Ozone Depletion
Ozone Depletion
Ozone Depletion
Joe Buchdahl
ACE is supported by the Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs
ACE Information Programme aric
Introduction
Glossary
Ozone is both beneficial and harmful to us. Near the ground, ozone
forming as a result of chemical reactions involving traffic pollution and
sunlight may cause a number of respiratory problems, particularly for
young children, However, high up in the atmosphere (19-30km) in a
region known as the stratosphere, ozone filters out incoming radiation
from the Sun in the "cell damaging" ultraviolet part of the spectrum.
Without ozone in the stratosphere, life on earth would not have
evolved. Thus with the development of the ozone layer came the
formation of more advanced life forms.
microscopic life in the surface oceans which forms the basis of the
world’s food chain, certain varieties of crops including rice and soya,
and polymers used in paints and clothing. A loss of ozone in the
stratosphere may even affect the global climate.
Introduction
Without ozone, life on Earth would not have evolved. The first stage of
single cell organism development requires an oxygen-free
environment. This type of environment existed on earth over 3000
million years ago. As the primitive forms of plant life multiplied and
evolved, they began to release minute amounts of oxygen through the
photosynthesis reaction (which converts carbon dioxide into oxygen).
The build up of oxygen in the atmosphere led to the formation of the
ozone layer in the upper atmosphere or stratosphere. This layer filters
out incoming radiation in the "cell damaging" ultraviolet part of the
spectrum. Thus with the development of the ozone layer came the
formation of more advanced life forms.
Even though both types of ozone are exactly the same molecule,
their presence in different parts of the atmosphere has very different
consequences. Stratospheric ozone blocks harmful solar radiation -
all life on Earth has adapted to this filtered solar radiation. Ground-
level ozone, in contrast, is simply a pollutant. It will absorb some
incoming solar radiation, but it cannot make up for stratospheric
ozone loss. This fact sheet series is concerned with stratospheric
ozone depletion.
Latitude: The sun’s rays are the most intense near the equator
where they impact the Earth’s surface at the most direct angle.
Time of day: Daily changes in the angle of the sun influence the
amount of UV radiation that passes through the atmosphere. When
the sun is low in the sky, its rays must travel a greater distance
through the atmosphere and may be scattered and absorbed by
water vapour and other atmospheric components. The greatest
amount of UV reaches the Earth around midday when the sun is at
its highest point.
Air pollution: Like clouds, urban smog can reduce the amount of UV
radiation reaching the Earth.
Introduction
Ozone's unique physical properties allow the ozone layer to act as our
planet's sunscreen, providing an invisible filter to help protect all life
forms from the Sun's damaging ultraviolet (UV) rays. Most incoming
UV radiation is absorbed by ozone and prevented from reaching the
Earth's surface. Without the protective effect of ozone, life on Earth
would not have evolved in the way it has.
Introduction
Cl + O3 Æ ClO + O2
ClO + O Æ Cl + O2
Introduction
Use of CFCs
The pie chart below shows the uses of CFCs in various products
before the 1987 Montreal Protocol, which required countries to
phase out their usage to protec the ozone layer.
Control of CFCs
Introduction
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons
Carbon Tetrachloride
Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), despite its toxicity, was first used in the
early 1900s as a fire extinguishant, and more recently as an
industrial solvent, an agricultural fumigant, and in many other
industrial processes including petrochemical refining, and pesticide
and pharmaceuticals production. Recently it has also been used in
the production of CFC-11 and CFC-12. It has accounted for less
Methyl Chloroform
Halons
Methyl Bromide
Introduction
Why is the ozone hole over Antarctica? That is one of the first
questions that comes to mind when people think about the ozone
hole. Every winter and spring since the late 1970s, an ozone hole
has formed in the stratosphere above the Antarctic continent. In
recent years this hole has become both larger and deeper, in the
sense that more and more ozone is being destroyed. As summer
approaches, the hole repairs itself, only to reform during the
following spring.
Introduction
Unlike the Arctic, the Antarctic is isolated from the rest of the world
during the winter and spring by a natural circulation of wind called the
polar vortex. This prevents atmospheric mixing of stratospheric ozone,
thus contributing to the depletion of ozone. However, even small
depletions in the Arctic region would give cause for considerable
concern due to the higher populations in the higher latitudes of the
northern hemisphere.
Arctic ozone depletion has not been as marked as over the Antarctic
for two reasons: a) the stratospheric temperatures are seldom below -
80oC due to frequent exchange of air masses with the mid latitudes; b)
the Arctic air vortex usually dissipates in late winter before sunlight
returns to initiate the ozone destruction. The differences between the
two regions result in part from the larger land mass in the northern
hemisphere, which causes more activity in the atmosphere.
Ozone losses have increased greatly in the 1990s in the Arctic and
in late 1997 were the greatest ever observed, according to
measurements by NASA satellites.
Introduction
Observations since the 1960s have shown that total global ozone
levels have decreased by 1-2% from the maximum to the minimum
of a typical cycle. However, since downward trends in ozone levels
are much larger than 1-2%, particularly at the higher latitudes, the
Sun's output cannot be wholly responsible.
Unusual solar activity can cause the ozone levels in the upper
stratosphere to be substantially depleted, but since most of the
Introduction
In the UK, stratospheric ozone levels are monitored every winter and
spring at Cambourne, in Cornwall and Lerwick, in the Shetland Isles.
Introduction
Research has shown that even small amounts of UV-B radiation can
cause considerable harm. UV-B damages the genetic material of DNA
and is related to some types of skin cancer. It is important to note,
however, that UV-B radiation has always had this effect on humans.
In recent years non-melanoma skin cancer has become more
prevalent in many parts of the world because people are spending
more time in the Sun and are exposing more of their skin in the
process.
Australia, with high sunshine levels, has very high skin cancer rates.
An estimated 2 out of every 3 people in most parts of the country will
develop some form of skin cancer. In Queensland, where UV-B
radiation is the highest, the probability jumps to 3 in every 4. In
America, in 1935, the chances of developing the more serious
malignant melanoma was 1 in 1500. In 1991 it had soared to 1 in 150,
and it is predicted that by the beginning of the new millennium it will
be 1 in 75.
Introduction
As the ozone layer gets thinner, UV-B radiation at the surface of the
Earth increases. If the ozone amount decreases by 10% during the
spring and summer, the annual UV dose increases by about 12%.
Cataracts and blindness are among the most common eye diseases
associated with further ozone layer depletion and increased UV-B at
the Earth’s surface. Unlike the skin, which can adapt to UV radiation
by becoming browner and thicker, the eye does not have any such
defence mechanisms. On the contrary, research shows that eyes
become more sensitive with increased exposure to radiation. This
can damage the cornea, the lens and the retina.
Introduction
Scientific research suggests that sunburn can alter the distribution and
function of disease-fighting white blood cells in humans for up to 24
hours after exposure to the Sun. In addition, repeated exposure to UV
radiation may cause more long-lasting damage to the body's immune
system. Whilst little research has been conducted on the effects of
decreasing stratospheric ozone on human immunity, it is likely that
continued destruction of the ozone layer will lead to further health
complications, in addition to skin cancers and eye disorders, as a
result of the suppression of our ability to fight off disease.
Introduction
Solar UV-B radiation has also been found to cause damage to the
early developmental stages of fish, shrimp, crab, amphibians and
other animals. The most severe effects are decreased reproductive
capacity and impaired larval development. Even at current levels,
solar UV-B radiation is a limiting factor, and small increases in UV-B
exposure could result in a significant reduction in the size of the
population of animals that eat these smaller creatures.
comes from the sea. One study of plankton estimates that a 25%
reduction in ozone would lead to a 10% loss in primary production
throughout the sunlit, biologically rich upper layer of the ocean, and a
35% reduction near the surface of the water.
Introduction
Introduction
As well as the effects to human health, land plants and aquatic life,
which may occur as a consequence of ozone depletion, there are
other impacts which could result from prolonged destruction of ozone
in the stratosphere. These include damage to polymers used in
buildings, paints and packaging, and changes in biogeochemical
cycles affecting ground-level pollution (smog), acid rain and even
climate change.
Damage to Polymers
Effects on Climate
Introduction
The Protocol
The Timetable
Introduction
The initial concern about the ozone layer in the 1970s led to a ban on
the use of CFCs as aerosol propellants in several countries, including
the U.S. However, production of CFCs and other ozone-depleting
substances grew rapidly afterwards as new uses were discovered.
Through the 1980s, other uses expanded and the world's nations
became increasingly concerned that these chemicals would further
harm the ozone layer. In 1985, the Vienna Convention was adopted to
formalise international co-operation on this issue. Additional efforts
resulted in the signing of the Montreal Protocol in 1987. After the
original Protocol was signed, new measurements showed worse
damage to the ozone layer than was originally expected. In 1992,
reacting to the latest scientific assessment of the ozone layer, the
Parties decided to completely end production of halons by the
continue to form annually in the polar regions, well into the next
century. This situation will persist until stratospheric chlorine levels
decrease.
Introduction
Trade Controls
CFCs Smuggling
As a result of the decline in the production and use of CFCs, and the
continuation of CFC production in developing countries (allowed
under the provisions of the Montreal Protocol until 2010), the lure of
illegal trade in CFCs is obvious. Significant volumes of illegal
imports of CFCs into Western Europe have been reported, even
though production in Western Europe ceased at the end of 1994.
The Montreal Protocol currently does not require Parties to it to
implement controls against illegal trade. However, the eighth
meeting of the Conference of Parties, held in November 1996 in
Costa Rica, urged countries to install verification programs to reduce
illegal trade in ozone-depleting substances.
Introduction
The Sun's UV rays are strongest between 10 a.m. and 4 p.m. To the
extent you can, limit exposure to the Sun during these hours.
Sunlamps damage the skin and unprotected eyes and are best
avoided entirely.
There are a number of steps that we can all take, both as individuals
and as groups, to protect the Earth's fragile shield. We have all been
part of the ozone depletion problem, through the use of chemicals in
everyday products. However, we can all be part of the solution.
Anthropogenic
Man-made or human induced.
Atmosphere
A mixture of gases surrounding the Earth. Earth's atmosphere
consists of 79.1% nitrogen (by volume), 20.9% oxygen, 0.036%
carbon dioxide and trace amounts of other gases. It can be divided
into a number of layers according to thermal properties (temperature).
The layer nearest the earth is the troposphere (up to about 10-15km
above the surface), next is the stratosphere (up to about 50km).
There is little mixing of gases between layers.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Synthetically produced compounds containing varying amounts of
chlorine, fluorine and carbon. Used in industrial processes and as a
propellant for gases and sprays. In the atmosphere they are
responsible for the depletion of ozone and can destroy as many as
10,000 molecules of ozone in their long lifetime. Their use is now
currently restricted under the Montreal Protocol.
Concentration
A measure of the atmospheric content of a gas, defined in terms of
the proportion of the total volume that it accounts for. Greenhouse
gases are trace gases in the atmosphere and are usually measured
in parts per million by volume (ppmv), parts per billion by volume
(ppbv) or parts per trillion (million million) by volume (pptv).
Copenhagen Amendment
A second amendment to the Montreal Protocol to speed up the phase
out of chemicals that deplete the ozone layer.
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid, the basic unit of chromosomes which make up
all living organisms
Halocarbons
Man-made substances including the chlorofluorocarbons and halons.
Halons
These man-made substances are similar to chlorofluorocarbons but
contain bromine. They also destroy the ozone layer.
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)
Synthetically produced compounds containing varying amounts of
hydrogen, chlorine, fluorine and carbon. Used as replacements for
chlorofluorocarbons. They have large global warming potentials and
current emissions are helping to enhance the natural greenhouse
effect.
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
Synthetically produced compounds containing varying amounts of
hydrogen, fluorine and carbon. Used as replacements for
chlorofluorocarbons. They have large global warming potentials and
current emissions are helping to enhance the natural greenhouse
effect.
London Amendment
A first amendment to the Montreal Protocol to speed up the phase
out of chemicals that deplete the ozone layer.
Montreal Protocol
The discovery of an ozone hole over Antarctica prompted action to
control the use of gases which have a destructive effect on the ozone
layer. From this concern emerged the Montreal Protocol on
substances that deplete the ozone layer, signed by 24 countries in
1987. It came into force in 1989 and has since been ratified by 120
countries. The original agreement was to control and phase out the
production and supply of ozone depleting chemicals, specifically
CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) and derivatives. A meeting in 1992 was
held in Copenhagen to revise the Protocol. This meeting agreed to
bring forward the phase out of halons to 1994, and CFCs and other
halocarbons to 1996. These targets have since been met.
Nannometre
10-9 metre (or one billionth of a metre).
Ozone hole
Stratospheric ozone depletion over the Antarctic. The hole appears
every southern hemisphere spring (August to October) before
disappearing during the summer months (December / January).
Ozone Layer
The ozone in the stratosphere is very diffuse, occupying a region
many kilometres in thickness, but is conventionally described as a
layer to aid understanding.
Ozone (O3)
Ozone consists of three atoms of oxygen bonded together in contrast
to normal atmospheric oxygen which consists of two atoms of
oxygen. Ozone is formed in the atmosphere and is extremely reactive
and thus has a short lifetime. In the stratosphere ozone is both an
effective greenhouse gas (absorber of infra-red radiation) and a filter
for solar ultra-violet radiation. Ozone in the troposphere can be
dangerous since it is toxic to human beings and living matter.
Elevated levels of ozone in the troposphere exist in some areas,
especially large cities as a result of photolytic reactions of
hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen, released from vehicle
emissions and power stations.
Plankton
Aquatic and usually microscopic organisms that feed in the world’s
oceans. Phytoplankton feed by photosynthesis whilst zooplankton
refers to animal life forms.
Photolysis
A chemical reaction involving sunlight in which molecules are split
into their constituent atoms. Also known as photodissociation.
Photosynthesis
The process by which green plants use light to synthesise organic
compounds from carbon dioxide and water. In the process oxygen
and water are released. Increased levels of carbon dioxide can
increase net photosynthesis in some plants. Plants create a very
important sink for carbon dioxide. See also carbon cycle.
Polar Vortex
A circumpolar wind circulation which isolates the Antarctic continent
during the cold Southern Hemisphere winter, heightening ozone
depletion.
Pollutant
Strictly too much of any substance in the wrong place or at the
wrong time is a pollutant. More specifically, atmospheric pollution
may be defined as 'the presence of substances in the atmosphere,
resulting from man-made activities or from natural processes,
causing adverse effects to man and the environment'.
Radiation
Energy emitted in the form of electromagnetic waves. Radiation has
differing characteristics depending upon the wavelength. Radiation
from the Sun has a short wavelength (ultra-violet) whilst energy re-
radiated from the Earth's surface and the atmosphere has a long
wavelength (infra-red).
Spectrum
The range of wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation.
Stratosphere
A layer in the atmosphere above the troposphere extending upwards
to about 50km. The stratosphere contains much of the total
atmospheric ozone. The temperature in this region increases with
height and can exceed 0oC in the summer. The air density here is
much less than in the troposphere. It is not thought that the
stratosphere has much influence on the weather on the Earth's
surface.
Tropopause
The boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere.
Troposphere
The lowest layer of the atmosphere. The altitude of the troposphere
varies with latitude, from about 16km at the equator to only 8km at
the poles. Normally there is a decrease in temperature with height.
This layer contains 75% of the total gaseous mass of the atmosphere
and virtually all the water vapour and aerosols. This zone is
responsible for most of the weather phenomena experienced and
where atmospheric turbulence is most marked.
Wavelength
A measure of the length of electromagnetic radiation waves.
Farman, J.C., Gardiner, B.G. & Shanklin, J.D., 1985. Large losses of
total ozone in Antarctica reveal seasonal ClOx/NOx interaction.
Nature, 315, pp. 207-210.
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