The Valley Cathedral Academy, Inc.

#o63 HL Labac, Naic, Cavite

Senior High School Department
1

The pressure at a depth in a fluid of constant density is equal to the pressure of the atmosphere plus the pressure due to the
weight of the fluid, or p=p0+ρhg,
Where p is the pressure at a particular depth, p0 is the pressure of the atmosphere, ρ is the density of the fluid, g is the
acceleration due to gravity, and h is the depth.

P R I N C I P L E S

Pascal’s principle (also known as Pascal’s law) states that when a

change in pressure is applied to an enclosed fluid, it is transmitted
undiminished to all portions of the fluid and to the walls of its
container. In an enclosed fluid, since atoms of the fluid are free to
move about, they transmit pressure to all parts of the fluid and to
the walls of the container. Any change in pressure is transmitted
undiminished.

Note that this principle does not say that the pressure is the same at
all points of a fluid—which is not true, since the pressure in a fluid
near Earth varies with height. Rather, this principle applies to
the change in pressure. Suppose you place some water in a
cylindrical container of height H and cross-sectional area A that
has a movable piston of mass m . Adding weight Mg at the top of
the piston increases the pressure at the top by Mg/A, since the
additional weight also acts over area A of the lid:

According to Pascal’s principle, the pressure at all points in the water changes by the same amount, Mg/A. Thus, the pressure
at the bottom also increases by Mg/A. The pressure at the bottom of the container is equal to the sum of the atmospheric
pressure, the pressure due the fluid, and the pressure supplied by the mass. The change in pressure at the bottom of the
container due to the mass is

Since the pressure changes are the same everywhere in the fluid, we no longer need subscripts to designate the pressure
change for top or bottom:

Buoyant Force
The buoyant force is the upward force on any object in any fluid.

Archimedes’ Principle
The buoyant force on an object equals the weight of the fluid it displaces. In
equation form, Archimedes’ principle is where FB is the buoyant force
and wfl is the weight of the fluid displaced by the object.

This principle is named after the Greek mathematician and inventor Archimedes (ca. 287–212 BCE), who
stated this principle long before concepts of force were well established.

(a) An object submerged in a fluid experiences a buoyant force FB.. If FB is greater than the weight of the object, the object rises. If FB is less than the weight of the
object, the object sinks.
(b) If the object is removed, it is replaced by fluid having weight wfl. Since this weight is supported by surrounding fluid, the buoyant force must equal the weight of the
fluid displaced.

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 The Valley Cathedral Academy, Inc.
#o63 HL Labac, Naic, Cavite
Senior High School Department
1

Archimedes’ principle refers to the force of buoyancy that results when a body is submerged in a fluid, whether partially or
wholly. The force that provides the pressure of a fluid acts on a body perpendicular to the surface of the body. In other
words, the force due to the pressure at the bottom is pointed up, while at the top, the force due to the pressure is pointed
down; the forces due to the pressures at the sides are pointing into the body.

Since the bottom of the body is at a greater depth than the top of the body, the pressure at the lower part of the body is
higher than the pressure at the upper part. Therefore a net upward force acts on the body. This upward force is the force of
buoyancy, or simply buoyancy.
The exclamation “Eureka” (meaning “I found it”) has often been credited to Archimedes as he made the
discovery that would lead to Archimedes’ principle. Some say it all started in a bathtub.

Density and Archimedes’ Principle

If you drop a lump of clay in water, it will sink. But if you mold the same lump of clay into the shape of a boat, it will float.
Because of its shape, the clay boat displaces more water than the lump and experiences a greater buoyant force, even
though its mass is the same. The same is true of steel ships.

The average density of an object is what ultimately determines whether it floats. If an object’s average density is less than
that of the surrounding fluid, it will float. The reason is that the fluid, having a higher density, contains more mass and hence
more weight in the same volume. The buoyant force, which equals the weight of the fluid displaced, is thus greater than the
weight of the object. Likewise, an object denser than the fluid will sink.

The extent to which a floating object is submerged depends on how the object’s density compares to the density of the fluid.
For example, the unloaded ship has a lower density and less of it is submerged compared with the same ship when loaded.
We can derive a quantitative expression for the fraction submerged by considering density. The fraction submerged is the
ratio of the volume submerged to the volume of the object, or

The volume submerged equals the volume of fluid displaced, which we call Vfl. Now we can obtain the relationship
between the densities by substituting ρ=m/v into the expression. This gives

where ρobj is the average density of the object and ρfl is the density of the fluid. Since the object floats, its mass and that of
the displaced fluid are equal, so they cancel from the equation, leaving

Bernoulli’s Equation
For an incompressible, frictionless fluid, the combination of pressure and the sum of kinetic and potential energy densities is
constant not only over time, but also along a streamline:

p+1/2ρv2+ρgy=constant
A special note must be made here of the fact that in a dynamic situation, the pressures at the same height in different parts
of the fluid may be different if they have different speeds of flow.

Analyzing Bernoulli’s Equation

According to Bernoulli’s equation, if we follow a small volume of fluid along its path, various quantities in the sum may change,
but the total remains constant. Bernoulli’s equation is, in fact, just a convenient statement of conservation of energy for an
incompressible fluid in the absence of friction.

The general form of Bernoulli’s equation has three terms in it, and it is broadly applicable. To understand it better, let us
consider some specific situations that simplify and illustrate its use and meaning.

Bernoulli’s equation for static fluids

First consider the very simple situation where the fluid is static—that is, v1=v2=0. Bernoulli’s equation in that case is

p1+ρgh1=p2+ρgh2

We can further simplify the equation by setting h2=0. (Any height can be chosen for a reference height of zero, as is often
done for other situations involving gravitational force, making all other heights relative.) In this case, we get

p2=p1+ρgh1.

This equation tells us that, in static fluids, pressure increases with depth. As we go from point 1 to point 2 in the fluid, the depth
increases by h1, and consequently, p2 is greater than p1 by an amount ρgh1. In the very simplest case, p1 is zero at the top of
the fluid, and we get the familiar relationship p=ρgh. (Recall that p=ρgh and ΔUg=−mgh.) Thus, Bernoulli’s equation confirms

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 The Valley Cathedral Academy, Inc.
#o63 HL Labac, Naic, Cavite
Senior High School Department
1

the fact that the pressure change due to the weight of a fluid is ρghρgh. Although we introduce Bernoulli’s equation for fluid
motion, it includes much of what we studied for static fluids earlier.

Bernoulli’s principle
Suppose a fluid is moving but its depth is constant—that is, h1=h2. Under this condition, Bernoulli’s equation becomes

p1+1/2ρv12=p2+1/2ρv22.

Situations in which fluid flows at a constant depth are so common that this equation is often also called Bernoulli’s principle,
which is simply Bernoulli’s equation for fluids at constant depth. (Note again that this applies to a small volume of fluid as we
follow it along its path.) Bernoulli’s principle reinforces the fact that pressure drops as speed increases in a moving fluid: If v2 is
greater than v1 in the equation, then p2 must be less than p1 for the equality to hold.

13 TEMPERATURE AND HEAT

By the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:
 Explain the connection between the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics, temperaturethermal equilibrium, and
temperature scales.
 Convert temperatures and temperature differences on the different scales.

L E S S O N P R O P E R

The concept of temperature is rooted in qualitative ideas of “hot” and “cold” base on our sense of touch. Many
properties of matter can be measure depending on temperature. Temperature is also related to the kinetic
energies of the molecules of a material.
To use temperature as a measure of hotness and coldness, we need to construct a temperature scale. To do
this, we can use any measurable property of a system that varies its hotness and coldness.
To measure the temperature of a body, you place the thermometer in contact with the body. After the
thermometer settles down to a steady value, you read the temperature. The system has reached an equilibrium
condition, in which the interaction between thermometer and the measured liquid causes no further change in
the system. We call this a state of thermal equilibrium.

We can discover an important property of thermal equilibrium by considering three system, A, B, and C, that
initially are not in equilibrium. We surround them with an ideal insulating box so that they cannot interact with
anything except each other. We separate systems A and B with ideal insulating wall, but we let system C
interact with both systems A and B. We separate system C from system A and B with an ideal insulating wall,
and then we replace the insulating wall between A and B with a conducting wall that lets A and B interact.

If C initially in thermal equilibrium with both A and B, then A and B are also in thermal equilibrium with each
other. This result is called the zeroth law of thermodynamics.

The importance of this law was recognized only after the first, second, and third law of thermodynamics had
been named. Since it is fundamental to all of them, the name “zeroth” seemed appropriate.

Two systems are in thermal equilibrium if and only if they have the same temperature.

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