Sensors in Word

Sensors
Thermocouples
If a circuit is formed consisting of two dissimilar metallic conductors A

and B and the junctions are kept at different temperatures a current
will flow in the circuit owing to two different e.m.f's being generated at
the junctions.
Figure shows a simple thermocouple arrangement consisting of two
dissimilar metal wire conductors with the two ends joined. Good
electrical and thermal contact is essential for efficient operation, If the
temperature of one end is raised whilst the other is kept at a fixed
lower temperature and a sensitive meter is placed in "the circuit an
e.m.f. proportional to the temperature difference between the two
ends is set up. As the e.m.f. generated is a function of temperature
difference between the hot and cold junctions, allowance has to be
made for any temperature variation at the cold junction.
The instrument displaying the temperature is a very sensitive
mille volt meter requiring only a small current for full scale
deflection. For distant remote indication it would be feasible to
leave the cold junction at the thermocouple head and extend the
instrument wiring to the required read-out position. As the
thermocouple output is only in the region of 100 mille volts,
distant reading would need a degree of amplification
Thermocouples/noise
Perhaps the biggest obstacle to the use of thermocouples for
temperature measurement in engine room is their susceptibility to
electrical noise. First, the voltages generated generally are less than 50
mV and often are only 2 or 3 mV, and in the engine room environment
it is common to have hundreds of mill volts of electrical noise
generated by large electrical machines. Second, a thermocouple
constitutes an excellent antenna for pickup of noise from
electromagnetic radiation in the radio, TV, and microwave bands.
Thermocouples/noise reduction
To use thermocouples effectively, a number of noise reduction

techniques are employed. The following three are the most
popular:
1. The extension or lead wires from the thermocouple to the

reference junction or measurement system are twisted and then
wrapped with a grounded foil sheath.
2. The measurement junction itself is grounded at the point of

measurement. The grounding is typically to the inside of the
stainless steel sheath that covers the actual thermocouple.
3. . An instrumentation amplifier that has excellent common-mode

rejection is employed for measurement.
Thermocouple/checks
Authorities suggest that the calibration of thermocouples be checked
annually, or at least semiannually. In accordance with maintenance
schedule, past experience should be used for determining how often a
thermocouple should be replaced prior to serious changes in
calibration. Portable calibrators that can measure or simulate a
thermocouple signal are readily available and can be used for
calibration.
RTD SENSORS
Resistance-Temperature detector (RTD) is a temperature sensor that is

based on the principles that metal resistance increasing with
temperature. Metals used in these devices vary from platinum, which is
very repeatable, quite sensitive, and very expensive, to nickel, which is
not quite as repeatable, more sensitive, and less expensive.
RTD sensors/sensitivity
An estimate of RTD sensitivity can be noted from typical values of all
the linear fractional change in resistance with temperature. For
platinum, this number is typically on the order of 0.004/°C, and for
nickel a typical value is 0.005/°C. with platinum, a change of 0.4ohm
would be expected if the temperature is changed by 1°C for a100ohm
rtd sensor. A specification will provide calibration formation either as a
graph of resistance versus temperature or as a table of values from
which the sensitivity can be determined.
Construction
An RTD is simply a length of wire whose resistance is to be monitored
as a function of temperature. The construction is typically such that the
wire is wound on a form (in a coil) to achieve small size and improve
thermal conductivity to decrease response time. The coil is protected
from the environment by a sheath or protective tube that inevitably
increases response time but may be necessary in hostile environments.
A standard sets the resistance of 100ohm for a temperature of 0 deg.
Compensation line
Compensation
In view of the very small fractional changes of resistance with
temperature (0.4%), the RTD is generally used in a bridge circuit. The
compensation line in the R3 leg of the bridge is required when the lead
lengths are so long that thermal gradients along the RTD leg may cause
changes in line resistance. These changes show up as false information,
suggesting changes in RTD resistance. By using the compensation line,
the same resistance changes also appear on the R3 side of the bridge
and cause no net Shift in the bridge null.
Optical pyrometers
Optical pyrometers
The basic layout of a non-contacting pyrometer, one of a group known
as radiation pyrometers is shown in fig. This is an optical or
disappearing filament pyrometer. Operation depends upon extreme
sensitivity of "the human eye to differences in brightness between two
adjacent surfaces of the same color. The radiation given off by a burner
flame is measured by comparison with a source providing standard
condition of brightness such as a tungsten lamp filament. By varying the
brightness of the lamp so that it just disappears into the brightness of
the burner flame viewed through the lens. The temperature of the
flame can be measured from the meter reading, with modification for
any filters used.
Bimetal
This type of temperature sensor has the characteristics of being
relatively inaccurate, having relatively slow time response, and being
low in cost. Such devices are used in numerous applications,
particularly where an ON/OFF cycle rather than smooth or continuous
control is desired.
Thermal Expansion: We have seen that greater thermal energy causes

the molecules of a solid to execute greater-amplitude and higher-
frequency vibrations about their average positions. An expansion of the
volume of a solid would accompany this effect, as the molecules tend
to occupy more volume on the average with their vibrations. This effect
varies in degree from material to material.
Bimetallic sensor
It is common to consider a length of expansion when dealing with
solids. The thermal sensor exploiting the effect discussed occurs when
two materials with different thermal expansion coefficients are bonded
together. When heated, the different expansion rates cause the
assembly to curve. This effect can be used to close switch contacts or to
actuate an on/off mechanism when the temperature increases to some
appropriate set point. The effect is used for temperature indicators, by
means of assemblages, to convert the curvature into dial.
Solid state sensor

Solid state temp. Sensor
solid-state temperature sensors offer voltages that vary linearly with

temperature over a specified range. They function by exploiting the
temperature sensitivity of doped semiconductor devices such as diodes
and transistors. One common version is a zener diode in which the
zener voltage increases with temperature. The operating temperature
of these sensors is typically in the range of -50° to 150°C. solid-state
temperature sensor operates electrically like a zener diode, but the
zener voltage depends upon temperature.
Thermistor
A thermistor is a temperature sensor that has been developed from the
principles regarding semiconductor resistance change. It works on the
negative temperature coefficient of thermistor. Sensitivity The
sensitivity of the thermistors is a significant factor in their application.
Changes in resistance of 10% per °C are not uncommon. Thus, a
thermistor with a nominal resistance of 10 kΠ. at some temperature
may change by 1 kΠ. for a 1°C change in temperature Range. The
temperature range of thermistors depends on the materials used to
construct the sensor. The semiconductor material may melt or
otherwise deteriorate as the temperature is raised. This condition
generally limits the upper temperature to less than 300°C. At the low
end, the principal limitation is that the thermistor resistance becomes
very high, into the MΠ.s, making practical applications difficult.
Thermistor is used for motor protection and generator winding
temperature.
LVDT
Flux formed by the primary is linked to the two secondary coils,
inducing a voltage in each coil. When the core is centrally located in the
assembly, the voltage induced in each secondary is equal. If the core
moves to one side or the other, a larger ac voltage will be induced in
one coil and a smaller ac voltage in the other because of changes in the
flux linkage associated with the core. The signal conditioning for LVDTs
consists of circuits that perform a phase-sensitive detection of the
differential secondary voltage. The output is a dc voltage whose
amplitude relates the extent of the displacement, and the polarity
indicates the direction of the displacement. Figure shows a simple
circuit for providing such an output.
If the two secondary coils are wired in series opposition, as shown in
Figure, then the two voltages will subtract; that is, the differential
voltage is formed.
Pressure To current convertor
Pressure to voltage convertor
A bellows, converts a pressure differential into a physical displacement

more a straight-line expansion. The accordion-shaped sides of the
bellows are made from thin metal. When there is a pressure difference,
a net force will exist on the flat, front surface of the bellows. The
bellows assembly will then collapse like an accordion if P2 is greater
than PI or expand if P2 is less than PI'.
We have a displacement which is proportional to pressure difference.
This conversion of pressure to displacement is very nearly linear. LVDT
is used to measure the displacement. This sensor will output LVDT
voltage amplitude that is linearly related to pressure. This voltage is
converted to a current signal by electronic circuitry.
Current to pressure converter

IP converter is an important element in process control. When we want
to use the low-level electric current signal to do work, it is easier to let
the work be done by a pneumatic signal. IP converter gives us a linear
way of translating the 4- to 20-mA current into a 3- to 15-psig signal.
There are many designs for these converters, but the basic principle
almost always involves the use of a nozzle/flapper system.
Figure illustrates a simple way to construct such a converter. The
current through coil produces a force that will pull the flapper
down and close off the gap. A high current produces a high
pressure so that the device is direct acting. Adjustment of the
springs and perhaps the position relative to the pivot to which
they are attached allows the unit to be calibrated so that 4 mA
corresponds to 3 psig and 20 mA corresponds to 15 psig.

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Sensors

If a circuit is formed consisting of two dissimilar metallic conductors A

To use thermocouples effectively, a number of noise reduction

1. The extension or lead wires from the thermocouple to the

2. The measurement junction itself is grounded at the point of

3. . An instrumentation amplifier that has excellent common-mode

Resistance-Temperature detector (RTD) is a temperature sensor that is

Thermal Expansion: We have seen that greater thermal energy causes

Solid state sensor

solid-state temperature sensors offer voltages that vary linearly with

Pressure to voltage convertor

A bellows, converts a pressure differential into a physical displacement

Current to pressure converter

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