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Integrated Soil Fertility Management: Operational Definition and

Consequences for Implementation and Dissemination

Article  in  Outlook on Agriculture · March 2010

DOI: 10.5367/000000010791169998 · Source: OAI

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Integrated soil fertility management: operational definition and consequences
for implementation and dissemination
B. VanlauweA, J. ChianuA, K.E. GillerB, R. MerckxC, U. MokwunyeD, P. PypersA, K. ShepherdE, E.
SmalingF, P.L. WoomerG and N. SangingaA
A
Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility Institute of the International Centre for Tropical Agriculture, PO 30677, Nairobi, Kenya.
B
Department of Plant Sciences, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 430, 6700 AK Wageningen, The Netherlands.
C
Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Kasteelpark Arenberg 20, 3001 Leuven, Belgium.
D
Director, Mokwunye Enterprises, International Consultants, 4th Ayiku Lane, Baatsonaa, Accra, Ghana.
E
World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), PO 30677, Nairobi, Kenya.
F
International Institute for Geo-information Science and Earth Observation (ITC), P.O. Box 6, 7500 AA Enschede, NL
G
FORMAT, PO Box 79, The Village Market, Nairobi, Kenya.

Abstract
Traditional farming systems in sub-Saharan Africa depend primarily on mining soil nutrients. The African
Green Revolution aims at intensifying agriculture through dissemination of Integrated Soil Fertility
Management (ISFM). In this paper we develop a robust and operational definition of ISFM, based on
detailed knowledge of African farming systems and their inherent variability and of optimal use of nutrients.
We define ISFM as ‘A set of soil fertility management practices that necessarily include the use of fertilizer,
organic inputs, and improved germplasm combined with the knowledge on how to adapt these practices to
local conditions, aiming at maximizing agronomic use efficiency of the applied nutrients and improving crop
productivity. All inputs need to be managed following sound agronomic principles.’ The integration of ISFM
practices into farming systems is illustrated with the dual purpose grain legume-maize rotations in the
savannas and fertilizer micro-dosing in the Sahel. Finally, the dissemination of ISFM practices is discussed.

Key Words
Agronomic use efficiency, fertilizer, micro-dose, organic inputs, soil organic matter, soybean-maize rotation.

Introduction
The need for sustainable intensification of agriculture in SSA has gained support, because in part of the
growing recognition that farm productivity is a major entry point to break the vicious cycle underlying rural
poverty. Since fertilizer is an expensive commodity, the Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA)
has adapted Integrated Soil Fertility Management (ISFM) as a framework for boosting crop productivity
through reliance upon soil fertility management technologies, with emphasis on increased availability and
use of mineral fertilizer. Various definitions for ISFM have been proposed but most definitions are
incomplete in the sense that they fall short of defining principles that are unique to ISFM. The objectives of
this paper are: (i) to develop a robust definition of ISFM that can be used as a practical means for objectively
evaluating its implementation; (ii) to apply the definition to relevant technologies with great potential for
dissemination to smallholder farmers; and (iii) to highlight factors that will facilitate the adoption of ISFM
practices. Before proposing a definition for ISFM, it is important to sketch the context under which the
smallholder farmer in SSA operates. At the regional scale, overall agro-ecological and soil conditions have
led to diverse population and livestock densities across SSA and to a wide range of farming systems. Each of
these systems has different crops, cropping patterns, soil management considerations, and access to inputs
and commodity markets. At the national level, smallholder agriculture is strongly influenced by governance,
policy, infrastructure, and security levels. Within farming communities, a wide diversity of farmer wealth
classes, inequality, and production activities may be distinguished. At the individual farm level, it is
important to consider the variability between the soil fertility status of individual fields, which may be as
large as differences between different agro-ecological zones. The above section sketches a summary of the
farming conditions in SSA and the variability that exists at different scales. Any definition of ISFM must
consider these attributes.

© 2010 19th World Congress of Soil Science, Soil Solutions for a Changing World 194
1 – 6 August 2010, Brisbane, Australia. Published on DVD.
Operational definition of ISFM
We define ISFM as ‘A set of soil fertility management practices that necessarily include the use of fertilizer,
organic inputs, and improved germplasm combined with the knowledge on how to adapt these practices to
local conditions, aiming at maximizing agronomic use efficiency of the applied nutrients and improving crop
productivity. All inputs need to be managed following sound agronomic principles.’ A conceptual
presentation of the definition is shown in Figure 1. The definition includes a number of concepts that are
described below.

ge
o wled
in kn
Agronomic efficiency

e
c r eas
In

A
C

Responsive soils
B Poor, less-responsive soils

Current Germplasm Germplasm Germplasm

practice & fertilizer & fertilizer’ & fertilizer
+ Organic + Organic
resource mgt resource mgt
+ Local
adaptation
Move towards ‘complete ISFM’
‘Complete ISFM’
Figure 1. Conceptual relationship between the agronomic efficiency (AE) of fertilizers and organic resource and
the implementation of various components of ISFM, culminating in complete ISFM towards the right side of the
graph. Soils that are responsive to NPK-based fertilizer and those that are poor and less-responsive are
distinguished. The ‘current practice’ step assumes the use of the current average fertilizer application rate in
SSA of 8 kg fertilizer nutrients/ha. The meaning of the various steps is explained in detail in the text. At constant
fertilizer application rates, yield is linearly related to AE.

Focus on agronomic use efficiency

The definition focuses on maximizing the use efficiency of fertilizer and organic inputs since these are both
scarce resources in the areas where agricultural intensification is needed. Agronomic efficiency (AE) is
defined as incremental return to applied inputs or: AE (kg/kg) = (YF - YC) / (Fappl) [1] where YF and YC refer to
yields (kg/ha) in the treatment where nutrients have been applied and in the control plot, respectively, and
Fappl is the amount of fertilizer and/or organic nutrients applied (kg/ha).

Fertilizer and improved germplasm

In terms of response to management, two general classes of soils are distinguished: (i) soils that show
acceptable responses to fertilizer (Path A, Figure 1) and (ii) soils that show minimal or no response to
fertilizer due to other constraints besides the nutrients contained in the fertilizer (Path B, Figure 1). We have
classified above soils as ‘responsive soils’ and ‘poor, less-responsive soils’, respectively. In some cases,
where land is newly opened, or where fields are close to homesteads and receive large amounts of organic
inputs each year a third class of soil exists where crops respond little to fertilizer as the soils are fertile. These
soils need only maintenance fertilization and are termed ‘fertile, less responsive soils’. The ISFM definition
proposes that application of fertilizer to improved germplasm on responsive soils will boost crop yield and
improve the AE relative to current farmer practice, characterized by traditional varieties receiving too little
and insufficiently managed nutrient inputs (Path A, Figure 2). Major requirements for achieving production
gains on ‘responsive fields’ within Path A (Figure 1) include (i) the use of disease-resistant and improved
germplasm, (ii) the use of the correct fertilizer formulation and rates, and (iii) appropriate fertilizer, crop and
water management practices.
© 2010 19th World Congress of Soil Science, Soil Solutions for a Changing World 195
1 – 6 August 2010, Brisbane, Australia. Published on DVD.
Combined application of organic and mineral inputs
Organic inputs contain nutrients that are released at a rate determined in part by their chemical characteristics
or organic resource quality. However, organic inputs applied at realistic levels seldom release sufficient
nutrients for optimum crop yield. Combining organic and mineral inputs has been advocated as a sound
management principle for smallholder farming in the tropics because neither of the two inputs is usually
available in sufficient quantities and because both inputs are needed in the long-term to sustain soil fertility
and crop production. Two other issues arise within the context of ISFM: (i) does fertilizer application
generate the required crop residues that are needed to optimize the AE of fertilizer for a specific situation and
(ii) can organic resources be used to rehabilitate ‘less-responsive soils’ and make these responsive to
fertilizer (Path C in Figure 2)? The first issue is supported by data obtained in Niger by Bationo et al (1998).
Where fertilizer was applied to millet, sufficient residue was produced to meet both farm household demands
for feed and food as well as the management needs of the soil in terms of organic inputs and surface
protection of the soil from wind erosion. Evidence also supports the second rehabilitation issue. In
Zimbabwe, applying farmyard manure for 3 years to sandy soils at relatively high rates enabled a clear
response to fertilizer where such response was not visible before rehabilitation (Zingore et al. 2007).
Applying above principles to maximize AE will require adaptation to the prevailing soil fertility status
(SFGs) and other site-specific modifiers of crop growth.

Adaptation to local conditions

As previously stated, farming systems are highly variable at different scales and a challenge before the
African Green Revolution is adjusting for site-specific soil conditions. Firstly, soil fertility status can vary
considerably within short distances. A good proxy for soil fertility status is often the soil organic matter
(SOM) content, provided that this parameter is not over-extrapolated across dissimilar soils. Soil organic
matter contributes positively to specific soil properties or processes fostering crop growth, such as cation
exchange capacity, soil moisture and aeration, or nutrient stocks. On land where these constraints limit crop
growth, a higher SOM content may enhance the demand by the crop for N and consequently increase the
fertilizer N use efficiency. On the other hand, SOM also releases available N that may be better synchronized
with the demand for N by the plant than fertilizer N. Consequently a larger SOM pool may result in lower N
fertilizer AEs. Evidence from Western Kenya shows that for fertile soils, AE for plant nutrients is less than
that for less intensively managed outfields (Vanlauwe et al. 2006).

A move towards ‘complete ISFM’

Several intermediary phases are identified that assist the practitioner’s move towards complete ISFM from
the current 8 kg/ha fertilizer nutrient application with local varieties. Each step is expected to provide the
management skills that result in yield and improvements in AE (Figure 1). Complete ISFM comprises the use
of improved germplasm, fertilizer, appropriate organic resource management and local adaptation. Figure 1
is not necessarily intended to prioritize interventions but rather suggests a need for sequencing towards
complete ISFM. It does however depict key components that lead to better soil fertility management. For
less-responsive soils, investment in soil fertility rehabilitation will be required before fertilizer AE will be
enhanced.

Integration of ISFM principles in farming systems

Principles embedded within the definition of ISFM need to be applied within existing farming systems. Two
examples clearly illustrated the integration of ISFM principles in existing cropping systems: (i) dual purpose
grain legume – maize rotations with P fertilizer targeted at the legume phase and N fertilizer at rates below
recommended rates targeted at the cereal phase in the moist savanna agro-ecozone (Sanginga et al. 2003) and
(ii) micro-dose fertilizer applications in legume-sorghum or legume-millet rotations with retention of crop
residues and combined with water harvesting techniques in the semi-arid agro-ecozone (Bationo et al. 1997;
Tabo et al. 2007). As for the grain legume-maize rotations, application of appropriate amounts of mainly P to
the legume phase ensures good grain and biomass production, the latter in turn benefiting a subsequent maize
crop and thus reducing the need for external N fertilizer (Sanginga et al. 2003). As for the micro-dose
technology, spot application of appropriate amounts of fertilizer to widely spaced crops as sorghum or millet
substantially enhances its use efficiency with further enhancements obtained when combined with physical
soil management practices aiming at water harvesting. Recycling crop residues can reduce wind and water
erosion (Bationo et al. 1998) and thus further benefit growth and nutrient demand of a following cereal.
Certain conditions enable the dissemination and retention of ISFM practices.

© 2010 19th World Congress of Soil Science, Soil Solutions for a Changing World 196
1 – 6 August 2010, Brisbane, Australia. Published on DVD.
 Dissemination of ISFM
The gradual increase in complexity of knowledge as one move towards complete ISFM (Figure 1) has
implications on the strategies to adapt for widespread dissemination of ISFM. Furthermore, a set of enabling
conditions can favor the uptake of ISFM. The operations of every farm are strongly influenced by the larger
rural community, policies, and supporting institutions, and markets. Not only are farms closely linked to the
off-farm economy through commodity and labor markets, but the rural and urban economies are also
strongly interdependent. Farming households are also linked to rural communities and social and information
networks, and these factors provide feedback that influences farmer decision-making. Because ISFM is a set
of principles and practices to intensify land use in a sustainable way, uptake of ISFM is facilitated in areas
with greater pressure on land resources. The first step towards ISFM acknowledges the need for fertilizer and
improved varieties. An essential condition for its early adoption is access to farm inputs, produce markets,
and financial resources. To a large extent, adoption is market-driven as commodity sales provide incentives
and cash to invest in soil fertility management technologies, providing opportunities for community-based
savings and credit schemes. Policies towards sustainable land use intensification and the necessary
institutions and mechanisms to implement and evaluate these are also that facilitates the uptake of ISFM.
Policies favoring the importation of fertilizer, its blending and packaging, or smart subsidies are needed to
stimulate the supply of fertilizer as well. Specific policies addressing the rehabilitation of degraded, non-
responsive soils may also be required since investments to achieve this may be too large to be supported by
farm families alone. While dissemination and adoption of complete ISFM is the ultimate goal, substantial
improvements in production can be made by promoting the greater use of farm inputs and germplasm within
market-oriented farm enterprises. Such dissemination strategies should include ways to facilitate access to
the required inputs, simple information fliers, spread through extension networks, and knowledge on how to
avoid less-responsive soils. A good example where the ‘seeds and fertilizer’ strategy has made substantial
impact is the Malawi fertilizer subsidy program. Malawi became a net food exporter through the widespread
deployment of seeds and fertilizer, although the aggregated AE was only 14 kg grain per kg nutrient applied
(Chinsinga 2008). Such AE is low and ISFM could increase this to at least double its value with all
consequent economic benefits to farmers. As efforts to promote the ‘seed and fertilizer’ strategy are under
way, activities such as farmer field schools or development of site-specific decision guides that enable
tackling more complex issues can be initiated to guide farming communities towards complete ISFM,
including aspects of appropriate organic matter management of local adaptation of technologies. The latter
will obviously require more intense interactions between farmers and extension services and will take a
longer time to achieve its goals.

References
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Chinsinga B (2008) ‘Reclaiming Policy Space: Lessons from Malawi’s 2005/2006 Fertilizer Subsidy
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© 2010 19th World Congress of Soil Science, Soil Solutions for a Changing World 197
1 – 6 August 2010, Brisbane, Australia. Published on DVD.

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