Earliest period of architectural development started in 1347 when Allauddin BahmanShah
constructed the Gulbarga Fort & the Jama Masjid at Gulbarga.

• Second phase is represented by theAhmed Shah (1422-1436), which includes the Bidar Fort,
Mahmud Gawan’s Madrassa and the Ali Barid’s tomb.
HYDERABAD SCHOOL
• Qutub Shahi and Nizam Shahi dynasties contributed greatly towards the development ofthe Deccan
style of architecture.
• Charminar (1591) – Mohammed QuliQutb Shah
• Mecca Masjid- started in 1614 by Abdullah Qutub Shah and completed in 1687 byAurangzeb.
• Golconda Fort (1525) – Mohammed QuliQutb Shah, was an impregnable fort of great strategic
importance to most of the rulers
• Falaknuma Palace (1870) by Nawab Vikar-Ul-Ulmara is a rare blend of Italian andTudor
architecture.
BIJAPUR SCHOOL (KARNATAKA)

• Developed during the reign of Adilshah → most important example is GolGumbaz
• Gol Gumbaz of Bijapur is the mausoleum of Muhammad Adil Shah (1627
• It is the largest dome cubicle in the world covering a total interior surface of over1600 sq. meters
• Its underground vaults consist of a square grave chamber and a large single squarechamber above
the ground.
• Prominent feature → Large hemispherical dome
surmounting it & seven storiedoctagonal towers on its
corners.
• Each of its walls on the outside are divided into three
recessed arches.
• A 3.4 m wide gallery rests on its interior, known as the
whispering gallery, as even awhisper here reverberates as
an echo under the dome.
• The large dome is hemispherical & is covered with a row
of petals at the base of Gol Gumbaz.
MUGHAL PERIOD ARCHITECTURE

• Indo-Muslim architecture got striking improvement with
the arrival of Mughals, as hadbeen declined significantly during the Lodi’s period.
• Unlike Delhi Sultanate Sultans, Mughals mixed and mingled with the local population &Rajput
provinces
• Akbar followed the policy of conciliation to live in peace with his Hindu subjects. Hefounded Din-i-
illahi religion collecting good points of all prevailing religions.
• Jahangir was half Hindu by blood, his mother, Jodhabai, being a Rajput princess.
• Shahjahan too continued this policy of tolerance and respect for the Hindus.
• The Mughal empire, as well as Mughal architecture, flourished and rose to great heights under their
benign rule, but all this ended abruptly under the last of the great Mughals, Aurangzeb, a puritanical
Muslim, who tried to reverse the entire conciliatory policy of his ancestors.
• He looked upon art, music, dance, painting and even architecture as an evil born ofworldly desire
• There was an abrupt decline and eventual downfall in aesthetic appreciation andarchitectural
enterprise.
BABAR
• Babar, the founder of the Mughal Empire, was a man of
culture and exceptional aesthetictaste.
• For 4 years he ruled in India most of his time was spent in
war.
• However, he was fond of formal gardens and a couple of
gardens are ascribed to him.
• Ascribed to him are mosque of Kabuli Bagh at Panipat and
Jami Masjid at Sambhal nearDelhi.
HUMAYUN & SUR INTERREGNUM

• After Babar’s death, his son, Humayun, succeeded him but
he was driven out of India by SherShah Suri and after
taking asylum in Iran, he eventually returned and
overthrew Sher Shah Suri, and regained his throne.
Sher Shah’s own tomb (mausoleum), at Sasaram, in Bihar:

• Was made by modifying Lodi octagonal pattern with a
verandah around it.
• Each side pierced by arches and the halls surmounted by
a large and wide dome.
• Surs made use of red and dark grey stone latticed screens,
decorative turrets, paintedceilings and colored tiles.
• The Purana Qila and the Quila Kohna Masjid inside are also ascribed to Sher Shah Suri.
• Completed 6th historical city of Delhi called the Shergarh or Dilli Sher Shai around thePurana Qila
area in 1540s.
• The first distinct example of proper Mughal architecture is the tomb of Humayun, in Delhi, built by
his widow, Begha Begum.
• Provided the prototype for Mausoleum of Jahangir at Shahdara, Lahore Known as precursor of Taj
Mahal, Agra.
HUMAYUN’S TOMB
Although Sikander Lodi’s tomb as the first garden tomb built in India, it is Humayun’s tomb which
strikes a new note.
• The tomb proper stands in the centre of a square garden, raised on a vast platform.
• Garden is divided into 4 main parts by causeways (Charbagh), in the centre of which ranshallow
water-channels.
• The square, red, sandstone, double storeyed structure of the mausoleum rises over a highsquare
terrace, raised over a series of cells.

• The octagonal form of the central chamber containing
the cenotaph is inspired by Syrianand earlier Islamic
models.
• First time that red sandstone was used along with white
→ the white is used cleverly toemphasise, surround &
underline doors and windows, strengthening the
design.
• The mausoleum is a synthesis of Persian architecture
and Indian traditions, in the arched alcoves, corridors
and a high double dome as well as the kiosks (chhatris)
which give it apyramidal shape from a distance.
AKBAR
Akbar’s made Agra his seat of power. His architecture reflects a blend of the Hindu and Islamic
creation.
Agra Fort:
• Made of red sand-stone
• On the banks of the river Yamuna
• Begun in 1565 and completed in 1574
• The city of Fatehpur Sikri was founded as
a token of gratitude to Sheikh Salim Chisti
who hadforetold that Akbar would have
three sons who would survive after the sad
demise of manychildren in infancy.
• Fatehpur Sikri was begun in 1569 and
completed in 1574, the same year in which
the fortat Agra was completed.
• Fatehpur Sikri was a town planned as an administrative unit consisting of publicbuildings as well as
private residence in close proximity.
• The city is a modest township, consisting of halls, palaces, offices, gardens, pleasureresorts, baths,
mosques, & tombs.
• Almost all the structures are based on trabeate construction.
• Prominent Structures → BulandDarwaza, Panch Mahal, Dargah of Saleem Chisti, Diwan-i-Khas,
Diwan-i-Am, Jodha Bai Palace, Jama Masjid, IbadatKhana.
Panch Mahal:
• The highest and the most impressive structure, called the palace of five stories with openterraces
on each story
• Based on the Hindu system of trabeate structure, consisting of pillared verandas and brackets.
Student Note

• Build on the pattern of a Buddhist Vihara is the topmost domed

pavilion, purposefullythrown out of the centre that crowns the
entire building.
• The tower was perhaps used for recreation by the emperor and
members of the royalhousehold.
Diwan-i-Khas:
• A complex structure, also known as Hall of Private Audience.
• It is a square chamber with three openings on each side and a
richly carved column in thecenter supporting a magnificent
flower shaped capital.
• Thorough ventilation is provided by placing on all sides
perforated windows oppositeeach other on every wall.
• The charming balcony supported by a circular top capital, runs
round the hall’s wholelength of the four sides on the first-floor
level, supported by brackets.
• It is believed that the central place was occupied by the
Emperor’s throne while hisMinisters sat at the corners or on the
peripheral passage.
JAHANGIR:
• Introduced ‘Pietra Dura‘(decorating the walls with floral
designs made of semi-preciousstones started) was started in his
reign only.
• Ascribed with Shalimar Bagh on the banks of Dal Lake in
Kashmir.
• Built Akbar’s Tomb at Sikandra near Agra, which was completed
in 1613.
• Jahangir’s Tomb at Shahdara near Lahore built by his wife Nur
Mahal.
• He also built Moti Masjid at Lahore & his own mausoleum at
Shahdara (Lahore).
SHAHJAHAN
• Erected the most romantic building, Taj Mahal, the tomb of his beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal.
• Tajmahal is a square tomb built on a raised terrace, with graceful tall minarets at its fourcorners.
• As in Humayun’s tomb, the tomb chamber is octagonal, with subsidiary chambers at theangles.
• The tomb is surmounted by a graceful double dome & made of white marble (Substitution of red
sandstone)
• There is profuse carving and beautiful inlay work with precious multi-color stones (Pietradura
style) in its floral and arabesque pattern,
• Inscriptions in black marble, delicate traceries and trellis work are executed superblyagainst the
background of white marble.
• Shahjahan also constructed a number of elegant, lavishly decorated buildings viz. KhasMahal,
Diwan-i-Khas, Moti Masjid, & Jama Masjid in Delhi.
• Built Jami Masjid at Agra in 1648 in honour of his daughter Jahanara Begum & WazirKhan’s mosque
in Lahore, 1634.

• In 1638 Shahjahan shifted his capital from Agra to Delhi and laid the foundation of Shahjanabad, the
Seventh City of Delhi, containing his famous citadel, the Red-Fort, which was begun in 1639 and
completed after 9 years.
• Red Fort is an irregular octagon with its walls, gates, and a few other structuresconstructed in red
sandstone, and marble used for the palaces.
• It consists of a Diwan-i-Am, containing the marble canopy ornamented with beautifulpanels of
Pietra dura work showing a few paintings.
• Diwan-i-Khas (In Red Fort) is a high ornamented pillared hall, with a flat ceiling supportedon
engraved arches.
• Its pillars contain Pietra dura ornamentation and the upper portion was originally gildedand
painted.
• It is also said that its marble dais once supported the famous Peacock Throne.
• Consists of the exquisite marble screen containing a representation of the scales of justice.
• Walls of this marble palace is ascribed with the famous couplet claiming that “If there bea paradise
on earth it is this, it is this, it is this” Diwan-i-Khas”.

AURANGZEB
• The love of constructing magnificent buildings came to an end rather abruptly with thelast of the
great Mughals, Emperor Aurangzeb.
• Built Bibi-ki-Maqbara (tomb of his wife Begum Rabia Durani) → a poor replica of theTaj Mahal.
MUGHAL LITERATURE
• Abdul Qadir Badauni wrote Kitab-ul-Ahadish, Tarikh-i-Alfi&Muntakhab-ul-Tawarikh.
• Abul Fazal composed Ain-I-Akbari and Akbarnamah.
• Dara translated Upanishads &Bhagvadgita into Persian.
• Jahangir composed his memoir, Tuzuk-I-Jahangiri (in Persian language), & patronizedthe valuable
dictionary, Farhang-I-Jahangiri.
• Khan Abdur Rahman translated Babur’s Tuzuk-I-Baburi from Turki to Persian duringAkbar’s reign.
• Mirza MahammedQazim wrote Alamgirnama.
• Ishwar Das Nagar wrote Fatuhat-i-Alamgiri.
• Persian language became widespread in the Mughal Empire by the time of Akbar’s reign.
MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE STYLES (OTHER THAN INDO -ISLAMIC)
RAJPUT ARCHITECTURE STYLE

• Rajput palaces – built as inner citadels surrounded by the city and enclosed by a fortifiedwall as at
Chittorgarh and Jaisalmer.
• Some forts, such as those at Bharatpur and Deeg, were protected by wide ditch filled with water
surrounding the fort.
• Jaisalmer, Bikaner, Jodhpur, Udaipur and Kota Palaces → Built approx. 17th to early18th century.
• Bikaner is encircled by 5.63 km long Stone wall made of rich pink sandstone with fivegates & three
sally forts.
• Jodhpur Fort dominates the city, which is surrounded by a huge wall nearly 9.5 km longwith 101
bastions.
• Meherangarh fort stands on a cliff with a sheer drop of over 36 metres.
Man Mandir:
• The largest palace in Gwalior, was built by Raja Man Singh Tomar (1486-1516), has two storey’s
above, and two below ground level overhanging a sandstone cliff.

• This gigantic cliff is punctuated by five massive round towers, crowned by domedcupolas and linked
by delicately carved parapets.
Jaipur:
• Built by Jai Singh, represents a synthesis of Rajput and Mughal architectural styles.
• The city is enclosed by a wall and has bastions and towers at regular intervals.
Prominent structures at Jaipur:

• Hawa Mahal (1799) has a five-storeyed symmetrical facade composed of 953 smallcasements in a
huge curve each with a projecting balcony and crowning arch.
• Jantar Mantar, the largest of five observatories built by Jai Singh II in the early 18thcentury, others
being Ujjain, Mathura, Varanasi & New Delhi.
AVADH ARCHITECTURE STYLE

• Safdar Jung’s tomb, built in the honour of Safdar Jung (1739-1753).
• Bara Imambara → Built by the Nawab in 1784. Absence of pillars in the main hall (Simple &
symmetrical in design)
• Chattar Manzil → Main attractions are the underground rooms and a beautiful domesurrounded by
a gilt umbrella.

• Kaiser Bagh → A quadrangular park with a baradari (pavilion) and yellow-colouredbuildings on
three sides.
• RoshanwaliKoti and Begum Koti → Situated at Hazratgunj with Italian style being moreprominent.
KASHMIR STYLE
• Typified by use of woodwork.
• log construction using deodar trees for the construction of wooden bridges calledkadals or the
wooden shrines called ziarats.
• Mosque of Shah Hamdan in Srinagar and the Jami Masjid at Srinagar built by SikandarButshikan
(1400 AD) – examples of the wooden architecture.
• Fort of Hari Parbat, the Pattar Masjid (1623) and the Akhun Mulla Shah’s mosque (1649) are
illustrations of art of stone building in Kashmir.
PUNJAB ARCHITECTURE STYLE

• Influenced by the Mughal Style.
• Features → multiplicity of Chattris /kiosks, fluted
dome generally covered with copper orbrass gilt and
enrichment of arches by numerous foliations.
• Notable example → Golden Temple at Amritsar (1764)
built by the fourth Sikh GuruRamdas.
JAIN ARCHITECTURE STYLE

• Prominent Feature → Chamukhs or four-faced
temples.
• Four Tirthankars placed back-to-back to face four
cardinal points.
• Entry into these temples is also from four doors.
• Notable example includes Chamukh temple of Adinath (Ranakpur) (1618 AD).

• Most spectacular of all Jain temples are found at Ranakpur and Mount Abu in Rajasthan.
• Deogarh (Lalitpur, U.P.), Ellora, Badami and Aihole also have some of the importantspecimens of
Jain Art.
COLONIAL ARCHITECTURE – MODERN INDIA
COLONIAL ARCHITECTURE – PORTUGUESE STYLE

• They adapted to India the climatically appropriate
Iberian galleried patio house & theBaroque churches
of Goa.
• Portuguese used bricks as the main building material
along with wooden roofs & stairs
• Se Cathedral & Arch of Conception of Goa were built
in the typical Portuguese – Gothicstyle.
• St. Francis Church at Cochin in 1510 is believed to be
the first church built by theEuropeans in India.
• Fort of Castella de Aguanda near Mumbai and added
fortifications to the Bassein fortbuilt by Bahadur Shah, the Sultan of Gujarat, in 1532 AD.
• Bassein fort is famous for the Matriz (Cathedral of St. Joseph), the Corinthian pillaredhall & the Porte
da Mer (sea gate).
COLONIAL ARCHITECTURE – FRENCH STYLE

• Gave a distinct urban design to its settlement in Pondicherry by applying the Cartesiangrid plans &
classical architectural patterns.
• Church of Sacred Heart of Jesus (Eglise De Sacre Coeur De Jesus), Eglise de NotreDame de Angesand,
Eglise de Notre Dame de Lourdes at Pondicherry have a distinctFrench influence.
COLONIAL ARCHITECTURE – BRITISH STYLE

• British followed various architectural styles – Gothic, Imperial, Christian, EnglishRenaissance &
Victorian being the essentials.
• Britishers used Red sandstone & coarse limestone as the main building material.
• Church of St. John at Calcutta (1787) inspired by St. Stephens Church at Walbrooks.
• St. Mary’s Church in Fort St. George in Chennai.
• Law Courts, Presidency College and Senate House of Chennai.

• Gateway of India in Mumbai, Maharaja’s Palace at Mysore & M.S. University &LakshmiVillas Palace
at Baroda.
• New Delhi – systematically planned city after made capital in 1911.
• Constantia, a building erected by General Martin (British) at Lucknow, is the bestspecimen of
Palladian Style in India.
• Wittet designed the Gateway of India in Mumbai, borrowing several elements of Mughal style
• Sardar Ram Singh, a master builder of Punjab, designed the Central Museum & theSenate House at
Lahore (in Pakistan).
• Victoria Terminus Station (Chhatrapati Shivaji station), Mumbai, designed by the British architect
F. W. Stevens, the structure became the symbol ofBombay
• Based on late medieval Italian models, the terminal was built over 10 years, starting in 1878
• An outstanding example of Victorian Gothic revival architecture in India blended with themes
deriving from Indian traditional architecture.
• Bombay city was labelled as the ‘Gothic City’.
VICTORIA MEMORIAL HALL, KOLKATA

• Designed by William Emerson in late 19th century.
• To perpetuate the memory of Queen Victoria in India.
• Drew elements from the indigenous & Indo-Islamic architecture combined with theGothic revival &
Neo-Classical styles.

REVIVAL OF DELHI
• Transfer of capital from Calcutta to Delhi in 1911.
• Sir Edward Lutyens was made responsible for the overall plan of Delhi.
• He constructed India Gate &Rashtrapati Bhawan.
• Vice regal palace appeared with a huge dome on the lines of a Buddhist stupa, Represent some
elements of Hindu ornamentation & Islamic symmetry.
• Herbert Baker added South Block and North Block, which flank the Rashtrapati Bhawan.
• Englishman Robert Tor Tussell built the Connaught Place.
INDO GOTHIC STYLE

• Also known as Indo sarsenic style.
• Hybrid of Mughal, Gothic & Hindu style.
Features:
• Elaborate of carge construction.
• Confirmed of advanced British structural engineering standards.
• Thinner walls

• Pointed arches
• Large windows
• Gucified ground plan of churches.
• Ex: - St. Paul’s cathedral at Kolkata, Victoria, Lakshmi vilas& Gateway of India.
NEO ROMAN STYLE

• Also known as Neo classical style.
• Ex: - Rashtrapati bhavan, Parliament, Supreme Court.
SOME FAMOUS ARCHITECTS OF MODERN INDIA
LAURIE BAKER
• Was called as the architect of the poor and the conscience keeper of India.
• He merged the buildings with the environment and utilized locally available materials.
• To reduce the consumption of steel and cement, he introduced filler slab construction.
• While designing he gave more importance to ventilation & thermal comfort.
• Revolutionized mass housing in Kerala.
KARL HEINZ
• He was a German Architect and was commissioned with instructions to stay clear ofelements of
British or Mughal Architecture.
• Heinz used local materials like red sand stone and lime which were easily available.
• Prominent Feature → Red sandstone buildings with white domes, with big courtyardsand windows.
• Architecture by him is known as modern style of architecture as it resembles today’s stylebuildings.
LE-CORBUSIER
• He was a French Architect.
• He designed the city of Chandigarh on the pattern of well-ordered matrix.
• He conceived the Idea of sector as self-sufficient green belt.
• Designed regular grid system for fast moving traffic.
CHARLES-CORREA
• He was a Goan Architect & played pivotal role past independence.
• He placed special emphasis on prevailing resources, energy and climate as majordeterminants in
the ordering of space.
• He did pioneer work in urban issues and low-cost shelter in the third world.
• Example: Planning of Navi Mumbai, Kanchenjunga apartment, Mumbai, British Councilbuilding,
New Delhi, etc.
Student Note

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8. PHILOSOPHICAL SCHOOL IN INDIA

There are 2 types of Schools of Philosophy in India:
1. Orthodox – Accepted the authority of Vedas & Believed in God. Ex: Shad Dharshanas
2. Heterodox – Questioned the authority of Vedas & Didn’t believed in God. Ex: Buddhism & Jainism
philosophy.
“SHADA DARSHANA” OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY :

• During the later Vedic period that definite ideas and philosophies about the true nature ofsoul or
Atman and the cosmic principle or Brahman who represented the ultimate realitywere developed.
• These Vedic philosophical concepts later on gave rise to six different schools ofphilosophies called
Shadadarshana.
• They fall in the category of the orthodox system as the final authority of the Vedas is recognised by
all of them.
The profounder of • The Samkhya philosophy holds that reality is constituted

this philosophy was of two principles one female and the other male i.e.
Kapila, who wrote Prakriti, Purusha respectively.
the Samkhya sutra. • Prakriti and Purusha are completely independent and
absolute.
• According to this system, Purusha is mere consciousness;
Samkhya hence it cannot be modified or changed.
System • Prakriti on the other hand is constituted of three
attributes, thought, movementand the change or
transformation of these attributes brings about the
change in all objects.
• The Samkhya philosophy tries to establish some
relationship between Purusha andPrakriti for explaining
the creation of the universe.
The origin of yoga is • Yoga literally means the union of the two principal
found in the entities.
Yogasutra of • By purifying and controlling changes in the mental
Patanjali believed mechanism, yoga systematically brings about the release
to have been of Purusha from prakriti.
written • Yogic techniques control the body, mind and sense
Yoga in the second organs. Thus, this philosophy is also considered a means
century BC. of achieving freedom or mukti.
• This freedom could be attained by practicing self-control
(yama), observation of rules(niyama), fixed postures
(asana), breath control (pranayama), choosing an object
• (pratyahara) and fixing the mind (dharna), concentrating
on the chosen object(dhyana) and complete dissolution
of self, merging the mind and the object (Samadhi).
• Yoga admits the existence of God as a teacher and guide.
Gautama is said to • Nyaya is considered as a technique of logical thinking.
be the author of the • According to Nyaya, valid knowledge is defined as the
Nyaya “Nyaya Sutras”. real knowledge, that is, one knows about the object as it
exists. For example, it is when one knows a snake as a
snake or a cup as a cup.

• Nyaya system of philosophy considers God who creates,
sustains and destroys the universe.
Kannada wrote the • Vaisheshika system is considered as the realistic and
basic text of objective philosophy of universe.
Vaisheshika • The reality according to this philosophy has many bases
philosophy. or categories which are substance, attribute, action,
genus, distinct quality and inherence.
• Vaisheshika thinkers believe that all objects of the
universe are composed of five elements–Earth, water, air,
fire and ether.
• They believe that God is the guiding principle.
• The living beings were rewarded or punished according
Vaisheshika to the law of karma, based on actions of merit and
demerit.
• Creation and destruction of universe was a cyclic process
and took place in agreement with the wishes of God.
• Kanaada wrote the basic text of Vaisheshika philosophy.
• A number of treatises were written on this text but the
best among them is the one written by Prashastapada in
the sixth century AD.
• Vaisheshika School of philosophy explained the
phenomena of the universe by the atomic theory, the
combination of atoms and molecules into matter and
explained the mechanical process of formation of
Universe.
Its main text is • Mimamsa philosophy is basically the analysis of
known as the Sutras interpretation, application and the use of the text of the
of Gaimini which Samhita and Brahmana portions of the Veda.
have been written • According to Mimamsa philosophy Vedas are eternal and
during the third possess all knowledge, and
century BC. • religion means the fulfillment of duties prescribed by the
Mimamsa Vedas.
• This philosophy encompasses the Nyaya-Vaisheshika
systems and emphasizes theconcept of valid knowledge.
• The names associated with this philosophy are Sabar
Swami and KumarilaBhatta.
• The essence of the system according to Jaimini is Dharma
which is the dispenser of fruits of one’s actions, the law of
righteousness itself.
• This system lays stress on the ritualistic part of Vedas
• Vedanta implies the philosophy of the Upanishad, the
concluding portion of the Vedas.
• Shankaracharya wrote the commentaries on the
Upanishads, Brahmasutras and theBhagavad Gita.
Vedanta • Shankaracharya’s discourse or his philosophical views
came to be known as Advaita Vedanta.
• Advaita literally means non-dualism or belief in one
reality.
• Shankaracharya expounded that ultimate reality is one, it
being the Brahman.

• According to Vedanta philosophy, ‘Brahman is true; the
world is false and self.
• Brahman are not different, Shankaracharya believes that
the Brahman is existent, unchanging, the highest truth
and the ultimate knowledge.
• He also believes that there is no distinction between
Brahman and the self.
• The knowledge of Brahman is the essence of all things
and the ultimate existence.
• Ramanuja was another well-known Advaita scholar.
• Vedanta philosophy teaches that all these different
religions are like so many roads, which lead to same goal.
• Vedanta (the end of the Vedas or knowledge) refers to the
Upanishads which appeared at the end of each Veda with
a direct perception of reality.
CHARVAKA SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY:

• Brihaspati is supposed to be the founder of the Charvaka School of philosophy.
• It finds mention in the Vedas and Brihadaranyka Upanishad.
• Thus, it is supposed to be the earliest in the growth of the philosophical knowledge.
• It holds that knowledge is the product of the combination of four elements which leavesno trace
after death. Charvaka philosophy deals with the materialistic philosophy.
• It is also known as the ‘Lokayata Philosophy’ – the philosophy of the masses.
• According to Charvaka there is no other world.
• Hence, a death is the end of humans and pleasures the ultimate object in life.
• Charvaka recognises no existence other than this material world.
• Since God, soul, and heaven, cannot be perceived, they are not recognised by Charvakas.
• Out of the five elements earth, water, fire, air and ether, the Charvakas do not recogniseether as it is
not known through perception.
HETERODOX SCHOOL
• Includes Buddhism Jainism and Ajivika sect and others.
RELIGION: Jainism and Buddhism
REASONS WHY THEY HAVE COME?

• The Vedic rituals were expensive and the sacrifices prescribed were very complicated and had lost
their meaning. The superstitious beliefs and mantras confused the people.
• The teachings of Upanishads were highly philosophical in nature and therefore not understood by
all.
• The rigid caste system prevalent in India generated tensions in the society. Also, the Kshatriyas had
resented the domination of the priestly class. Both Buddha and Mahavira belonged to Kshatriya
caste.
• The growth of trade led to the improvement in the economic conditions of the Vaishyas. As a result,
they wanted to enhance their social status but the orthodox Varna system did not allow this.
Therefore, they began to extend support to Buddhism and Jainism. It was this merchant class that
extended the chief support to these new religions.
CAUSES FOR THE DECLINE OF BUDDHISM

• The Buddhists began to adopt Sanskrit, the language of the elite. So masses moved away.
• After the birth of Mahayana Buddhism, the practice of idol worship and making offerings led to the
deterioration of moral standards.
• Rajput rulers were warlike and could not follow the policy of Ahimsa. Besides, the Kings of the
Gupta period patronised temples in honour of Hindu gods and goddesses. Thus, the lack of royal
patronage brought about the decline of Buddhism.
• Moreover, the attack of the Huns in 5th and 6th centuries and the Turkish invaders in 12th century
destroyed the monasteries.
• Buddhism was mainly an urban religion with the rural India always Hindu. When Islam came to
India, it impacted the urban regions first and thus Buddhism became the first victim.
THE REVIVAL OF BRAHMANISM AND THE RISE OF BHAGAVATISM

In 8th century AD, Adi Sankara greatly cleaned up Hinduism and brought a very forward outlook. His
efforts were assisted by other south Indian gems like Ramanujacharya, Madhvacharya, etc.
CONTRIBUTION OF BUDDHISM
• The concept of ahimsa was its chief contribution. Later, it became one of the cherished values of our
nation.
• Its contribution to the art and architecture of India was notable. The stupas at Sanchi, Bharhut and
Gaya are wonderful pieces of architecture. Buddhism takes the credit for the chaityas and viharas in
different parts of India.
• It promoted education through residential universities like those at Taxila, Nalanda and
Vikramasila.
• The language of Pali and other local languages developed through the teachings of Buddhism.
• It had also promoted the spread of Indian culture to other parts of Asia.
RELIGIOUS REVOLUTION
• Simplicity of his teaching of truth connected with masses in such a manner that Buddhism became
a completely new approach to look at religion and society. It became a new religious and social
order.
• Explanation of sufferings through 4 simple noble truths and the wheel of dhamma was
understandable by ordinary people unlike the scriptures interpreted by priests only.
• Focus was on ethical living rather than rituals, animal sacrifices, etc.
• Authority of Vedas was challenged. Faith was given rational basis.
• It preached atheism that is, there is no God that will help us in Moksha but we ourselves are the
makers of our destiny.
SOCIAL REVOLUTION
• It opposed caste and Varna system, any form of hierarchy and discrimination.
• Women were given equal status as men who were against the Shastras like Manusmriti (social
code).
• Use of Pali language as opposed to Sanskrit which could be read only by Priests broke the
monopoly over knowledge.
• Emphasis on ahimsa, avoidance of extremes led to establishment of peaceful society.
• Tried to narrow gap between rich and poor by advocating its followers not to accumulate wealth.
POLITICAL AND ECONOMICAL REVOLUTION

• The rigid fourfold Varna system prevalent in India generated tensions in the society. Higher classes
enjoyed certain privileges which were denied to the lower classes.

• The Kshatriyas had resented the ritualistic domination of the priestly class. Both Buddha and
Mahavira belonged to Kshatriya origin.
• The growth of trade led to the improvement in the economic conditions of the Vaishyas. As a result,
they wanted to enhance their social status but the orthodox Varna system did not allow this.
Therefore, they supported Jainism and Buddhism.
• Vedic practice of killing cattle indiscriminately in sacrifices stood in progress of new agriculture.
• Dharmasutras forbade money lending on interest which was widely practised by Vaishyas.
• The new religions didn’t attach any importance to Varna, orthodoxy, sacrifice and advocated for
peace, equality and nonviolence.
BUDDHISM
• Worlds 4th largest- 7% world population,0.7% Indian’s are Buddhists.
• Lord Buddha born- Lumbini (563 BC) (now Nepal)
• Age 29- left home on horse Kanthaka
• Age 35- Enlightenment (Nirvana) @ Bodh Gaya
• First Sermon- Sarnath- event known as Dharma-chakra-pravartana
• Contemperoroy kings- Bimbisara>>>>Later Ajatshatru
• Official name- Tathagata and Sakyamuni
• His predecessor: Kassapa Buddha
• Succesor: Maitreya
EARLIEST BUDDHIST SCHOOL:

Division of sangha in 2 schools:
• Vatsiputriya
• Sarvastivada (aka Vaibhasika)- Yogascara school (doctrine of
cittamatra- Only mind is ultimate reality + systemized doctrine of
Triyaka)
SthaviraNikaya- the • Sankrantika
rebel one’s at 2nd • Dharmaguptaka
Buddhist Council • Mahisasaka
• Dharmottariya
• Bhadrayaniya
• Sannagarika
• Sammitiya
• Gokulika
• Prajnaptivada
Mahasamghika • Bahusrutiya
• Ekavyaharikas
• Caitika
Others • Hemavatika, Rajagiriya, Siddhatthaka, Pubbaseliya, Aparaseliya and
Apararajagirika.
CONCEPTS AND PHILOSOPHY

1. Four major noble truths:
a) Dukkha- suffering
b) Samudaya- Origin of suffering
c) Nirodha- cessation of suffering
d) Magga- Path to cessation of suffering
2. Asthangamarg
3. Rejects- vedas, existence of soul (Unlike jaina), Belief- Rebirth (Not necessarily as human), karma
4. Threepitaka- Vinaya-Monastic code, Sutta-Buddha’s saying, Abhidhamma- religious discourse.
The largest and most important of the “three Baskets” is the Sutta Pitaka, which is divided into five
“groups” (Nikaya):
Digha (Long) Nikaya, a collection of long sermas ascribed to the Buddha.
Majjhima (Medium) Nikaya, shorter sermons.
Samyutta (Connected) Nikaya, collections of brief pronouncements on kindred topics.
Anguttara (Graguated) Nikaya contains discussions on the two things which a man should avoid
and on the trinity of thought, word and deed, and so on.
Khuddaka (Minor) Nikaya, miscellaneous works in prose and verse, some very ancient, but certainly
added to the canon than the four other Nikayas.
Jataka- mentioned in Sutta Pitaka
5. 3 marks of existence- 1. Anicca (impermance) 2. Dukkha3. Anatta (non self)

6. Concept of Bodhisattava:
• Concept emerged in 4th Buddhist Council under Kanishka
• One who has generated Bodhicitta (spontaneous wish and compassionate mind) to attain
Buddhahood for benefit of all sentient beings (thus universal liberation)
• To become buddha, he proceeds through 10 grounds or Bhumi
• Prominent boddhisattavas
• Padmapani
• Holding lotus
Avalokitesvara • Manifests Buddha’s Compassion
• Lokesvara in Cambodia thervada
• said to take avtara in dalai lama
• Regarded as Buddha in Vajrayana teaching
• Manifest Buddha’s power+ powers of all 5 tathagatas
Vajrapani • Dharmapala in Mahayana Buddhism
• Protector and guide of Gautam buddha
• Fearful appearance
• Manifest Wisdom of Buddha- Mahayana Buddhism – oldest Bodhisattva
Manjushri • Sword in hand + book (containing 10 paramitas)
• Associated with Meditation in Vajrayana
Samantabhadra • associated with practice and meditation in Mahayana Buddhism
• Buddha+ Manjushri + Samantabhadra = Shakyamuni trinity
• took vow to take responsibility for instrcutions to all beings Between the
Ksitigarbha period of Death of buddha and rise of Maitreya + not to achieve Buddhahood
till the hell is completely emptied (thus aka bodhisattva of hell beings)
• Popular in east Asian Buddhism
Maitreya • Future Buddha
• Laughing budha- his incarnation
Akasagarbha • space
Skanda • guardian of vihara and buddha teachings
Vasudhara • wealth, prosperity and abundance
Sitatapatra • protector against supernatural danger
• Worshipped in both Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions.
Tara • Female Bodhisattva in Mahayana, Female Buddhain Hinayana

• Arhats (or Arahant) - Perfected soul who has achieved nirvana (but not Buddhahood) - central
concept to Thervada Buddhism
a) Sariputta and Mougalayana- Two chief disciples of Buddha
b) Name of seven Buddhas (Saptatathagata)- names appear in earliest 4 Niyakas
Vipassi Sikhi Vessabhu Kakusandha Konagamana Kassapa Gautama

th th th st nd rd
998 , 999 and 1000 Buddha of 1 , 2 , 3 and present Buddha of Bhadrakalpa
vyuhakalpa
10. Atthamahathanani-Eight great places of Buddhist heritage>> connected to life events of Buddha
MAJOR SUBSCHOOLS
HINAYANA (ALSO CALLED AS SRAVAKAYANA)

• Followers of original preaching of buddha- thus orthodox
• No belief in image or idol worship
• Individual salvation or Nirvana through self-discipline and meditation
• Patronge- ASHOKA
• Pali language
• Two subsects: 1. Vaibhasika 2. Sautantrika
MAHAYANA
• More liberal, ultimate aim: spiritual upliftment
• Believe in idol or image worship
• Bodhisattva concept- central to Mahayana
• Thus, belief in universal liberation from suffering of ALL beings
• Samyakasambuddha- Bodhisattva who achieved complete enlightment for wellbeing of ALL
beings.
• Lotus sutra: 6 perfections (paramitas) to be followed: in Mahayana Buddhism- PSSDDV- Prajna,
Shila, Shanti, Dana, Dhyana, Virya
• Sanskrit language
• Founder- KANISHKA (1st AD)

• Two subsects- 1. Madhyamika (of Nagarjuna)2. Yogchara (Vasubandhu and Asanga)
• Trikaya Doctrine of Mahayana Buddhism: says that Buddha has 3 Kayas or bodies:
1. Dharmakaya- truth body which embodies very principle of enlightment
2. Sambhogakaya- body of mutual enjoyment-body of clear manifestation
3. Nirmanakaya- Buddha incarnation which manifest in time and space
THERVADA
• School of Old Monks- thus kind of orthodox
• Successor of Hinayana
• Uses Pali canon – buddha’s teaching
• Ultimate goal- cessation of Klesha
• How? - Ashtanaga Marg
• Samatha and Vipassanna- integral part of ashtanga marg.
• Belief in concept of VIBHAJJAVADA (teaching of analysis)
• Vissuddhimagga- imp book written by Buddhaghosa in 5th AD in Sri Lanka.
• Sattavisuddhi (7 stage of purification) – follow to attain salvation.
• Note- both Mahayana and thervada- 1. consider Buddha is founder, but thervada consider him
unique while mahayan: one of Buddha 2. Accept Ashtangikamarg, 4 truths, and 3 marks.
VAJRAYANA (TANTRIC BUDDHISM)

• Influenced by Hinduism, BLEND of Hinduism and Buddhism
• Main deity- TARA
• Main philosophy- Tantra, Mantra and Yantra: faster methods to liberation.
• Mantra- easy path than paramitas of Mahayana, taught by Manjushri.
• Five Tathagathas/ Dhyani Buddhas- representation of 5 qualities of Adi- Buddha: VAJRADHARA or
Vairocana.
AMOGHASIDDHI
(North)
VAIROCANA (principle AKSHOBHYA (east)

AMITABHA (west)
deity)
RATNASAMBHAVA
(south)
BUDDHA SYMBOL ATTRIBUTE BODHISATTVA

Vairocana Wheel Wisdom of essenceof dharma Samantabhadra
Amoghasiddhi Double Vajra Wisdom of perfectpractice Visvapani
Amitabha Lotus Wisdom ofobservation Avalokitesvara

(akaBuddha heaven)
Ratnasambhava Jewel Wisdom ofequanimnity Ratnapani

Akshobya Vajra Wisdom of Reflection Vajrapani
• These 5 are symbols in Mandalas

• These 5 are aspects of Dharmakaya
PLACES VISITED BY BUDDHA

• Kingdoms- Kosala and Magadha
• Places- Kapilvastu, Rajgriha, Vaishali, Gaya, kosambi, Shravasti, Kushinagara, Nalanda, Mathura,
Varanasi, Saket, Champapuri.
MAJOR CENTRES OF BUDDHISM IN WORLD IN ANCIENT INDIA:

• Begram And Bamiyan- Afganistan
• Merv in Turkmenistan
• Anuradhapura- Sri lanka
PROMINENT PERSONALITIES
• Nagarjuna- founder: Madhyamaka school of Mahayana (Sunyata(emptiness)-central concept),
opposed sarvastivada and sautrantika, all that is perceive within or without is unreal, like the
objects of dream (1-2AD). Literatures: Madhyamikasastra by Nagarjuna, Satakasastra by Aryadeva.
• Vasubhandhu- Mahayana wrote from perspective of sarvastivada and sautrantika (aka
Darstantika). Wrote: Abhidharma-kosa-bhasya (Commentary on Abhidharmakosakarika-
Sarvastivadin text).
• Padmasambhava- 8th cen: ‘2nd Buddha’ in Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan
BUDDHIST COUNCIL:
1st Sattapani Cave King Mahakasyapa • Compilation of Sutta and

Council (Rajgriha) Ajatshatru vinayapitaka +
(abhidhammapitaka included)
• Ananda- recited sutta Upali-
recited vinaya
2nd Vaishali King Sabakami • Division- Sthaviravada,
Council Kalasoka • Mahasanghika, Sarvastivada
3rd Pataliputra King Moggaliputta • Adoption of Tripitaka by compiling
Council Ashoka Tissa • Abhidhammapitaka
• Vibhajjavada declared as true and
• only form of Buddhism
4th Kundalavana King Vasumitra • Division: Hinayana and Mahayana
Council Kanishka (with
Asvaghosa)
• Another 4th council @ Aloka Leni under Vattagamani Abaya (who was cruel to Jains).
VARIOUS MUDRAS OF BUDDHA
MUDRA SIGNIFICANCE IMAGES

Bhumisparsh Calling earth to witness the truth
Blue Buddha- Akshobya
Dhyana or Yoga Depicts- Attainment of spiritual perfection

or samadhi
Vitarka Indicates teaching and discussion or intellectual

debate
Abhaya Fearlessness
Immeadiate after attaining enlightment
Dharmachakra while preaching first sermon

setting in motion wheel of dharma
Anjali greetings, devotion and adorationfor Bodhisattavas,

not for pure buddhas
Uttarabodhi Supreme enlightment>>symbolizes perfection

By Shakyamuni Buddha
Varada Charity, compassion or granting wish

Signifies 5 perfections
Karana Indicates warding off evils

Vajra indicates knowledge
korea and japan
JAINISM
• Jains rejected vedas and existence of God
• But they believe in SOUL and the Cycle of Karma
• They believe that universe is made of Jiva and ajiva, Soul- created since time immoral, Renunciation
of world>> to free from cycle of karma.
• 2 Tirthakaras- Rishabhadeva and Arishtanemi- Mentioned in Rig Veda
• Mahavira attained KAIVALYA at the age of 42- under sal tree at Jambhikagrama
• He gave his First sermon at pava.
COUNCILS:
1st 300 BC Patliputra Sthulabhadra Chandragupta 12 Angas

Maurya
2nd 512 AD Vallabhi DevardhiKshamas --------------- 12 Upangs
ramana
PHILOSOPHY:
● Entire world= ANIMATEDthus not created by Personal Deity.
➢ Existence of universe: has infinite no. of cycles, each consisting of utsarpini (Cycle of
Improvement) and Avasarpini (Cycle of decline)
➢ Jaina Belief: Time is eternal and formless: like Wheel with 12 spokes: 6 showingUtsarpiniand 6
showing avasarpini - When one rotation of wheel, it’s called Kalpa
• ‘Anekantavada’- ultimate truth and reality is complex- non absolutism no specificstatement can
describe nature of existence and absolute truth
● 5 constarints need to be followed:
1. Ahimsa
2. Satya
3. Asteya
4. Aparigraha
5. Brahmacharya (by Mahavira)
• Namokarmantra- common prayer in Jainism
• Samyika- practice of brief periods in medication-3 times a day
• Salakapurusas- 63 illustrious beings born in dukhama-sukhamaara
• Arihant-perfect soul with body, Siddha- perfect soul without body
• Non creationism: UNIVERSAL LAW (as Jaina do NOT support belief in creator Deity)

• Syadvada- not merely the two possibilities of existence and non-existence, but ‘Doctrine of Seven’–
All judgements are conditional and holds good only in certain condition.
SYMBOLS
Swastika It signifies peace and wellbeing of the humans
Nandyavartya It is a large swastika with nine end points
Bhadrasana A throne which is said to be sanctified by the jaina’s feet
Shrivasta A mark which manifested on the Jain’s chest and signified his pure soul
Darpana The mirror which reflects the inner self
Minayugala A couple of fish which signifies the conquest over sexual urges
Vardhamanaka A shollow dish used as lamp which shows the increase in the wealth, due and merit
Kalasha A pot filled with pure water signifying water
MAJOR SCHOOLS
DIGAMBARA SHWETAMBARA
• They follow Mahavira- thus follow all 5 • follow Parsvanatha- thus 4 constraints only (no
constraints brahmacharya) to attain kevalya
• Bhadrabahu • Sthulabahu
• 6 eternal substances- Jiva, Pudgala, Akasha, • 5 eternal substances- all except Kala
Dharma, Adharma, Kala • Can be men or woman
• Woman Can NOT be tirthakara (thus Malli • believe that 23rd and 24th tirthakara married
was man) • kalpa sutras-popular (Attribute to bhadrabahu-
• Teachings contained in he went to Nepal, not south)
prakritSuttapahudaofKundakunda
MAIN DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SVETAMBARA AND DIGAMBARA

• Digambara’s believe that after attaining Kevala Jnana, they are free from human needs.
• Digambara’s believe Soul can attain Moksha only from Male body.
• Digambara - extreme Non- acquisition (not even begging bowl) for saints.
• Belief about Agama- Digambara: Lost in Magadha famine where as Swetambara believe them to
exist
• Belief abourPurva- both beliefs that it is lost.
Agamas= teachings of Mahavira that are compiled by disciples in sutras and memorized (because the
monks and nuns not allowed to carry book or write). Thus, some forgotten, misremembered or lost as
belief in digambara.
Karmaprabhrita and Kashayaprabhrita- Sacred texts of Digambara Sect.
SUBSECTS:
A. DIGAMBARA-
• Mula Sangh- original community:
• Orthodox- Nandi, Sena, Simha, Deva sangha
• Heterodox- Dravida, Yapaniya, Kashtha, Mathura
• Bispanthi, Digambar Terapanthi, Taranpanthi- modern community
BISPANTHI • Worship- tirthakara, yaksha yakshini

• Aarti, flowers, fruits
• Dharma guru- bhattarakas
DIGAMABARA • Worship- only tirthakara
TERAPANTHI • Replaced flower and fruit with dry sub.
• Opposes bhattarakas
B. SVETAMBARA-
• Sthanakavasi- muhapatti near mouth, worship saints rather than idol
• Terapanthi- Subsect of sthanakavasi- Founder- Bhikkanaji Maharaj. (Aka Muni Bhikan)
• Murtipujaka(deravasi) - idol of tirthakaras, no muhapatti
Popular practices:
• Sallekhana- Voluntary fasting to death.
• Pratikraman- process of repent for sins during daily life.
• Paryushan- Svetambaradasalakshana parva- digambara.
OTHER IMPORTANT RELIGIONS:

• Hadith- compilation of day-to-day teaching of prophet Mohammad
ISLAM • Quaran + Sunnah
• basis of sharia
• 4 schools of islam in india- Hanafi, Shafei, Maliki and Hambali
• Bible= old tastaments of jews and the new testament defined by roman
CHRISTIANITY catholic church
• Baptism- child or individual enters in church’s service
• Eucharist- breaking bread and wine with god
• By Guru Nanak (1469-1539)
• Followers: supposed to be closer to God without disrupting their livelihood
SIKHISM and thus attracted Khattari traders
• Why militancy? Since there was execution of Guru Arjan Dev by Jahangir
• After this, Guru Hargobind has set trend of militancy, two swords as symbol,
Akal Takht and Lohgarh fort.
• Prophet Zarathustra: 6-7th BCE
ZOROASTRIANISM • Worship’s fire
Shahenshai Calculate their Calendar from the Last Sassanian king, Yasdegard III
Kadmi Claim to have the oldest and the most accurate calendar
Fasli They follow the traditional Persian calendar
INFLUENCE OF ISLAM ON INDIA?
• Brought visible changes to ceremonies, dresses, mannerism etc. For example,

Purdah System became widespread among upper caste women, marriages
Social Life: became extravagant. New interests like perfumes and scents were introduced.
New fabrics from Persia were picked up by Hindu rulers and elites.
• Urdu as a common language became popular.
Religion: • Islam introduced elements of love, brotherhood and equality.

• These assimilated into the Bhakti Movement later popularised by Kabir, Guru
Nanak etc. Though against Hindu caste system, Islam couldn’t break it down
completely.
• A new culture that gave lavish patronage to artisans came.
Fine Art: • Musicians like Tansenbecame court men and new styles such Ghazal and
Taranawere introduced giving Hindustani music a differentflavour. Miniature
paintings synonymous with Mughal period laterspread to different regions.
• Added a distinct Persian touch through new features like Arch and Dome style,
Architecture: Char bagh construction style later picked up by the British. Polished stone like
marble or sandstone was used for the first time. Intricate geometrical design
replaced human figures.
• An influence to begin with, Islam soon assimilated completely into the Indian
culture and co-exists till date.
BHAKTI MOVEMENT:
• Bhakti movement was a religious reform movement which emphasised on single-minded intense
devotion to God.
• It was a complete surrender of oneself to God.
• Bhakti movement was the direct result of the influence of the spread of Islam and its ideals such as
Monotheism, equality and brotherhood of man and rejection of rituals and class divisions.
IMPORTANT FEATURES:
• Unity of God or one God though known by different names.
• Bhakti, intense love and devotion, the only way to salvation.
• Condemnation of rituals, ceremonies and blind faith.
• Rejection of idol worship.
• Open-mindedness about deciding religious matters.
• No distinction of different castes, higher or low.
• Preaching’s through local or regional languages and abdicating elite languages like Sanskrit.
IMPACT:
• According to them there was no distinction and consideration of high and low castes on the basis of
birth. Their doors were open to all classes. For example, through the concept of ‘Langar’ or common
kitchen, Sikh gurus emphasised on the equality of all in society.
• The Bhakti saints tried to generate an environment of good will between the Hindus and the
Muslims. Most of the promoters stressed that Rama and Rahim were one and the same. Some of the
rulers adopted liberal religious policies under the impact of the Bhakti movement.
• The Bhakti saints were social reformers also. The evil practice of Sati received some set back.
• Women were encouraged to join kirtans. Mirabai, Lalla (Kashmir) and Andal composed verses that
are popular even today.
• In place of Sanskrit, Bhakti saints preached through the medium of local languages which could be
understood very easily. Surdasused ‘Brij’ dialect. Tulsi Das composed his works in ‘Awadhi’.
Shankaradevapopularizing Assamese, Chaitanya spreading their message in Bengali, Mirabai in
Hindi and Rajasthani.
• It emphasised earning of wealth through honest means. It encouraged the value of social service to
the poor and the needy.
• It developed a humanitarian attitude. It pointed out the virtues of contentment and self-control.
• The Bhakti movement succeeded to a very small extent in realising its two-fold objective i.e.
bringing about reforms in Hinduism and developing harmonious relations between the Hindus and
the Muslims.
• The movement further divided the Hindu society. For instance, the followers of Kabir came to be
known as Kabir Panthis.
SUFI MOVEMENT
• Sufism was a liberal reform movement within Islam. Sufism stressed the elements of love and
devotion as effective means of the realisation of God. In Sufism, self disciplinewas considered an
essential condition to gain knowledge of God. While orthodox Muslims emphasise external conduct,
the Sufis lay stress on inner purity.
• Sufi saints such as Moinuddin Chisti, Nizamuddin Auliya, Fariduddin Ganj-e- Shakar were the
pioneer Sufis who are still loved, respected and honoured in India.
IMPORTANT FEATURES:
• The Sufis were very liberal in their religious outlook. They believed in the essential unity of all
religions. Even today, Dargahs of Sufi saints are visited by both Hindus and Muslims and people from
all castes. It played a key role in bringing the Hindu and Muslim communities together.
• The Sufis rejected the elaborate rituals and codes of behaviour demanded by Muslim religious
scholars.
• They took ideas not only from Quran, but also from Hinduism, Buddhism, and Christianity etc. In the
later period, Akbar appreciatedSufi doctrines which shaped his religious outlook and religious
policies.
• They preached spirituality through music and doctrines that professed union with God. Their
musical gatherings were called Sama.
• Sufis too composed poems and a rich literature in prose, including anecdotes and fables, developed
around them. The most notable writer of this period was Amir Khusrau the follower of Nizamuddin
Auliya.
SUFISM AND MUSIC:

• Sufism encourages music as a way of deepening one’s relation with God, remembering God by zikr
(reciting name) Sama or performance of mystical music.
• Reach to masses: Music as a way of worship got greater acceptance, even among orthodox sects.
Many women too wereable to enjoy and contribute to Sufi music.
• Instruments: Sufi saints are credited with invention of sitar and tabla.
• Style: It contributed to evolution of classical music. Khayal style owes a lot to Sufism.
• Linguistic richness: Before, prayers, verses etc were usually in elite class languages. As Sufi saints
came from different classesand linguistic groups, they contributed to music in their respective
dialects.
• Communication: Music became a mean for Sufi saints to convey their teachings to common masses.
• Spread: With its simple to understand ideas presented through music, Sufism became popular
among masses and allowed for a fusion with bhakti prayers too.
• Patronisation: Sufi singers were patronised by elite class which also served as a mean of their
sustenance.
Thus, music and Sufism evolved with each other and became inseparablefrom each other in coming
centuries which continues even todayreflected in the music of Nusrat Fatha Ali Khan etc.
SANGAM AND BHAKTI LITERATURE
Compare • Women poets composed in Sangam and as well as in Bhakti too.

• Sangam was only in Sanskrit and its influence was not as widespread as that of
Bhakti. Bhakti literature gave birth to regional languages and influenced pan-
India movements.
• The dominating note in bhakti is ecstasy and total identity with God. It is a
poetic approach to religion. Sangam is not concerned with aspects of divinity,
Contrast merger with god etc.
• Bhakti became a great platform for Hindu-Muslim unity, while same cannot be
said for Sangam literature.
• Bhakti also attacked the age-old caste system and devoted itself to the worship
of humanity. No such theme is clear in Sangam literature.
• In Bhakti, most of its poets belonged to the so-calledlower castes.
• Caste composition of Sangam composers is not clear. However, they did receive
royal patronage.
Student Note

9. LITERATURE IN INDIA
ROLE OF SANSKRIT IN INDIAN LITERATURE
• Sanskrit is the mother of many Indian languages.
• The Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas &Dharmasutras are all written in Sanskrit.
• There is also a variety of secular & regional literature.
• Sanskrit is the most ancient language of our country.
• It is one of the 22 languages listed in the Indian Constitution.
• The literature in Sanskrit is vast, beginning with the most ancient thought embodied in the Rig Veda,
the oldest literary heritage of mankind, & the Zend Avesta.
• It was Sanskrit that gave impetus to the study of linguistics scientifically during the18th century.
• The great grammarian Panini, analysed Sanskrit & its word formation in his unrivalled descriptive
grammar ‘Ashtadhyayi‘.
• The Buddhist Sanskrit literature includes the rich literature of the Mahayana school & the Hinayana
school also.
• The most important work of the Hinayana school is the “Mahavastu” which is astore house of stories.
• While the Lalitavistara is the most sacred Mahayana text which supplied literarymaterial for the
Buddhacharita of Asvaghosa.
• Sanskrit is perhaps the only language that transcended the barriers of regions &boundaries.
• From the north to the south & the east to the west there is no part of India that has not contributed
to orbeen affected by this language.
• Kalhan’sRajatarangini gives a detailed account of the kings of Kashmir whereaswith Jonaraja we
share the glory of Prithviraj.
• The writings of Kalidasa have added beauty to the storehouse of Sanskrit writings.
• Other great literacy works, which marked the golden era of Indian literature
include‘AbhijanamShakuntalam’ and ‘Meghdoot’ by Kalidasa, ‘Mrichakatika’ by
Shudraka,‘SwapnaVasavadattam’ by Bhasa, and ‘Ratnavali’ by Sri Harsha.
• Some other famous works are Chanakya’s ‘Arthashastra’ and Vatsyayana’s “Kamasutra’.
VEDIC LITERATURE: VEDAS, BRAHMANAS & ARANYAKAS
• The Vedas are the earliest known Vedic literature in India & written in
Sanskrit.
• The word ‘Veda’ literally means knowledge.
• In Hindu culture, Vedas are considered as eternal & divine revelations.
• They treat the whole world as one human family ‘Vasudev Kutumbakam’.
Vedic literature • There are 4 Vedas, namely, the Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda & Atharva
Veda.
• Each Veda consists of the Brahmanas, the Upanishads and the Aranyakas.
• The Rig Veda, Sama Veda and the Yajur Veda are collectively known a
Traji.
• In later years the Atharva Veda was incorporated in this group.
• It is very difficult to determine the age of the Vedas and also the time they
were written.
• Max Muller says that the Rig Veda was composed before 1000 B.C. While
according to Lokmanya Tilak it appeared before 6000 B.C.
1. Rig Veda • It is the earliest of the Vedas & collection of 1028 hymns in Vedic Sanskrit.
• The prayers are for seeking worldly prosperity & for the development of
a highly cultured society.
• Along with religion Rig Veda provides us knowledge about social, political
and economic condition of ancient India.
• Prominent rishis: Vasistha, Gautama, Gritasamada, Vamadeva,
Vishvamitra&Atri.
• Prominent gods: Indra, Agni, Varun, Rudra, Aditya, Vayu, Aditi & the
Ashwini twins.
• Prominent goddesses: Usha, Vak& Prithvi etc.
• Yajur means sacrifice or worship.
• It concerned mostly with rites & mantras of different sacrifices.
• It gives directions for the performance of the yajnas.
2. Yajur Veda • It has both poetic & prose renderings.
• Being a treatise on rituals, it is the most popular of the 4 Vedas.
• There are two major branches of Yajur Veda, namely Shukla & Krishna
Yajur Veda.
• This text reflects on the social & religious condition of India at that time.
• Sama means melody or songs.
• This Veda consists of 16,000 ragas &raginis or musical notes.
• Out of total 1875 verses only 75 are original & others are from the Rig
3. Sama Veda Veda.
• It prescribes the tunes for the recitation of the hymns of the Rig Veda.
• It may be called the book of Chants (Saman).
• This book is an evidence of the development of Indian music during this
period.
• It is also known as the Brahma Veda.
• It contains treatment for 99 diseases.
• The source of this Veda is traced to two rishis called Atharva &Angiras.
• It is of immense value as it represents the religious ideas at an early period
of civilisation.
• It has 2 branches, the Paippalada& the Saunaka.
• This book gives detailed information about the family, social & political
life of later Vedic period.
• In order to understand the Vedas, it is necessary to learn the Vedangas or
4. Atharva Veda the limbs of the Vedas.
• These supplements of the Vedas provide
• education (siksha), grammar (vyakarana), ritual (kalpa), etymology
(nirukta), metrics (chhanda) & astronomy (Jyotisha).
• A good deal of literature grew around these subjects.
• It was written in the form of precepts in the sutra style.
• A precept was called sutra because of its brevity.
• The most famous example of this is Panini’s grammar, Ashtadhyayi, which
illustrates the rules of grammar & also throws light on society, economy
and culture of those times.
BRAHMANAS & ARANYAKAS
Brahmanas • After the 4 Vedas, a number of works called the Brahmanas were
developed.
• These books gave a detailed explanation of Vedic rituals and instructions
& deal with the science of sacrifice.
• The latter portions of the Brahmanas were called the Aranyakas.

• The final parts of the Aranyakas are philosophic books named Upanishads
which belong to the later stage of the Brahmana literature.
• Each of the 4 Vedas has their own Brahmana books;
1. Rig Veda had Kaushitaki&Aitreya,
2. Yajur Veda had Taitteriya,
3. Shukla Yajur Veda had Shatpath&
4. Atharva Veda had Tandav, Panchvish&Jaimaniya.
• Deals with soul, birth and death and life beyond it.
• These were studied and taught by men in Vanprastha i.e. Munis and the
Aranyakas inhabitants living inside the forests.
• All these works were in Sanskrit.
• Initially they were handed down orally and were put to writing much
later.
• The word Upanishad is derived from upa (nearby), and nishad (to sit-
down), that is, “sitting down near”.
• Groups of pupils sit near the Guru to learn from him in the Guru-shishya
parampara or tradition.
• The Upanishads mark the culmination of Indian thought and are the final
parts of the Vedas.
• As the Upanishads contain abstract and difficult discussions of ultimate
philosophical problems, they were taught to the pupils at the end.
• That is why they are called the end of Vedas.
• Vedas start with the worship of the manifest, as that is obvious and then
The Upanishads slowly transform to the knowledge of the unmanifest
• There are more than 200 known Upanishads.
• The Muktika gives a list of 108 Upanishads – this number corresponds to
the holy number of beads on a mala or Hindu rosary.
• The Upanishads form an important part of our literary legacy.
• They deal with questions like the origin of the universe, life and death, the
material and spiritual world, nature of knowledge and many other
questions.
• The earliest Upanishads are the Brihadaranyaka which belongs to the
SuklaYajur Veda and Chand yogya which belongs to the Sama Veda.
• Some of the other important Upanishads are the Aitareya, Kena, and Katha
Upanishad.
RAMAYANA AND MAHABHARATA
• One of two great epics of Indian society.

Ramayana • The ‘Ramayana of Valmiki ‘is the original Ramayana.
• It is called Adikavya and Maharishi Valmiki is known as Adi Kavi.
• It presents a picture of an ideal society.
• It was written by Ved Vyas.
• Originally, it was written in Sanskrit & contained 8800 verses and was
Mahabharata called “Jaya” or the collection dealing with victory.
• These were raised to 24,000 and came to be known as Bharata, named
after one of the earliest Vedic tribes.
• The final compilation brought the verses to 100,000, which came to be
known as the Mahabharata or the Satasahasri Samhita.

• It contains narrative, descriptive and didactic material, relating to conflict
between theKauravas and the Pandavas.
• The Mahabharata contains the famous Bhagavad Gita which contains the
essence of divine wisdom and is truly a universal gospel.
• Though it is a very ancient scripture, its fundamental teachings are in use
even today.
• In the Bhagvad Gita, Krishna explains to Arjuna his duties as a warrior and
prince and elaborates on different Yogic and Vedantic philosophies with
examples and analogies.
Bhagavad Gita • This makes Gita a concise guide to Hindu philosophy and a parochial, self-
contained guide to life.
• In modern times Swami Vivekananda, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Mahatma
Gandhi and many others used the text to help inspire the Indian
independence movement.
• This was mainly because the Bhagvad Gita spoke of positiveness in human
actions.
• It also spoke of duty towards God and human beings alike forgetting about
the results.
• The Gita has been translated nearly in all the main languages of the world.
• The Puranas occupy a unique position in the sacred literature of the
Hindus.
• They are regarded next in importance only to the Vedas and the Epics.
• There are said to be 18 Puranas and about the same number of
Upapuranas.
• Their origin can be traced as far back as the time when Buddhism was
gaining importance and was a major opponent of the Brahmanic culture.
Puranas (18 puranas)- Mahapurana

1. Agni
2. Bhavishya Mahapuranas
3. Brahmavaivarta purana
4. Garud purana
5. Kurma Mahapurana
Puranas 6. Linga Mahapurana
7. Markandeya purana
8. Matya purana
9. Naradiya Mahapurana
10. Narasmha purana
11. Shrimad Bhagwad
12. Shiva Mahapurana
13. Skanda Mahapurana
14. Brahmanda purana
15. Varaha purana
16. Vamana purana
17. Vayu Mahapurana
18. Vishnu purana
• Puranas are mythological works which propagate religious and spiritual
messages through parables and fables.
• They have a potent influence in the development of the religious lives of
the people.

• The Puranas follow the lines of the epics, and the earliest Puranas were
compiled in the Gupta period.
• They are full of myths, stories, legends and sermons that were meant for
the education of the common people.
• These Puranas contain important geographical information / histories
and deal with the mysteries of creation, re-creation and dynastic
genealogies.
• This period also saw the compilation of various smritis or law books
written in verse.
• The phase of writing commentaries on the smritis begins after the Gupta
period.
• Amarasimha the Sanskrit Lexicographer, states that a Purana should
describe five
• topics; (1) Sarga (Creation) (2) Pratisarga (Secondary creation) (3) Vemsa
(Geneology) (4) Manvantara (Manu periods) and (5) Vamsanucarita
(dynastic history)
LITERATURE IN GUPTA PERIOD
FAMOUS SANSKRIT AUTHORS OF THE GUPTA PERIOD

• The Gupta period was India’s golden age of culture and one of the greatest and most
• glorious times. The Gupta kings patronized the classical Sanskrit literature.
• They helped liberally the scholars and poets of Sanskrit.
• In fact, Sanskrit language became the language of cultured and educated people.
• Wrote many beautiful poems & plays.

• His works in Sanskrit are considered the gems of Literature.
• He wrote passionate plays and poems.
Kalidas • His wonderful skill is exhibited in his poem Meghaduta, Ritusamhara,
KumarSambhavam and Raghuvamsa.
• His plays are AbhijanShakuntalam, Vikramorvasiya and
Malvikagnimitram.
• He was the great play writer of this period.
Vishakadatta • He wrote two great historical plays like- Mudra Rakshas and Devi Chandra
Gupta.
Shudraka • He wrote an exciting play MrichchhaKatikam or the Toy Cart.
• It is a great source of socio-cultural conditions of that time.
Harisena • He wrote poems praising the valour of Samudra Gupta.
• It is inscribed on Allahabad pillar.
Bhasa • He wrote 13 plays which echo the lifestyle of the era along with its
prevalent beliefs and culture.
KUSHANA PERIOD
The Kushana kings patronised Sanskrit scholars.
Asvaghosa • He wrote the Buddhacharita which is the biography of the Buddha.

• He also wrote Saundarananda, which is a fine example of Sanskrit poetry.
• India produced great literary works on subjects like Math’s, Astronomy, Astrology,

• Agriculture and Geography etc.
• Books on medicine were written by Charak and on surgery by Sushruta.
• Madhava wrote a book on pathology.
• Books written on astronomy by Varahamihira and Aryabhatta and on astrology by Lagdhacharya
had all achieved prominence.
• There is none that can compete with VarahamihirasBhrihatsamhita, Aryabhatia and
• VedangaJyotisha.
• Somadeva’s Katha-sarit-sagar and Kalhan’sRajatarangini are of historical importance. It gives a
vivid account of the Kings of Kashmir.
• The GeetGovinda of Jaidev is the finest poem of Sanskrit literature of this period, besides numerous
works on different aspects of art and architecture, sculpture, iconography and related fields.
OTHER SANSKRIT LITERATURE

• The law books called the Dharmasutras and smritis, together knownas Dharmashastras.
• The Dharmasutraswere compiled between 500 and 200 BC.
• These lay down duties for different varnas as well as for the kings and their officials.
• They prescribed the rules according to which property had to be held, sold and inherited.
• They also prescribe punishments for persons guilty of assault, murder and adultery.
• The Manusmriti tells us about the role of man and woman in society, their code ofconduct and
relationship with each other.
• Kautilya’s Arthashastra is an important treatise of the Mauryan times. It reflects the stateof society
and economy at that time and provides rich material for the study of ancientIndian polity and
economy.
• The works of Bhasa, Shudraka, Kalidasa and Banabhatta provided us with glimpsesof the social
and cultural life of northern and central India in times of the Guptas andHarsha.
• The Gupta period also saw the development of Sanskrit grammar based on the works ofPanini and
Patanjali.
TELUGU, KANNADAAND MALAYALAM LITERATURE

• The 4 Dravidan languages Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam developed their own literature.
• Tamil being the oldest of these languages began writing earlier and produced the Sangam literature
– the oldest literature in Tamil.
TELUGU LITERATURE
• The Vijayanagara period was the golden age of Telugu literature.
• NachanaSomanatha, a court poet of Bukka I, produced a poetical work titled Uttaraharivamsam.
• The greatest of the Vijayanagara emperors, was a poet of great

merit.
Krishnadevaraya • His work AmuktaMalyada is regarded as an excellent
(1509-1529) prabandha in Telugu literature.
• Eight Telugu literary luminaries, popularly known as
“Ashtadiggajas” adorned his court.
• Author of Manucharitram, was the greatest.
• He was known as Andhra kavitapitamaha.
• The other 7 poets of the group were Nandi Timmana, the
AllasaniPeddana author of Parijathapaharanam, MadayagariMallana, Dhurjati,
AyyalarajuRamabhadra Kavi, Pingali Surana,
RamarajaBhushana and Tenali Ramakrishna.

• Dhurjati, a devotee of Shiva, composed two poetical works of
great merit known as KalahasteeswaraMahatmayam and
KalahasteeswaraSatakam.
• Pingali Surana composed two works Raghavapandaviyam and
Kalapuranodayam.
• In the former, he attempted a literary feat telling the story of
the Ramayana and the Mahabharata simultaneously.
• Tenali Ramakrishna, the court jester, was an interesting figure
of the Krishnadevaraya’s court.
• His practical jokes on high-placed men of the time are
recounted with pleasure even today. Ramakrishna was the
author of PandurangaMahatmayam which was considered one
of the greatest poetical works of Telugu literature.
• RamarajaBhushana was the author of Vasucharitram. He was
also known as Bhattumurti.
• His other works include Narasabhupaliyam and
Harishchandra Nalopakhyanam.
• It is a poetical work on the model of Raghavapandaviyam.
• One can read in its stories of Nala as well as Harishchandra.
• MadayagariMallana’s work Rajashekharacharitra is a
prabandha dealing with the wars and loves of Rajashekhara,
king of Avanti.
• AyyalarajuRamabhadra was the author of two works
Ramabhyudayam and SakalakathasaraSangraham.
KANNADA LITERATURE
• Apart from Telugu, Vijayanagara rulers extended their patronage to Kannada and Sanskrit writers
as well.
• Many Jain scholars contributed to the growth of Kannada literature.
• Madhava wrote Dharmanathapurana on the fifteenth tirthankara. Another Jain scholar,
• UrittaVilasa, wrote Dharma Parikshe.
• The Sanskrit works of the period include Yadavabhyudayam by VedanathaDesika and Parasara
Smriti Vyakhya of Madhavacharya.
• Kannada language developed fully after the tenth century AD.
• The earliest known literary work in Kannada is Kavirajamarga written by the Rashtrakuta
• King, NripatungaAmoghavarsha I.
• Pampa, known as the father of Kannada wrote his great poetic works Adi Purana and Vïkramarjiva
Vijaya in the tenth century AD.
• Pampa lived in the court of ChalukyaArikesari.
• In his poetic skill, beauty of description, delineation of character and development of rasa, Pampa is
unrivalled.
• Ponna and Ranna were two other poets who lived during the reign of Rashtrakuta Krishna III.
• Ponna wrote an epic named Shanti Purana and Ranna wrote AjitanathaPurano.
• Together Pampa, Ponna and Ranna earned the title ratnatraya (the three gems).
• In the thirteenth century new feats were achieved in Kannada literature.
• Harishvara wrote Harishchandra Kavya and Somanatha Charita whereas Bandhuvarma wrote
Harivamshabhyudaya and JivaSambodhana.
• Under the patronage of later Hoysala rulers, several literary works were produced.
• Rudra Bhata wrote Jagannathavijaya.

• Andayya’sMadana Vijaya or Kabbïgara Kava is a work of special interest in pure Kannada without
the mixture of Sanskrit words.
• Mallikarjuna’sSuktisudharnava, the first anthology in Kannada and Kesirja’sShabdamanidarpana on
grammar are two other standard works in the Kannada language.
• Kannada literature flourished considerably between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries under
the patronage of the Vijayanagara kings.
• Poets of all religious groups made important contribution to it. Kunura Vyasa wrote
• Bharata and Narahari wrote Tarave Ramayana.
• This is the first Rama Katha in Kannada composed on the basis of Valmikis Ramayana.
• Lakshamisha who lived in the seventeenth century wrote Jaïmini Bharata and earned the titled of
Kamata-Karicutavana-Chaitra (the spring of the Karnataka mango grove).
• The other eminent poet of this period was the great Sarvajna, popularly known as the people’s poet.
His aphoristic tripadi (three-lined) compositions serve as a source of wisdom and ethics.
• A special mention may be made of Honnamma, perhaps the first outstanding poetess in Kannada.
• Her Hadibadeya Dharma (Duty of a Devout Wife) is a compendium of ethics.
MALAYALAM LITERATURE
• Malayalam is spoken in Kerala and the adjoining areas.
• The language of Malayalam emerged around the eleventh century AD.
• By fifteenth century Malayalam was recognised as an independent language.
• Bhasa Kautilya, a commentary on Arthashastra and Kokasandisan are two great works.
• Rama Panikkar and RamanujandEzhuthachan are well known authors of Malayalam literature.
• Though it developed much later compared to other South Indian languages, Malayalam has made a
mark as a powerful medium of expression.
• Now a large number of journals, newspapers and magazines are published in Malayalam.
• When people read and write in their own language, they enjoy it more.
• This is because language is a part of their culture.
• It is so well inter woven in their social life that they can express and feel their emotions as well in
their own language.
TAMIL OR SANGAM LITERATURE

• Tamil as a written language was known since the beginning of the Christian era.
• It is, therefore, no wonder that considerable Sangama literature was produced in the early four
centuries of the Christian era, although it was finally compiled by 600 AD.
• Poets who in these assemblies were patronised by kings and chieftains produced theSangama
literature over a period of three to four centuries.
• Poets, bards and writers, authors came from various parts of South India to Madurai.
• Such assemblies were called “Sangamas”, and the literature produced in these assemblies was called
“Sangama literature”.
• The contributions of Tamil saints like Thiruvalluvar who wrote ‘Kural’ which has been translated
into many languages are noteworthy.
• The Sangama literature is a collection of long and short poems composed by various poets in praise
of numerous heroes and heroines.
• They are secular in nature and of a very high quality.
• Three such sangams were held.
• The poems collected in the first Sangam have been lost.
• In the second Sangam about 2000 poems have been collected.
• There are about 30,000 lines of poetry, which are arranged in eight anthologies called Ettuttokoi.
• There are two main groups – the PatinenkilKanakku (the eighteen lower collections) and Pattupattu
(the ten songs).

• The former is generally assumed to be older than the latter, and considered to be of more historical
importance.
• Thiruvallurar’s work ‘Kural’ is divided into 3 parts. The first part deals with the epics, the second
part with polity and government and the third part with love.
• Besides the Sangama texts, we have a text called Tolkkappiyam, which deals with grammar and
poetry.
• In addition, we have the twin epics of Silappadikaram and Manimekalai.These 2 were composed
around the sixth century AD. The first is considered as the brightest gem of Tamil literature and
deals with a love story.The second epic was written by a grain merchant of Madurai.These epics
throw light on the socio-economic life of Tamils from second century to sixth century AD.
• From the 6th to 12th century AD, the Tamil devotional poems written by Nayanmars (Saints who
sang in praise of Shaivism) and Alvars herald the great Bhakti movement which engulfed the entire
Indian sub-continent.
• During this period, Kambaramayanam and Periya Puranam were two Tamil literary classic writers.
SANGAM AND VEDIC TEXTS:

• Vedas are religious in nature, while sangam is secular in nature.
• Vedic texts poetry is metaphysical in nature, also contains medicine, mantras, rituals etc. Sangam
poetry is on love and heroism.
• Sangam is a surviving record of the Dravidian people, so composed in Tamil. The oldest surviving
record of the Aryans is the Rig Veda.
• Sangam provides details about the socio-economic and political life of Dravidian people. In Vedas,
there is not much about the economic and political spheres.
• Sangam talks about the military exploits of South Indian kings in detail. No such discussion can be
found in Vedas, especially Rig Veda.
• The Sangam literature consists of poems which were composed by poets in praise of their kings and
also patronised by them. Vedas were composed by sages and there is no evidence of a dynasty
patronising Vedas.
DEVELOPMENT OF LITERATURE DURING THE MUGHAL PE RIOD

Babur and Humayun were lovers of literature.
• He was a great scholar of Persian.

Babur • He wrote a book known as Tuzek-e-Babari which is highly esteemed by the
Turkish literature.
• He got the treatise translated into Arabic.
Humayun • He too was a lover of learning and had established a big Library.
• Humayun Nama tops the books written in his times.
• ‘Akbar Nama’, Sur Sagar, Ram Charitamanas are prominent among the books
Akbar written during his time.
• Malik Muhammad JayasisPadmavat and Keshav’s Ram Chandrika were also
written during the same period.
Jahangir • He greatly patronized literature.
• He too was a scholar of a high caliber and wrote his life story.
Shah Jahan • Well known scholar named Abdul Hameed Lahori.
• He wrote “Badshah Nama”.
• The literary activities suffered during his time.
• Urdu literature started developing during the last days of the Mughal
emperor.

Aurangzeb • This credit goes to Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan and Mirza Galib.
• The language of Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan was very simple and impressive.
• His compositions inspired the other Urdu writer Mirza Galib, who was a
famous poet of his time.
• He made an important contribution to uplift Urdu poetry.
MARATHI LITERATURE AND KASHMIRI LITERATURE
MARATHI LITERATURE
• Maharashtra is situated on a plateau where a large number of local dialects were in use.
• Marathi grew out of these local dialects.
• The Portuguese missionaries started using Marathi for preaching their gospel.
• The earliest Marathi poetry and prose is by Saint Jnaneshwar (Gyaneshwar) who lived in the
thirteenth century. He wrote a long commentary on the Bhagavad Gita.
• He was the one who started the kirtan tradition in Maharashtra.
• He was followed by Namdev (l 270- 1350), Gora, Sena and Janabai.
• All these sang and popularised the Marathi language.
• Their songs are sung even today by the Verkaripilgrirns on their way to Pandharpur pilgrimage.
• Almost two centuries later, Eknath (l533-99) came on the scene. He wrote the commentaries on the
Ramayana and the Bhagawat Purana. His songs are very popular all over Maharashtra.
• Then came Tukarama (1598-1650). He is supposed to be the greatest Bhakti poet of them all.
• Ramdas (1608-81), who was the guru of Shivaji, is the last of these hymn writers. He was the devotee
of Rama. He inspired Shivaji.
KASHMIRI LITERATURE
• Kashmir shot into literary prominence, when Kalhana wrote Rajatarangini in Sanskrit But this was
in the language of the elite.
• For locals, Kashmiri was the popular dialect.
• Here also the Bhakti movement played its role.
• One Lal Ded, who lived in the fourteenth century, was probably the first to sing in theKashmiri
language. She was a Shaivite mystic. After Islam spread in this area, the Sufi influence also came to
be visible.
• Haba Khatoon, Mahjoor, Zinda Kaul, and Noor Din also known as Nund Rishi, Akhtar Mohiuddin, Sufi
Ghulam Mohammad and Dina Nath Nadim wrote devotional poetry in Kashmiri.
• These people contributed to the growth of Kashmiri literature.
• The Western influence did not reach Kashmir till the end of the nineteenth century.
• In 1846, after the first Sikh War, the Dogras of Jammu became the rulers there.
• The Dogras were more interested in Dogri language than in Kashmiri. There were hardly any schools
or education.
• There was wide spread poverty and economic backwardness.
• All these led to a lack of good literature in Kashmir.
• Though the list of Modern Indian languages can have many languages, the constitution of India has
originally about 15 languages as national languages i.e. Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Hindi, Kashmiri,
Marathi, Oriya, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Sindhi, Urdu, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, and Malayalam.
• Three more languages i.e. Nepali, Manipuri and Konkani have been added now to the list.
ROLE OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONARIES IN EDUCATION

• With the coming of the Europeans to India various foreign languages like English, French, Dutch &
Portuguese were introduced here which greatly enriched Indian languages as they added many new
words to their vocabulary.
• The contribution of the Christian missionaries in the development of Indian literature was no less
significant.
• First of all, they published dictionaries and grammar in several local languages.
• The books written by them were meant for the newly arrived clergymen from Europe.
• These books helped these missionaries as much as they helped the writers in the local languages.
• They could easily turn to the dictionaries to find a suitable word or see if the word was
grammatically correct.
• The second fact is the role of lithographic printing press, which was introduced in Indiain the
beginning of the nineteenth century.
• The foreigners had established these presses for printing literature in local languages for the benefit
of the new or would-be converts.
• Therefore, the role of printing press in the development of literature cannot be ignored.
• The third important fact is the establishment of schools and colleges by the missionaries.
• Here, besides English, the missionaries also taught the local languages.
• Perhaps their aim was to spread Christianity but they also produced a newly educated class, who
had a desire to read their literature.
• Thus, the role of missionaries cannot be ignored while writing the history of Indian languages and
literature.
MAIN WRITERS OF ENGLISH LITERATURE IN INDIA

• In India there were many writers of the English literature.
• The Indians started writing work in English after 1835, when English was made the medium of
instruction.
• Many Indian writers composed their literature in English.
• Some of them showed their interest in the field of poetry, while some others showed their keen
interest in prose writing.
• Michael. MadhuSudan Dutta, Taradutta, Sarojini Naidu and Ravindranath Tagore made important
contribution in the field of English Poetry.
• Surendra Nath Banerjee, Firoze Shah Mehta and Jawahar Lal Nehru showed interest inEnglish prose.
ADVAITA, VISHISTADVAITA, SIVADVAITA, DVAITA, DVAITADVAITA & SUDDHADVAITA

• The major religious movements were brought about by the mystics.
• They contributed to the religious ideas and beliefs.
• Bhakti saints like Vallabhacharya, Ramanuja, Nimbaraka brought about new philosophical thinking
which had its origin in Shankaracharya’s Advaita (non-dualism) philosophy.
• Shankaracharya’s discourse or his philosophical views came to be known as

“Advaita Vedanta”.
• Advaita literally means non-dualism or belief in one reality.
• He expounded that ultimate reality is one, it being the Brahman.
• According to Vedanta philosophy, ‘Brahman is true; the world is false and
self.
• Brahman are not different, Shankaracharya believes that the Brahman is
1. Advaita of existent, unchanging, the highest truth and the ultimate knowledge.
Shankaracharya • He also believes that there is no distinction between Brahman and the self.
• The knowledge of Brahman is the essence of all things and the ultimate
existence.
“I am proud to belong to a religion which has taught the world tolerance and
universal acceptance. We believe not only in universal toleration, but we accept

all religions as true.” –Swami Vivekananda at Parliament of world Religions in
Chicago 1893.
2. Vishistadvaita • Vishistadvaita means modified monism.
of • The ultimate reality according to this philosophy is Brahman (God) and
Ramanujacharya matter and soul are his qualities.
3. Sivadvaita of • According to this philosophy the ultimate Brahman is Shiva, endowed with
Srikanthacharya Shakti.
• Shiva exists in this world as well as beyond it.
4. Dvaita of • The literal meaning of dvaita is dualism which stands in opposition to non-
Madhavacharya dualism and monism of Shankaracharya.
• He believed that the world is not an illusion (maya) but a reality full of
differences.
• Dvaitadvaita means dualistic monism.
5. Dvaitadvaita • According to this philosophy God transformed himself into world and soul.
of Nimbaraka • This world and soul are different from God (Brahman).
• They could survive with the support of God only.
• They are separate but dependent.
• Vallabhacharya wrote commentaries on Vedanta Sutra and Bhagavad Gita.
6. Suddhadvaita • For him Brahman (God) was Sri Krishna who manifested himself as souls and
of matter.
Vallabhacharya • God and soul are not distinct, but one.
• The stress was on pure non-dualism.
• His philosophy came to be known as Pushtimarga (the pathof grace) and the
school was called Rudrasampradaya.

10. INDIAN MUSIC

INTRODUCTION: INDIAN MUSIC
• Origin of Indian Music: Traced from Sama Veda & its
Upaveda, Gandharva Veda.
• In Puranas Narada is the reference of Music & First
one who heard this revelation.
• Tambru was the first musician.
• Nād or sound is supposed to be the basis of all
creations.
• Bharat muni’s Natya Shastra contains several
chapters on music.
• He defined music as a combination of Artyagayana&vadana.
3 PILLARS OF INDIAN MUSICAL SYSTEM:

1. Swara,
2. Rāga&
3. Tāla
1. SWARA
• In general sense ‘Swara’ means tone or pitch.
• The primitive sound “OM” gave birth to Swara.
• ‘Saptaswaras‘or 7 swaras: Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha& Ni
• ‘Shruti’ is a theoretical interval of which the scale contains 22.
• In Carnatic Music, swaras have prakruti and vikrutiswaras.
• The vikrutiswaras are Re, Ga, Ma, Dha and Ni.
• The rest are prakrutiswaras i.e Sa & Pa.
2. RĀGA
• Basis of melody
• Combination of tone or Swara or notes
• Minimum 5 notes in every raga.
3 kinds of Rāgas:
• OdavaRāga: 5 notes,
• ShadavaRāga: 6 notes &
• SampurnaRāga: 7 notes.
There are 6 principle Rāgas in Hindustani music & are time specific, season specific & mood specific.
3. TĀLA
• Basis of timed Rhythm.
• Arrangement of beats in cyclical manners.
• Range of Tāla is 3 to 108 beats.
• As per Natya Shastra, they are 32 types.
• Most popular Tāla is ‘Teental’ has 16 beats.
Note: Classification of Indian Music; 2 distinct styles i.e Hindustani & Carnatic.
HINDUSTANI MUSIC
• Hindustani music has 10 main forms of styles of singing & compositions: dhrupad, dhamar, hori,
khayal, tappa, chaturang, ragasagar, tarana, sargam and thumri.
• Nowadays ghazals have become very popular as the ‘light classical’ form of music.
• Oldest & perhaps the grandest form of Hindustani vocal music.

• Sanskrit & Vedic origin.
Dhrupad • Also called as ‘temple music’ (Emerged from temples)
• Raja Man singh of Gwalior popularised it.
• Performance consists of 2 parts i.e ‘Alap’ & ‘Bandish’
• Theme: Religious & Devotional theme.
• Khayal literally means ‘a stray thought’, ‘a lyric’ & ‘an imagination’.
• Most prominent genre of Hindustani vocal music depicting a romantic style
of singing.
• It is dependent to a large extent on the imagination of the performer & the
Khayal improvisation she is able to incorporate.
• It is composed in a particular raga & tala and has a brief text.
• 6 main gharanas in khayal: Delhi, Patiala, Agra, Gwalior, kirana &Atrauli-
Jaipur.
• Gwalior gharana is the oldest & is also considered the mother of all other
gharanas.
• Originated in the eastern part of Uttar Pradesh, mainly in Lucknow and
Benares, around the 18th century.
• Believed to have been influenced by hori, kajri&dadra.
• Supposed to be a romantic & erotic style of singing and is also called “the
Thumri lyric of Indian classical music”.
• Compositions are mostly of love, separation and devotion.
• Its most distinct feature is the erotic subject matter picturesquely portraying
the various episodes from the lives of lord Krishna and Radha.
• Usually performed as the last item of a khayal concert.
• There are 3 main gharanas of thumri — Benares, Lucknow and Patiala.
• Close resemblance to the thumri.

• The texts are as amorous as those of thumris.
Dadra • Major difference is that dadras have more than one antara and are in dadra
tala.
• Singers usually sing a dadra after a thumri.
• Compositions are similar to dhrupad but are chiefly associated with the
festival of holi.
• Compositions are specifically in praise of lord Krishna.
Dhamar-hori • This music, sung in the dhamar tala, is chiefly used in festivals like
janmashthami,
• Ramnavami&holi. These compositions are mainly based on the love pranks
of Radha-Krishna.
• Developed in the late 18thcentury from the folk songs of camel drivers.
Tappa • Tappa literally means ‘jump’ in Persian.
• They are essentially folklore of love & passion and are written in Punjabi.
• Consists of different parts of musical passages in different ragas as one song
composition.
Ragasagar • Compositions have 8 to 12 different ragas & the lyrics indicate the change of
the ragas.
• Depends on how smoothly the musical passages change along with the
change of ragas.
Tarana • Consisting of peculiar syllables woven into rhythmical patterns as a song.
• It is usually sung in faster tempo.
Chaturang • Denotes 4 colours or a composition of a song in 4 parts: fast khayal, tarana,
sargam and a“paran” of tabla or pakhwaj.
• Mainly a poetic form than a musical form, but it is more song-like than the
thumri.
• Described as the “pride of Urdu poetry” & Originated in Iran in the 10th
century.
• It never exceeds 12 shers (couplets) & on an average, ghazals usually have
Ghazal about 7 shers.
• Found an opportunity to grow and develop in India around 12th century ad
when the Mughal influences came to India & Persian gave way to Urdu as the
language of poetry and literature.
• Developed & evolved in the courts of Golconda & Bijapur under the
patronage of Muslim rulers.
• The 18th &19th centuries are regarded as the golden period of the ghazal
with Delhi &Lucknow being its main centres.
CARNATIC MUSIC
• Tamil classic of the 2nd century.
• Silappadikaram contains a vivid description of the music of that period.
• The Tolkkappiyam, kalladam& the contributions of the saivite and vaishnavite saints of the 7th &
8th centuries also serve as resource material for studying musical history.
• Flourished in deogiri the capital city of the yadavas in the Middle Ages.
• The entire cultural life of the city took shelter in the Carnatic Empire of Vijayanagar under the reign
of Krishnadevaraya. Thereafter, the music of south India came to be known as Carnatic music.
• After Purandaradasa, TallapakamAnnamacharya, Narayana tirtha,
BhadrachalamRamdasu&kshetranja made contributions to the wealth of compositions.
• Outstanding feature is its raga system & highly developed and intricate tala system.

• Birth of the musical trinity – Tyagaraja, Muthuswamidikshitar&Syamasastri – at tiruvarur

• between the years 1750 to 1850.
• Simplest type of composition.

Gitam • Taught to beginners of music, the Gitam is very simple in construction,
with an easy.
• Melodious flow of music.
Suladi • Very much like the Gitam in musical structure.
• Arrangement, the suladis are of a higher standard than the Gitam.
• A beautiful creation of musical craftsmanship of a high order, combining
in it the entire characteristic
Varnam • features of the raga in which it is composed.
• Practice in Varnam singing helps a musician to attain mastery in
presentation &command over raga,
• tala and bhava.
• Learnt after a course in gitams.
Svarajati • More complicated than the gitas, the svarajati paves the way for the
learning of the varnams.
• Theme is devotional, heroic or amorous.
• Very similar to the svarajati in musical structure, this form- jatisvaram –
Jatisvaram has no sahitya or words.
• The piece is sung with solfa syllables only.
• Had its birth about the latter half of the 14th century.
Kirtanam • It is valued for the devotional content of the sahitya.
• Clothed in simple music, the kirtanam abounds in bhakti bhava.
• It is suited for congregational singing as well as individual presentation.
Kriti • A development from the kirtana.
• It is a highly evolved musical form.
• The highest limit of aesthetic excellence is reached in the kriti
composition.
• The raga bhava is brought out in all the rich and varied colours in this
form.
• Scholarly compositions in Telugu & Tamil.

Pada • Though they are composed mainly as dance forms, they are alsosung in
concerts, on account of their musical excellence & aesthetic appeal.
• The music is slow-moving & dignified.
• Composition belonging to the sphere of light classical music.
• Sung both in concert programmes & dance concerts, the javalis are
Javali popular because of the attractive melodies in which they are composed.
• In contrast to the padas which portray divine love, javalis are songs
which are sensuous in concept and spirit.
• Corresponding to the tarana of Hindustani music is a short and crisp
Tillana form.
• It is mainly a dance form, but on account of its brisk and attractive music,
it sometimes finds a place in music concerts as a conclusion piece.
• Most important branch of creative music.
Pallavi • Branch of manodharmasangeeta, that the musician has ample
opportunities of displaying his or her creative talents, imaginative skill,
& musical intelligence.
• A branch of raga alapana in madhyamakala or medium speed.
Tanam • There is perceptible rhythm in this.
• The rhythmical flow of music, flowing in fascinating patterns, makes
tanam singing the most captivating part of raga exposition.
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF INDIA

Main categories on the basis of how sounds are produced.
1. TAAL VADYA
• Chordophones; stringed instruments
• Ex: - Guitar, Veena, Sitar, Santum, Piano &Hormonium etc…
2. SUSHIRAVADYA
• Aerophones; wind instruments
• Flute, Whistle, Saxophone, Nadeshswaram& Pungi etc…

3. AVANADDHA VADYA
• Membranophones; percussion instruments
• Have to strike it to generate sound.
• Tabla, Drum, Dhol& Longo etc…
4. GHANA VADYA
• Idiophones; solid instruments.
• Ghunglu, Dandiya, matlu& Jal tarang etc.
STUDENTS NOTE:

11. INDIAN DANCE

• Indian Dance is of ‘Divine origin’ i.e it was a ritual form of worship at the temples.
• Principles of Indian classical dance are derived from “Natya Shastra” of Bharat Muni.
• Natya includes dance, drama & music.
• Bharat Muni traces its origin from Brahma & Brahma created 5th Veda known as ‘Natya Veda.’
FROM VEDAS:
1. ’Pathya’ (words) taken from Rig-Veda
2. Abinaya’ (gestures) from Yajurveda
3. ’Geet’ (music) from Samaveda
4. ’Rasa’ (Emotions) from Arthavanaveda
• Nataraja represents destruction, creation, preservation, release from bondage & the cycle of Life &
Death.
• Dance is considered to be a complete art because it enfolds in its range, other art forms too – music,
sculpture, poetry & drama.
• In every dance, the presence of mudra & rasa is must.
• 108 Mudras & 9 Rasas are there.
2 BASIC ASPECTS OF DANCE; TANDAVA & LASYA

• Tandava denotes movement on rhythm i.e it emphasis on male characteristics of power, strength &
firm aspect.
• Lasya denotes grace, bhava, rasa, & abhinaya which are more feminine
NRITTA VS. NATYA

• Nritta: consists of dance movement in their basic form.
• Natya: Includes expressions, through eye, hand & facial movements.
• Combination of ‘nritta’ & ‘natya’ becomes “Nritya.”
• Earliest evidence: Bronze dancing girl, Bhimbetka caves, Ajanta & Ellora caves.
• The classical dances are governed by rules of Natya Shastra & based on “Guru – Shishya parampara”.
• Sangeeta Natya Academy has given the status of 8 classical dances.
8 CLASSICAL DANCES
DANCE FORM ORIGIN DESCRIPTION

Bharatnatyam Tamil Nadu • ‘fire dance’
• Tanjore natyam>> grown from temple dance
• equal emphasis on Lasya and Tandava
• origin- Sadir performance by Devdasis
• Solo
Kuchipudi Andhra • influence of Vaishnavism
Pradesh • Patronage by Vijaynagara and Golcanda
• stories of bhagavat purana>>thus dancers=Bhagavathalus,
BUT have SECULAR themes
• Carnatic music + Violin + Mridangam
• combines speech + Abhinaya + pure dance>>multiple roles
for dancer
• Tara- Dancing on brass plates by keeping feet on edge

Kathakali Kerala • Music+ dance + drama>>>painted faces
• all MALE GROUP performance
• Dancer>>completely speechless performance
• language- Manipravalam= Malayalam + Sanskrit
• symbolizes sky or ether>>>thus performed in open air
theatresrepresents- eternal conflict of good and evil, depicts
puranas and epics.
Mohiniattam Kerala • solo>> connected with kerala’s temples
• absence of footsteps/ footwork
• restraint in movement- hallmark of dance style
• instruments- Edakka, Cymbals, veena, drums, flute.
Odissi Odisha • by Maharis- female temple servents
• Patronage- Jain king Kharvela
• Tribhanga posture
• instruments- Manjira(cambal), Pakhwaj (drums), sitar,
flutesymbolizes element of WATER.
• Influence of Vaishnava faith of Odisha>> Krishna and radha.
Kathak Uttar Pradesh • story tellers- sometimes recites bols
• Jugalbandibetn dancer and table player
• only dance form associated with Hindustani Music
• Influence of Vaishanavite movement.
• Only dance having links with Muslim culture (Hindustani
music)
• Thumri music>> special association with kathak in 19th cen
in time of wajidali shah of Lukhnow
Sattriya Assam • Origin- Vaishnava monastery ‘Sattras’>>16th
century>>shakaradeva
• Inspired fromBhakti Movement
• Depicts mythological stories of Vishnu
• Instruments- Khol (drum), Cymbals (Manjira), flute.
Chhau Odisha, West • Narrate mythical stories- Mahabharata, Ramayana, purana,
Bengal, folklore, local legends
Jharkhand • associated with Chaitra parva– advent of spring and harvest
• instruments: by reed pipes like mohuri, turi-bheri, Dhol,
Nagada, Jhanj, shehnai>> based on Jhumar folks, devotional
kirtans, classical ragas>>no vocals
• 3 main styles-
1. saraikella c.-Jharkhand
2. Purulia c.- West Bengal
3. Mayurbhanj c.– Odisha (don’t wear mask)
• during night in open
FOLK DANCES OF INDIA
DANCE FORM REGION PURPOSE OTHER

Dalkhai Odisha Dussehra
Paika Odisha Martial folk dance
Danda-Jatra Odisha Stories of shiva, story of Dance + drama + music
harmony and brotherhood
Dhap Dance Odisha @ Nirakhai festival Kandha tribe
Garba Gujrat Woman dance around lamp in
circular movment with
rhythmic clapping
Dandiya Rass Origin- Gujrat Mock fight between Durga
Also, in RJ and
Mahisasura
Ghoomar or Rajasthan Performed in honour of • Bhil tribe
Gangore goddessSaraswati • Women
Kalbelia Rajasthan • Women of kalbelia
community
• UNESCO
• resembles snake movement
Tarangamel Goa Celebrates youthfulness of Rainbow like customs
region during dassehra and
Holi
Bhangra/ Punjab Bhangra- male, gidda-female
gidda
Jhoomar Punjab By tribal Sikhs during harvest
movmentof arms
Gatka Punjab Associated with Sikh gurus • Martial Art
• Wooden stick fighting to
simulate swords
Jhumar Haryana • Married woman
• HaryaniGidda
Raibenshe Bengal By bodyguards of kings and Raibansh- long tall bamboo
Zamindars
Raslila Uttar Pradesh Lovestory- radha Krishna
Dadra Uttar Pradesh Court dance in Lucknow
Jawara Madhya Pradesh Harvest dance Balancing basket of jawar on
head
Matki Madhya Pradesh Wedding and other festivals Balancing earthen pots on head
Gaur Maria Bastar, Imitates movement of Bison By Bison horn Maria tribe
Chattisgarh
Raut Naach Chattisgarh During Diwali Yadav community
Biraha Bihar Depict pain of women whose By MALES only

(viraha) partner is away
Jat-Jatin Bihar Love and quarrel of married
couple
Burrakatha Andhra Pradesh Narration of purana stories
Butta Andhra Pradesh • Means basket boy
Bommalu • Non-verbal music
Kaikottikali Kerala Onam- to celebrate rich Temple dance
harvest
Padayani Kerala Martial dance with huge masks
ChakyarKoot Kerala by Chakyar communitydress like
hu snakes
Kalaripayatt Kerala and South Indian Martial art Mention in Sangam Literature
u Tamil Nadu

Kummi Kerala and During Pongal • beats by clapping

Tamil Nadu • by woman
Mayilattam Kerala and Young girls as peacock
aka Tamil Nadu
Peacock
dance
Silambam Tamil Nadu Martial art Bamboo
Kolkali- Kerala and Mock enactment of fight
Parichakali Lashadweep sequence
Yakshagana Karnataka • Dance + Music+ Dialogue
• Influenced by Vaishnava
Bhakti movement
• Instruments: Maddale, Taala,
Chande.
Bhootha Karnataka Devil worship Angatalyasarkhanachtat
Aradhana
PataKunitha Karnataka Religious dance with long • Mysore
bamboo poles • Male only
DolluKunith Karnataka deity Beereshwara or • Drum dance
a Beeralingeswara • KurubaGowdas tribe
Thang-Ta Manipur Mock fight sequence Martial dance
Mukna
Rangma/Ba Nagaland War dance of nagas
mboo
dance
SinghiChham Sikkim Tribute to Khanchenzunga Mask dance
peak
Tamang Selo Sikkim Depict emotions of young
boysand girls
Dumhal J&K Wattal tribe
Cheraw Mizoram Bamboo dance
Charba Himachal Dussehra
Thali Himachal
Alkap JH and WB @Gajan festival of shiva dance-drama
Jhumar JH and OD Harvest dance
Karma Naach Chota Nagpur Tribal festival of ‘karma’
plateau
Chapelli Uttarakhand At weddings
Hojagiri Tripura Balancing pots or other things Reang (Bru) tribe
on head + only lower body
moves
Khomlainai Assam Wrestling ByBodo Community
Bihu Assam Group, rapid hand movements

12. PUPPETRY IN INDIA

INTRODUCTION
• Puppetry is a form of theatre or performance that involves the manipulation of puppets.
• India, considered as the land of puppets showcases different kind of puppetry, both for the purpose
of entertainment and conveying moral messages to the society. Earliest reference of puppetry is
traced to the Tamil epic silappadikaram.
• Some scholars trace the origin of puppets to India 4000 years ago, where the main character in
Sanskrit plays was known as “sutradhara”, and “the holder of strings”.
• Ancient Hindu philosophers have likened god almighty to a puppeteer and the entire universe to a
puppet stage.
• Themes are mostly based on epics and legends.
• During the national movement they acted as crowd pullers and often communicated message
regarding freedom movement. Ex: Neel Darpan.
• The major audience is children and an impact on them is eventually an impact on the society. It acts
a morale booster for physically and mentally challenged children. It also showcases our expertise
on handicrafts sector.
THERE ARE 4 MAJOR FORMS OF PUPPETS IN INDIA
1. STRING PUPPETS:
• Carved from a single piece of wood

• Large dolls – colourfully dressed.
• Costumes and headgears are designed in the medieval Rajasthani style
of dress, which is prevalent even today.
Kathputli, Rajasthan • Accompanied by a highly dramatised version of the regional music.
• Oval faces, large eyes, arched eyebrows and large lips – distinct facial
features.
• Wear long trailing skirts and do not have legs.
• Puppeteers manipulate them with two to five strings which are normally
tied to their fingers and not to a prop or a support.
• Made of light wood
• Have no legs but wear long flowing skirts.
• Have more joints and are, therefore, more versatile, articulate and easy
Kundhei, Orissa to manipulate.
• Use a triangle shape wooden prop, to which strings are attached for
manipulation.
• Costumes resemble those worn by actors of the Jatra traditional theatre.
• Music – regional music &Odissi dance’s music.
• Puppets – styled and designed like the characters of Yakshagaana.
• Highly stylized and have joints at the legs, shoulders, elbows, hips and
knees.
Gombeyatta, • Manipulated by five to seven strings tied to a prop.
Karnataka • Complicated movements are manipulated by two to three puppeteers at
a time.
• Music – beautifully blends folk and classical elements.

Bommalattam, Tamil • Combine the techniques of both rod and string puppets.
nadu • Made of wood and the strings for manipulation are tied to an iron ring
which the puppeteer wears like a crown on his head.
• Few puppets have jointed arms and hands, which are manipulated by
rods.
These puppets are the largest, heaviest andthe most articulate of all traditional Indianmarionettes.
2. SHADOW PUPPETS
• Shadow puppets are flat figures.
• Cut out of leather, which has been treated to make it translucent.
• Pressed against the screen with a strong source of light behind it.
• Manipulation between the light and the screen make silhouettes or colourful shadows.
• Found in Orissa, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Tamil nadu.
TogaluGombeyatta, • Puppets are mostly small in size.

Karnataka • Puppets however differ in size according to their social status, for
instance, large size for kings and religious characters and smaller size
for common people or servants.
TholuBommalattam, • Puppets are large in size and have jointed waist, shoulders, elbows and
Andhra Pradesh knees.
• Coloured on both sides, throwing coloured shadows on the screen.
• Music – influenced by the classical regional music
• Themes are drawn from the Ramayana, Mahabharata and Puranas.
• Puppets are in one piece and have no joints.
• Not coloured, hence throw opaque shadows on the screen.
• Manipulation requires great dexterity, since there are no joints.
Ravanachhaya, • Puppets are made of deer skin and are conceived in bold dramatic poses.
Orissa • Apart from human and animal characters, many props such as trees,
mountains, chariots, etc. are also used.
• Puppets are smaller in size
• Create very sensitive and lyrical shadows.
3. ROD PUPPETS
• An extension of glove-puppets, but often much larger & supported and manipulated by rods from
below.
• Found mostly in west Bengal & Orissa.
• Carved from wood

• Costumed like the actors of Jatra.
• A traditional Puppet has mostly three joints.
• Heads, supported by the main rod, is joined at the neck and both hands
Putul nautch, West attached to rods are joined at the shoulders.
Bengal • Bamboo-made hub is tied firmly to the waist of the puppeteer on which
the rod holdingthe puppet is placed.
• Puppeteers each holding one puppet, stand behind a head-high curtain
and while manipulating the rods also move and dance imparting
corresponding movements to the puppets.

• Puppeteers themselves sing and deliver the stylized prose dialogues &
a group of musicians provide the accompanying music with a drum,
harmonium and cymbals.
• Music and verbal text have close similarity with the Jatra theatre.
• Mostly three joints, but the hands are tied to strings instead of rods.
• Elements of rod and string puppets are combined in this form of
puppetry.
Orissa rod puppets • Most of the dialogues are sung.
• Music blends folk tunes with classical Odissi tunes.
• Puppets of Orissa are smaller than those from Bengal or Andhra
Pradesh.
• More operatic and prose dialogues are seldom used.
Yampuri, Bihar • Made of wood.
• Puppets are in one piece and have no joints.
• Requires greater dexterity
4.GLOVE PUPPETS
• Also known as sleeve, hand or palm puppets.
• Head is made of papier mache, cloth or wood, Hands emerge from just below the neck.
• Rest of the figure consists of a long flowing skirt.
• Controlled by the human hand – first finger inserted in the head and middle finger and thumb are
the two arms of the puppet.
• In Orissa, the puppeteer plays on the dholak with one hand and manipulates the puppet
with the other.
• Delivery of the dialogues, the movement of the puppet and the beat of the dholak are well
synchronised and create a dramatic atmosphere.
• Head and the arms are carved of wood and joined together with thick cloth, cut
andstitched into a small bag.
• Faces of the puppets are decorated with paints, small and thin pieces of gilded
Paavakoothu, tin, thefeathers of the peacock, etc.
Kerala • Manipulator puts his hand into the bag and moves the hands and head of the
puppet.
• Musical instruments: chenda, chengiloa, ilathalam and shankha the conch.
• Theme: based on the episodes from either the Ramayana or the Mahabharata
• Delivery of the dialogues, the movement of the puppet and the beat of the dholak
are wellsynchronized and create a dramatic atmosphere.
WHY TRADITIONAL ARTS ARE DYING?

After the advent of new methods of communication and entertainment, the traditional art forms and
their practitioners have suffered due to the neglect of the new generation and steadily decreasing
customers
PROBLEMS FACED BY THEM

• Behavioural changes in people who are now thinking the ancient arts backward and obstacle to
social and economic development.
• Such art forms are not seen as a viable mode of profession due to the similar cheaper machine made
products being available in market. Adoption of traditional touch by the big fashion houses, in their
clothing lines, further decreases the market for the poor traditional practitioners.
• Increasing migration has further decreased the number of people who used to practice such arts.
• The traditional puppetry has been replaced by the television, as a form of entertainment.
METHODS TO SAVE THEM

• To reverse this trend, the Indian govt has been providing funds to various museums to save the
vanishing traditional arts.
• Also, Govt should help in linking the products of traditional art and crafts practitioners, with
professional enterprises, which can procure the products at reasonable price, so as to project this
field as a viable avenue for profession.
• Annual art festivals can be conducted by state Govts, where such traditional art forms of
entertainment can be promoted among the youth.
• Indian Govt has to start giving awards for different arts for promoting them.
• We have to promote arts on international platform by removing hurdles for marketing, so as to
increase markets for the products.
• Supporting e-commerce websites to sell the Art forms etc.
STOLEN ARTEFACTS
Recently, United States initiated the process of returning over 200 stolen artefacts back to India. Dating
back to 2000 years, they had been looted from some of India’s most treasured religious sites and are
estimated to cost a $100 million.
STOLEN ARTEFACTS
• In 2013, a sculpture of Vrishanana Yogini, weighing 400 kg and dating to the 10th century, was
brought back from Paris.
• In 2014, Australia returned a Nataraja and an Ardhanariswara.
• In 2015, three idols, Parrot Lady from Canada, Mahisamardini from Germany and Uma
Parameshwari from Singapore returned to India.
• Earlier this year, a 10th century buff sandstone slab of the Tirthankara Rishabhanatha and a very
rare sandstone panel depicting the equestrian deity Revanta and his entourage dated 8th century
AD, worth millions of dollars was discovered in the US.
CHALLENGES
• An integrated database of existing and stolen artefacts hardly exists in India with the National
Mission for Monument and Antiquities, hence sufficient information on theft cases is very difficult.
The Ministry of Culture’s initiative to document the seventy lakh antiquities in its possession in 2007
has only reached eight lakhs until 2014.
• The CBI, which handles antiquities theft as part of its special crimes division, is overburdened and
also does not have the requisite qualifications.
• Some state governments have special wings as part of their police force but these too are
understaffed and unqualified.
• The process of registering antiquities under the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act 1972 is extremely
cumbersome and the act is outdated also.
• Fear of unnecessary government attention also deters registration.
• The CAG report on Antiquities in 2013 remarks about the country’s poor acquisition, documentation
and conservation systems like museums.
DECAYING OF CULTURAL INSTITUTIONS

• Cultural institutions serve the purpose of conservation of one’s heritage and its passing on to future
generations along with its modern adaptations.

• In India although some cultural institutions have been and still are pillars of strength, but a lot many
are fading into oblivion due to host of factors mainly poor governance, stagnation and poor upkeep.
REASONS
• The head of these institutions is normally a generalist senior bureaucrat who has no special
knowledge or work experience in the cultural domain of that institution.
• Budgetary allocation for upkeep, modernisation, and digitalisation is hardly significant; the case of
museums in Indian is a glaring example.
• No proper policy or guidelines are formed to guide the working of these institutions. The case of
Archaeological Survey of India digging for gold at the behest of epiphany of old sadhu pointed this.
• Dilapidated structures, prone to hazards, like the fire in Nehru Museum in Delhi.
• Cultural institutions do serve the purpose of being repositories of a nations history, guide into the
civilisational journey. They serve an important tool of soft diplomacy, recreational avenues and
learning portals for young minds, and also provide crucial inputs for policy formulations.
• What is needed is the interjection of ICT, dedicated policy, regular fund allotment in budget,
specialised experts as heads.
CLIMATE AND RESOURCES EFFECT ON CULTURE

• Cultural heritage in region developed with time and very much affected with climate and natural
resources starting from food habits, dressing, festivals, migration pattern, health related issues,
cropping pattern and so on all have correlation with local surrounding.
• It can be understood by following examples-
➢ In northern India consumption of wheat dominates while in South India consumption of rice
dominates. This is because of dominance of various crops in various regions.
➢ In coastal region of India people live in mostly thatched houses because of local hot climate
where as in Himalayan region people have cemented houses because of cold climate.
➢ Migration pattern among tribal community in Himalayan like Bhotiyas dependent on cold season
and fodder availability for livestock.
➢ North East region people have more closeness to nature and here houses are made by bamboo
because it available plenty in the region. Food habit and trade practices are also much influence
by it.
➢ Bihu festival in Assam, Pongal in South India, Baisakhi in Punjab, Holi and Diwali in North India
and many other local festivals across India are direct link with crop growing season or
harvesting season.
➢ Great civilisation settlements in past and invaders attack on India was influenced by this fact.
• However, in recent 200 years after fast industrial revolution and technological development human
is not that much dependent on the climatic condition and natural resources.
• It is the prime reason that many cultural practices which were part of life of old civilization now
getting dissolve across the globe and new practices are getting developed.
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