Cultural Relativism & Skepticism, and

Important Moral Concepts

TOPIC

Weeks 5 & 6

Objectives
At the end of the session the students should be able to:
1. understand the concepts of cultural relativism and skepticism with other
important moral concepts;
2. discriminate moral objectivism & intuitionism and acts of man & human acts; and
3. exhibit the roles of self, family, society, religion, and schools in moral building

❖ What is Cultural Relativism?

Cultural relativism is the view that ethical and social standards reflect the cultural
context from which they are derived. Cultural relativists uphold that cultures differ
fundamentally from one another, and so do the moral frameworks that structure relations
within different societies.
Cultural relativism is the ability to understand a culture on its own terms and not to
make judgments using the standards of one's own culture. The goal of this is promote
understanding of cultural practices that are not typically part of one's own culture. Cultural
relativism refers to not judging a culture to our own standards of what is right or wrong,
strange or normal.
Cultural relativism attempts to counter ethnocentrism by promoting the understanding
of cultural practices unfamiliar to other cultures. For example, it is a common practice for
friends of the same-sex in India to hold hands while walking in public. Religious beliefs and
arranged marriages are also examples of cultural relativism. There are practices in religion
and marriage that are acceptable in some cultures but not in others. However, this does not
qualify individuals to criticize each other's practices, and they tolerate them as they are.
Cultural relativism argues that no culture is better than any other and all their beliefs
are equally valid. The way that modern society is has made it possible for almost everything
to be justified. These arguments were made by fictional Ima Relativist created by Harry
Gensler.
 The concept of cultural relativism as we know and use it today was established as an
analytic tool by German-American anthropologist Franz Boas in the early 20th century.
Is Cultural Relativism good? Cultural relativism is good because it allows people to
practice their beliefs and enjoy their cultural heritage or religious beliefs without having to
fear or have fears of others for why they do what they do.
Cultural relativism eliminates the rigidity that societies have in place regarding ethics,
conduct, and reasoning. It also means that there are no actual definitions that are in place
for a society. Cultural relativism promotes an individualistic perspective which governs how
a person acts, thinks, and responds.
Ethnocentrism is a theory opposite to cultural relativism. This idea consists of being
able to judge another culture. Comparing cultures to one another. Decide whether one
culture is better than another.
Cultural Relativism, as it has been called, challenges our ordinary belief in the
objectivity and universality of moral truth. It says, in effect, that there is not such thing as
universal.
The weakness of cultural relativism is its propensity towards quietism which may
compromise action to protect human rights. Cultural relativism requires an admission of
humility and acceptance of differences in ethical practices.
One of the strongest objections to relativism is the idea that if relativism is true, then
there can be no such thing as social reform or moral progress. truth in ethics; there are only
the various cultural codes, and nothing more.
Because of this, ethicists believe that the concept of cultural relativism threatens the
discipline of ethics since, if values are relative to a given culture, then this must mean that
there are no universal moral absolutes by which the behavior of people can be judged.

❖ What is Skepticism?

Skepticism also spelled skepticism, in Western philosophy, the attitude of doubting

knowledge claims set forth in various areas. Skeptics have challenged the adequacy or
reliability of these claims by asking what principles they are based upon or what they actually
establish. For instance, the police officer was skeptical that the driver, who was weaving in
and out of traffic, only had two beers.
Skepticism holds that one should refrain from making truth claims and avoid the
postulation of final truths.

Types of Skepticism:
 • Common sense skepticism. natural and healthy form of skepticism that most of us
employ on daily basis.
• Philosophical skepticism. - The view that we know much less than we think we do or
nothing at all.
• Absolute skepticism. - This is the most extreme type of skepticism.

❖ Are moral relativism and skepticism linked?

Other moral skeptics endorse cultural relativism, which is the view that rather than
being relative to an individual's beliefs, morality is relative to culture. This is a radical view
with many serious philosophical difficulties.

❖ What is Moral Objectivism and Intuitionism?

➢ Objectivism

The name "Objectivism" derives from the idea that human knowledge and values are
objective: they exist and are determined by the nature of reality, to be discovered by one's
mind, and are not created by the thoughts one has.
Objectivism is the philosophy or theory that the main objective of the human
experience is to pursue personal happiness and respect other humans. An example of
objectivism is the philosophy made known by author Ayn Rand.
Objectivism holds that man has free will—the ability to think or not to think, to use
reason or not to use it, to go by facts or to go by feelings. A person does not have to use
reason; the choice is his to make.
The most essential aspects of Objectivism can be expressed in four basic
values: freedom, achievement, individualism, and reason. To understand Objectivism as a
system, one needs to grasp what these values are and how they fit together.

What are some examples of objectivism?

▪ a person who works hard on a farm his entire life to be completely self-sustaining;
engaging in actions that will ideally lead to long-term happiness as opposed to short
term pleasure;
▪ a person who carves out a plan for the rest of her life that includes the principles of
reason, purpose and self-esteem.
 Moral objectivism is the position that certain acts are objectively right or wrong,
independent of human opinion. It holds that there are objective, universal moral principles
that are valid for all people. Louis Pojman proposes one such moral principle that he believes
is binding upon all human beings: “It is morally wrong to torture people just for the fun of it.”
Another example is that everyone must keep their promises and honor contracts in order to
live in a society.

➢ Intuitionism

Intuition is the ability to understand something immediately, without the need for
conscious reasoning. Intuitionism is the philosophical theory that basic truths are known
intuitively. Basically, your intuition knows something because it is true. Universally,
objectively, true. When you're a philosopher, looking for the fundamental sources of morality,
that is a major claim to make.
In metaethics, intuitionism is a form of cognitivism that holds that moral statements
can be known to be true or false immediately through a kind of rational intuition.
When an intuitionist ponders a problem, the only things they must work with are their
feelings, thoughts, and attitudes. Working with these entirely subjective things the
intuitionist arrives at moral intuitions, which he then puts forward as objective truths.
Moral intuitionism, this refers to the philosophical belief that there are objective moral
truths in life and that human beings can understand these truths intuitively. With moral
intuitionism, we mean strong, stable, immediate moral beliefs. These moral beliefs are
strong insofar as they are held with confidence and resist counter-evidence (although strong
enough counter evidence can sometimes overturn them).
A theory that aligns with intuition is said to be more credible, while one that does not
align is said to be less credible. But in other cases, philosophers suggest discarding intuition
in favor of what theory prescribes. The trouble with these practices is knowing when to trust
intuition and when to trust theory.
With moral intuitionism, for instance, we might have an intuition that all people are to
be treated fairly, that it is wrong to intentionally harm an innocent person for no reason or
that all people are to be treated with dignity. These are beliefs that moral intuitionists claim
to be self-evident.

➢ The difference between objectivism and subjectivism

The objectivist can say that meaning is being studied objectively, while the
subjectivist can say that a formerly inadequate method has been improved by the addition
of subjective considerations, or even that subjective considerations had never been entirely
eliminated from it.

❖ What are the roots of moral acts?

➢ Moral Acts

Moral action involves taking the necessary steps to transform the intent to do the right
thing into reality. This includes moral ownership, moral efficacy, and moral courage.
The goodness of a moral act is assessed based on three conditions: object (and its
goodness), intention (or end as expressed by Saint Thomas Aquinas), and circumstances.
For a moral act to be considered good, all three conditions must be met.
What are examples of moral acts?
Morals are formed out of a person's values. Values are the foundation of a person's
ability to judge between right and wrong. Morals build on this to form specific, context-
driven rules that govern a person's behavior. They're formed from a person's life
experience and are subject to opinion.
For example, someone's morals might indicate they're opposed to murder. That is
a general rule of thumb. But what about something more mundane? While one person's
morals might tell them not to gossip, another person's morals might be quite different.
They might not consider gossip to be a bad thing. Consider the following examples of
morals and see how many align with your core values and beliefs.
While morals tend to be driven by personal beliefs and values, there are certainly
some common morals that most people agree on, such as:
• Always tell the truth.
• Do not destroy property.
• Have courage.
• Keep your promises.
• Do not cheat.
• Treat others as you want to be treated.
• Do not judge.
• Be dependable.
• Be forgiving
• Have integrity
• Take responsibility for your actions
• Have patience
• Be loyal
• Have respect for yourself and others
• Be tolerant of differences
• Seek justice
• Have humility
• Be generous
 ➢ Acts of Man and Human Acts

Acts of man, therefore, are acts shared in common by man and other animals, whereas
human acts are proper to human beings.

✓ Acts of Man

Acts that we do without free will and intellect; some are done by instinct. The actions
are performed without conscious deliberation or knowledge and with the absence of a
free will. Acts of man constitute unconscious and involuntary actions. These are natural
processes within the body that continue to function without the use of free will and reason.
They just happen naturally as automatic responses to situations (Living a Christian Moral
Life, 2013)
Example: breathing, digestion, circulation of air in the body.

Essential qualities of Acts of Man:

•DONE WITHOUT KNOWLEDGE
•WITHOUT CONSENT
•INVOLUNTARY

✓ Human Acts

Acts that we do with the use of free will and intellect. They are done freely,
deliberately, and voluntarily. These are actions that are proper to humans, thus the crucial
element of willful consent and knowledge of the action must be present. One must freely
use his/her intellect and freewill when acting. Human acts reveal the value of responsibility.
or accountability. (Living a Christian Moral Life, 2013).
Example: studying, working, eating healthy food

Essential qualities of Human Acts

▪ KNOWLEDGE OF THE ACT (IT MUST BE DELIBERATE)
▪ FREEDOM (IT MUST BE FREE)
▪ VOLUNTARINESS (IT MUS BE VOLUNTARY)

Constituents of Human Acts

1. Human acts must be known and deliberate.

 An individual, as the moral agent, has full knowledge of doing a certain action. There is
prior knowledge and a deliberate evaluation of whether to fulfill an action or not (Living
a Christian Moral Life, 2013). It asks the questions: Do you know exactly what you
are doing? or Do you do the act intentionally? He/she must have full knowledge and
consent of his/her action.

2. Human acts must be free.

An individual as the moral agent is free from any external factors as well as to do an act.
He/she is neither forced nor intimidated to do or not to do something (Living a Christian
Moral Life, 2013). There is an obvious absence of constraint from within and outside of
the individual. He/she is free to do the act without the influence of an outside factor and
personal pressure from within. He/she does the act so independently and not because
of shame, request, or control from someone else nor from emotional disturbance.

3. Human acts are voluntary.

The action proceeds from the willingness of an individual to perform an action with a
perceived knowledge of the end. (Living a Christian Moral Life, 2013). It asks
the question: Are you willing to do the act? and do you know what you are doing and
where your action is leading into? He/she wills to perform the act with the understanding
that he/she knows consciously where his/her actions are leading into.
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Assignment:

In moral building, what are the roles of 1) self, b) family, c) society, d) religions and e)
schools? Kindly cite one sample situation for each item.