What is Political Theory: Two

UNIT 1 WHAT IS POLITICAL THEORY: Approaches – Normative and

Empirical
TWO APPROACHES – NORMATIVE
AND EMPIRICAL*

Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Political Theory and Other Interrelated Terms
1.3 Developments in Political Theory
1.4 Towards A Definition of Political Theory
1.5 Importance of Key Theoretical Concepts
1.5.1 Is Political Theory Dead?
1.5.2 Revival of Political Theory
1.6 Approaches in Political Theory
1.6.1 Historical Approach
1.6.2 Normative Approach
1.6.3 Empirical Approach
1.6.4 Contemporary Approach
1.7 Let Us Sum Up
1.8 References
1.9 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

1.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit concerns itself with the need for political theory. After going through
this unit, you should be able to:
• Distinguish political theory from other similar terms;
• Examine whether political theory is dead; and
• Understand various approaches to study political theory.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Political theory is one of the core areas in political science. It is only in recent
times that it has emerged as an academic discipline. Earlier, those who engaged
in this enterprise styled themselves as philosophers or scientists. Political theory
is the most appropriate term to employ in designating that intellectual tradition
which affirms the possibility of transcending the sphere of immediate practical
concerns and ‘viewing’ man’s societal existence from a critical perspective.
Political theory was political science in the full sense, and there could be no
science without theory. So, political theory may legitimately and accurately be
used as synonymous with political science.

* Dr. Rajendra Dayal & Dr. Satish Kumar Jha,University of Delhi, Delhi, adapted from
Units 3 & 4, EPS-11 9
Introducing Political Theory
1.2 POLITICAL THEORY AND OTHER
INTERRELATED TERMS
A distinction can be made between political theory and similar terms like political
science, political philosophy and political ideology, though many treat them
interchangeably. The differentiation between political theory and political science
arises because of the general shift in intellectual perceptions brought about by
modern science. Political Science has tried to provide plausible generalisations
and laws about politics and political behaviour. Political theory reflects upon
political phenomenon, processes and institutions and on actual political behaviour
by subjecting it to philosophical or ethical criterion. It considers the question of
the best political order, which is a part of a larger and a more fundamental
question; namely, the ideal form of life that a human being ought to lead within
a larger community. In the process of answering immediate and local questions,
it addresses perennial issues, which is why a study of the classical texts forms
an important component of the discipline. A classic in political theory has the
essential ingredients of a great literary work, which in spite of its local setting,
deals with the perennial problems of life and society. It contains the quintessence
of eternal knowledge and is an inheritance not of any one culture, place, people
or time, but of the entire humankind.

Specific political theories cannot be considered as the correct or final

understanding of an event. The meaning of an event is always open to future
interpretations from new viewpoints, each explaining and analysing from a
particular standpoint or concern in political life. Furthermore, political theory is
critical in its endeavour, for it gives an account of politics that rises above those
of ordinary people. There is no tension between political theory and political
science, for they differ in terms of their boundaries and jurisdiction, and not in
their aim. Political theory supplies ideas, concepts and theories for the purpose
of analysis, description, explanation and criticism, which in turn are incorporated
in political science.

Political philosophy provides general answers to questions such as what is justice

and deals with various other concept; also the distinction between ‘is’ and ‘ought’
and the larger issues of politics. Political philosophy is a part of normative political
theory, for it attempts to establish inter-relationships between concepts. It is,
perhaps, accurate to say that every political philosopher is a theorist, though
every political theorist is not a political philosopher. Political philosophy is a
complex activity, which is best, understood by analysing the many ways that the
acknowledged masters have practiced it. No single philosopher and no one
historical age can be said to have defined it conclusively, any more than any one
painter or school of painting has practiced all that we mean by painting.

Political thought is the thought of the whole community that includes the writings
and speeches of the articulate sections such as professional politicians, political
commentators, society reformers and ordinary persons of a community. Thought
can be in the form of political treatises, scholarly articles, speeches, government
policies and decisions, and also poems and prose that capture the anguish of the
people. Thought is time bound; for instance, the history of the twentieth century.
In short, political thought includes theories that attempt to explain political
behaviour, and values to evaluate it and methods to control it.
10
Political theory, unlike thought, refers to the speculation by a single individual, What is Political Theory: Two
Approaches – Normative and
usually articulated in treatises as models of explanation. It consists of theories Empirical
of institutions, including that of the state, law, representation and of election.
The mode of enquiry is comparative and explanatory. Political theory attempts
to explain the attitudes and actions arising from ordinary political life and to
generalise about them in a particular context: this political theory is concerned
about/with the relationships between concepts and circumstances. Political
philosophy attempts to resolve or to understand conflicts between political
theories, which might appear equally acceptable in given circumstances.

Political ideology is a systematic and all embracing doctrine, which attempts to

give a complete and universally applicable theory of human nature and society
along with a detailed programme of attaining it. John Locke is often described
as the father of modern ideologies. Marxism is also a classic example of an
ideology summed up in the statement that the purpose of philosophy is to change
and not merely interpret the world. All political ideology is political philosophy,
though the reverse is not true. The twentieth century has seen many ideologies
like Fascism, Nazism, Communism and Liberalism. A distinctive trait of political
ideology is its dogmatism, which unlike political philosophy, precludes and
discourages critical appraisal because of its aim to realise the perfect society.
According to Gamine and Sabine, political ideology is a negation of political
theory because an ideology is of recent origin, and under the influence of
positivism is based on subjective, unverifiable value preferences. Gamine,
furthermore, distinguishes a political theorist from a publicist. According to him
while the former has a profound understanding of issues, the latter is concerned
with immediate questions.

Furthermore, Germino, like Plato has distinguished between opinion and

knowledge and stated the latter to be the starting point of a political theorist.
Every political theorist has a dual role; that of a scientist and a philosopher and
the way he divides his roles will depend on his temperament and interests. Only
by combining the two roles can he contribute to knowledge in a worthwhile
manner. The scientific component of a theory can appear coherent and significant,
if the author has a preconceived notion of the aims of political life. The
philosophical basis is revealed in the manner in which reality is depicted.

Political theory is dispassionate and disinterested. As a science, it describes

political reality without trying to pass judgement on what is being depicted either
implicitly or explicitly. As a philosophy, it prescribes rules of conduct which
will secure a good life for all in society and not simply for certain individuals or
classes. The theorist, will not himself have a personal interest in the political
arrangements of any one country or class or party. Devoid of such an interest,
his vision of reality and his image of the good life will not be clouded, nor will
his theory be special. The intention of an ideology is to justify a particular system
of power in society. The ideologue is an interested party : his interest may be to
defend things as they are or to criticise the status –quo in the hope that a new
distribution of power will come into being. Rather than disinterested prescription,
we love rationalisation. Rather than dispassionate description, we have a distorted
picture of reality.

11
Introducing Political Theory
1.3 DEVELOPMENTS IN POLITICAL THEORY
Developments in political theory always reflect the changes which occur in
society. Political theories are produced in response to the challenges which emerge
at different times. Hegel’s symbolic characterisation of political theory as ‘the
owl of Minerva takes flight when shadow of darkness falls’ is very apt. However,
we will do well to remember that political thought, which also emerges due to
societal challenges, is bound by time as well as space, and is therefore, different
from theory which breaks such barriers and proves its worth in understanding
and explaining political phenomena of different nature and origin. This happens,
because theories are purged and purified from ideologies and biases and arrive
at certain principles, which are not only timeless, but may even be called
knowledge. Political theorists, while indulging in theorisation, pursue ideas not
for the sake of fulfillment of their fads and fantasies, but in order to search those
principles whose understanding can make life better. And in this enterprise,
theorists, by and large, are motivated by the concrete political situation. The
history of political theory bears out how ills and maladies afflicting societies
have lubricated the tools of theorisation, through which various accepted
principles and practices and the assumptions behind them were questioned and
the blueprint for the future was drawn. It is, however, true that the stimulus for
theory always comes from some sort of failure and a related conviction that
things can be bettered through an improved understanding and may, ultimately
be resolved. Hence, political theory’s task is not limited to providing a fleeting
response and getting contented with a compromise. Rather, it has to reach at the
root of the problem and has to discover remedies in the form of an alternative
set of principles. Hence, any project on theory requires a ‘vision’ through which
a theorist could think not only about the problems at hand, but also beyond
them. It is here that political theory might be differentiated from art or poetry. In
terms of vision, reflections and ruminations, there is not much difference between
political theory and other creative activities like art and poetry. But what sets
apart the political theorist from the poet is that his urge and search are a conscious
act with a definite design, whereas a poetic act is one of spontaneity. Therefore,
it is not creativity, but consciousness that denies poetry the status of a theory.

1.4 TOWARDS A DEFINITION OF POLITICAL

THEORY
Political theory is defined in different ways by different people. The definitions
vary on the basis of emphasis and understanding of its constitutive elements.
Sabine’s well known definition of political theory is that it is something ‘which
has characteristically contained factors like the factual, the causal and the
valuational’. To Hecker, political theory is ‘dispassionate and disinterested
activity. It is a body of philosophical and scientific knowledge which regardless
of when and where it was originally written, can increase our understanding of
the world in which we live today and we live tomorrow’. Therefore, one may
say that what we mean by political theory is a coherent group of propositions,
with some explanatory principle, about a class of political phenomena. It implies
that a theory unlike thought, cannot consider a multitude of phenomena at a
time, and will have to get concerned with a class or type of issues only.

12
Check Your Progress 1 What is Political Theory: Two
Approaches – Normative and
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer. Empirical

ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
1) What do you understand by political theory?
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
2) Distinguish political theory from other inter-related terms.
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................

1.5 IMPORTANCE OF KEY THEORETICAL

CONCEPTS
A reader getting introduced to political theory for the first time may think it
sufficient to study the institutions rather than abstract concepts in order to
understand the character and nature of society. While a study of institutions is
possible, one has to realise that institutional arrangements vary from society to
society because they are based on divergent sets of ideas. This realisation takes
us to the heart of the matter as to what is more important, reality or ideas, facts
or concepts. Do ideas reflect reality or is reality based on ideas?

1.5.1 Is Political Theory Dead?

In the middle of the twentieth century, many observers readily wrote an obituary
of political theory. Some spoke of its decline. Others proclaimed its death. One
referred to political theory as being in the doghouse. This dismal view arose
because the classical tradition in political theory is, by and large, loaded with
value judgements beyond the control of empirical testing. The criticism of
normative theory came from logical positivists in the 1930s and from
behaviouralism, subsequently. Easton contended that since political theory is
concerned with some kind of historical form, it had lost its constructive role. He
blamed William Dunning, Charles H. Mcllwain, and George M. Sabine for
historicism in political theory. This kind of political theory has dissuaded students
from a serious study of value theory and rejects elements of history and
philosophy in political theory. 13
Introducing Political Theory Easton examined the reasons for the decline of political theory in general and its
decline into historicism in particular. First, and foremost, is the tendency among
political scientists to conform to the moral propositions of their age leading to a
loss of the constructive approach. The emphasis is to uncover and reveal one’s
values which imply that there is no longer the need to enquire into the merit of
these moral values, but merely understand their ‘origins, development and social
impact’. History is used to endorse existing values. Secondly, moral relativism
is responsible for the attention a theory received from history. Overall, he gave
four reasons for decline of political theory – historicism, moral relativism, hyper
factualism and positivism.

1.5.2 Revival of Political Theory

In the 1930s, political theory began studying the history of ideas with the purpose
of defending liberal democratic theory in opposition to the totalitarian tenets of
communism, fascism and nazism. Lasswell tried to establish a scientific political
theory with the eventual purpose of controlling human behaviour, furthering the
aims and direction given by Merriam. Unlike the classical tradition, scientific
political theory describes rather than prescribes. Political theory in the traditional
sense was alive in the works of Arendt, Theodore Adorno, Marcuse, and Leo
Strauss. Their views diametrically differed from the broad ideas within American
political science for they believed in liberal democracy, science and historical
progress. All of them reject political messianism and utopianism in politics.
Arendt focussed mainly on the uniqueness and responsibility of the human being,
with which she initiates her criticism in behaviouralism. She contended that the
behavioural search for uniformities in human nature has only contributed towards
stereotyping the human being.

Strauss reaffirms the importance of classical political theory to remedy the crisis
of modern times. He does not agree with the proposition that all political theory
is ideological in nature mirroring a given socio-economic interest, for most
political thinkers are motivated by the possibility of discerning the principles of
the right order in social existence. A political philosopher has to be primarily
interested in truth. Past philosophies are studied with an eye on coherence and
consistency. The authors of the classics in political theory are superior because
they were geniuses and measured in their writings. Strauss scrutinises the methods
and purposes of the ‘new’ political science and concludes that it was defective
when compared with classical political theory, particularly that of Aristotle. For
Aristotle, a political philosopher or a political scientist has to be impartial, for
he possesses a more comprehensive and clearer understanding of human ends.
Political science and political philosophy are identical, because science consisting
of theoretical and practical aspects is identical with philosophy. Aristotle’s
political science also evaluates political things, defends autonomy of prudence
in practical matters and views political action as essentially ethical. These
premises Behaviouralism denies, for it separates political philosophy from
political science and substitutes the distinction between theoretical and practical
sciences. It perceives applied sciences to be derived from theoretical sciences,
but not in the same manner as the classical tradition visualises. Behaviouralism
like positivism is disastrous, for it denies knowledge regarding ultimate principles.
Their bankruptcy is evident, for they seem helpless, unable to distinguish the
right from the wrong, the just from the unjust in view of the rise of totalitarianism.
Strauss counters Easton’s charge of historicism by alleging that the new science
14
is responsible for the decline in political theory, for it pointed to and abetted the What is Political Theory: Two
Approaches – Normative and
general political crisis of the West because of its overall neglect of normative Empirical
issues. Vogelin regards political science and political theory as inseparable and
that one is not possible without the other. Political theory is not ideology, utopia
or scientific methodology, but an experiential science of the right order at both
the level of the individual and society. It has to dissect critically and empirically
the problem of order. Theory is not just any opining about human existence in
society, it rather is an attempt at formulating the meaning of existence by
explicating the content of a definitive class of experiences. Its argument is not
arbitrary, but derives its validity from the aggregate of experiences to which it
must permanently refer for empirical control.
Check Your Progress 2
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
1) Examine the debate about relevance of political theory.
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................

1.6 APPROACHES IN POLITICAL THEORY

It is quite difficult to identify and categorise various conceptions of political
theory which are put into use by theorists. The difficulty emanates from a tendency
among theorists to go for an exercise in which they start drawing on different
conceptions and traditions. This is truer, as we will see later, with contemporary
political theory than with the ones which preceded it. In the past, theorists
somewhat maintained a purity of conception in theory – building and seldom
out stepped the framework they had chosen. But this does not apply to the
contemporary times, which are a witness to a crop of theory which appears
hybrid in nature. But broadly speaking, three different conceptions emerge in
political theory on the basis of which both the past and the present theories can
be conceptualised, judged and evaluated. They are: Historical, Normative, and
Empirical.

1.6.1 Historical Approach

Many theorists have attempted theory – building on the basis of insights and
resources from history. Sabine is one of the main exponents of the historical
conception. In his opinion, a question such as what is the nature of political
theory can be answered descriptively; that is, how theory has responded to
historical events and specific situations. In other words, in this perspective,
political theory becomes situation dependent in which each historical situation
sets a problem, which in turn is taken care of through solutions devised by the
theory. This conception of political theory is deferential to tradition. Cobban
15
Introducing Political Theory also believes that the traditional mode, in which a sense of history is instilled to
the full, is the right way to consider the problems of political theory. It is true
that the past acts as a valuable guide in our endeavour of theory – building and
teaches us not to be too sure of our originality. It also hints that it is possible to
think in ways other than those which are fashionable and dominant, besides
shedding light on the sources. The historical understanding also sensitises us
about the failings of the past generations and ties them with the collective wisdom
of the present and promotes imaginativeness in us.

Over and above this, the historical conception also contributes significantly to
our normative vision. The history of ideas may tell us that our social and political
universe is a product of things whose root lies in the past. And knowing them
better would tell us how we have certain values, norms and moral expectations
and from where they have come. With this sense in us, it is possible to interrogate
these values and critically assess their utility. But a blind adherence to this
conception is not without its folly. The novelty of the project called political
theory is that each specific situation is unique, riddled with new challenges.
Hence, worth of the past sometimes becomes redundant and could even be a
hindrance, if one is oblivious of this aspect. Therefore, the utility of this approach
in political theory beyond a certain level is doubtful as it is always wedded to
outmoded ideas from outmoded ages. The suggestive values of the ideas remain,
but the theoretical function recedes considerably.

1.6.2 Normative Approach

The normative conception in political theory is known by different names. Some
people prefer to call it philosophical theory, while others refer to it as ethical
theory. The normative conception is based on the belief that the world and its
events can be interpreted in terms of logic, purpose and ends with the help of the
theorist’s intuition, reasoning, insights and experiences. In other words, it is a
project of philosophical speculation about values. The questions, which are asked
by the normativists, would be: what should be the end of political institutions?
What should inform the relationship between the individual and other social
organisations? What arrangements in society can become model or ideal and
what rules and principles should govern it? One may say that their concerns are
moral and the purpose is to build an ideal type. Hence, it is these theorists who
have always conceived ‘utopia’ in the realm of political ideas through their
powerful imagination. Normative political theory leans heavily towards political
philosophy, because it derives its knowledge of the good life from it and also
uses it as a framework in its endeavour to create absolute norms. In fact, their
tools of theorisation are borrowed from political philosophy and therefore, they
always seek to established inter-relationships among concepts and look for
coherence in the phenomena as well as in their theories, which are typical
examples of a philosophical outlook. Leo Strauss has strongly advocated the
case for normative theory and has argued that political things by nature are
subject to approval or disapproval and it is difficult to judge them in any other
terms, except as good or bad and justice or injustice. But the problem with the
normativists is that while professing values which they cherish, they portray
them as universal and absolute. They do not realise that their urge to create
absolute standard for goodness is not without pitfalls. Ethical values are relative
to time and space with a heavy subjective content in them, which precludes the
possibility of any creation of absolute standard. We will do well to remember
16
that even a political theorist is a subjective instrument in the assessment of the What is Political Theory: Two
Approaches – Normative and
world and these insights are conditioned by many factors, which may be Empirical
ideological in nature. The exponents of empirical theory criticise normativism
for:
a) Relativity of values
b) Cultural basis of ethics and norms
c) Ideological content in the enterprise and
d) Abstract and utopian nature of the project
But in the distant past those who championed normative theory always tried to
connect their principles with the understanding of the reality of their times. In
recent times, again the old sensibility within the normative theory has re-emerged
and the passion for good life and good society has been matched by
methodological and empirical astuteness. John Rawls’ A Theory of Justice is a
case in point which attempts to anchor logical and moral political theory in
empirical findings. Rawls, with his imagination, creates ‘original position’ to
connect normative philosophical arguments with real world concerns about
distributive justice and the welfare state.

1.6.3 Empirical Approach

What has dominated political theory in the twentieth century is not normativism,
but another conception known as empirical political theory which derives theories
from empirical observations. Empirical political theory refuses to accord the
status of knowledge to those theories which indulge in value judgements.
Naturally, therefore, normative political theory is debunked as a mere statement
of opinion and preferences. The drive for value – free theory started in order to
make the field of political theory scientific and objective and hence, a more
reliable guide for action. This new orientation came to be known as Positivism.
Under the spell of positivism, political theorists set out to attain scientific
knowledge about political phenomena based on the principle which could be
empirically verified and proved. Thus, they attempted to create a natural science
of society and in this endeavour; philosophy was made a mere adjunct of science.
Such an account of theory also portrayed the role of a theorist as of a disinterested
observer, purged of all commitments and drained of all values.

This empirical project in political theory was premised on the empiricist theory
of knowledge which claims to have the full blown criteria to test what constitutes
truth and falsehood. The essence of this criterion is lodged in the experimentation
and the verification principle. When political theory was reeling under this
influence, a so called revolution started and became popular as the ‘Behavioural
Revolution’. This revolution reached a commanding position within political
theory in the 1950’s and engulfed the entire field of study and research by
advocating new features. They included :
a) Encouragement to quantitative technique in analysis
b) Demolition of the normative framework and promotion of empirical research
which can be susceptible to statistical tests
c) Non – acceptance and rejection of the history of ideas
d) Focus on micro–study as it was more amenable to empirical treatment 17
Introducing Political Theory e) Glorification of specialisation
f) Procurement of data from the behaviour of the individual and
g) Urge for value – free research.
In fact, the behavioural climate got surcharged by an anti – theory mood and
those who lambasted theory in a conventional sense had a field day. Theory was
caricatured and made synonymous with ideology, abstraction, metaphysics and
utopia. Some adventurists even advocated farewell to theory as an enterprise. In
the zeal of attaining objective knowledge, they even reduced thought to an aspect
of reality and blurred the distinction between thought and reality. Thus, they
soon attracted the ire and fire of some philosophers of science who offered a
vision for a post – positivist approach to science. Karl Popper set the new mood
by laying down the principle of ‘falsification’ as a criterion of scientific
knowledge and argued that all knowledge was conjectural, tentative and far
from the final truth. The real turn or breakthrough came in the philosophy of
science when Thomas Kuhn, Imre Lakatos and Mary Hesse blasted the so called
scientific theory. Kuhn’s book The Structure of Scientific Revolution was a pioneer
in bringing out the shortcomings and failures of the positivist theory and it
demonstrated how all cognitions were dependent on understanding and
interpretation as a means of inter-subjective communication. Kuhn cogently
argued that it was not only the irrational conventions which lurked behind the
construction of the semantic framework, but were also informed by rational
discourses framed by interpretation and criticism.
Check Your Progress 3
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
1) Distinguish between the empirical and normative conceptions of political
theory.
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................

1.6.4 Contemporary Approach

Contemporary political theory made its appearance on the intellectual scene in
the 1980s and 90s, mostly as a reaction against the established traditions in
theory and put the categories of Enlightenment like reason and science to which
all traditions in political theory were tied, to a scathing and searching criticism.
They brought in many aspects which were conquered as the foundation of truth
by political theory under the scanner and set out to lay down the new principles
to understand and imagine the new social and political universe which some of
them put as ‘post-modern condition’. However, it would be arbitrary to yoke the
various theoretical trends visible today under one broad frame of analysis. For
example, discussing post-structuralism and post-modernism with
18
communitarianism and multiculturalism together would amount to intellectual What is Political Theory: Two
Approaches – Normative and
atrocity against them and their concerns and commitments. Because their history, Empirical
their normative concern as well as the theoretical apparatuses and empirical
referents have a significant dissimilarity and diversion. But still one can layout
the theoretical terrain on which their engagement with political theory takes
place. The broad thrusts which bring many of the contemporary theorists and
theories together could be put under the following:

a) Opposition to Universalism
Political theorisation in contemporary times has gone for subjecting the
universal claims of political theory of yesteryears, irrespective of the
tradition to which they belonged, to critical scrutiny. Liberal universalism
has appeared to them as devoid of a social and temporal context and in
their opinion, the hidden ‘particularism’ mostly based on the experience of
western society has masqueraded as universal values and norms. They argue
that the appeal to universal principles is tantamount to standardisation; hence,
violative of justice which may be inherent in a particular community or
form of life and which may embody its own values and normative principle.
The communitarian theory and the multicultural theory in recent times have
highlighted it quite forcefully and called this so called universalist theories
as ‘exclusivist’ at the core, which has always presented one vision of ‘good’
as the only vision of mankind.

b) Critique of Grand Narratives

The grand narratives of both the liberal and the Marxist variety have come
under fire on the premise that there is no overarching or transcendental
‘foundation’ of reality and truth as claimed by Liberalism and Marxism.
Some of the contemporary theories have been declared ‘anti-foundational’,
because of the continuous contestation of all well accepted foundations in
political theory, viz, state, sovereignty and power. In all fairness to them,
they do not reject all foundations, but only transcendental ones. The post-
modernists are in the forefront in attacking the grand narratives and argue
that there is nothing like an objective pre-given reality or an objective social
good which can support such grand narratives and their designs.

c) Post-positivism
It is reminiscent of the earlier engagement with value neutrality in social
science once championed by the behaviouralists in political theory. The
contemporary theories call value-free enterprises as useless and believe
that political theory is an inherently normative and politically engaged
project, which is supposed to offer prescription and a vision for the future.

d) Empirical and Comparative

The post-positivist thrust among contemporary theorists do not stop them
from advocating the need for empirical and comparative approaches before
any generalization attempt is made. Multiculturalism is one such example,
which is sensitive to the context. In fact, this kind of empirical – comparative
methodology would be a check on the broad generalisation across cultures
and continents. In spite of the new insights which come from contemporary
political theory, they suffer from many weaknesses. Unlike classical political
theory, there is not much comparative – empirical inquiry as yet and the 19
Introducing Political Theory tendency among theorists to borrow from the other theorists is galore. The
normative enterprise can be useful only when it is tied to reality. Therefore,
the real challenge lies in grounding normative theory to empirical reality of
society and politics. This is the only way a valid political theory with just
generalisations can emerge, which would also overcome the limitation of
the post-modernist perspective and its weaknesses of relativity and diffusion
which are not always congenial for political projects. This may fructify
what Sheldon Wolin calls ‘epic theory’.
Check Your Progress 1
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
1) Discuss some of the broad thrusts which bring contemporary theorists
together.
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................

1.7 LET US SUM UP

Since we have different conceptions of political theory, they acquire different
meanings in different traditions. We have seen why political theory emerges
and how it shapes and decides the course of history by facilitating human
intervention in politics. What are the different conceptions held by the theorists
have also been discussed and their pitfalls highlighted. The contemporary
enterprise, which claims to open new vistas in our understanding of social and
political reality, has been discussed along with its limitations. What emerges
clearly from the preceding discussion is that philosophy and science cannot
replace each other in the project called political theory, if a vision for the
emancipation of mankind is the mission and that even in the absence of anything
called objective ‘good’ or objective ‘truth’, the practical basis for theory should
be attempted. It is not only desirable, but also derivable. Any project in political
theory which unifies empirical findings with normative thinking by subjecting
them to rigorous criticism can open the gate for creativity in political theory on
the basis of which we can navigate into the future.

1.8 REFERENCES
Barry, B. (1989). The Strange Death of Political Philosophy’ in Democracy,
Power and Justice : Essays in Political Theory. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Berlin, S. I. (1964). Does political theory still exist? in P. Laslett and W.G.
Runciman, Philosophy, Politics and Society. 2nd series (eds.) Oxford: Blackwell.

Lasslet, P and W. G. Runciman. (eds). (1957). Philosophy, Politics and Society.

20 Oxford: Blackwell.
Sabine, G. H. (1939). What is Political theory, Journal of Politics. Vol. 1, No. 1 What is Political Theory: Two
Approaches – Normative and
(Feb., 1939), pp. 1-16. Empirical

Wolin, Sheldon. (1960). Politics and Vision: Continuity and Innovation in Western
Political Thought. Boston: Little Brown.

1.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress 1
1) Your answer should highlight the following points:
How political theory is synonymous with political science.
Discuss inter-relationship of political theory and political philosophy.
Elaborate on Hegel’s quote on political theory.
Variations in defining political theory.
2) Your answer should explain how it is different from political science,
political thought and political ideology.
Check Your Progress 2
1) Examine the debate on whether political theory is dead and also discuss
views of Levi Strauss.
Check Your Progress 3
1) Your answer should highlight the fact-value dichotomy and mention their
strengths and weaknesses.
Check Your Progress 4
1) Highlight opposition to universalism, critique of grand narratives, Post-
positivism and focus on empirical and comparative.

21