STEAM

WHAT IS STEAM?
❑ When we provide continuous heat to water then at 100º C temperature and 1 atm pressure, it boils
and changes its phase from liquid to vapour. This vapour is known as steam.
❑ Uses :
❑ For generating power.
❑ In process industries such as sugar, paper, fertilizer, refineries, petrochemicals, chemical,
food, synthetic fibre and textiles.
❑ The following characteristics of steam make it so popular and useful to the industry:
❑ Highest specific heat and latent heat.
❑ Highest heat transfer coefficient.
❑ Cheap and inert.
❑ Easy to control and distribute.
FORMATION OF STEAM
T-H DIAGRAM OF FORMATION OF STEAM AT
CONSTANT PRESSURE
 STEAM AND ITS TYPES
❏ SATURATED STEAM: Saturated steam occurs at temperatures and pressures where steam (gas) and
water (liquid) can coexist. In other words, it occurs when the rate of water vaporization is equal to the rate of
condensation.
❏ Types of Saturated Steam
❏ Wet Steam:
❏ This is the most common form of steam actually experienced by most plants.
❏ When steam is generated using a boiler, it usually contains wetness from non-vaporized water
molecules that are carried over into the distributed steam.
❏ Even the best boilers may discharge steam containing 3% to 5% wetness.
❏ As the water approaches the saturation state and begins to vaporize, some water, usually in the
form of mist or droplets, is entrained in the rising steam and distributed downstream.
❏ This is one of the key reasons why separation is used to dis-entrain condensate from distributed
steam.
❏ Dry Steam: Dry Steam is saturated steam that has been very slightly superheated.
❏ This is not sufficient to change its energy appreciably, but is a sufficient rise in temperature to
avoid condensation problems, given the average loss in temperature across the steam supply
circuit.
❏ SUPERHEATED STEAM: Superheated steam is created by further heating wet or saturated steam
beyond the saturated steam point.
❏ This yields steam that has a higher temperature and lower density than saturated steam at the
same pressure.
❏ Superheated steam is mainly used in propulsion/drive applications such as turbines, and is not
typically used for heat transfer applications.
❑ Super Saturated Steam :
The steam having lesser temperature and greater density with respect to the steam table values for
a particular saturation pressure is called super saturated steam. This condition is obtained when it is
cooled by its own expansion in a nozzle. But it is very unstable and the steam soon resumes the
saturated condition.
 ADVANTAGES OF SUPERHEATED STEAM
❑ The superheated steam can be considerably cooled during expansion in an engine cylinder, before
its temperature falls so low as to cause condensation on cylinder walls which is a direct heat loss.
❑ The temperature of superheated steam being higher, it gives a high thermal efficiency in heat
engine.
❑ It has high heat content and so high capacity of doing work. Thus it results in an economy in steam
consumption.
 STEAM TABLES
● A steam table list the properties of steam at varying pressures. They are the results of actual tests
carried out on steam. The table below shows the properties of dry saturated steam:
 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF STEAM
❑ Dryness fraction: Dryness fraction denotes the mass of dry steam in given steam. It is the ratio of
the mass of dry steam to the mass of total wet steam.
❑ It is denoted by ‘x’.

Where M=mass of the dry steam

m=mass of water vapour
❑ The use of dryness fraction allow us to know both the mass of dry steam and mass of water vapour.
If x=0.9, that means dry steam is 0.9 kg and water vapour is 0.1 kg in 1 kg of given steam.
 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF STEAM
❑ Quality: Quality is defined as the dryness fraction represented in percentage
If quality of steam is 80%, then it has 80% of dry steam and 20 % water vapour by mass.

❑ Specific volume :
Gases (steam is a gas) occupy less space under higher pressure than under lower pressure. This
means 1 kilogram of steam occupies different volumes, depending upon its pressure. The term
specific volume refers to the volume that one kg of steam occupies at a given pressure and
temperature.
Unit is: m3/kg.
 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF STEAM
❑ Enthalpy of saturated steam: The total heat content of a substance is called enthalpy. So, total heat
content by steam is termed as its enthalpy. It is denoted by ‘H’. SI unit is kJ.
❑ ‘h‘ is generally used term which represents specific enthalpy, unit for which is kJ/Kg.
❑ The total energy in saturated steam, is simply the sum of the enthalpy of water and the enthalpy of
evaporation.
hg = hf + hfg
where, hg = Total enthalpy of saturated steam (Total heat) (kJ/kg)
hf = Liquid enthalpy (Sensible heat) (kJ/kg)
hfg = Enthalpy of evaporation (Latent heat) (kJ/kg)
❑ Enthalpy of wet steam is then given by,
hg = hf + xhfg
where, x = dryness fraction
 STEAM GENERATOR
❏ A steam generator or boiler is usually a closed vessel made of steel.
❏ Its function is to transfer the heat produced by the combustion of fuel to water and ultimately to
generate steam.
❏ Typical boiler assembly falls under two categories:
❏ Fire tube boilers
❏ Water tube boilers
FIRE TUBE BOILERS
WATER TUBE BOILERS
 Cochran Boiler
❏ Considered to be one of the most efficient type multi tubular boilers.
❏ Consists of external cylindrical shell and fire box.
❏ The shell and fire box both are hemispherical.
❏ The fire box and combustion chamber is connected through a short pipe.
❏ The flue gases from the combustion chamber flow to the smoke box through a number of smoke
tubes.
❏ The gases from the smokebox pass to the atmosphere through a chimney
❏ Manhole is provided for cleaning.
 Lancashire Boiler
❏ The boiler consists of a long cylindrical external shell built of steel plates in sections riveted
together.
❏ It has two large internal flue tubes.
❏ A fire grate is also called furnace is provided at one end of the flue tubes on which solid fuel is
burnt.
❏ At the end of the fire grate there is a brick arch to deflect the flue gases upwards.
❏ The hot flue gases leaving internal flue tubes passes through the bottom tube.
❏ These flue gases move to the front of the boiler where they divide and flow into side tube.
❏ The flue gases then enter the main flue which leads them to chimney.
❏ The damper is fitted at one side flues to control the draught and thus regulate the rate of generation
of steam.
❏ A spring loaded safety valve and stop valve are mounted.
 Locomotive Boiler
❏ Locomotive boiler is a horizontal fire tube type mobile boiler.
❏ The main requirement of this boiler is that it should produce steam at a very high rate.
❏ Therefore, this boiler requires a large amount of heating surface and large grate area to burn coal
at a rapid rate.
❏ In order to provide the large heating surface area, a large number of fire tubes are setup and heat
transfer rate is increased by creating strong draught by means of steam jet.
❏ Large rate of steam generation per square metre of heating surface.
❏ To some extent this is due to the vibration caused by the motion.
❏ It is free from brickwork, special foundation and chimney. This reduces the cost of installation.
❏ It is very compact.
❏ The pressure of the steam is limited to about 20 bar.
 Babcock and Wilcox Boiler
❏ This is an example of water tube boiler and is used in stationary and marine engine.
❏ The efficiency of this boiler is much greater than that of the fire tube boiler.
❏ This boiler is used when pressure is above 10 bar and steam generating capacity is required higher
then 7000 kg/hr.
 STEAM DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
❑ Link between the steam generator and point of use.
❑ An efficient steam distribution system supplies steam of the right
quality and pressure, in the right quantity, to the steam using equipment.
❑ ‘Steam mains', carry steam from the boiler in the general direction of the steam using plant.
❑ Smaller branch pipes can then carry the steam to the individual pieces of equipment.
STEAM DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
 DISTRIBUTION PRESSURE OF STEAM
❑ The distribution pressure of steam is influenced by a number of factors, but is limited by:
❑ The maximum safe working pressure of the boiler
❑ The minimum pressure required at the plant
❑ As steam passes through the distribution pipework, it will inevitably lose pressure due to:
❑ Frictional resistance within the pipework
❑ Condensation within the pipework as heat is transferred to the environment.
❑ Therefore allowance should be made for this pressure loss when deciding upon the initial distribution
pressure.
❑ Generating and distributing steam at higher pressure offers three important advantages:
❑ The thermal storage capacity of the boiler is increased, helping it to cope more efficiently with
fluctuating loads, minimising the risk of producing wet and dirty steam.
❑ Smaller bore steam mains are required, resulting in lower capital cost, for materials such as
pipes, flanges, supports, insulation and labour.
❑ Smaller bore steam mains cost less to insulate
 HARDWARE FOR STEAM DISTRIBUTION
❑ Steam Piping
❑ Pressure reducing Valves
❑ Steam traps
❑ Steam separators
 STEAM PIPING
❑ Steam pipes should be laid by the shortest possible distance rather than to follow a building layout or
road etc.
❑ provision must be made for proper draining of condensate which is bound to form as steam travels
along the pipe.
❑ The pipes should run with a fall of not less than 12.5 mm in 3 meter in the direction of flow.
❑ There should also be large pockets in the pipes to enable water to collect otherwise water will be
carried along with steam. These drain pockets should be provided at every 30 to 50 meters and at
any low point in the pipe network. The pocket should be fitted with a trap to discharge the
condensate.
❑ Necessary expansion loops are required to take care of the expansion of pipes when they get heated
up.
❑ Automatic air vents should be fixed at the dead end of steam mains, which will allow removal of air
which will tend to accumulate.
STEAM PIPING
 STEAM TRAPS
❑ A steam trap is a valve device that discharges condensate and air from the line or piece of
equipment without discharging the steam.
❑ The purpose of installing the steam traps is to obtain fast heating of the product and equipment by
keeping the steam lines and equipment free of condensate, air and non-condensable gases.
❑ Functions of Steam Traps:
❑ To discharge condensate as soon as it is formed.
❑ Not to allow steam to escape.
❑ To be capable of discharging air and other non-condensable gases.
 TYPES OF STEAM TRAPS
❑ There are three basic types of steam trap into which all variations fall, all three are classified by
International Standard ISO 6704:1982.
❑ Thermostatic (operated by changes in fluid temperature) –
The temperature of saturated steam is determined by its pressure. In the steam space, steam gives
up its enthalpy of evaporation (heat), producing condensate at steam temperature. As a result of any
further heat-loss, the temperature of the condensate will fall. A thermostatic trap will pass
condensate when this lower temperature is sensed. As steam reaches the trap, the temperature
increases and the trap closes.
❑ Thermodynamic (operated by changes in fluid dynamics) - Thermodynamic steam traps rely
partly on the formation of flash steam from condensate. This group includes 'thermodynamic‘, 'disc',
'impulse' and 'labyrinth' steam traps.
 TYPES OF STEAM TRAPS
❑ Mechanical (operated by changes in fluid density) - This range of steam traps operates by
sensing the difference in density between steam and condensate. These steam traps include 'ball
float traps' and 'inverted bucket traps'. In the 'ball float trap', the ball rises in the presence of
condensate, opening a valve which passes the denser condensate. With the 'inverted bucket trap',
the inverted bucket floats when steam reaches the trap and rises to shut the valve. Both are
essentially 'mechanical' in their method of operation.
Inverted Bucket
Ball and float
Thermodynamic trap
Thermostatic trap
Bimetallic Trap
 Installation of steam traps
❏ Drain Point: The drain point should be so arranged that the condensate can easily flow into the
trap. A proper pocket at the lowest part of the pipeline into which the condensate can drop of.

Wrong way Correct way

❏ Pipe Sizing: The pipes leading to and from steam traps should be of adequate size, because their
correct operation can be disturbed by excessive resistance to flow in the condensate pipe work.
❏ Air Binding: When air is pumped into the trap space by the steam, the trap function ceases. Unless
adequate provision is made for removing air either by way of the steam trap or a separate air vent,
the plant may take a long time in warming up and may never give its full output.
❏ Dirt: New steam systems contain scale, castings, weld metal, piece of packing and jointing
materials, etc. Rust (powdered form) is formed, in the inside of the pipework and fittings which is
exposed to corrosive condensate, when the system has been in use for a while. All this dirt reaches
the steam trap, some of which may pass through the trap into the condensate system without doing
any harm, but some dirt will eventually jam the trap mechanism. It is advisable to use a strainer
positioned before the steam trap to prevent dirt from passing into the system.
❏ Water Hammer : A water hammer in a steam system is caused by condensate collection in the
plant or pipe work picked up by the fast moving steam and carried along with it. When this collection
hits obstructions such as bends, valves, steam traps or some other pipe fittings, it is likely to cause
severe damage to fittings and equipment and result in leaking pipe joints.The problem of water
hammer can be eliminated by positioning the pipes so that there is a continuous slope in the
direction of flow. A slope of at least 12 mm in every 3 metres is necessary, as also an adequate
number of drain points every 30 to 50 metres.
 ENERGY SAVING CONSIDERATIONS
❏ Avoiding Steam Leakages
❏ Providing Dry Steam for Process
❏ Utilising Steam at the Lowest Acceptable Pressure for the Process
❏ Proper Air Venting
❏ Condensate Recovery
❏ Insulation of Steam Pipelines and Hot Process Equipments
❏ Flash Steam Recovery
 PROVIDING DRY STEAM FOR PROCESS
❏ The best steam for industrial process heating is the dry saturated steam. Wet steam reduces total
heat in the steam.
❏ Also water forms a wet film on heat transfer and overloads traps and condensate equipment.
❏ Superheated steam is not desirable for process heating because it gives up heat at a rate slower
than the condensation heat transfer of saturated steam.
❏ Wet steam can reduce plant productivity and product quality, and can cause damage to most items
of plant and equipment.
❏ Whilst careful drainage and trapping can remove most of the water, it will not deal with the water
droplets suspended in the steam.
❏ To remove these suspended water droplets, separators are installed in steam pipelines.
 PROVIDING DRY STEAM FOR PROCESS
❏ A steam separator may be installed on the steam main as well as on the branch lines to reduce
wetness in steam and improve the quality of the steam going to the units.
❏ By change of direction of steam, steam separators causes the entrained water particles to be
separated out and delivered to a point where they can be drained away as condensate through a
conventional steam trap.
Cyclonic type Coalescence type
 UTILISING STEAM AT THE LOWEST ACCEPTABLE
PRESSURE FOR THE PROCESS
❏ The latent heat in steam reduces as the steam pressure increases.
❏ It is only the latent heat of steam, which takes part in the heating process when applied to an indirect
heating system.
❏ Thus, it is important that its value be kept as high as possible.
❏ This can only be achieved if we go in for lower steam pressures.
❏ As a guide, the steam should always be generated and distributed at the highest possible pressure,
but utilized at as low a pressure as possible since it then has higher latent heat.
❏ However, it may also be seen from the steam tables that the lower the steam pressure, the lower will
be its temperature.
❏ Since temperature is the driving force for the transfer of heat at lower steam pressures, the rate of
heat transfer will be slower and the processing time greater.
 PROPER AIR VENTING
❏ Amounts of air and other non-condensable gases will enter with the steam, when the steam
condenses, these gases will accumulate in pipes.
❏ This leads to a lengthy warming up period, and a reduction in plant efficiency and process
performance.
❏ Air in a steam system will also affect the system temperature.
❏ Air will exert its own pressure within the system, and will be added to the pressure of the steam to
give a total pressure.
❏ Therefore, the actual steam pressure and temperature of the steam/air mixture will be lower than
that suggested by a pressure gauge.
❏ Of more importance is the effect air has upon heat transfer.
❏ A layer of air only 1 mm thick can offer the same resistance to heat as a layer of water 25 μm thick,
a layer of iron 2 mm thick or a layer of copper 15 mm thick.
❏ It is very important therefore to remove air from any steam
 CONDENSATE RECOVERY
❏ The steam condenses after giving off its latent heat in the heating coil or the jacket of the process
equipment.
❏ A sizable portion (about 25%) of the total heat in the steam leaves the process equipment as hot
water.
❏ The percentage of energy in condensate to that in steam can vary from 18% at 1 bar g to 30% at 14
bar (g); clearly the liquid condensate is worth reclaiming.
❏ Reasons for condensate recovery:
❏ Water charges are reduced.
❏ Effluent charges and possible cooling costs are reduced.
❏ Fuel costs are reduced.
❏ More steam can be produced from the boiler.
❏ Boiler blowdown is reduced - less energy is lost from the boiler.
❏ Chemical treatment of raw make-up water is reduced.
INSULATION OF STEAM PIPELINES AND HOT PROCESS
EQUIPMENTS
❏ Heat can be lost due to radiation from steam pipes.
❏ As an example while lagging steam pipes, it is common to see leaving flanges uncovered.
❏ An uncovered flange is equivalent to leaving 0.6 metre of pipe line unlagged.
❏ The various insulating materials used are cork, Glass wool, Rock wool and Asbestos.
 FLASH STEAM RECOVERY
❏ Flash steam is produced when condensate at a high pressure is released to a lower pressure and
can be used for low pressure heating.
❏ The higher the steam pressure and lower the flash steam pressure the greater the quantity of flash
steam that can be generated.
❏ In many cases, flash steam from high pressure equipments is made use of directly on the low
pressure equipments to reduce use of steam through pressure reducing valves.