Physics of Everyday Phenomena Chapter 1 2 2020

Confirming Pages
A Conceptual
Introduction
t o P hy s i c s
Seventh
Edition
W. Thomas Griffith
Pacific University
Juliet W. Brosing
Pacific University
TM
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TM
THE PHYSICS OF EVERYDAY PHENOMENA: A CONCEPTUAL INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS,

SEVENTH EDITION
Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the
Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright © 2012 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Griffith, W. Thomas.
The physics of everyday phenomena : a conceptual introduction to physics.—7th ed. / W. Thomas Griffith,
Juliet W. Brosing.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 978–0–07–351220–4—ISBN 0–07–351220–6 (hard copy : alk. paper)
1. Physics—Textbooks. I. Brosing, Juliet Wain, 1953- II. Title.
QC23.2.G75 2012
530—dc22
2010032241
www.mhhe.com
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brief contents
1 Physics, the Fundamental Science 1 Unit Three Electricity and Magnetism
Unit One The Newtonian Revolution 12 Electrostatic Phenomena 236
2 Describing Motion 18 13 Electric Circuits 258
3 Falling Objects and Projectile Motion 38 14 Magnets and Electromagnetism 282
4 Newton’s Laws: Explaining Motion 59 Unit Four Wave Motion and Optics
5 Circular Motion, the Planets, and Gravity 80

15 Making Waves 306
6 Energy and Oscillations 102

16 Light Waves and Color 330
7 Momentum and Impulse 124

17 Light and Image Formation 355
8 Rotational Motion of Solid Objects 145

Unit Five The Atom and Its Nucleus
Unit Two Fluids and Heat

18 The Structure of the Atom 382
9 The Behavior of Fluids 170

19 The Nucleus and Nuclear Energy 408
10 Temperature and Heat 191

Unit Six Relativity and Beyond
11 Heat Engines and the Second Law

of Thermodynamics 213 20 Relativity 434
21 Looking Deeper into Everyday Phenomena 457
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about the authors

Tom Griffith is now Distinguished University Professor Juliet Brosing is a Professor of Physics at Pacific University
Emeritus at Pacific University in Forest Grove, Oregon, in Forest Grove, Oregon, and has taught there for the past
having recently retired after 36 years of teaching phys- 20 years. Her research interests include nuclear physics, medi-
ics at Pacific. His continued interests in teaching and cal physics, and the application of teaching methods grounded
research mean that he can still be spotted about the halls in physics educational research. She helped run a summer sci-
of the science building or library, and he makes occasional ence camp for 7th and 8th grade girls for ten years (as direc-
guest appearances with his guitar in physics courses. Over tor for six). She is on the Reactor Operations Committee for
the years he has also enjoyed hiking, bicycling, singing, the Reed Nuclear Reactor in Portland and often takes her
reading, and performing in stage plays and musical com- students there for field trips. She is also the proud owner of
edies. During his years at Pacific, he has served as Physics three potato guns; therefore, parties with students at her home
Department Chair, Science Division Chair, Interim Dean usually involve projectiles and noise. She remains active in
of Enrollment Management, and Director of Institutional both the state and national American Association of Phys-
Research among other things, but his primary focus has ics Teachers (AAPT) and the Pacific Northwest Association
always been teaching. He has been active in the Oregon for College Physics (PNACP). Above all, Dr. Brosing is dedi-
Section of the American Association of Physics Teachers cated to teaching pyhsics with a positive outlook and the use
(AAPT) and the Pacific Northwest Association for College of methods that encourage and benefit her students, regard-
Physics (PNACP). less of their chosen field of study.
The author and his wife, Adelia, hiking in the mountains of The author, Juliet Brosing, and her husband Keith LeComte at the
Oregon. Tualatin River near their home in Cherry Grove, Oregon.
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detailed contents
Preface ix
Acknowledgments xv
Secrets to Success in Studying Physics xvi
3 Falling Objects and Projectile Motion
3.1 Acceleration Due to Gravity 39
38
1
3.2 Tracking a Falling Object 42
Physics, the Fundamental Science 1 everyday phenomenon box 3.1
1.1 What about Energy? 2 Reaction Time 44
1.2 The Scientific Enterprise 4 3.3 Beyond Free Fall: Throwing
a Ball Upward 46
1.3 The Scope of Physics 7
3.4 Projectile Motion 48
everyday phenomenon box 1.1
The Case of the Malfunctioning 3.5 Hitting a Target 50
Coffee Pot 7 everyday phenomenon box 3.2
1.4 The Role of Measurement Shooting a Basketball 52
and Mathematics in Physics 9 Summary 54, Key Terms 55, Conceptual
1.5 Physics and Everyday Phenomena 12 Questions 55, Exercises 57, Synthesis Problems 57,
Home Experiments and Observations 58
Summary 13, Key Terms 13, Conceptual
Questions 14, Exercises 15, Synthesis
Problems 15, Home Experiments and
Observations 16
4 Newton’s Laws: Explaining Motion
4.1 A Brief History 60
4.2 Newton’s First and Second Laws 62
59
The Tablecloth Trick 65

Unit One The Newtonian 4.3 Mass and Weight 66
Revolution 4.4 Newton’s Third Law 68
2
Riding an Elevator 70
Describing Motion 18 4.5 Applications of Newton’s Laws 71
2.1 Average and Instantaneous Speed 19 Summary 75, Key Terms 75, Conceptual
2.2 Velocity 22 Questions 76, Exercises 77, Synthesis Problems 78,
5
Transitions in Traffic Flow 22
2.3 Acceleration 25 Circular Motion, the Planets,
2.4 Graphing Motion 27 and Gravity 80
everyday phenomenon box 2.2 5.1 Centripetal Acceleration 81
The 100-m Dash 30 5.2 Centripetal Forces 84
2.5 Uniform Acceleration 31 everyday phenomenon box 5.1
Summary 33, Key Terms 34, Conceptual Seat Belts, Air Bags, and Accident
Questions 34, Exercises 36, Synthesis Problems 37, Dynamics 86
Home Experiments and Observations 37 5.3 Planetary Motion 87
v
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vi
5.4 Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation 91

5.5 The Moon and Other Satellites 94 Unit Two Fluids and Heat
9
Explaining the Tides 96
The Behavior of Fluids 170
Summary 97, Key Terms 98, Conceptual Questions 98,
9.1 Pressure and Pascal’s Principle 171
Exercises 100, Synthesis Problems 100, Home
9.2 Atmospheric Pressure and the Behavior
6
Experiments and Observations 101
of Gases 173
Energy and Oscillations 102 everyday phenomenon box 9.1
6.1 Simple Machines, Work, and Power 103 Measuring Blood Pressure 175
6.2 Kinetic Energy 106 9.3 Archimedes’ Principle 178
6.3 Potential Energy 108 9.4 Fluids in Motion 181
6.4 Conservation of Energy 110 9.5 Bernoulli’s Principle 183
everyday phenomenon box 6.1 everyday phenomenon box 9.2
Conservation of Energy 112 Throwing a Curveball 186
everyday phenomenon box 6.2 Summary 187, Key Terms 188, Conceptual
Energy and the Pole Vault 114 Questions 188, Exercises 189, Synthesis
6.5 Springs and Simple Harmonic Motion 115 Problems 190, Home Experiments and
10
Summary 118, Key Terms 119, Conceptual Observations 190
Temperature and Heat 191
10.1 Temperature and Its Measurement 192
7
Observations 123
10.2 Heat and Specific Heat Capacity 195
Momentum and Impulse 124 everyday phenomenon box 10.1
7.1 Momentum and Impulse 125 Heat Packs 199
7.2 Conservation of Momentum 128 10.3 Joule’s Experiment and the First Law
everyday phenomenon box 7.1 of Thermodynamics 200
The Egg Toss 129 10.4 Gas Behavior and the First Law 202
7.3 Recoil 131 10.5 The Flow of Heat 205
7.4 Elastic and Inelastic Collisions 133 everyday phenomenon box 10.2
7.5 Collisions at an Angle 135 Solar Collectors and the Greenhouse Effect 208
everyday phenomenon box 7.2 Summary 209, Key Terms 209, Conceptual
An Automobile Collision 137 Questions 210, Exercises 211, Synthesis
Summary 139, Key Terms 140, Conceptual Problems 212, Home Experiments and
11
Questions 140, Exercises 142, Synthesis Observations 212
Heat Engines and the Second Law
8
Observations 144
of Thermodynamics 213
Rotational Motion of Solid Objects 145 11.1 Heat Engines 214
8.1 What is Rotational Motion? 146 everyday phenomenon box 11.1
8.2 Torque and Balance 149 Hybrid Automobile Engines 217
8.3 Rotational Inertia and Newton’s 11.2 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 218
Second Law 152 11.3 Refrigerators, Heat Pumps,
8.4 Conservation of Angular Momentum 155 and Entropy 221
everyday phenomenon box 8.1 11.4 Thermal Power Plants and
Achieving the State of Yo 158 Energy Resources 224
8.5 Riding a Bicycle and Other 11.5 Perpetual Motion and Energy Frauds 227
Amazing Feats 159 everyday phenomenon box 11.2
everyday phenomenon box 8.2 A Productive Pond 229
Bicycle Gears 162 Summary 230, Key Terms 231, Conceptual
Summary 163, Key Terms 164, Conceptual Questions 231, Exercises 233, Synthesis
Questions 164, Exercises 166, Synthesis Problems 167, Problems 233, Home Experiments and
Home Experiments and Observations 168 Observations 234
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Unit Three Electricity and Unit Four Wave Motion

Magnetism and Optics
12 Electrostatic Phenomena
12.1 Effects of Electric Charge 237
12.2 Conductors and Insulators 240
236
15 Making Waves 306
15.1 Wave Pulses and Periodic Waves
Electric Power from Waves 308
307
Cleaning Up the Smoke 243 15.2 Waves on a Rope 311

12.3 The Electrostatic Force: 15.3 Interference and Standing Waves 313
Coulomb’s Law 244
15.4 Sound Waves 317
12.4 The Electric Field 246
12.5 Electric Potential 248
A Moving Car Horn and the Doppler
everyday phenomenon box 12.2 Effect 320
Lightning 252
15.5 The Physics of Music 321
Observations 257
13
Observations 329
Electric Circuits 258

13.1 Electric Circuits and Electric Current 259
Electrical Impulses in Nerve Cells 262
16 Light Waves and Color
16.1 Electromagnetic Waves
16.2 Wavelength and Color
330
331
335
13.2 Ohm’s Law and Resistance 264
Why Is the Sky Blue? 338
13.3 Series and Parallel Circuits 266
16.3 Interference of Light Waves 338
13.4 Electric Energy and Power 269
13.5 Alternating Current and 16.4 Diffraction and Gratings 342
Household Circuits 272 everyday phenomenon box 16.2
everyday phenomenon box 13.2 Antireflection Coatings on Eyeglasses 343
The Hidden Switch in Your Toaster 273 16.5 Polarized Light 346
Summary 276, Key Terms 277, Conceptual Summary 350, Key Terms 351, Conceptual
Questions 277, Exercises 279, Synthesis Questions 351, Exercises 352, Synthesis
Problems 280, Home Experiments and Problems 353, Home Experiments and
Observations 281 Observations 353
14 Magnets and Electromagnetism

14.1 Magnets and the Magnetic Force 283
14.2 Magnetic Effects of Electric Currents 286
14.3 Magnetic Effects of Current Loops 289
282
17 Light and Image Formation
17.1 Reflection and Image Formation 356
17.2 Refraction of Light 359
355
everyday phenomenon box 14.1 Rainbows 362

Direct-Current Motors 292 17.3 Lenses and Image Formation 364
14.4 Faraday’s Law: Electromagnetic 17.4 Focusing Light with Curved Mirrors 367
Induction 293 17.5 Eyeglasses, Microscopes, and
everyday phenomenon box 14.2 Telescopes 370
Vehicle Sensors at Traffic Lights 296 everyday phenomenon box 17.2
14.5 Generators and Transformers 297 Laser Refractive Surgery 373
Summary 300, Key Terms 301, Conceptual Summary 376, Key Terms 376, Conceptual
Questions 301, Exercises 302, Synthesis Questions 377, Exercises 378, Synthesis
Problems 303, Home Experiments and Problems 379, Home Experiments and
Observations 304 Observations 379
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20.4 Newton’s Laws and Mass-Energy

Unit Five The Atom and Its Nucleus Equivalence 445
18
The Twin Paradox 446
The Structure of the Atom 382 20.5 General Relativity 449
18.1 The Existence of Atoms: Evidence Summary 453, Key Terms 454, Conceptual
from Chemistry 383 Questions 454, Exercises 455, Synthesis
everyday phenomenon box 18.1 Problems 455, Home Experiments and
Fuel Cells and the Hydrogen Economy 386 Observations 456
21
18.2 Cathode Rays, Electrons, and X Rays 389
everyday phenomenon box 18.2 Looking Deeper into Everyday
Electrons and Television 390
Phenomena 457
18.3 Radioactivity and the Discovery
21.1 Quarks and Other Elementary
of the Nucleus 393
Particles 458
18.4 Atomic Spectra and the Bohr Model
21.2 Cosmology: Looking Out into the
of the Atom 396
Universe 461
18.5 Particle Waves and Quantum
21.3 Semiconductors and Microelectronics 464
Mechanics 400
21.4 Superconductors and Other
Summary 404, Key Terms 404, Conceptual New Materials 468
Holograms 471
Observations 407
19
The Nucleus and Nuclear Energy 408 Problems 475, Home Experiments and
19.1 The Structure of the Nucleus 409 Observations 475
19.2 Radioactive Decay 412
everyday phenomenon box 19.1 Appendix A
Smoke Detectors 414 Using Simple Algebra A-1
19.3 Nuclear Reactions and Nuclear Fission 417
19.4 Nuclear Reactors 420 Appendix B
everyday phenomenon box 19.2 Decimal Fractions, Percentages,
What Happened at Chernobyl? 424 and Scientific Notation A-3
19.5 Nuclear Weapons and Nuclear Fusion 424
Summary 429, Key Terms 429, Conceptual Appendix C
Questions 430, Exercises 431, Synthesis Vectors and Vector Addition A-7
Observations 432 Appendix D
Answers to Selected Questions, Exercises,
and Synthesis Problems A-11
Unit Six Relativity and Beyond Glossary G-1
20
Photo Credits C-1
Index I-1
Relativity 434
20.1 Relative Motion in Classical Physics 435
20.2 The Speed of Light and Einstein’s
Postulates 438
20.3 Time Dilation and Length Contraction 442
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preface
T he satisfaction of understanding how rainbows are
formed, how ice skaters spin, or why ocean tides roll in and
coverage in other areas to avoid student overload. Sample
syllabi for these different types of courses can be found in
out—phenomena that we have all seen or experienced—is the Instructor Center of the companion website.
one of the best motivators available for building scientific Some instructors would prefer to put chapter 20 on rel-
literacy. This book attempts to make that sense of satisfac- ativity at the end of the mechanics section or just prior to
tion accessible to non-science majors. Intended for use in the modern physics material. Relativity has little to do with
a one-semester or two-quarter course in conceptual phys- everyday phenomena, of course, but is included because
ics, this book is written in a narrative style, frequently using of the high interest that it generally holds for students. The
questions designed to draw the reader into a dialogue about final chapter (21) introduces a variety of topics in modern
the ideas of physics. This inclusive style allows the book physics—including particle physics, cosmology, semicon-
to be used by anyone interested in exploring the nature of ductors, and superconductivity—that could be used to stim-
physics and explanations of everyday physical phenomena. ulate interest at various points in a course.
One plea to instructors, as well as to students using this
book: Don’t try to cram too much material into too short a
“Griffith has done a very respectable job in presenting
time! We have worked diligently to keep this book to a reason-
his conceptual physics course in a clear, useable fashion.
able length while still covering the core concepts usually found
It is a fine work that is evidently quickly evolving into a
in an introduction to physics. These ideas are most enjoyable
top-notch textbook.”
when enough time is spent in lively discussion and in con-
—Michael Bretz,
sideration of questions so that a real understanding develops.
University of Michigan
Trying to cover material too quickly defeats the conceptual
learning and leaves students in a dense haze of words and defi-
nitions. Less can be more if a good understanding results.
How This Book Is Organized
With the exception of the reorganization of chapters 15, 16, Mathematics in a Conceptual
and 17 introduced in the fourth edition, we have retained the
same order of topics as in the previous editions. It is tradi-
Physics Course
tional with some minor variations. The chapter on energy The use of mathematics in a physics course is a formidable
(chapter 6) appears prior to that on momentum (chapter 7) block for many students, particularly non-science majors.
so that energy ideas can be used in the discussion of colli- Although there have been attempts to teach conceptual
sions. Wave motion is found in chapter 15, following elec- physics without any mathematics, these attempts miss an
tricity and magnetism and prior to chapters 16 and 17 on opportunity to help students gain confidence in using and
optics. The chapter on fluids (chapter 9) follows mechan- manipulating simple quantitative relationships.
ics and leads into the chapters on thermodynamics. The Clearly mathematics is a powerful tool for expressing the
first 17 chapters are designed to introduce students to the quantitative relationships of physics. The use of mathemat-
major ideas of classical physics and can be covered in a one- ics can be carefully limited, however, and subordinated to
semester course with some judicious paring. the physical concepts being addressed. Many users of the
The complete 21 chapters could easily support a two- first edition of this text felt that mathematical expressions
quarter course, and even a two-semester course in which the appeared too frequently for the comfort of some students. In
ideas are treated thoroughly and carefully. Chapters 18 and response, we substantially reduced the use of mathematics
19, on atomic and nuclear phenomena, are considered essen- in the body of the text in the second edition. Most users have
tial by many instructors, even in a one-semester course. indicated that the current level is about right, so we have not
If included in such a course, we recommend curtailing changed the mathematics level in subsequent editions.
ix
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Chapter 12 The discussion of electric potential has been

“The level of presentation is pitch-perfect for a college
revised and refined.
physics course. I happen to have a need for a book at just
this level, compromising between a math-free conceptual Chapter 14 The discussion of Faraday’s fundamental
book and one that goes for the full college-level (but not experiment showing that electric current can be pro-
university-level) treatment. The brevity of presentation also duced from changing magnetic fields is clarified, and the
lends itself well to a one-semester survey course format.” changes made to figure 14.19 should increase students
—Brent Royuk, understanding of this important concept.
Concordia University Chapter 17 The changes to the captions in everyday
phenomenon box 17.1 should help students understand
the color banding in rainbows.
Logical coherence is a strong feature of this book. Formulas
Chapter 21 Much of this chapter has been revised to
are introduced carefully after conceptual arguments are pro-
thoroughly update the material. A subsection in 21.1
vided, and statements in words of these relationships generally
(How are new particles discovered?) has been revised.
accompany their introduction. We have continued to fine tune
The entire section 21.2 on cosmology has also been
the example boxes that present sample exercises and questions.
refined and updated. Section 21.3 on Semiconductors and
Most of these provide simple numerical illustrations of the ideas
Microelectronics has also been updated, with a new sub-
discussed. No mathematics prerequisite beyond high school
section on Computers and Integrated Circuits, including
algebra should be necessary. A discussion of the basic ideas of
new visuals. This chapter also contains 5 new conceptual
very simple algebra is found in appendix A, together with some
questions, 1 new exercise, and 2 new home experiments.
practice exercises, for students who need help with these ideas.
Building an Energy Emphasis. Although this book
remains a basic conceptual physics text, we are working
New to This Edition to make the book better serve instructors who want to
We have made several significant changes to the seventh teach a conceptual physics course with an energy empha-
edition. As the book has evolved, however, we have tried to sis. An introduction and overview of the text’s energy
remain faithful to the principles that have guided the writ- discussions appears in chapter 1. Many of the energy
ing of the book from the outset. One of these has been to related debatable issues that are new to this edition relate
keep the book to a manageable length, in both the number energy issues to physical phenomena. Additionally, in
of chapters and the overall content. Many books become the past few editions we have added everyday phenom-
bloated as users and reviewers request more and more pet enon boxes on conservation of energy and electric power
topics. We have tried to add material judiciously and have from waves, and boxes on fuel cells, hybrid automobiles
pared material elsewhere so that the overall length of the and solar collectors were already included. A syllabus
book has not changed. The changes include the following: for instructors wishing to teach a course with an energy
emphasis can be found on the companion website. We
Chapter 1 New section 1.1 (What about energy?) dis-
plan to continue building this emphasis in future editions.
cusses these questions: What is the current debate regard-
ing global warming all about? What do concerns about Debatable Issues. This new feature provides open-ended,
global warming and climate change have to do with opinion questions on—but not limited to—energy and
energy? How is physics involved in these discussions? Six environmental issues to be used as class discussion, as writ-
new end-of-chapter conceptual questions have been added ing assignments, and/or for internet forums. This feature
regarding this new section. The end of chapter also con- is included in about half the chapters, bringing up diverse
tains three new exercises and one new home experiment. topics such as where wave power installations should be
sited, how speed traps are conducted, the balance between
Chapter 3 A new everyday phenomenon box 3.1 dis- energy independence and nuclear power, and what are the
cusses how to approximate your reaction time. health effects of cell phone use, just to name a few. Our
Chapter 9 The definitions of pressure and Pascal’s prin- hope is that these will engage students in issues relating
ciple have been revised. The discussion of buoyant force physics to their everyday lives. Notes on discussion ideas
and Archimedes’ principle has also been refined, with and results are included in the instructor’s manual.
new visuals added for further clarification. New and Updated End-of-Chapter Material. The seventh
Chapter 10 The discussion of a constant-volume gas edition text includes 65 new conceptual questions, sev-
thermometer has been revised along with the visual in eral new exercises, and a few additional home experi-
figure 10.5. The definition of temperature has also been ments. Many of the end-of-chapter exercises have also
refined. A new everyday box on Heat Packs has been been revised to refresh the material, while references
added to section 10.2. have been added to conceptual questions to better tie in
Chapter 11 The discussion of equilibrium has been the concepts from the everyday phenomena boxes.
enhanced. New information on wind and wave energy Companion Website. Helpful references to instructor
has also been added. resources on the companion website and suggestions for
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xi
incorporating clicker questions to align to the text coverage

have been added to the seventh edition text. Suggestions to
students for self-quizzing and other study materials found
CHAPTER
on the text’s companion website have also been added.
Continued Refinements in Artwork and Textual Clarity.
Although the textual clarity of this text has been exten-
sively praised by many reviewers and users, it can always
be improved. Reviewers continue to point out places
where either the art or the text can be improved, and we
have responded to many of these suggestions. To this end,
Momentum and Impulse
we have made many changes, often subtle, to both the art
and the text. Many new photos have also been added to chapter overview chapter outline
update certain discussions. In this chapter, we explore momentum and
impulse and examine the use of these con- 1
Momentum and impulse. How can rapid
changes in motion be described using the
cepts in analyzing events such as a collision ideas of momentum and impulse? How do
between a fullback and a defensive back. these ideas relate to Newton’s second law of
The principle of conservation of momentum motion?
is introduced and its limits explained. A
Conservation of momentum. What is the
Learning Aids
number of examples will shed light on how
these ideas are used, particularly conserva- 2 principle of conservation of momentum,
tion of momentum. Momentum is central and when is it valid? How does this principle
to all of these topics—it is a powerful tool follow from Newton’s laws of motion?
for understanding a lot of life’s sudden
The overriding theme of this book is to introduce physical changes. 3
Recoil. How can we explain the recoil of
a rifle or shotgun using momentum? How
is this similar to what happens in firing a
concepts by appealing to everyday phenomena whenever rocket?
Elastic and inelastic collisions. How can

possible. To achieve this goal, this text includes a variety of 4 collisions be analyzed using conservation
of momentum? What is the difference
features to make the study of The Physics of Everyday Phe- between an elastic and an inelastic collision?
Collisions at an angle. How can we extend

nomena more effective and enjoyable. A few key concepts 5 momentum ideas to two dimensions? How
UNIT ONE
does the game of pool resemble automobile
form the basis for understanding physics, and the textual collisions?
features described here reinforce this structure so that the

reader will not be lost in a flurry of definitions and formulas. 124
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“The presentation is outstanding: Clear, concise, not too

complicated, not trivial either. The style is refreshing.
Students are invited to think; they are not overwhelmed a guide of what they will be expected to know in order to
by complicated explanations. . . .” comprehend the major concepts of the chapter. (These ques-
—Klaus Rossberg, tions are then correlated to the end-of-chapter summaries.)
Oklahoma City University The chapter outlines, questions, and summaries provide a
clear framework for the ideas discussed in each chapter. One
of the difficulties that students have in learning physics (or
Chapter Openers
any subject) is that they fail to construct the big picture of
Each chapter begins with an illustration from everyday expe-
how things fit together. A consistent chapter framework can
rience and then proceeds to use it as a theme for introduc-
be a powerful tool in helping students see how ideas mesh.
ing relevant physical concepts. Physics can seem abstract to
many students, but using everyday phenomena and concrete Other Text Features
examples reduces that abstractness. The chapter overview Running summary paragraphs are found at the end of
previews the chapter’s contents and what students can expect each chapter section to supplement the more general sum-
to learn from reading the chapter. The overview introduces mary at the end of the chapter.
the concepts to be covered, facilitating the integration of top-
ics, and helping students to stay focused and organized while
reading the chapter for the first time. The chapter outline Momentum and impulse are most useful for evaluating
includes all the major topic headings within the body of the events such as collisions, where powerful forces act briefly
chapter. It also contains questions that provide students with to produce striking changes in the motion of objects. The
impulse-momentum principle states that the change in
momentum is equal to the impulse. This is a different way
“Very good chapter overview and chapter outline for of stating Newton’s second law. The impulse, the product
each chapter and for each unit. Very clear introduction of the average force and the time interval that it is applied,
and illustration of physics phenomena, concepts, and allows us to predict the change in momentum of the
principles, and excellent exercises, problems, and home object. Large impulses yield large changes in momentum.
experiments/observations at the end of each chapter.”
—Hai-Sheng Wu, See clicker questions 7.1 to 7.9 on the instructor
Minnesota State University, Mankato website.
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xii
“I found the liberal use of questions such as “Do you believe Hybrid Automobile Engines (chapter 11)
in atoms? And, if so, why?” to motivate the discussion to A Productive Pond (chapter 11)
be outstanding. I also found the interwoven history used to Cleaning Up the Smoke (chapter 12)
guide the discussion to be excellent. I often use that approach Lightning (chapter 12)
myself. It usually leads to a natural flow of concepts and Electrical Impulses in Nerve Cells (chapter 13)
also informs the student how we know what we know, as The Hidden Switch in Your Toaster (chapter 13)
well as giving them training in scientific thinking and show- Direct-Current Motors (chapter 14)
ing them how science is done in real life. . . . Only someone Vehicle Sensors at Traffic Lights (chapter 14)
who actively resisted understanding could fail to understand Electric Power from Waves (chapter 15)
Griffith’s text. He writes clearly, logically, and interestingly.” A Moving Car Horn and the Doppler Effect
—Charles W. Rogers, (chapter 15)
Southwestern Oklahoma Why Is the Sky Blue? (chapter 16)
State University Antireflection Coatings on Eyeglasses
(chapter 16)
Rainbows (chapter 17)
Subsection headings are often cast in the form of questions
Laser Refractive Surgery (chapter 17)
to motivate the reader and pique curiosity.
Fuel Cells and the Hydrogen Economy (chapter 18)
Electrons and Television (chapter 18)
Smoke Detectors (chapter 19)
What is the difference between What Happened at Chernobyl? (chapter 19)
speed and velocity? The Twin Paradox (chapter 20)
Imagine that you are driving a car around a curve (as illus- Holograms (chapter 21)
trated in figure 2.5) and that you maintain a constant speed
of 60 km/h. Is your velocity also constant in this case?
The answer is no, because velocity involves the direc- everyday phenomenon
tion of motion as well as how fast the object is going. The box 9.1
Measuring Blood Pressure
direction of motion is changing as the car goes around
The Situation. When you visit your doctor’s office, the nurse through the compressed artery at the peak of the heart’s cycle.
the curve. will almost always take your blood pressure before the doc- The lower reading, the diastolic pressure, is taken when blood
tor spends time with you. A cuff is placed around your upper flow occurs even at the low point in the cycle. There are distinc-
T i l t t thi di ti ti d h d fi d arm (as shown in the photograph) and air is pumped into the tive sounds picked up by the stethoscope at these two points.
cuff, producing a feeling of tightness in your arm. Then the air The pressure recorded is actually the pressure in the air cuff
Everyday phenomenon boxes relate physical concepts dis- is slowly released while the nurse listens to something with a
stethoscope and records some numbers, such as 125 over 80.
for these two conditions. It is a gauge pressure, meaning that
it is the pressure difference between the pressure being mea-
cussed in the text to real-world topics, societal issues, and sured and atmospheric pressure. It is recorded in the units mm
of mercury, which is the common way of recording atmospheric
modern technology, underscoring the relevance of physics and pressure. Thus a reading of 125 means that the pressure in the
cuff is 125 mm of mercury above atmospheric pressure.
how it relates to our day-to-day lives. The list of topics includes A mercury manometer that is open to the air on one side
(see the drawing) will measure gauge pressure directly.
The Case of the Malfunctioning Coffee Pot Open end

Cuff
9/13/10 2:09 PM
(chapter 1) Release valve
Transitions in Traffic Flow (chapter 2) Having your blood pressure measured is a standard procedure for
most visits to a doctor’s office. How does this process work?
The 100-m Dash (chapter 2) What is the significance of these two numbers? What is
Reaction Time (chapter 3) blood pressure and how is it measured? Why are these read-
ings an important factor, along with your weight, temperature,
Shooting a Basketball (chapter 3) and medical history, in assessing your health?
Stethoscope
The Tablecloth Trick (chapter 4) The Analysis. Your blood flows through an elaborate sys-
tem of arteries and veins in your body. As we all know, this An open-ended manometer can be used to measure the gauge pres-
Riding an Elevator (chapter 4) flow is driven by your heart, which is basically a pump. More
accurately, the heart is a double pump. One-half pumps blood
sure of the cuff. The stethoscope is used to listen for sounds indicating
the restart of blood flow.
through your lungs, where the blood cells pick up oxygen and
Seat Belts, Air Bags, and Accident Dynamics discard carbon dioxide. The other half of the heart pumps blood High blood pressure can be a symptom of many health prob-
through the rest of your body to deliver oxygen and nutrients. lems, but most specifically, it is a warning sign for heart attacks
(chapter 5) Arteries carry blood away from the heart into small capillaries and strokes. When arteries become constricted from the buildup
that interface with other cells in muscles and organs. The veins of plaque deposits inside, the heart must work harder to pump
Explaining the Tides (chapter 5) collect blood from the capillaries and carry it back to the heart. blood through the body. Over time this can weaken the heart
We measure the blood pressure in a major artery in your muscle. The other danger is that blood vessels might burst in
Conservation of Energy (chapter 6) upper arm at about the same height as your heart. When air the brain, causing a stroke, or blood clots might break loose and
is pumped into the cuff around your upper arm, it compresses block smaller arteries in the heart or brain. In any case, high
Energy and the Pole Vault (chapter 6) this artery so that the blood flow stops. The nurse places the blood pressure is an important indicator of a potential problem.
stethoscope, a listening device, near this same artery at a lower Low blood pressure can also be a sign of problems. It can
The Egg Toss (chapter 7) point in the arm and listens for the blood flow to restart as the cause dizziness when not enough blood is reaching the brain.
air in the cuff is released. When you stand up quickly, you sometimes experience a feel-
An Automobile Collision (chapter 7) The heart is a pulsating pump that pumps blood most
strongly when the heart muscle is most fully compressed. The
ing of “light-headedness” because it takes a brief time for the
heart to adjust to the new condition where your head is higher.
Achieving the State of Yo (chapter 8) pressure therefore fluctuates between high and low values.
The higher reading in the blood pressure measurement, the
Giraffes have a blood pressure about three times higher than
that of humans (in gauge pressure terms). Why do you suppose
Bicycle Gears (chapter 8) systolic pressure, is taken when the blood just begins to spurt this is so?
Measuring Blood Pressure (chapter 9)

Throwing a Curveball (chapter 9)
Study hints and study suggestions provide students with
Heat Packs (chapter 10) gri12206_ch09_169-190.indd 175 9/18/10 5:02 PM
pointers on their use of the textbook, tips on applying the

Solar Collectors and the Greenhouse Effect
principles of physical concepts, and suggestions for home
(chapter 10)
experiments.
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Confirming Pages
xiii
Example boxes are included within the chapter and contain

study hint one or more concrete, worked examples of a problem and its
Visualizing these angular momentum vectors and their solution as it applies to the topic at hand. Through careful
changes can be an abstract and difficult task. The effect study of these examples, students can better appreciate the
will seem much more real if you can directly experience it. many uses of problem solving in physics.
If a bicycle wheel mounted on a hand-held axle (such as
that pictured in figure 8.23) is available, try the tilt effect
yourself. Grasp the wheel with both hands by the handles example box 2.4
on each side and have someone give it a good spin with
the wheel in a vertical plane. Then try tilting the wheel Sample Exercise: Uniform Acceleration
downward to the left to simulate a fall. The wheel will
seem to have a mind of its own and will turn to the left as A car traveling due east with an initial velocity of 10 m/s
suggested by figure 8.22. accelerates for 6 seconds at a constant rate of 4 m/s2.
a. What is its velocity at the end of this time?
b. How far does it travel during this time?
a. v0 5 10 m/s v 5 v0 1 at
“This book compared to others is simply interesting. Topics 5 10 m/s 1 ( 4 m/s2 ) ( 6 s )
a 5 4 m/s2
like physics of music and color perception really engaged
t 56s 5 10 m/s 1 24 m/s
me, even as I read most of the chapters in one sitting. It
v 5? 5 34 m/s
indeed does a good job at getting at everyday phenomena.”
—Tim Bolton, v 5 34 m/s due east
Kansas State University 9/17/10 2:39 PM
Debatable Issues provide open-ended, opinion questions

debatable issue
on–but not limited to–energy and environmental issues to be Environmentalists have opposed the development of large
used as class discussion, as writing assignments, and/or for solar-energy power plants in some locations for fear of damage
internet forums. Notes on discussion ideas and results are to fragile desert ecosystems. On the other hand, desert locations
included in the instructor’s manual. are often attractive sites because of low land costs and little cloud
interference. Should the environmental concerns be put aside in
the interest of reducing our reliance on fossil fuels?
End-of-Chapter Features
• The summary highlights the key elements of the chapter
and correlates to the questions asked about the chapter’s
Summary
major concepts in the chapter opener.
summary
Key Terms key terms
In this chapter, we recast Newton’s second law in terms of impulse
and momentum to describe interactions between objects, such as
3 Recoil. If an explosion or push occurs between two objects
Impulse, 125 Conservation of momentum, 128 Elastic collision, 133 initially at rest, conservation of momentum dictates that the total
collisions, that involve strong interaction forces acting over brief momentum after the event must still be zero if there is no net exter-
Momentum, 126 Recoil, 132 Partially inelastic collision, 133
time intervals. The principle of conservation of momentum, which nal force. The final momentum vectors of the two objects are equal
Impulse-momentum principle, 126 Perfectly inelastic collision, 133
follows from Newton’s second and third laws, plays a central role.
• Key terms are page-referenced to 1 Momentum and impulse. Newton’s second law can
in size but opposite in direction.
study hint be recast in terms of momentum and impulse, yielding the state-
where students can find the terms Except for the examples involving impulse, most of the
situations described in this chapter highlight the principle
3. Equality of momentum before andmomentum
can be used to obtain other information
ment that the net impulse acting on an object equals the change in
after the event
about
acting on
of the object. Impulse is defined as the average force
the multiplied by the time interval during which
an object
defined in context. of conservation of momentum. The basic ideas used in

applying conservation of momentum are these:
motion of the objects. the force acts. Momentum is defined as the mass of an object times
its velocity.
For review, look back at how these three points are used in
p2 p1
1. External forces are assumed to be much smaller each of the examples in this chapter. The total momentum
• Conceptual Questions are designed than the very strong forces of interaction in a colli-
sion or other brief event. If external forces acting on
the system can be ignored, momentum is conserved.
of the system before and after the event is always found
Impulse
by adding the momentum values of the individual objects
as vectors. You should be able to describe the magni-
Δp
p2 = –p1
to challenge students to demonstrate 2. The total momentum of the system before the collision
or other brief interaction pinitial is equal to the momen-
tum after the event pfinal. Momentum is conserved
tude and direction of this total momentum for each of the
examples.
FnetΔt = Δp, p = mv
their understanding of the key con- and does not change. 2 Conservation of momentum. Newton’s second
and third laws combine to yield the principle of conservation of
momentum: if the net external force acting on a system is zero, the
4 Elastic and inelastic collisions. A perfectly inelastic
collision is one in which the objects stick together after the colli-
sion. If external forces can be ignored, the total momentum is con-
cepts. Selected answers are provided conceptual questions total momentum of the system is a constant. served. An elastic collision is one in which the total kinetic energy
is also conserved.
* 5 more open-ended questions, requiring lengthier responses,
in appendix D to assist students with suitable for group discussion
Q 5 sample responses are available in appendix D
Q6. If a ball bounces off a wall so that its velocity coming back
has the same magnitude that it had prior to bouncing,
Synthesis Problems
a. Is there a change in the momentum of the ball? Explain.
Q 5 sample responses are available on the website b. Is there an impulse acting on the ball during its collision
their study of more difficult concepts. Q1. Does the length of time that a force acts on an object have
with the wall? Explain.
Conceptual Questions Exercises synthesis problems

SP1. A railroad engine moves forward along a straight section SP3. A car traveling due west on a straight road accelerates
of track for a distance of 80 m due west at a constant speed at a constant rate for 10 seconds increasing its veloc-
of 5 m/s. It then reverses its direction and travels 20 m due ity from 0 to 24 m/s. It then travels at constant speed for
exercises east at a constant speed of 4 m/s. The time required for 10 seconds and then decelerates at a steady rate for the next
• Exercises and synthesis problems are intended

this deceleration and reversal is very short due to the small 5 seconds to a velocity of 10 m/s. It travels at this velocity
speeds involved. for 5 seconds and then decelerates rapidly to a stop in a
a. What is the time required for the entire process? time of 2 seconds.
b. Sketch a graph of average speed versus time for this a. Sketch a graph of the car’s velocity versus time for the
E1. A traveler covers a distance of 460 miles in a time of E12. The process.
velocity
gri12206_ch07_124-144.indd 139 of a car
Show thedecreases fromand
deceleration 30 reacceleration
m/s to 18 m/s in a
upon
9/16/10 2:46 PM
entire motion just described. Label the axes of your
8 hours. What is the average speed for this trip? timereversal
of 4 seconds. What over
as occurring is thea average acceleration
very short of the
time interval. graph with the appropriate velocities and times.
to help students test their grasp of problem solv- E2. A walker covers a distance of 1.8 km in a time of 30
What is the average speed of the walker for this distance
minutes.
c. Using negative values of velocity to represent reversed
car in this process?
motion, sketch a graph of velocity versus time for the engine.
d. Sketch a graph of acceleration versus time for the engine.
E13. A car traveling with an initial velocity of 14 m/s accelerates
SP2. The velocity of a car increases with time as shown in the graph. SP4.
b. Sketch a graph of acceleration versus time for the car.
c. Does the distance traveled by the car continually
increase in the motion described? Explain.
A car traveling in a straight line with an initial velocity
at 2 for a time of 3 seconds.
in km/h? a.a What
constant rateaverage
of 2.5 m/s of 14 m/s accelerates at a rate of 2.0 m/s2 to a velocity of
ing. The odd-numbered exercises have answers

is the acceleration between 0 seconds and
4 seconds?
a. What is its velocity at the end9/16/10
of this2:46
time? 24 m/s.
gri12206_ch07_124-144.indd 140 PM
E3. Grass clippings are found to have an average length of 4.8 cm b. What is the average acceleration between 4 seconds and a. How much time does it take for the car to reach the
b. What distance does the car travel during this process?
8 seconds? velocity of 24 m/s?
when a lawn is mowed 12 days after the previous mowing. c. What is the average acceleration between 0 seconds and b. What is the distance covered by the car in this process?
What is the average speed of growth of this grass in cm/day? E14. A runner traveling with an initial velocity of 2.0 m/s accel-
8 seconds? c. Compute values of the distance traveled at 1-second
in appendix D. By working through the odd- E4. A driver drives for 2.5 hours at an average speed of 48 MPH.
What distance does she travel in this time?
d. Is the result in part c equal to
erates the average of the two
at a constant rate of 1.1 m/s2 for a time of 3 seconds.
values in parts a and b? Compare and explain.
a. What is his velocity at the end of this time?
b. What
12 distance does the runner cover during this process?
SP5.
intervals and carefully draw a graph of distance plotted
against time for this motion.
Just as car A is starting up, it is passed by car B. Car B travels
with a constant velocity of 10 m/s, while car A accelerates
with a constant acceleration of 4.5 m/s2, starting from rest.
numbered exercises and checking the answers E5. A woman walks a distance of 360 m with an average speed
E15. A car moving with an initial velocity of 28 m/s slows down a. Compute the distance traveled by each car for times of
v (m/s)
8
of 1.2 m/s. What time was required to walk this distance? 1 s, 2 s, 3 s, and 4 s.
at a constant rate of 23 m/s2. b. At what time, approximately, does car A overtake car B?
E6. A person in a hurry averages 62 MPH on a trip covering a a. What4 is its velocity after 4 seconds of deceleration? c. How might you go about finding this time exactly?
Explain.
in appendix D, students can gain confidence in distance of 300 miles. What time was required to travel that
distance?
E7. A hiker walks with an average speed of 1.2 m/s. What
b. What distance does the car cover in this time?
2
E16. A runner moving with an initial
down at a constant SP2
4 6 8 10
velocity of 4.0 m/s slows
t (s)
of 21.5 m/s2 over a period of
rate Diagram
distance in kilometers does the hiker travel in a time of 2 seconds.
tackling the even-numbered exercises, and thus 1 hour?
E8. A car travels with an average speed of 22 m/s.
a. What is her velocity at the end of this time?
b. What distance does she travel during this process?
a. What is this speed in km/s? E17. If a world-class sprinter ran a distance of 100 meters start-
reinforce their problem-solving skills. b. What is this speed in km/h? ing at his top speed of 11 m/s and running with constant
gri12206_ch02_017-037.indd 37 9/13/10 2:09 PM
gri12206_ch02_017-037.indd 36 9/13/10 2:09 PM
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Confirming Pages
xiv
• Because many courses for non-science majors do not Links Library

have a laboratory component, home experiments and Chapter Summary
observations are found at the end of each chapter. The Chapter Objectives
spirit of these home experiments is to enable students to For Instructors
explore the behavior of physical phenomena using easily
All Student Content
available rulers, string, paper clips, balls, toy cars, flash-
PowerPoint Lectures
light batteries, and so on. Many instructors have found
Instructor’s Manual
them useful for putting students into the exploratory and
Sample Syllabi
observational frame of mind that is important to scientific
Clicker Questions
thinking. This is certainly one of our objectives in devel-
PowerPoints of Art and Photos from the Text
oping scientific literacy.
Test Bank
Formula Summaries
Home Experiments
and Observations Personal Response Systems
Personal Response Systems (clickers) can bring interactivity
home experiments and observations
HE1. How fast do you normally walk? Using a meter stick or a millimeter rule, estimate the speed of growth for one or
into the classroom or lecture hall. Wireless response systems
string of known length, lay out a straight course of 40 or
50 meters. Then use a watch with a second hand or a stop-
watch to determine
more of these: fingernails, toenails, facial hair if you shave
regularly, or hair near your face (such as sideburns) that
will provide an easy reference point. Measure the average
give the instructor and students immediate feedback from the
a. Your normal walking speed in m/s. size of clippings or of growth at regular time intervals.
b. Your walking speed for a brisk walk.
c. Your jogging speed for this same distance.
d. Your sprinting speed for this distance.
a. What is the average speed of growth? What units are
most appropriate for describing this speed?
b. Does the speed appear to be constant with time? Does
entire class. The wireless response pads are essentially remotes
Record and compare the results for these different cases.
Is your sprinting speed more than twice your speed for a
brisk walk?
the speed appear to be the same for different nails
(thumb versus fingers, fingernails versus toenails), or in
the case of hair, for different positions on your face?
that are easy to use and engage students, allowing instructors
HE2. The speed with which hair or fingernails grow pro-
vides some interesting measurement challenges. Using a to motivate student preparation, interactivity, and active learn-
ing. Instructors receive immediate feedback to gauge which
concepts students understand. Questions covering the content
gri12206_ch02_017-037.indd 37 9/13/10 2:09 PM
of The Physics of Everyday Phenomena text are formatted in

“The selection of problems and questions at the end of PowerPoint and are available on the text website.
each chapter is excellent. They provide students with a
comprehensive review of the chapters and at the same
time present challenges to reinforce the concepts. . . . Computerized Test Bank Online
Many students taking an introductory physics course A comprehensive bank of test questions is provided on the
do not have a chance to take a lab component with the text website within a computerized test bank powered by
course. The home experiments can go a long way toward McGraw-Hill’s flexible electronic testing program EZ Test
addressing this deficiency.” Online (www.eztestonline.com). EZ Test Online allows
—Farhang Amiri, you to create paper and online tests or quizzes in this easy-
Weber State University to-use program!
Imagine being able to create and access your test or quiz
anywhere, at any time, without installing the testing soft-
Supplements ware. Now, with EZ Test Online, instructors can select ques-
tions from multiple McGraw-Hill test banks, or author their
Text Website own, and then either print the test for paper distribution or
A text-specific website provides students with useful study give it online.
tools designed to help improve their understanding of the
material presented in the text and class. For the instructor, the
website is designed to help ease the time burdens of the course Online Homework Using WebAssign
by providing valuable presentation and preparation tools.
In addition to its assignment delivery functions, WebAssign
For Students also offers a variety of expanded features that enhance its use-
Student Study Guide Integration fulness in the classroom. Instructors can investigate various
• Mastery Quiz options, and in no time, will see how effective WebAssign
• Know can be for meeting teaching needs:
• Understand • Instructors can create customized, text-specific assign-
• Study Hints ments using the conceptual questions, exercises, and
• Practice Problems synthesis problems from The Physics of Everyday
• Answers to Selected Questions Phenomena, Seventh Edition. Content from the text is
Animations included in WebAssign using a variety question types.
Crossword Puzzles All question types can be randomized.
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Confirming Pages
xv
• Student questions and concerns can be responded to edition. Their thoughtful suggestions have had direct impact
easily using WebAssign’s help desk. upon the clarity and accuracy of this edition, even when it
• Instructors can post grades and comments in a secure, was not possible to fully incorporate all of their ideas due to
private environment. space limitations or other constraints. We would especially
like to thank Todd Duncan for his many contributions in
• Instant e-mail notification improves communication
revising chapter 21 for the seventh edition. We also thank
with students.
the contributors of the seventh edition supplements: website,
• The sophisticated gradebook helps to eliminate grade- Joseph Schaeffer; the Instructor’s Manual, C. Renee James;
recording errors. the Test Bank, William L. Fischbein; and the PowerPoint
Lectures, Brian Carter.
List of Reviewers
Mohamed Ahoujja, University of Dayton
John Birch, University of Dayton
Elena Borovitskaya, Temple University
Thomas Brueckner,University of Central Florida
Brian Carter, Grossmont College
Anthony J. Creaco, Borough of Manhattan Community
College
David Fazzini, College of DuPage
Ken Fink, West Chester University
Lyle Ford, University of Wisconsin–Eau Claire
Daniel R. Giese, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee
Rex Isham, Sam Houston State University
C. Renee James, Sam Houston State University
Mim Nakarmi, Brooklyn College
Kim Pierson, University of Wisconsin–Eau Claire
Electronic Books Kent Reinhard, Southeast Community College
If you or your students are ready for an alternative version Mikolaj Sawicki, John A. Logan College
of the traditional textbook, McGraw-Hill brings you inno- Tumer Sayman, Eastern Michigan University
vative and inexpensive electronic textbooks. By purchas- Conrad Stanley, Colorado Northwestern Community College
ing e-books from McGraw-Hill, students can save as much Robert Tremblay, Southern Connecticut State University
as 50% on selected titles delivered on the most advanced
e-book platforms available. We also wish to acknowledge the contributions of the edi-
E-books from McGraw-Hill are smart, interactive, searchable, torial staff and book team members at McGraw-Hill Higher
and portable, with such powerful tools as detailed searching, Education. Their commitment of time and enthusiasm for
highlighting, note taking, and student-to-student or instructor- this work has helped enormously in pushing this project for-
to-student note sharing. E-books from McGraw-Hill will ward. We also owe a huge debt of thanks to our colleagues at
help students to study smarter and quickly find the informa- Pacific University for helpful suggestions as well as for their
tion they need. Students will also save money. Contact your forbearance when this project limited our time for other
McGraw-Hill sales representative to discuss e-book packag- activities. Many other users have also provided constructive
ing options. criticisms or suggestions, such as Jerry Clifford, Seton Hall
University, Mikolaj Sawicki, John A. Logan College, and
Mike Crivello, San Diego Mesa College.
Acknowledgments Last, but certainly not least, we would both like to
A large number of people have contributed to this seventh acknowledge the support of our families, friends, and col-
edition, either directly or indirectly. We extend particu- leagues. Their encouragement has been essential and has
lar thanks to those who participated in reviews of the sixth allowed us to enjoy the pleasure of this endeavor.
gri12206_fm_i-xviii.indd xv 12/2/10 5:16 PM

Confirming Pages
Secrets to Success in Studying Physics

First of all, we should admit that there are no secrets. Conscientious work with simple numerical applications of physics concepts. They are use-
and follow-through with reading, problem assignments, and class participa- ful only if you do them yourself and write out the solution steps in such
tion will reap the rewards that students can expect from such efforts in other a way that you can follow your work. Copying answers and steps from
courses. Failing to do so will also lead to expected results. classmates or other sources may gain points on the assignment but pro-
There are some ways, however, in which studying physics is different vides no benefit in understanding. As in sports and many other activi-
from your studies in biology, history, or many other courses. Physics is not ties, success on physics exams will come to those who practice.
an area of study that can be mastered by memorizing discrete facts or by 5. Be there. College students set their own priorities for use of time,
cramming before tests. Students sometimes bring study strategies to phys- and sometimes class attendance is not at the top of the list. In some
ics that have worked in other courses and are disappointed when they fail to classes, this may be justified by the nature of the benefit of class
work in their physics class. The suggestions that follow are sure-fire steps activities, but that is seldom the case in physics. The demonstrations,
to getting the most out of your physics course and this textbook. explanations, working of exercises, and class discussions that are usu-
1. Experiment. Experiments play a key role in the development of phys- ally part of what occurs during a physics class provide an invaluable
ics but also in the growth of understanding for anyone approaching aid to grasping the big picture and filling in holes in your understand-
physics concepts. We often suggest in the text that you try simple ing. The demonstrations alone are often worth the price of admission.
experiments that might involve throwing a ball, walking across a (You do pay—it’s called tuition.)
room, or other very rudimentary activities. Do them right away as 6. Ask questions. If the explanations of demonstrations or other issues
they arise in the text. Not only will you gain the benefit of increased are not clear, ask questions. If you are confused, chances are good
blood flow to various parts of the body including the brain, but what that many other students are likewise befuddled. They will love you
follows in your reading will make more sense. Experience with every- for raising the flag. Unless the instructor is unusually insecure, he or
day phenomena cannot be gained passively. she will also love you for providing the opportunity to achieve better
2. Get the big picture. Physics is a big-picture subject. Your understand- clarity. Physics instructors already know this stuff, so they sometimes
ing of Newton’s laws of motion, for example, cannot be encapsulated have difficulty seeing where student hang-ups may lie. Questions pro-
by a formula or by memorizing the laws themselves. You need to see vide the lubrication for moving things forward.
the entire context, understand the definitions, and work with how the 7. Review understanding. Preparing for tests should not be a matter of
laws are applied. The outlines and summaries provided at the begin- last-minute cramming and memorization. Instead, you should review
ning and end of each chapter can help to provide the context. They your understanding of the big picture and question yourself on why
cannot stand alone, however. You need to place the examples and we did what we did in answering questions and working exercises
descriptions provided in the classroom and text in the framework pro- done previously. Memorization is usually pointless because many
vided by the outlines and summaries. If you grasp the big picture, the physics instructors provide or permit formula sheets that may include
details will often follow. definitions and other information. Late-night cramming is counter-
3. Explore questions. The textbook provides a list of conceptual ques- productive because it detracts from getting a good night’s sleep. Sleep
tions at the end of each chapter, but also raises questions in the body can be critical to having a clear head the next day to meet the chal-
of the text. The greatest benefit is gained by attacking these questions lenges provided by the test.
first on your own and then by discussion with classmates. Write out Although there is an element of common sense in most of these sug-
answers to these questions using full sentences, not just short-answer gestions, you will probably not be surprised to learn that many students do
phrases. Compare your answers with those provided at the back of not approach things following these guidelines. Old habits are hard to break
the text for selected questions, but only after having a good crack at and peer pressure can also be a negative influence at times. Students fall
answering the questions yourself. into patterns that they know are ineffective, but are unable to climb out of
4. Try the exercises. The textbook also provides exercises and synthesis the rut. We have done our duty in disclosing these secrets. You are on your
problems at the end of each chapter. Their purpose is to provide practice own if you choose a different path. Let us know if it works.
xvi
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xvii
Key Terms 13
C HAPT ER summary
This first chapter introduces the connections between physics and 4 The role of measurement and mathematics in
everyday phenomena, including current issues involving energy. physics. Much of the progress in physics can be attributed to
We also introduce the scientific enterprise and its methods, the its use of quantitative models, which yield precise predictions that
scope of physics, and the use of mathematics and measurement in can be tested by making physical measurements. Mathematics is a
physics. The key points include the following: compact language for describing and manipulating these results.
The basic concepts of physics can often be described and under-
1 What about energy? Most of our use of energy stood with a minimum of mathematics.
involves the burning of fossil fuels, which release carbon, and this
affects many aspects of the earth’s climate, including global warm-
90
ing. The definition and science of energy are in the realm of phys-
80
ics and therefore some understanding of this physics is crucial to
meaningful participation in these debates. 70
60
Use of 50
fossil
40
fuels
Physics, the 20
30
160 120 80 40 now

Fundamental Science Millions of years ago
10
2 The scientific enterprise. Scientific explanations are

developed by generalizing from observations of nature, forming
chapter overview chapter outline hypotheses or theories, and then testing these theories by further experi-
ments or observations. This process is often called the scientific method,
5 Physics and everyday phenomena. Many of the
The main objective of this chapter is to help What about energy? What is the current but actual practice may depart in various ways from this model.
basic concepts of physics become clearer if applied to everyday
you understand what physics is and where 1 debate regarding global warming all about? phenomena. Being able to understand and explain familiar phe-
it fits in the broader scheme of the sciences. What do concerns about global warming nomena makes the concepts more vivid. This adds to the enjoy-
Observation
A secondary purpose is to acquaint you with and climate change have to do with energy? or
ment of studying physics.
the metric system of units and the advantages How is physics involved in these discussions? experiments
of the use of simple mathematics. Explore the student website. If you
The scientific enterprise. What is the scien-
2 tific method? How do scientific explanations
want extra drill at doing algebraic
manipulations of equations, or doing unit
differ from other types of explanation? conversions, try the practice problems on
Hypothesis
Generalization or the student website.
The scope of physics. What is physics? How
3 is it related to the other sciences and to
theory
technology? What are the major subfields of

physics? debatable issue
The role of measurement and mathematics We are often told that there is a strong consensus among climate
4 in physics. Why are measurements so impor-
3 The scope of physics. Physics is the most fundamental of
the natural sciences because physical theories often underlie expla-
scientists that global warming and climate change are being
caused by human activity that is producing growing amounts of
tant? Why is mathematics so extensively used
nations in the other sciences. Its major subfields include mechanics, greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide, in the atmosphere.
in science? What are the advantages of the thermodynamics, electricity and magnetism, optics, atomic physics, Does a strong consensus among scientists imply that this idea is
metric system of units? nuclear physics, condensed-matter physics, and particle physics. correct? Why or why not?
Physics and everyday phenomena. How is

5 physics related to everyday experience and key terms
UNIT ON E
common sense? What are the advantages

of using physics to understand common Global warming, 2 Classical physics, 8 Nuclear physics, 8
experience? Fossil fuels, 3 Modern physics, 8 Particle physics, 8
Greenhouse gases, 3 Mechanics, 8 Condensed-matter physics, 8
Hypothesis, 5 Thermodynamics, 8 Proportion, 10
Theory, 5 Electricity and magnetism, 8 Powers of 10, 11
Scientific method, 5 Optics, 8 Metric system, 11
Empirical law, 6 Atomic physics, 8 Scientific notation, 11
1
The chapter outline and chapter summary provide related frameworks for organizing concepts.
study hint:
How to Use the Features The list of topics and questions in the chapter outline can
of This Book be used as a checklist for measuring your progress as you
read. Each numbered topic in the outline, with its associated
This book has a number of features designed to make it questions, pertains to a section of the chapter. The outline is
easier for you to organize and grasp the concepts that we designed to stimulate your curiosity by providing some blanks
will explore. These features include the chapter overview and (unanswered questions) to be filled in by your reading. Without
outline at the beginning of each chapter and the summary at the blanks, your mind has no organizational structure to store
the end of each chapter, as well as the structure of individual the information. Without structure, recall is more difficult. You
sections of the chapters. The questions, exercises, and synthesis can use the questions in the outline to check the effectiveness of
problems at the end of each chapter also play an important your reading. Can you answer all of the questions when you are
role. How can these features be used to the best advantage? done? Each section of a chapter also begins with questions, and
the section subheadings are likewise often cast as questions. At
the end of each section there is also an indented summary para-
Chapter outlines and summaries graph designed to help you tie the ideas in that section together.
Knowing where you are heading before you set out on a journey The end-of-chapter summary gives a short description of the
can be the key to the success of your mission. Students get a bet- key ideas in each section, often cast in the form of answers to
ter grasp of concepts if they have some structure or framework to the questions raised in the outline (see diagram). Summaries
help them to organize the ideas. Both the chapter overview and provide a quick review, but they are no substitute for a careful
outline at the beginning of each chapter and the summary at the reading of the main text. By following the same organizational
end are designed to provide such a framework. Having a clear structure as the outline, the summary reminds you where to find
idea of what you are trying to accomplish before you invest time a more complete discussion of these ideas. The purpose of both
in reading a chapter will make your reading more effective and the outlines and the summaries is to make your reading more
enjoyable. organized and effective.
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xviii
Studying any new discipline requires forming new patterns who have worked the exercises and want to explore the topic
of thought that can take time to gel. The summaries at the end in more depth.
of each section, as well as at the end of the chapter, can help Answers to the odd-numbered exercises, odd-numbered
this gelling to take place. A structure is often built layer by synthesis problems, and selected questions are found in the
layer, and the later layers will be shaky if the base is unstable. back of the book in appendix D. Looking up the answer before
attempting the problem is self-defeating. It deprives you of
practice in thinking things through on your own. Checking
How should the questions answers after you have worked an exercise can be a confi-
and exercises be used? dence builder. Answers should be used only to confirm or
At the end of each chapter you will find a group of questions, improve your own thinking.
followed by a group of exercises, and, finally, by a small number
of synthesis problems. Your grasp of the chapter will improve if
Home experiments and everyday
you write out answers to the questions and exercises, either as
assigned by your instructor or in independent study. The ideas phenomenon boxes
contained in each chapter cannot be thoroughly mastered with- Reading or talking about physical ideas is useful, but there is no
out this kind of practice. substitute for hands-on experience with the phenomena. You
The questions are crucial to helping you fix the important already have a wealth of experience with many of these phe-
concepts and distinctions in your mind. Most of the questions nomena, but you probably have not related it to the physical
call for a short answer as well as an explanation. A few of concepts you will be learning. Seeing things in new ways will
the questions, marked with asterisks, are more open-ended make you a more astute observer.
and call for lengthier responses. It is a good idea to write out In addition to the home experiments at the end of each
the explanations in clear sentences when you answer these chapter, we often suggest some simple experiments in the
questions, because it is only through reinforcement that ideas main text or in the study hints. We strongly recommend mak-
become a part of you. Also, if you can explain something ing these observations and doing the experiments. Lecture
clearly to someone else, you understand it. A sample question demonstrations can help, but doing something yourself imprints
and answer appears in example box 1.1. it vividly on your mind. There is excitement in discovering
The exercises are designed to give you practice in using things yourself and seeing them in a new light.
the ideas and the related formulas to do simple computations. The boxes that discuss everyday phenomena also give you
The exercises also help to solidify your understanding of con- practice in applying physical concepts. Most of the phenomena
cepts by giving you a sense of the units and the sizes of the discussed in these boxes are familiar. The boxes allow us to explore
quantities involved. Even though many of the exercises are these examples more thoroughly. Participating in these investiga-
straightforward enough to work in your head without writing tions of everyday phenomena can help bring the ideas home.
much down, we recommend writing out the information given, The student website has many features that will help you
the information sought, and the solution in the manner shown be successful in the course. The study hints given for each
in example boxes 1.2 and 1.3 in section 1.3. This develops chapter often give a concise and thorough summary of the
careful work habits that will help you avoid careless mistakes. chapter. Read them to check if you have understood the
Most students find the exercises easier than the questions. The key points of each chapter. There are both mastery quizzes
sample exercises scattered through each chapter can help you and practice problems provided. Mastery quizzes test your
get started. conceptual understanding of the material. Many of the your
The synthesis problems are more wide-ranging than the exam questions may be worded similar to these quizzes.
questions or exercises. They often involve features of both. Practice problems allow you to practice problems similar to
Although not necessarily harder than the questions or exer- the exercises at the end of each chapter in the text. Complete
cises, they do take more time and are sometimes used to solutions are provided for these and you can check them after
extend ideas beyond what was discussed in the chapter. Doing trying the problems. Crossword puzzles for each chapter are a
one or two of these in each chapter should build your confi- fun way to check your understanding of the new terminology
dence. They are particularly recommended for those students you have learned.
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CHAPTER
Physics, the
Fundamental Science
chapter overview chapter outline

The main objective of this chapter is to help What about energy? What is the current
you understand what physics is and where 1 debate regarding global warming all about?
it fits in the broader scheme of the sciences. What do concerns about global warming
A secondary purpose is to acquaint you with and climate change have to do with energy?
the metric system of units and the advantages How is physics involved in these discussions?
of the use of simple mathematics.
The scientific enterprise. What is the scien-
2 tific method? How do scientific explanations
differ from other types of explanation?
The scope of physics. What is physics? How

3 is it related to the other sciences and to
technology? What are the major subfields of
physics?
The role of measurement and mathematics

4 in physics. Why are measurements so impor-
tant? Why is mathematics so extensively used
in science? What are the advantages of the
metric system of units?
Physics and everyday phenomena. How is

5 physics related to everyday experience and
UNIT ONE
common sense? What are the advantages

of using physics to understand common
experience?
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Confirming Pages
2 Chapter 1 Physics, the Fundamental Science
I magine that you are riding your bike on a country road

on an Indian-summer afternoon. The sun has come out
before. This is true whether we are talking about a physi-
cist making a major scientific breakthrough or about a
after a brief shower, and as the rain clouds move on, a bike rider understanding how rainbows are formed.
rainbow appears in the east (fig. 1.1). A leaf flutters to the There are also real benefits to understanding the physics
ground, and an acorn, shaken loose by a squirrel, misses concepts that underlie issues arising in political and policy
your head by only a few inches. The sun is warm on your debates. The next section introduces questions in the very
back, and you are at peace with the world around you. important areas of energy use and climate change. These
No knowledge of physics is needed to savor the involve everyday phenomena of a more pressing nature
moment, but your curiosity may bring some questions to than rainbows.
mind. Why does the rainbow appear in the east rather
than in the west, where it may also be raining? What
causes the colors to appear? Why does the acorn fall
more rapidly than the leaf? Why is it easier to keep your
bicycle upright while you are moving than when you are
standing still?
Your curiosity about questions like these is similar to
what motivates scientists. Learning to devise and apply
theories or models that can be used to understand,
explain, and predict such phenomena can be a rewarding
intellectual game. Crafting an explanation and testing
it with simple experiments or observations is fun. That
enjoyment is often missed when the focus of a science
course is on accumulating facts.
This book can enhance your ability to enjoy the phe-
nomena that are part of everyday experience. Learning
to produce your own explanations and to perform simple
experimental tests can be gratifying. The questions posed
here lie in the realm of physics, but the spirit of inquiry
and explanation is found throughout science and in many
other areas of human activity. The greatest rewards of sci- figure 1.1 A rainbow appears to the east in late
entific study are the fun and excitement that come from afternoon. How can this phenomenon be explained?
understanding something that has not been understood (See everyday phenomenon box 17.1.)
study hint not in a position to counter the arguments. Where do you go

from there?
If you have a clear idea of what you want to accomplish All of us find ourselves in this position from time to time.
before you begin to read a chapter, your reading will be Energy issues lie at the heart of the political debate on global
more effective. The questions in the chapter outline—as warming and climate change. Understanding the basics of
well as those in the subheadings of each section—can these issues is important to politicians, policymakers, and
serve as a checklist for measuring your progress as you ordinary citizens who discuss these issues and vote for or
read. A clear picture of what questions are going to be against ballot measures and candidates. What is energy
addressed and where the answers will be found forms a and how is it used? Which energy sources are renewable
mental road map to guide you through the chapter. Take a and which are not? What does it mean to be “green” these
few minutes to study the outline and fix this road map in days, and what can you do as an individual to counter global
your mind. It will be time well spent. warming (should you believe that it is occurring)?
The global warming debate

1.1 What about Energy? What are the disagreements about global warming? Actu-
Suppose that you have just emerged from a heated argu- ally, there is little argument among climate scientists that the
ment with a friend about global warming and energy. Your earth is warming up and has been for several hundred years
friend has a different political bent than your own and you or more. People who argue otherwise are ignoring a large
suspect that his or her opinions on global warming are sim- body of data regarding the average temperature of the earth.
ply a matter of political bias. However, since you may know This warming may seem very slow, just one or two degrees
very little about the details of energy issues, you are really Fahrenheit in a century or more, but the rate of increase has
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1.1 What about Energy? 3
How is energy involved?

59
What does all of this have to do with energy? As we have
58.5 already indicated, much of our use of energy involves the
Temperature (°F)
58
burning of fossil fuels. The carbon that is released in this
process was locked up millions of years ago in coal, oil, and
57.5 natural gas. Therefore, this carbon has not been a part of
ongoing processes that absorb and release carbon dioxide.
57
From the perspective of geological time frames, this burning
56.5 of fossil fuels is happening on a very short time scale. It is a
geological flash in the pan. (See fig. 1.3.)
56
What are the natural ongoing processes involving carbon?
55.5 Trees and other green plants absorb carbon dioxide from the
1850 1870 1890 1910 1930 1950 1970 1990 2010 atmosphere—it is essential to their growth. When the plants
Year die, they decay, releasing some carbon dioxide back to the
atmosphere. Forest or brush fires release carbon dioxide to
figure 1.2 Average surface temperature of the earth since the atmosphere more quickly. A small portion of the carbon
1850. (Actual thermometer readings reported by IPCC.) The rise in plants may get buried and may ultimately, over a period of
over the past 50 years corresponds roughly with an increase in many millions of years, be converted to a fossil fuel. When
atmospheric carbon dioxide. we burn wood as a fuel, we release carbon dioxide, but this
has no long-term effect on greenhouse gases because the
carbon dioxide released was absorbed from the atmosphere
been growing over the last 50 years, as shown in figure 1.2.
not too long ago. Wood burning does emit particles of ash
It is this increasing rate of warming that has alarmed many
and other pollutants that can have undesirable effects.
climate scientists.
The reduction of forest cover to create cities, highways,
There are numerous fluctuations in global temperatures
and the like therefore also affects the balance of carbon diox-
and there are cyclic effects whose causes are only partly
ide in the atmosphere. But it is the burning of fossil fuels
understood, but these cannot mask the longer-term trend of
that has the greatest impact, and that is where the focus must
gradual warming. The increased rate of warming observed
be if we are to change the rate at which greenhouse gases are
during the 1990s may have been partly the result of one
increasing. This, then, gets us into the familiar debates on
of the cyclic effects just as the recent decrease in the rate
how we produce energy, how we use energy, and what can
of warming may also reflect the downside of one of these
be done to change these patterns.
cycles. Beware of arguments that focus on these short-term
But what is energy? Although the term is bandied about
effects. It is the long-term effects that are most relevant.
all the time and we all think we have some sense of what it
Within the scientific community, the debate is not about
means, it turns out that providing a satisfactory definition is
whether global warming is occurring, but rather about what
not a trivial matter. Many of the misunderstandings that are
is causing the warming and how it will progress. The role
involved in the global-warming debate result from poor under-
played by human-caused changes in the environment is one
standing of what energy is. For example, is hydrogen a source
of the basic questions. Specifically, we know that the burn-
of energy or merely a means of transporting energy, and what
ing of fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas) increases the
is the difference? Much of the political hoopla regarding the
amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Carbon diox-
hydrogen economy failed to address this basic question.
ide is one of the so-called “greenhouse gases” that slow the
In this book, we will define energy initially in chapter 6,
escape of heat from the earth’s surface and therefore should
on Energy and Oscillations. The prior chapters on mechanics
contribute to the warming of the earth. (See chapter 10 for a
provide the underpinnings for the introduction of the energy
discussion of the greenhouse effect.) Our use of fossil fuels
is thus an important part of the debate.
The factors that affect the earth’s climate are complex
and difficult to model. Scientists have made considerable Use of
fossil
progress in developing computer models that are capable fuels
of capturing many aspects of climate change. These mod-
els have had good success in describing what has hap-
pened over the last 50 or so years of climate variations, but 160 120 80 40 now
their accuracy for predicting future climate change is still Millions of years ago
in question. We expect that increases in greenhouse gases
should produce more warming, but unknown factors such as figure 1.3 A schematic sketch of our use of fossil fuels on
possible changes in global cloud cover make accurate pre- a geologic time scale. Coal, oil, and natural gas were produced
dictions difficult. anywhere from 40 to 200 million years ago.
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Confirming Pages
concept. In fact, it is difficult to understand how energy is Nuclear power has been a particularly contentious issue for
defined without having some knowledge of mechanics. Fol- many years and has suffered somewhat from the whims of
lowing the introduction in chapter 6, energy ideas appear political fashion. What is nuclear energy, and should we be
and are expanded in all of the chapters that follow. These rushing into a new commitment to its use, or should we be
ideas are central to all of physics. afraid of going there? Natural gas releases less carbon diox-
ide per unit of energy generated than do coal or oil, and it
is a relatively clean fuel. It is, however, an emitter of green-
Physics and Energy
house gases, and its long-term supply is questionable.
Understanding the definition of energy is obviously a good Nuclear power does not involve the burning of a carbon-
starting point for discussions of energy policies. The mean- based fuel, so it does not release carbon dioxide to the
ing of energy and the nature of energy transformations are atmosphere. For this reason, it is now receiving renewed
firmly within the realm of physics. How we convert one form attention as a possible resource for reducing our “carbon
of energy to another, how we can use energy efficiently, and footprint.” Nuclear power does involve the mining of a lim-
what it means to conserve energy are all topics that will come ited resource, uranium, and has serious environmental issues
up in this book and in the study of physics more generally. associated with mining, possible accidents, and waste dis-
Many other topics within the realm of physics also play posal. However, the utilization of any energy resource has
important roles in addressing energy issues. For example, environmental consequences, so the weighing of such issues
transportation is a major area of energy use in our society. Cars, must be an important aspect of our decision making.
trucks, airplanes, boats, and trains are all part of the mix. They We will not provide a definitive answer to the questions
all utilize energy in some manner, but their basic physics can be we have just raised. What we will do is discuss some of the
understood from ideas in mechanics that are discussed in the basic physics underlying nuclear power, natural-gas power
early chapters of this book before energy ideas are introduced. plants, and other resources used in electric power genera-
In the short term, one of our best options for reducing our tion. Fossil-fuel power plants are discussed in chapter 11
use of fossil fuels involves energy conservation. Changes can and nuclear power is addressed in chapter 19. Many other
be made in this realm more quickly than in the development means of generating energy will also be discussed and some
of alternative energy resources. The rising costs of gasoline, of the pros and cons of their use will be indicated in many
diesel fuel, and fuel oil for heating have already been shown different sections of the book.
to significantly affect our energy consumption. Strictly After studying these issues, will you win your argument
speaking, we do not really consume energy—we simply con- with your friend? Perhaps not, but you will be in a much bet-
vert it to less usable forms (see chapter 6 and chapter 11). ter position to debate the questions. Both of you may come
The study of the mechanics of transportation (chapters 2–4) to a better understanding of the real issues involved.
and the thermodynamics of engines (chapters 9–11) play
important roles in energy conservation.
Questions regarding choices on how to generate usable
forms of energy all involve physics concepts. Is it better to Political debates on climate change and energy utilization
use natural gas than nuclear power (fig. 1.4), for example? are important features of current events. The two topics
are intimately related because the burning of fossil fuels
for energy generation is the primary cause of release to
the atmosphere of the greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide.
Physics is the science of energy and is therefore heavily
involved in decisions on energy conversion and utilization.
Thus the study of physics provides a basis for understand-
ing some of the fundamental issues in these debates.
See clicker questions 1.1 and 1.2 on the

instructor website.
1.2 The Scientific Enterprise

How do scientists go about explaining something like the rain-
bow described in the introduction to this chapter? How do scien-
tific explanations differ from other types of explanations? Can
we count on the scientific method to explain almost anything?
It is important to understand what science can and cannot do.
figure 1.4 Are nuclear power plants our salvation or relics Philosophers have devoted countless hours and pages to
of the past? questions about the nature of knowledge, and of scientific
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Confirming Pages
1.2 The Scientific Enterprise 5
knowledge in particular. Many issues are still being refined

and debated. Science grew rapidly during the twentieth cen-
tury and has had a tremendous impact on our lives. Inno-
vations in medicine, communications, transportation, and
computer technology all have resulted from advances in sci-
ence. What is it about science that explains its impressive
advances and steady expansion?
Science and rainbows

Let’s consider a specific example of how a scientific explana-
tion comes to be. Where would you turn for an explanation
of how rainbows are formed? If you returned from your bike
ride with that question on your mind, you might look up ‘rain-
bow’ in a textbook on physics or on the internet, and read the
explanation found there. Are you behaving like a scientist?
The answer is both yes and no. Many scientists would
do the same if they were unfamiliar with the explanation.
When we do this, we appeal to the authority of the textbook
author and to those who preceded the author in inventing
the explanation. Appeal to authority is one way of gaining figure 1.5 A scientific meeting. Communication and debate
knowledge, but you are at the mercy of your source for the are important to the development of scientific explanations. The
validity of your explanation. You are also hoping that some- speaker is Albert Einstein.
one has already raised the same question and done the work
to create and test an explanation.
eventually become part of a broader theory* about phenom-
Suppose you go back three hundred years or more and
ena involving light. The experiments that you and others do
try the same approach. One book might tell you that a rain-
may also lead to the discovery of new phenomena, which
bow is a painting of the angels. Another might speculate on
will call for refined explanations and theories.
the nature of light and its interactions with raindrops but
What is critical to the process just described? First is the
be quite tentative in its conclusions. Either of these books
importance of careful observation. Another aspect is the idea
might have seemed authoritative in its day. Where, then, do
of testability. An acceptable scientific explanation should
you turn? Which explanation will you accept?
suggest some means to test its predictions by observations
If you are behaving like a scientist, you might begin by
or experiment. Saying that rainbows are the paintings of
reading the ideas of other scientists about light and then
angels may be poetic, but it certainly is not testable by mere
test these ideas against your own observations of rainbows.
humans. It is not a scientific explanation.
You would carefully note the conditions when rainbows
Another important part of the process is a social one, the
appear, the position of the sun relative to you and the rain-
communication of your theory and experiments to colleagues
bow, and the position of the rain shower. What is the order
(fig. 1.5). Submitting your ideas to the criticism (at times blunt)
of the colors in the rainbow? Have you observed that order
of your peers is crucial to the advancement of science. Com-
in other phenomena?
munication is also important in assuring your own care in per-
You would then invent an explanation or hypothesis using
forming the experiments and interpreting the results. A scathing
current ideas on light and your own guess about what happens
attack by someone who has found an important error or omis-
as light passes through a raindrop. You could devise experiments
sion in your work is a strong incentive for being more careful in
with water drops or glass beads to test your hypothesis. (See
the future. One person working alone cannot hope to think of all
chapter 17 for a modern view of how rainbows are formed.)
of the possible ramifications, alternative explanations, or
If your explanation is consistent with your observations
potential mistakes in an argument or theory. The explosive
and experiments, you could report it by giving a paper
growth of science has depended heavily on cooperation and
or talk to scientific colleagues. They may criticize your
communication.
explanation, suggest modifications, and perform their own
experiments to confirm or refute your claims. If others con-
firm your results, your explanation will gain support and What is the scientific method?
Is there something we could call scientific method within
*The concept of a theory, as used in science, is often misunderstood. this description, and if so, what is it? The process just
It is much more than a simple hypothesis. A theory consists of a set of
basic principles from which many predictions can be deduced. The basic
described is a sketch of how the scientific method works.
principles involved in the theory are often widely accepted by scientists Although there are variations on the theme, this method is
working in the field. often described as shown in table 1.1.
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Confirming Pages
table 1.1 example box 1.1

Steps in the Scientific Method
1. Careful observation of natural phenomena. Sample Question: How Reliable Is Astrology?
2. Formulation of rules or empirical laws based on generaliza- Question: Astrologers claim that many events in our lives
tions from these observations and experiences. are determined by the positions of the planets relative to
3. Development of hypotheses to explain the observations the stars. Is this a testable hypothesis?
and empirical laws, and the refinement of hypotheses into
Answer: Yes, it could be tested if astrologers were willing
theories.
to make explicit predictions about future events that could
4. Testing of the hypotheses or theories by further experiment
be verified by independent observers. In fact, astrologers
or observation.
usually carefully avoid doing this, preferring to cast their
predictions as vague statements subject to broad interpre-
The steps in table 1.1 are all involved in our descrip- tation. This prevents clean tests. Astrology is not a science!
tion of how to develop an explanation of rainbows. Care-
ful observation may lead to empirical laws for when and
where rainbows appear. An empirical law is a generalization hypotheses; without tests, rival theories may compete end-
derived from experiments or observations. An example of lessly for acceptance. Example box 1.1 provides a sample
an empirical law is the statement that we see rainbows with question and response illustrating these ideas.
the sun at our backs as we look at the rainbow. This is an
important clue for developing our hypothesis, which must How should science be presented?
be consistent with this rule. The hypothesis, in turn, suggests Traditional science courses focus on presenting the results
ways of producing rainbows artificially that could lead to of the scientific process rather than the story of how scien-
experimental tests and, eventually, to a broader theory. tists arrived at these results. This is why the general public
This description of the scientific method is not bad, often sees science as a collection of facts and established
although it ignores the critical process of communication. theories. To some extent, that charge could be made against
Few scientists are engaged in the full cycle that these steps this book, since it describes theories that have resulted from
suggest. Theoretical physicists, for example, may spend all the work of others without giving the full picture of their
of their time with step 3. Although they have some interest development. Building on the work of others, without need-
in experimental results, they may never do any experimen- ing to repeat their mistakes and unproductive approaches,
tal work themselves. Today, little science is done simply is a necessary condition for human and scientific progress.
by observing, as implied by step 1. Most experiments and This book attempts to engage you in the process of making
observations take place to test a hypothesis or existing theory. your own observations and developing and testing your own
Although the scientific method is presented here as a stepwise explanations of everyday phenomena. By doing home experi-
process, in reality these steps often happen simultaneously ments or observations, constructing explanations of the results,
with much cycling back and forth between steps (fig. 1.6). and debating your interpretations with your friends, you will
The scientific method is a way of testing and refining appreciate the give-and-take that is the essence of science.
ideas. Note that the method applies only when experimen- Whether or not we are aware of it, we all use the scien-
tal tests or other consistent observations of phenomena are tific method in our everyday activities. The case of the mal-
feasible. Testing is crucial for weeding out unproductive functioning coffee pot described in everyday phenomenon
box 1.1 provides an example of scientific reasoning applied
to ordinary troubleshooting.
Observation
or
experiments
The process of science begins with, and returns to,
observations of or experiments on natural phenomena.
Observations may suggest empirical laws, and these
generalizations may be incorporated into a more compre-
Hypothesis hensive hypothesis. The hypothesis is then tested against
Generalization or more observations or by controlled experiments to form a
theory
theory. Working scientists are engaged in one or more of
these activities, and we all use the scientific method on
everyday problems.
figure 1.6 The scientific method cycles back to observations See clicker questions 1.3 and 1.4 on the
or experiments as we seek to test our hypotheses or theories. instructor website.
Communication with peers is involved in all stages of the process.
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1.3 The Scope of Physics 7
everyday phenomenon
box 1.1
The Case of the Malfunctioning Coffee Pot
The Situation. It is Monday morning, and you are, as usual, sounds of warming water are heard. You notice that no matter
only half-awake and feeling at odds with the world. You are how many times you turn the switch on or off, no heat results.
looking forward to reviving yourself with a freshly brewed cup This is the kind of simple generalization called for in step 2.
of coffee when you discover that your coffeemaker refuses to We can now generate some hypotheses about the cause
function. Which of these alternatives is most likely to work? of the malfunction, as suggested in step 3. Here are some
candidates:
1. Pound on the appliance with the heel of your hand.
2. Search desperately for the instruction manual that you a. The coffee pot is not plugged in.
probably threw away two years ago. b. The external circuit breaker or fuse has tripped.
3. Call a friend who knows about these things. c. The power is off in the entire house or neighborhood.
4. Apply the scientific method to troubleshoot the problem. d. An internal fuse in the coffee pot has blown.
e. A wire has come loose or burned through inside the
coffeemaker.
f. The internal thermostat of the coffeemaker is broken.
No detailed knowledge of electrical circuits is needed to
check these possibilities, although the last three call for more
sophistication (and are more trouble to check) than the first
three. The first three possibilities are the easiest to check and
should be tested first (step 4 in our method). A simple remedy
such as plugging in the pot or flipping on a circuit breaker may
put you back in business. If the power is off in the building,
other appliances (lights, clocks, and so on) will not work either,
which provides an easy test. There may be little that you can
do in this case, but at least you have identified the problem.
Abusing the coffee pot will not help.
The pot may or may not have an internal fuse. If it is blown,
a trip to the hardware store may be necessary. A problem like
Fixing a malfunctioning coffee pot—alternative 1. a loose wire or a burnt-out connection often becomes obvious
by looking inside after you remove the bottom of the pot or the
The Analysis. All of these alternatives have some chance panel where the power cord comes in. (You must unplug the
of success. The sometimes positive response of electrical or pot before making such an inspection!) If one of these alter-
mechanical appliances to physical abuse is well documented. natives is the case, you have identified the problem, but the
The second two alternatives are both forms of appeal to repair is likely to take more time or expertise. The same is true
authority that could produce results. The fourth alternative, of the last alternative.
however, may be the most productive and quickest, barring Regardless of what you find, this systematic (and calm)
success with alternative 1. approach to the problem is likely to be more productive and
How would we apply the scientific method as outlined in satisfying than the other approaches. Troubleshooting, if done
table 1.1 to this problem? Step 1 involves calmly observing this way, is an example of applying the scientific method on a
the symptoms of the malfunction. Suppose that the coffeemaker small scale to an ordinary problem. We are all scientists if we
simply refuses to heat up. When the switch is turned on, no approach problems in this manner.
debatable issue 1.3 The Scope of Physics

We are often told that there is a strong consensus among climate
Where does physics fit within the sciences? Since this book
scientists that global warming and climate change are being is about physics, rather than biology, chemistry, geology, or
caused by human activity that is producing growing amounts of some other science, it is reasonable to ask where we draw the
greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide, in the atmosphere. lines between the disciplines. It is not possible, however, to
Does a strong consensus among scientists imply that this idea is make sharp distinctions among the disciplines or to provide
correct? Why or why not? a definition of physics that will satisfy everyone. The easiest
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way to give a sense of what physics is and does is by exam- Newton’s theory of mechanics, which he developed in the
ple, that is, by listing some of its subfields and exploring their last half of the seventeenth century, was the first full-fledged
content. First, let’s consider a definition, however incomplete. physical theory that made extensive use of mathematics. It
became a prototype for subsequent theories in physics.
How is physics defined? The first four subfields listed in table 1.2 were well devel-
Physics can be defined as the study of the basic nature of mat- oped by the beginning of the twentieth century, although all
ter and the interactions that govern its behavior. It is the most have continued to advance since then. These subfields—
fundamental of the sciences. The principles and theories of mechanics, thermodynamics, electricity and magnetism, and
physics can be used to explain the fundamental interactions optics—are sometimes grouped as classical physics. The
involved in chemistry, biology, and other sciences at the atomic last four subfields—atomic physics, nuclear physics, particle
or molecular level. Modern chemistry, for example, uses the physics, and condensed-matter physics—are often under the
physical theory of quantum mechanics to explain how atoms heading of modern physics, even though all of the subfields
combine to form molecules. Quantum mechanics was devel- are part of the modern practice of physics. The distinction
oped primarily by physicists in the early part of this century, is made because the last four subfields all emerged during
but chemists and chemical knowledge also played important the twentieth century and only existed in rudimentary forms
roles. Ideas about energy that arose initially in physics are now before the turn of that century. In addition to the subfields
used extensively in chemistry, biology, and other sciences. listed in table 1.2, many physicists work in interdisciplinary
The general realm of science is often divided into the life fields such as biophysics, geophysics, or astrophysics.
sciences and the physical sciences. The life sciences include The photographs in this section (figs. 1.7–1.10) illustrate
the various subfields of biology and the health-related disci- characteristic activities or applications of the subfields. The
plines that deal with living organisms. The physical sciences invention of the laser has been an extremely important factor
deal with the behavior of matter in both living and nonliving in the rapid advances now taking place in optics, as well as
systems. In addition to physics, the physical sciences include many advances in the medical field (fig. 1.7). The develop-
chemistry, geology, astronomy, oceanography, and meteo- ment of the infrared camera has provided a tool for the study
rology (the study of weather). Physics underlies all of them. of heat flow from buildings, which involves thermodynam-
Physics is also generally regarded as the most quantita- ics (fig. 1.8). The rapid growth in consumer electronics, as
tive of the sciences. It makes heavy use of mathematics and seen in the availability of home computers, pocket calcula-
numerical measurements to develop and test its theories. tors, and many other gadgets, has been made possible by
This aspect of physics has often made it seem less acces- developments in condensed-matter physics. These develop-
sible to students, even though the models and ideas of phys- ments, as well as the development of photovoltaic solar cells
ics can be described more simply and cleanly than those of (fig 1.9), all involve applications of semiconductors. Particle
other sciences. As we will discuss in section 1.4, mathemat- physicists use particle accelerators (fig. 1.10) to study the
ics serves as a compact language, allowing briefer and more interactions of subatomic particles in high-energy collisions.
precise statements than would be possible without its use. Science and technology depend on each other for prog-
ress. Physics plays an important role in the education and
What are the major subfields of physics? work of engineers, whether they specialize in electrical,
mechanical, nuclear, or other engineering fields. In fact,
The primary subfields of physics are listed and identified in
table 1.2. Mechanics, which deals with the motion (or lack
of motion) of objects under the influence of forces, was the
first subfield to be explained with a comprehensive theory.
table 1.2
The Major Subfields of Physics
Mechanics. The study of forces and motion.
Thermodynamics. The study of temperature, heat, and energy.
Electricity and Magnetism. The study of electric and
magnetic forces and electric current.
Optics. The study of light.
Atomic Physics. The study of the structure and behavior of atoms.
Nuclear Physics. The study of the nucleus of the atom.
Particle Physics. The study of subatomic particles (quarks, etc.).
Condensed-Matter Physics. The study of the properties of
matter in the solid and liquid states.
figure 1.7 A surgeon using a laser.
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1.4 The Role of Measurement and Mathematics in Physics 9
people with physics degrees often work as engineers when

they are employed in industry. The lines between physics
and engineering, or research and development, often blur.
Physicists are generally concerned with developing a fun-
damental understanding of phenomena, and engineers with
applying that understanding to practical tasks or products,
but these functions often overlap.
One final point: physics is fun. Understanding how a
bicycle works or how a rainbow is formed has an appeal that
anyone can appreciate. The thrill of gaining insight into the
workings of the universe can be experienced at any level. In
this sense, we can all be physicists.
figure 1.8 An infrared photograph showing patterns of heat Physics is the study of the basic characteristics of matter
loss from a house is an application of thermodynamics. and its interactions. It is the most fundamental of the sci-
ences; many other sciences build on ideas from physics.
The major subfields of physics are mechanics, electricity
and magnetism, optics, thermodynamics, atomic and
nuclear physics, particle physics, and condensed-matter
physics. Physics plays an important role in engineering
and technology, but the real fun of physics comes from
understanding how the universe works.
1.4 The Role of Measurement

and Mathematics in Physics
If you go into your college library, find a volume of Physical
Review or some other major physics journal, and open it at
random, you are likely to find a page with many mathematical
symbols and formulas. It would probably be incomprehen-
sible to you. In fact, even many physicists who are not spe-
figure 1.9 A power plant at Nellis Air Force Base utilizes cialists in the particular subfield covered by the article might
photovoltaic solar cells. have difficulty making sense of that page, because they would
not be familiar with the particular symbols and definitions.
Why do physicists make such extensive use of mathemat-
ics in their work? Is knowledge of mathematics essential to
understanding the ideas being discussed? Mathematics is a
compact language for representing the ideas of physics that
makes it easier to precisely state and manipulate the rela-
tionships between the quantities that we measure in physics.
Once you are familiar with the language, its mystery disap-
pears and its usefulness becomes more obvious. Still, this
book uses mathematics in a very limited manner, because
most ideas of physics can be discussed without extensive
use of mathematics.
Why are measurements so important?

How do we test theories in physics? Without careful mea-
surements, vague predictions and explanations may seem
figure 1.10 The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is an reasonable, and making choices between competing expla-
accelerator used to study interactions of subatomic particles at nations may not be possible. A quantitative prediction, on the
very high energies. It is located at CERN, the European Particle- other hand, can be tested against reality, and an explanation
physics laboratory in Switzerland. or theory can be accepted or rejected based on the results of
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figure 1.11 Cannonballs and a measuring tape: the proof lies in the measurement.
measurements. If, for example, one hypothesis predicts that a of each ingredient needed for four people is related to the
cannonball will land 100 meters from us and another predicts quantity needed for three people as 4 is to 3.” That still takes
a distance of 200 meters under the same conditions, firing quite a few words and might not be clear unless the person
the cannon and measuring the actual distance provides per- you were talking to was familiar with this way of stating a
suasive evidence for one hypothesis or the other (fig. 1.11). proportion. If a piece of paper were handy, you might com-
The rapid growth and successes of physics began when the municate this statement in writing as:
idea of making precise measurements as a test was accepted.
Everyday life is full of situations in which measurements, Quantity for four : Quantity for three 5 4 : 3.
as well as the ability to express relationships between mea- To make the statement even briefer, you could use the
surements, are important. Suppose, for example, that you symbol Q4 to represent the quantity of any given ingredient
normally prepare pancakes on Sunday morning for three needed to feed four people, and the symbol Q3 to represent
people, but on a particular Sunday there is an extra mouth to the quantity needed for three people. Then the statement can
feed. What will you do—double the recipe and feed the rest be expressed as a mathematical equation,
to the dog? Or will you figure out just how much the quanti-
ties in the recipe should be increased to come out right? Q4 4
Let’s say that the normal recipe calls for 1 cup of milk. 5 .
Q3 3
How much milk will you use if you are increasing the recipe
to feed four people instead of three? Perhaps you can solve Using symbols is simply a compact way of saying the
this problem in your head, but some might find that process same thing that we expressed in words earlier. This compact
dangerous. (Let’s see, 1 cup is enough for three people, so statement also has the advantage of making manipulations
1/ cup is needed for each person, and 4 times 1/ equals 4/ or
3 3 3
of the relationship easier. For example, if you multiply both
11/3 cups. See figure 1.12.) If you had to describe this opera- sides of this equation by Q3, it takes the form
tion to someone else, for the milk and all the other ingre- 4
dients, you might find yourself using a lot of words. If you Q4 5 Q3,
3
looked closely at the person you were talking to, you might
also notice his eyes glazing over and confusion setting in. which in words says that the quantity needed for four people
is 4/3 times what is needed for three people. If you are com-
How can mathematics help? fortable with fractions, you could use this relationship to
find the proper amount for any ingredient quickly.
You can reduce the confusion by creating a statement that
There are two points to this example. The first is that
works for all of the ingredients in the recipe, thus avoiding
making measurements is both a routine and an important
the need to repeat yourself. You could say, “The quantity
part of everyday experience. The second is that using sym-
bols to represent quantities in a mathematical statement is a
shorter way of expressing an idea involving numbers than
2 cups 2 cups 2 cups 2 cups the same statement in words would be. Using mathematics
also makes it easier to manipulate relationships to construct
1 cup 1 cup 1 cup 1 cup concise arguments. These are the reasons that physicists (and
many other people) find mathematical statements useful.
Despite the brevity and apparent clarity of mathemati-
cal statements, many people are still more comfortable with
figure 1.12 Two measuring cups, one containing enough words. This is a matter of personal choice and experience,
milk to make pancakes to feed three people and the other although some fear of mathematics may also be involved.
containing enough for four people. For this reason, word statements are provided in this book
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1.4 The Role of Measurement and Mathematics in Physics 11
with most of the simple mathematical expressions that we measurements in the metric system. Such simple relation-
will use. Together with the mathematical statement and the ships are hard to find in the English system, where 1 cup is
drawings, these word statements will help you to understand ¼ of quart, and a quart is 67.2 cubic inches.
the concepts we will be discussing. The metric system predominates in this book. English
units will be used occasionally because they are familiar and
can help in learning new concepts. Most of us still relate more
Why are metric units used? readily to distances in miles than in kilometers, for example.
Units of measurement are an essential part of any measure- That there are 5280 feet in a mile is a nuisance, however,
ment. We do not communicate clearly if we just state a num- compared to the tidy 1000 meters in 1 kilometer. Becoming
ber. If you just talked about adding 11/3 of milk, for example, familiar with the metric system is a worthy objective. Your
your statement would be incomplete. You need to indicate ability to participate in international trade (for business or
whether you are talking about cups, pints, or milliliters. pleasure) will be enhanced if you are familiar with the system
The liter and milliliter are metric units of volume. Cups, of units used in most of the world. Example boxes 1.2 and
pints, quarts, and gallons are holdovers from the older Eng- 1.3 provide unit conversion exercises involving metric units.
lish system of units. Most countries have now adopted the
metric system, which has several advantages over the Eng- Stating a result or prediction in numbers lends precision
lish system still used in the United States. The main advan- to otherwise vague claims. Measurement is an essential
tage of the metric system is its use of standard prefixes to part of science and of everyday life. Using mathematical
represent multiples of 10, making unit conversion within the symbols and statements is an efficient way of stating
system quite easy. The fact that a kilometer (km) is 1000 the results of measurements and eases manipulating the
meters and a centimeter (cm) is 1/100 of a meter, and that the relationships between quantities. Units of measurement
prefixes kilo and centi always mean 1000 and 1@100, makes are an essential part of any measurement, and the metric
these conversions easy to remember (see table 1.3). To con- system of units used in most of the world has a number of
vert 30 centimeters to meters, all we have to do is move the advantages over the older English system.
decimal point two places to the left to get 0.30 meter. Mov-
ing the decimal point two places to the left is equivalent to See clicker questions 1.5 to 1.14 on the instructor
dividing by 100. website.
Table 1.3 is a list of the common prefixes used in the met-
ric system. (See appendix B for a discussion of the powers
of 10 or scientific notation used for describing very large
and very small numbers.) The basic unit of volume in the
example box 1.2
metric system is the liter (L), which is slightly larger than
a quart (1 liter 5 1.057 quarts). A milliliter (mL) is 1@1000 Sample Exercise: Length Conversions
of a liter, a convenient size for quantities in recipes. One If you are told that there are 2.54 cm in 1 inch,
milliliter is also equal to 1 cm3, or 1 cubic centimeter, so a. How many centimeters are there in 1 foot
there is a simple relationship between the length and volume (12 inches)?
b. How many meters does 1 foot represent?
a. 1 inch 5 2.54 cm
table 1.3
1 foot 5 12 inches
Commonly Used Metric Prefixes
1 foot 5 ? (in cm)
Meaning
in scientific 12 in 2.54 cm
( 1 ft ) a ba b 5 30.5 cm
Prefix in figures notation in words 1 ft 1 in
tera 1 000 000 000 000 5 1012 5 1 trillion 1 foot 5 30.5 cm
giga 1 000 000 000 5 109 5 1 billion
b. 1 foot 5 30.5 cm
mega 1 000 000 5 106 5 1 million
1 m 5 100 cm
kilo 1000 5 103 5 1 thousand
1/ 1 foot 5 ? (in m)
centi 100 5 0.01 5 1022 5 1 hundredth
milli 1/
5 0.001 5 1023 5 1 thousandth 30.5 cm 1m
1000 ( 1 ft ) a ba b 5 0.305 cm
micro 1/
1 000 000 5 1/106 5 1026 5 1 millionth 1 ft 100 cm
nano 1/
1 000 000 000 5 1/109 5 1029 5 1 billionth 1 foot 5 0.305m
pico 5 1/1012 5 10212 5 1 trillionth Lines drawn through the units indicate cancellation.
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example box 1.3 examples, the concepts are set on firmer ground, and their
meaning becomes more real.
For example, why a bicycle (or a top) stays upright while
Sample Exercise: Rate Conversions moving but falls over when at rest involves the concept of angular
momentum, which is discussed in chapter 8. Angular momen-
If the rate of flow in an automatic watering system is
tum also plays a role in our understanding of atoms and the
2 gallons/hour, how many milliliters per minute is this?
atomic nucleus—both in the realm of the very small—and the
1 gallon 5 3.786 liters
structure of galaxies at the opposite end of the scale (fig. 1.13).
1 liter 5 1000 mL
You are more likely to understand angular momentum, though,
2 gal/hr 5 ? (in mL/min)
by discussing it first in the context of bicycle wheels or tops.
The principles explaining falling bodies, such as the acorn
2 gallons 3.786 liter 1000 mL 1 hour
a ba ba ba b mentioned in the chapter introduction, involve the concepts of
hour 1 gallon 1 liter 60 min velocity, acceleration, force, and mass, which are discussed in
5 126.2 mL/min chapters 2, 3, and 4. Like angular momentum, these concepts are
2 gallons/hour 5 126.2 mL/min also important to our understanding of atoms and the universe.
Energy ideas, introduced initially in chapter 6, appear through-
Lines drawn through the units indicate cancellation. out the chapters that follow in the textbook. These ideas are cru-
cial to the understanding of the universe as well as to everyday
concerns such as climate change and energy conservation.
1.5 Physics and Everyday Phenomena Our “common sense” sometimes misleads us in our under-
standing of everyday phenomena. Adjusting common sense
Studying physics can and will lead us to ideas as earthshak-
to incorporate well-established physical principles is one of
ing as the fundamental nature of matter and the structure of
the challenges we face in dealing with everyday experience.
the universe. With ideas like these available, why spend time
By performing simple experiments, either at home (as is often
on more mundane matters like explaining how a bicycle stays
suggested in this book) or in laboratories and demonstrations
upright or how a flashlight works? Why not just plunge into
associated with your course in physics, you can take an active
far-reaching discussions of the fundamental nature of reality?
part in building your own scientific worldview.
Although it may seem like an oxymoron, everyday experi-
Why study everyday phenomena? ence is extraordinary. A bright rainbow is an incredible sight.
Our understanding of the fundamental nature of the uni- Understanding how rainbows originate does not detract from
verse is based on concepts such as mass, energy, and electric the experience. It adds excitement to explain such a beauti-
charge that are abstract and not directly accessible to our ful display with just a few elegant concepts. In fact, people
senses. It is possible to learn some of the words associated who understand these ideas see more rainbows because they
with these concepts and to read and discuss ideas involving know where to look. This excitement, and the added appre-
them without ever acquiring a good understanding of their ciation of nature that is a part of it, is accessible to all of us.
meaning. This is one risk of playing with the grand ideas
without laying the proper foundation.
Using everyday experience to raise questions, introduce Studying everyday phenomena can make abstract ideas
concepts, and practice devising physical explanations has more accessible. These ideas are needed to understand
the advantage of dealing with examples that are familiar the fundamental nature of matter and the universe, but
and concrete. These examples also appeal to your natural they are best encountered first in familiar examples. Being
curiosity about how things work, which, in turn, can moti- able to explain common phenomena builds confidence in
vate you to understand the underlying concepts. If you can using the ideas and enhances our appreciation of what
clearly describe and explain common events, you gain confi- happens around us.
dence in dealing with more abstract concepts. With familiar
ⴚ +
figure 1.13 A bicycle wheel, a model of an atom, and a galaxy all involve the concept of angular momentum.
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Key Terms 13
summary
This first chapter introduces the connections between physics and 4 The role of measurement and mathematics in
everyday phenomena, including current issues involving energy. physics. Much of the progress in physics can be attributed to
We also introduce the scientific enterprise and its methods, the its use of quantitative models, which yield precise predictions that
scope of physics, and the use of mathematics and measurement in can be tested by making physical measurements. Mathematics is a
physics. The key points include the following: compact language for describing and manipulating these results.
The basic concepts of physics can often be described and under-
1 What about energy? Most of our use of energy stood with a minimum of mathematics.
involves the burning of fossil fuels, which release carbon, and this
affects many aspects of the earth’s climate, including global warm-
ing. The definition and science of energy are in the realm of phys-
ics and therefore some understanding of this physics is crucial to
90
meaningful participation in these debates.
80
70
Use of
fossil 60
fuels
50
40
160 120 80 40 now 30

Millions of years ago 20
10
2 The scientific enterprise. Scientific explanations are

developed by generalizing from observations of nature, forming
hypotheses or theories, and then testing these theories by further experi-
ments or observations. This process is often called the scientific method,
but actual practice may depart in various ways from this model.
5 Physics and everyday phenomena. Many of the

Observation basic concepts of physics become clearer if applied to everyday
or phenomena. Being able to understand and explain familiar phe-
experiments nomena makes the concepts more vivid. This adds to the enjoy-
ment of studying physics.
Hypothesis Explore the student website. If you

Generalization or want extra drill at doing algebraic
theory manipulations of equations, or doing unit
conversions, try the practice problems on
the student website.
3 The scope of physics. Physics is the most fundamental of

the natural sciences because physical theories often underlie expla-
nations in the other sciences. Its major subfields include mechanics,
thermodynamics, electricity and magnetism, optics, atomic physics,
nuclear physics, condensed-matter physics, and particle physics.
key terms
Global warming, 2 Classical physics, 8 Nuclear physics, 8
Fossil fuels, 3 Modern physics, 8 Particle physics, 8
Greenhouse gases, 3 Mechanics, 8 Condensed-matter physics, 8
Hypothesis, 5 Thermodynamics, 8 Proportion, 10
Theory, 5 Electricity and magnetism, 8 Metric system, 11
Scientific method, 5 Optics, 8 Powers of 10, 11
Empirical law, 6 Atomic physics, 8 Scientific notation, 11
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Confirming Pages
conceptual questions
*5 more open-ended questions, requiring lengthier responses, suit- determine whether the stock market will go up or down. He
able for group discussion can cite several instances in which this hypothesis has been
Q 5 sample responses are available in appendix D apparently verified. How would you go about evaluating
Q 5 sample responses are available on the website this hypothesis?
Q1. Judging from the graph in figure 1.2, has the average Q14. Which of the three science fields—biology, chemistry, or
surface temperature of the earth been increasing over the physics—would you say is the most fundamental? Explain
last 150 years? Explain. by describing in what sense one of these fields may be more
fundamental than the others.
Q2. Do trees and other green plants have any impact on the
amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere? Explain. Q15. Based upon the brief descriptions provided in table 1.2,
which subfield of physics would you say is involved in the
Q3. Since burning wood releases carbon dioxide to the atmo-
explanation of rainbows? Which subfield is involved in
sphere, should wood be considered to be a fossil fuel?
describing how an acorn falls? Explain.
Explain.
*Q4. Q16. Based upon the descriptions provided in table 1.2, which
If the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is increas-
subfields of physics are involved in explaining why an ice
ing with time, should we expect an increase in the average
cube melts? Which subfields are involved in explaining
global temperature? Explain.
how an airplane flies? Explain.
Q5. Has the burning of fossil fuels been taking place on a
significant scale over many thousands of years? Explain. Q17. Suppose that you are told that speed is defined by the rela-
tionship s 5 d/t, where s represents speed, d represents
Q6. Does the use of nuclear power significantly increase the distance, and t represents time. State this relationship in
amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere? Explain. words, using no mathematical symbols.
*Q7. Which of these criteria best distinguish between explana- Q18. Impulse is defined as the average force acting on an object
tions provided by science and those provided by religion: multiplied by the time the force acts. If we let I represent
truth, testability, or appeal to authority? How do religious impulse, F the average force, and t the time, is I 5 F/t a
explanations differ from scientific explanations? correct way of expressing this definition? Explain.
Q8. A person claiming to have paranormal powers states that Q19. The distance that an object travels when it starts from
she can predict which card will come up next in a shuffled rest and undergoes constant acceleration is one-half the
deck of cards simply by exercising her mental powers. Is acceleration multiplied by the square of the time. Invent
this a testable claim? Explain. your own symbols and express this statement in symbolic
Q9. Historians sometimes develop theories to explain observed form.
patterns in the history of different countries. Are these
Q20. What are the primary advantages of the metric system of
theories testable in the same sense as a theory in physics?
units over the older English system of units? Explain.
Explain.
*Q10. Over the years, there have been several credible claims by Q21. What are the advantages, if any, of continuing to use the
experienced observers of sightings of Unidentified Flying English system of units in industry and commerce rather
Objects (UFOs). Despite this, scientists have shied away than converting to the metric system? Explain.
from taking up serious study of UFOs, although there are Q22. Which system of units, the metric system or English system,
ongoing searches for signals from extraterrestrial intelli- is used more widely throughout the world? Explain.
gent beings. Can you think of reasons why scientists have
not taken UFOs seriously? What problems can you see in Q23. The width of a man’s hand was used as a common unit of
trying to study UFOs? length several hundred years ago. What are the advantages
and disadvantages of using such a unit? Explain.
Q11. Suppose that your car will not start and you form the
hypothesis that the battery is dead. How would you test this Q24. A pirate map indicates that a treasure is buried 50 paces due
hypothesis? Explain. (See everyday phenomenon box 1.1.) east and 120 paces due north of a big rock. Will you know
where to dig? Explain.
Q12. Suppose that your phone has not rung in several days, but a
friend tells you he has tried to call. Develop two hypotheses Q25. List the following volumes in descending order: gallon,
that could explain why the phone has not rung and state quart, liter, milliliter. The conversion factors given on the
how you would test these hypotheses. (See everyday phe- inside front cover may be useful.
nomenon box 1.1.)
Q26. List the following lengths in descending order: kilometer,
*Q13. Suppose that a friend states the hypothesis that the color feet, mile, centimeter, inch. The conversion factors given on
of socks that he wears on a given day, brown or black, will the inside front cover may be useful.
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Synthesis Problems 15
exercises
E1. Suppose that a pancake recipe designed to feed three people E9. A mile is 5280 ft long. The sample exercise in example box
calls for 600 mL of flour. How many milliliters of flour 1.2 shows that 1 foot is approximately 0.305 m. How many
would you use if you wanted to extend the recipe to feed meters are there in a mile? How many kilometers (km) are
five people? there in a mile?
E2. Suppose that a cupcake recipe designed to produce twelve E10. If a mile is 5280 ft long and a yard contains 3 ft, how many
cupcakes calls for 900 mL of flour. How many milliliters yards are there in a mile?
of flour would you use if you wanted to make only eight
E11. Area is found by multiplying the length of a surface times
cupcakes?
the width. If a floor measures 6.25 m2, how many square
E3. It is estimated that five large pizzas are about right to serve centimeters does this represent? How many square centime-
a physics club meeting of 30 students. How many pizzas ters are there in 1 m2?
would be required if the group grew to 48 students?
E12. A common speed limit in Vancouver, British Columbia,
E4. A man uses his hand to measure the width of a tabletop. If is 80 km/hr. If you are going 55 MPH, are you speeding?
his hand has a width of 12 cm at its widest point, and he Show by converting 55 MPH to km/hr using the conversion
finds the tabletop to be 10.5 hands wide, what is the width factors on the inside front cover.
of the tabletop in cm? In meters?
E13. If gas costs $1.10 a liter, how much does a gallon of gas
E5. A woman’s foot is 9 inches long. If she steps off the length cost? Show by converting gallons to liters using the conver-
of a room by placing one foot directly in front of the other, sion factors on the inside front cover.
and finds the room to be 15 foot-lengths long, what is the
E14. The volume of a cube is found by multiplying length times
length of the room in inches? In feet?
width times height. If an object has a volume of 2m3, what
E6. A book is 240 mm in width. What is this width in centime- is the volume in cubic centimeters? Remember to multiply
ters? In meters? each side by the conversion factor.
E7. A crate has a mass of 9.40 kg (kilograms). What is this E15. If the area of a square has increased by a factor of 9, by how
mass in grams? In milligrams? much has each side increased?
E8. A tank holds 3.25 kL (kiloliters) of water. How many liters E16. A cube has a certain volume. If the length of each side is
is this? How many milliliters? doubled, by what factor will the volume increase?
synthesis problems
SP1. Astrologers claim that they can predict important events SP3. An energy-efficient bulb claims to have the brightness of a
in your life by the configuration of the planets and the 75W bulb but only uses 15W of electrical power.
astrological sign under which you were born. Astrological a. If you have this light bulb on for 5 hours a day, for
predictions, called horoscopes, can be found in most daily 350 days during a year, how many hours is it on?
newspapers. Find these predictions in a newspaper and b. A kilowatt is 1000 watts. The kilowatt-hour is a com-
address the questions: mon unit for energy, obtained by multiplying the power
a. Are the astrological predictions testable? in kilowatts by the time used in hours. How many
b. Choosing the prediction for your own sign, how would kilowatt-hours (kWh) will you use when burning the
you go about testing its accuracy over the next month 75W bulb for the year?
or so? c. How many kilowatt-hours (kWh) will you use when
c. Why do newspapers print these readings? What is their burning the 15W bulb for the year?
appeal? d. Assuming that the cost of electricity is 15¢ per kWh,
what is the cost of using the 75W bulb for the year?
SP2. In the United States a common quantity of hard liquor was
e. Assuming this same cost, what is the cost of using the
historically a fifth, which represents a fifth of a US gallon.
15W bulb for the year?
However, since the US wants to market its alcohol globally,
f. How much do you save per year by using the 15W bulb?
and everyone else uses the metric system, it has retooled its
g. How much would you save every year if you replaced
packaging, so a common quantity is now 750 mL.
20 of the 75W bulbs with the 15W bulbs?
a. How many liters are in a fifth?
b. How many milliliters are in a fifth?
c. Which is larger, 750 mL or a fifth of a gallon?
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HE1. Look around your house, car, or dormitory room to see b. Now double the number of pennies in each row and col-
what measuring tools (rulers, measuring cups, speedom- umn once more. Can you correctly predict the area?
eters, etc.) you have handy. Which of these tools, if any, c. What is the pattern? If you started with a square with 2
provides both English and metric units? For those that do, pennies to the side, and you tripled the number of pen-
determine the conversion factor needed to convert the Eng- nies in each row and column, how much greater would
lish units to metric units. the area be? See if you can predict the answer before
trying it.
HE2. Find 200 pennies (or other small identical objects—
d. Can you state the rule? If you multiply each side of
cardboard squares will work). Create a square with 3 pennies
an area by ‘n,’ by how much does the area increase, in
in each of 3 rows. Represent the area as width X length, or
terms of ‘n.’ ?
3 X 3 pennies, or 9 pennies.
a. Double the number of pennies in each row and column.
What is the area now? How much bigger is it than the
original area? Is it twice as big? Is it four times as big?
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UNIT
The Newtonian Revolution
I n 1687, Isaac Newton published his Philosophiae

Naturalis Principia Mathematica or Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy. This treatise, often
called simply Newton’s Principia, presented his theory
of motion, which included his three laws of motion
and his law of universal gravitation. Together these
laws explain most of what was then known about the
motion of ordinary objects near Earth’s surface (ter-
restrial mechanics) as well as the motion of the planets must be used), it is still used extensively in physics and
around the sun (celestial mechanics). Along the way, engineering to explain motion and to analyze struc-
Newton had to invent the mathematical techniques tures. Newton’s theory has had enormous influence
that we call calculus. over the last three hundred years in realms of thought
Newton’s theory of mechanics described in the Prin- that extend well beyond the natural sciences and
cipia was an incredible intellectual achievement that deserves to be understood by anyone claiming to be
revolutionized both science and philosophy. The revo- well educated.
lution did not begin with Newton, though. The true Central to Newton’s theory is his second law of
rebel was the Italian scientist, Galileo Galilei, who died motion. It states that the acceleration of an object
just a few months after Newton was born in 1642. Gal- is proportional to the net force acting on the object
ileo championed the sun-centered view of the solar and inversely proportional to the mass of the object.
system proposed a hundred years earlier by Nicolaus Push an object and that object accelerates in the direc-
Copernicus and stood trial under the Inquisition for his tion of the applied force. Contrary to intuition and
pains. Galileo also challenged the conventional wis- to Aristotle’s teachings, acceleration, not velocity, is
dom, based on Aristotle’s teachings, about the motion proportional to the applied force. To understand this
of ordinary objects. In the process, he developed many idea, we will thoroughly examine acceleration, which
of the principles of terrestrial mechanics that Newton involves a change in the motion of an object.
later incorporated into his theory. Rather than plunging into Newton’s theory, we
Although Newton’s theory of motion does not accu- begin this unit by studying Galileo’s insights into
rately describe the motion of very fast objects (which motion and free fall. This provides the necessary foun-
are now described using Einstein’s theory of relativ- dation to tackle Newton’s ideas. To see well, we need
ity) and very small objects (where quantum mechanics to stand on the shoulders of these giants.
17
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CHAPTER
Describing Motion
chapter overview chapter outline

The main purpose of this chapter is to pro- Average and instantaneous speed. How do
vide clear definitions and illustrations of the 1 we describe how fast an object is moving?
terms used in physics to describe motion, How does instantaneous speed differ from
such as the motion of the car described average speed?
in this chapter’s opening example. Speed,
velocity, and acceleration are crucial con- Velocity. How do we introduce direction
cepts for the analysis of motion in later 2 into descriptions of motion? What is the dis-
chapters. Precise description is the first step tinction between speed and velocity?
to understanding. Without it, we remain
Acceleration. How do we describe changes
awash in vague ideas that are not defined 3 in motion? What is the relationship between
well enough to test our explanations.
velocity and acceleration?
Each numbered topic in this chapter
builds on the previous section, so it is impor- Graphing motion. How can graphs be used
tant to obtain a clear understanding of 4 to describe motion? How can the use of
each topic before going on. The distinctions graphs help us gain a clearer understanding
between speed and velocity and velocity of speed, velocity, and acceleration?
and acceleration are particularly important.
Uniform acceleration. What happens when
5 an object accelerates at a steady rate? How
do the velocity and distance traveled vary
with time when an object is uniformly
accelerating?
UNIT ON E
18
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2.1 Average and Instantaneous Speed 19
I magine that you are in your car stopped at an inter-

section. After waiting for cross traffic, you pull away
describing exactly what is happening. These meanings
are sometimes different from those in everyday use. The
from the stop sign, accelerating eventually to a speed of term acceleration, for example, is used by physicists to
56 kilometers per hour (35 miles per hour). You maintain describe any situation in which velocity is changing, even
that speed until a dog runs in front of your car and you when the speed may be decreasing or the direction of the
hit the brakes, reducing your speed rapidly to 10 km/h motion may be changing.
(fig. 2.1). Having missed the dog, you speed up again to How would you define the term speed if you were
56 km/h. After another block, you come to another stop explaining the idea to a younger brother or sister? Does
sign and reduce your speed gradually to zero. velocity mean the same thing? What about acceleration—
We can all relate to this description. Measuring speed is the notion vague or does it have a precise meaning? Is it
in miles per hour (MPH) may be more familiar than the the same thing as velocity? Clear definitions are essential
use of kilometers per hour (km/h), but speedometers in to developing clear explanations. The language used by
cars now show both. The use of the term acceleration to physicists differs from our everyday language, even though
describe an increase in speed is also common. In physics, the ideas are related and the same words are used. What
however, these concepts take on more precise and spe- are the exact meanings that physicists attach to these con-
cialized meanings that make them even more useful in cepts, and how can they help us to understand motion?
figure 2.1 As the car brakes for the dog, there is a sudden change in speed.
2.1 Average and Instantaneous Speed that we travel a distance of 260 miles in a time of 5 hours,
as shown on the road map of figure 2.2. The average speed
Since driving or riding in cars is a common activity in our is then 260 miles divided by 5 hours, which is equal to
daily lives, we are familiar with the concept of speed. Most 52 MPH. This type of computation is familiar to most of us.
of us have had experience in reading a speedometer (or per- We can also express the definition of average speed in a
haps failing to read it carefully enough to avoid the attention word equation as
of law enforcement). If you describe how fast something is
moving, as we did in our example in the introduction, you
are talking about speed. Average speed equals the distance traveled divided by the time
of travel.
How is average speed defined?

or
What does it mean to say that we are traveling at a speed
of 55 MPH? It means that we would cover a distance of
55 miles in a time of 1 hour if we traveled steadily at that distance traveled
Average speed 5 .
speed. Carefully note the structure of this description: time of travel
there is a number, 55, and some units or dimensions, miles
per hour. Numbers and units are both essential parts of a
description of speed. We can represent this same definition with symbols by
The term miles per hour implies that miles are divided by writing
hours in arriving at the speed. This is exactly how we would d
s 5 ,
compute the average speed for a trip: suppose, for example, t
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20 Chapter 2 Describing Motion
120 mi
example box 2.1
Flagstaff
Kingman 2.4 h
Sample Exercise: Speed Conversions
Convert 90 kilometers per hour to (a) miles per hour and
(b) meters per second.
i
m
a. 1 km 5 0.6214 miles
0
14
h
6
90 km/h 5 ? (in MPH)
2.
90 km 0.6214 miles
a ba b 5 55.9 MPH
hr km
90 km/h 5 55.9 MPH
b. 1 km 5 1000 m
90 km 1000 m
a ba b 5 90,000 m/hr
hr km
Phoenix
60 min 60 sec
However ( 1 hr ) a ba b 5 3600 sec
figure 2.2 A road map showing a trip of 260 miles, with hr min
driving times for the two legs of the trip. 90,000 m 1 hr
a ba b 5 25.0 m/sec
hr 3600 sec
90 km/h 5 25.0 m/sec
where the letter s represents the speed, d represents distance,
Part b can also be done using the conversion factors for
and t represents the time. As noted in chapter 1, letters or
speed on the inside front cover:
symbols are a compact way of saying what could be said
with a little more effort and space with words. Judge for 1 km/h 5 0.278 m/sec
yourself which is the more efficient way of expressing this 0.278 m/sec
( 90 km/h ) a b 5 25.0 m/sec
definition of average speed. Most people find the symbolic 1 km/h
expression easier to remember and use.
90 km/h 5 25.0 m/sec
The average speed that we have just defined is the rate at
which distance is covered over time. Rates always represent Lines drawn through the units indicate cancellation.
one quantity divided by another. Gallons per minute, pesos
per dollar, and points per game are all examples of rates. If
we are considering time rates, the quantity that we divide by
is time, which is the case with average speed. Many other Units of speed will always be a distance divided by a
quantities that we will be considering involve time rates. time. In the metric system, the fundamental unit of speed
is meters per second (m/s). Example box 2.1 also shows
the conversion of kilometers per hour to meters per second,
What are the units of speed? done as a two-step process. As you can see, 70 km/h can also
Units are an essential part of the description of speed. Sup- be expressed as 19.4 m/s or roughly 20 m/s. This is a conve-
pose you say that you were doing 70—without stating the nient size for discussing the speeds of ordinary objects. (As
units. In the United States, that would probably be under- shown in example box 2.2, the convenient unit for measur-
stood as 70 MPH, since that is the unit most frequently ing the growth of grass has a very different size.) Table 2.1
used. In Europe, on the other hand, people would probably shows some familiar speeds expressed in miles per hour,
assume that you are talking about the considerably slower
speed of 70 km/h. If you do not state the units, you will not
communicate effectively. table 2.1
It is easy to convert from one unit to another if the conver- Familiar Speeds in Different Units
sion factors are known. For example, if we want to convert 20 MPH 5 32 km/h 5 9 m/s
kilometers per hour to miles per hour, we need to know the
40 MPH 5 64 km/h 5 18 m/s
relationship between miles and kilometers. A kilometer is
roughly 6/10 of a mile (0.6214, to be more precise). As shown 60 MPH 5 97 km/h 5 27 m/s
in example box 2.1, 70 km/h is equal to 43.5 MPH. The pro- 80 MPH 5 130 km/h 5 36 m/s
cess involves multiplication or division by the appropriate 100 MPH 5 160 km/h 5 45 m/s
conversion factor.
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2.1 Average and Instantaneous Speed 21
example box 2.2

120 Passing the truck
Sample Question: Watching Grass Grow
Question: The units km/h or m/s have an appropriate
size for moving cars or people. Many other processes 90
move much more slowly, though. What units would have
Speed (km/h)
an appropriate size for measuring the average speed with
which a blade of grass grows?
60
Answer: When grass is well fertilized and watered, it is
not unusual for it to grow 3 to 6 centimeters in the course Behind a slow
truck
of a week. This can be seen by measuring the length of the
clippings after mowing. If we measured the speed in m/s, 30
we would obtain an extremely small number that would Turn onto highway
not provide a good intuitive sense of the rate of growth. Stoplight
The units of cm/week or mm/day would provide a better
indication of this speed. 5 10 15 20
Time (minutes)
kilometers per hour, and meters per second to give you a figure 2.4 Variations in instantaneous speed for a portion
sense of their relationships. of a trip on a local highway.
What is instantaneous speed? speed during the trip. A more complete description of how
If we travel a distance of 260 miles in 5 hours, as in our the speed of a car varies during a portion of a trip could be
earlier example, is it likely that the entire trip takes place provided by a graph such as that shown in figure 2.4. Each
at a speed of 52 MPH? Of course not; the speed goes up point on this graph represents the instantaneous speed at the
and down as the road goes up and down, when we overtake time indicated on the horizontal axis.
slower vehicles, when rest breaks occur, or when the highway Even though we all have some intuitive sense of what
patrol looms on the horizon. If we want to know how fast we instantaneous speed means from our experience in reading
are going at a given instant in time, we read the speedometer, speedometers, computing this quantity presents some prob-
which displays the instantaneous speed (fig. 2.3). lems that we did not encounter in defining average speed.
How does instantaneous speed differ from average speed? We could say that instantaneous speed is the rate that dis-
The instantaneous speed tells us how fast we are going at a tance is being covered at a given instant in time, but how do
given instant but tells us little about how long it will take to we compute this rate? What time interval should we use?
travel several miles, unless the speed is held constant. The What is an instant in time?
average speed, on the other hand, allows us to compute how Our solution to this problem is simply to choose a very
long a trip might take but says little about the variation in short interval of time during which a very short distance is
covered and the speed does not change drastically. If we
know, for example, that in 1 second a distance of 20 meters
was covered, dividing 20 meters by 1 second to obtain a speed
45 55 65 of 20 m/s would give us a good estimate of the instantaneous
35 75
speed, provided that the speed did not change much during
that single second. If the speed was changing rapidly, we
would have to choose an even shorter interval of time. In prin-
25 80 100 85
60 ciple, we can choose time intervals as small as we wish, but
120
40 in practice, it can be hard to measure such small quantities.
15 140 95 If we put these ideas into a word definition of instanta-
20 neous speed, we could state it as:
160
5 0 180 105
km/h
0 Instantaneous speed is the rate at which distance is being
MPH covered at a given instant in time. It is found by computing the
average speed for a very short time interval in which the speed
figure 2.3 A speedometer with two scales for measuring does not change appreciably.
instantaneous speed, MPH and km/h.
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everyday phenomenon
box 2.1
Transitions in Traffic Flow
The Situation. Jennifer commutes into the city on a freeway screeching halt. The traffic will be stop-and-go briefly and then
every day for work. As she approaches the city, the same pat- will settle into a wavelike mode with speeds varying between
terns in traffic flow seem to show up in the same places each 10 and 30 MPH. Unless there is an accident, this will continue
day. She will be moving with the flow of traffic at a speed of for the rest of the way into the city.
approximately 60 MPH when suddenly things will come to a What causes these patterns? Why does the traffic stop
when there is no apparent reason such as an accident? Why
do ramp traffic lights seem to help the situation? Questions
like these are the concern of the growing field of traffic
engineering.
The Analysis. Although a full analysis of traffic flow is com-

plex, there are some simple ideas that can explain many of
the patterns that Jennifer observes. The density of vehicles,
measured in vehicles per mile, is a key factor. Adding vehicles at
entrance ramps increases this vehicle density.
When Jennifer and other commuters are traveling at 60
MPH, they need to keep a spacing of several car lengths
between vehicles. Most drivers do this without thinking about
it, although there are always some who follow too closely or
The traffic in the upper lanes is flowing freely with adequate spacing tailgate. Tailgating runs the risk of rear-end collisions when
to allow higher speeds. The higher-density traffic in the lower lanes the traffic suddenly slows. Reaction time, and its implications
moves much more slowly. for tailgating, are discussed in everyday phenomenon box 3.1.
(continued)
Instantaneous speed is closely related to the concept of aver- 2.2 Velocity

age speed but involves very short time intervals. When dis-
cussing traffic flow, average speed is the critical issue, as Do the words speed and velocity mean the same thing?
shown in everyday phenomenon box 2.1. They are often used interchangeably in everyday language,
but physicists make an important distinction between the
two terms. The distinction has to do with direction: which
We find an average speed by dividing the distance trav-
way is the object moving? This distinction turns out to
eled by the time required to cover that distance. Average
be essential to understanding Newton’s theory of motion
speed is therefore the average rate at which distance is
(introduced in chapter 4), so it is not just a matter of whim
being covered. Instantaneous speed is the rate that dis-
or jargon.
tance is being covered at a given instant in time and is
found by considering very small time intervals or by read-
ing a speedometer. Average speed is useful for estimating What is the difference between
how long a trip will take, but instantaneous speed is of
speed and velocity?
more interest to the highway patrol.
Imagine that you are driving a car around a curve (as illus-
See clicker question 2.1 on the instructor website. trated in figure 2.5) and that you maintain a constant speed
of 60 km/h. Is your velocity also constant in this case?
The answer is no, because velocity involves the direc-
tion of motion as well as how fast the object is going. The
debatable issue direction of motion is changing as the car goes around
A radar gun used by a police officer measures your speed at a certain the curve.
instant in time, whereas an officer in a plane measures the time it takes To simply state this distinction, speed as we have defined
for you to travel the known distance between two stripes painted on the it tells us how fast an object is moving but says nothing
highway. What is the difference in nature between these two types of about the direction of the motion. Velocity includes the idea
measurement and which is the fairer basis for issuing a speeding ticket? of direction. To specify a velocity, we must give both its size
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2.2 Velocity 23
When more vehicles are added at an entrance ramp, the speed, causing fluctuations in the average speed as vehicles
density of vehicles increases, reducing the distance between begin to pile up again.
vehicles. As the distance between vehicles decreases, drivers Notice that we are using average speed with two differ-
should reduce their speed to maintain a safe stopping distance. ent meanings in this discussion. One is the average speed of
If this occurred uniformly, there would be a gradual decrease an individual vehicle as its instantaneous speed increases and
in the average speed of the traffic to accommodate the greater decreases. The other is the average speed of the overall traffic
density. This is not what usually happens, however. flow involving many vehicles. When the traffic is flowing freely,
A significant proportion of drivers will attempt to main- the average speed of different vehicles may differ. When the
tain their speed at 50 to 60 MPH even when densities have traffic is in a slowly moving jam, the average speeds of different
increased beyond the point where this is advisable. This creates vehicles are essentially the same, at least within a given lane.
an unstable situation. At some point, usually near an entrance Traffic lights at entrance ramps that permit vehicles to enter
ramp, the vehicle density becomes too large to sustain these one-at-a-time at appropriate intervals can help to smoothly
speeds. At this point there is a sudden drop in average speed integrate the added vehicles to the existing flow. This reduces
and a large increase in the local density. As shown in the draw- the sudden changes in speed caused by a rapid increase in
ing, cars can be separated by less than a car length when they density. Once the density increases beyond the certain level,
are stopped or moving very slowly. however, a slowing of traffic is inevitable. The abrupt change
Once the average speed of a few vehicles has slowed to from low-density, high-speed flow to higher-density, slow
less than 10 MPH, vehicles moving at 50 to 60 MPH begin to flow is analogous to a phase transition from a gas to a liquid.
pile up behind this slower-moving jam. Because this does not (Phase transitions are discussed in chapter 10.) Traffic engi-
happen smoothly, some vehicles must come to a complete neers have used this analogy to better understand the process.
stop, further slowing the flow. At the front end of the jam, on If we could automatically control and coordinate the speeds
the other hand, the density is reduced due to the slower flow of all the vehicles on the highway, the highway might carry a
behind. Cars can then start moving at a speed consistent with much greater volume of traffic at a smooth rate of flow. Speeds
the new density, perhaps around 30 MPH. If every vehicle could be adjusted to accommodate changes in density and
moved with the appropriate speed, flow would be smooth and smaller vehicle separations could be maintained at higher speeds
the increased density could be safely accommodated. More because the vehicles would all be moving in a synchronized fash-
often, however, overanxious drivers exceed the appropriate ion. Better technology may someday achieve this dream.
or magnitude (how fast) and its direction (north, south, east,

up, down, or somewhere in between). If you tell me that an
N
object is moving 15 m/s, you have told me its speed. If you
tell me that it is moving due west at 15 m/s, you have told
v2 E me its velocity.
B
At point A on the diagram in figure 2.5, the car is
traveling due north at 60 km/h. At point B, because the
road curves, the car is traveling northwest at 60 km/h. Its
velocity at point B is different from its velocity at point A
(because the directions are different). The speeds at points
A and B are the same. Direction is irrelevant in specifying
the speed of the object. It has no effect on the reading on
your speedometer.
Changes in velocity are produced by forces acting upon
v1 the car, as we will discuss further in chapter 4. The most
important force involved in changing the velocity of a car
is the frictional force exerted on the tires of the car by the
A road surface. A force is required to change either the size
or the direction of the velocity. If no net force were acting
on the car, it would continue to move at constant speed in a
figure 2.5 The direction of the velocity changes as the car straight line. This happens sometimes when there is ice or
moves around the curve, so that the velocity v2 is not the same as oil on the road surface, which can reduce the frictional force
the velocity v1 even though the speed has not changed. to almost zero.
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study hint 10 m/s
Science has always relied on pictures and charts to get

points across. Throughout the book, a number of concepts 20 m/s
will be introduced and illustrated. In the illustrations, the
same color will be used for certain phenomena.
figure 2.7 The length of the arrow shows the size of the
Blue arrows are velocity vectors. velocity vector.
Green arrows depict acceleration vectors.
the arrow (fig. 2.7). In the text, we will represent vectors by
Red arrows depict force vectors.
printing their symbols in boldface and larger than other sym-
Purple arrows show momentum, a bols: v is thus the symbol for velocity. A fuller description
concept we will explore in chapter 7. of vectors can be found in appendix C.
How do we define instantaneous velocity?

What is a vector? In considering automobile trips, average speed is the most
Velocity is a quantity for which both the size and direction useful quantity. We do not really care about the direction
are important. We call such quantities vectors. To describe of motion in this case. Instantaneous speed is the quantity
these quantities fully, we need to state both the size and the of interest to the highway patrol. Instantaneous velocity,
direction. Velocity is a vector that describes how fast an however, is most useful in considering physical theories of
object is moving and in what direction it is moving. Many motion. We can define instantaneous velocity by drawing on
of the quantities used in describing motion (and in physics our earlier definition of instantaneous speed.
more generally) are vector quantities. These include veloc-
ity, acceleration, force, and momentum, to name a few. Instantaneous velocity is a vector quantity having a size equal
Think about what happens when you throw a rubber ball to the instantaneous speed at a given instant in time and hav-
against a wall, as shown in figure 2.6. The speed of the ball ing a direction corresponding to that of the object’s motion at
may be about the same after the collision with the wall as that instant.
it was before the ball hit the wall. The velocity has clearly
changed in the process, though, because the ball is moving Instantaneous velocity and instantaneous speed are
in a different direction after the collision. Something has closely related, but velocity includes direction as well as
happened to the motion of the ball. A strong force had to size. It is changes in instantaneous velocity that require
be exerted on the ball by the wall to produce this change in the intervention of forces. These changes will be empha-
velocity. sized when we explore Newton’s theory of mechanics in
The velocity vectors in figures 2.5 and 2.6 are represented chapter 4. We can also define the concept of average veloc-
by arrows. This is a natural choice for depicting vectors, ity, but that is a much less useful quantity for our purposes
since the direction of the arrow clearly shows the direction than either instantaneous velocity or average speed.*
of the vector, and the length can be drawn proportional to
the size. In other words, the larger the velocity, the longer
To specify the velocity of an object, we need to state
both how fast and in what direction the object is moving;
vfinal velocity is a vector quantity. Instantaneous velocity has a
magnitude equal to the instantaneous speed and points in
the direction that the object is moving. Changes in instan-
taneous velocity are where the action is, so to speak, and
we will consider these in more detail when we discuss
acceleration in section 2.3.
See clicker questions 2.2 and 2.3 on the instructor

vinitial website.
*Strictly speaking, velocity is the change in displacement divided by time,

where displacement is a vector representing the change in position of an
figure 2.6 The direction of the velocity changes when a ball object. See Appendix C and figure C.2 for a discussion of displacement
bounces from a wall. The wall exerts a force on the ball in order to vectors. In one-dimensional motion when an object does not change direc-
produce this change. tion, the distance traveled is equal to the magnitude of the displacement.
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2.3 Acceleration 25
2.3 Acceleration
Acceleration is a familiar idea. We use the term in speak- v=0 v = 20 m/s
ing of the acceleration of a car away from a stop sign or
the acceleration of a running back in football. We feel the
effects of acceleration on our bodies when a car’s velocity
changes rapidly and even more strikingly when an eleva- t=0 t=5s
tor lurches downward, leaving our stomachs slightly behind
(fig. 2.8). These are all accelerations. You can think of your
figure 2.9 A car, starting from rest, accelerates to a velocity
of 20 m/s due east in a time of 5 s.
stomach as an acceleration detector—a roller-coaster gives
it a real workout!
Understanding acceleration is crucial to our study of
motion. Acceleration is the rate at which velocity changes.
the time needed to produce this change. If it took just 5 sec-
(Note that we said velocity, not speed.) It plays a central
onds for the velocity to change, the rate of change would be
role in Newton’s theory of motion. How do we go about
larger than if it took 30 seconds.
finding a value of an acceleration, though? As with speed,
Suppose that a time of 5 seconds was required to pro-
it is convenient to start with a definition of average accel-
duce this change in velocity. The rate of change in velocity
eration and then extend it to the idea of instantaneous
could then be found by dividing the size of the change
acceleration.
in velocity by the time required to produce that change.
Thus the size of the average acceleration, a, is found by
How is average acceleration defined? dividing the change in velocity of 20 m/s by the time of
5 seconds,
How would we go about providing a quantitative descrip-
tion of an acceleration? Suppose that your car, pointing due 20 m/s
east, starts from a full stop at a stop sign, and its velocity a 5 5 4 m/s/s.
5s
increases from zero to 20 m/s as shown in figure 2.9. The
change in velocity is found simply by subtracting the initial The unit m/s/s is usually written m/s2 and is read as
velocity from the final velocity (20 m/s 2 0 m/s 5 20 m/s). meters per second squared. It is easier to understand it,
To find its rate of change, however, we also need to know however, as meters per second per second. The car’s veloc-
ity (measured in m/s) is changing at a rate of 4 m/s every
second. Other units could be used for acceleration, but they
will all have this same form: distance per unit of time per
unit of time. In discussing the acceleration of a car on a drag
strip, for example, the unit miles per hour per second is
sometimes used.
The quantity that we have just computed is the size of
the average acceleration of the car. The average acceleration
is found by dividing the total change in velocity for some
time interval by that time interval, ignoring possible differ-
ences in the rate of change of velocity that might be occur-
ring within the time interval. Its definition can be stated in
words as follows:
Acceleration
detector
Average acceleration is the change in velocity divided by
the time required to produce that change.
We can restate it in symbols as

change in velocity
Acceleration 5
elapsed time
or
a
figure 2.8 Your acceleration detector senses the downward a 5

Dv
.
acceleration of the elevator. t
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Because change is so important in this definition, we have

used the special symbol D (the Greek letter delta) to mean a vi = 8 m/s Δv = 12 m/s vf = 20 m/s
change in a quantity. Thus Dv is a compact way of writing
the change in velocity, which otherwise could be expressed vi vf
as vf 2 vi, where vf is the final velocity and vi is the initial
velocity. Because the concept of change is critical, this delta
(D) notation will appear often.
vi Δv vf
The idea of change is all-important. Acceleration is not + =
velocity over time. It is the change in velocity divided by
a
time. It is common for people to associate large accelera-
tions with large velocities, when in fact the opposite is often
true. The acceleration of a car may be largest, for example, figure 2.10 The acceleration vector is in the same direction
when it is just starting up and its velocity is near zero. The as the velocity vectors when the velocity is increasing.
rate of change of velocity is greatest then. On the other hand,
a car can be traveling at 100 MPH but still have a zero accel-
eration if its velocity is not changing. velocity vi is larger than the final velocity vf, the change
in velocity must point in the opposite direction to produce
a shorter vf arrow. The acceleration is also in the opposite
What is instantaneous acceleration?
direction to the velocity, since it is in the direction of the
Instantaneous acceleration is similar to average accelera- change in velocity. In Newton’s theory of motion, the force
tion with an important exception. Just as with instantaneous required to produce this acceleration would also be opposite
speed or velocity, we are now concerned with the rate of in direction to the velocity. It must push backward on the car
change at a given instant in time. It is instantaneous accel- to slow it down.
eration that our stomachs respond to. It can be defined as The term acceleration describes the rate of any change
follows: in an object’s velocity. The change could be an increase (as
in our initial example), a decrease, or a change in direction.
The term applies even to decreases in velocity (decelera-
Instantaneous acceleration is the rate at which velocity is
tions). To a physicist these are simply accelerations with a
changing at a given instant in time. It is computed by finding
direction opposite that of the velocity. If a car is braking
the average acceleration for a very short time interval during
while traveling in a straight line, its velocity is decreas-
which the acceleration does not change appreciably.
ing and its acceleration is negative if the velocity is posi-
tive. This situation is illustrated in the sample exercise in
example box 2.3.
If the acceleration is changing with time, choosing a very
The minus sign is an important part of the result in
short time interval guarantees that the acceleration com-
the example in example box 2.3 because it indicates that
puted for that time interval will not differ too much from the
the change in velocity is negative. The velocity is getting
instantaneous acceleration at any time within the interval.
smaller. We can call it a deceleration if we like, but it is the
This is the same idea used in finding an instantaneous speed
same thing as a negative acceleration. One word, accelera-
or instantaneous velocity.
tion, covers all situations in which the velocity is changing.
What is the direction of an acceleration?

Like velocity, acceleration is a vector quantity. Its direction
is important. The direction of the acceleration vector is that vi = 20 m/s Δv = –12 m/s vf = 8 m/s
of the change in velocity Dv. If, for example, a car is mov-
ing in a straight line and its velocity is increasing, the change vi vf
in velocity is in the same direction as the velocity itself, as
shown in figure 2.10. The change in velocity Dv must be
added to the initial velocity vi to obtain the final velocity
vf. All three vectors point forward. The process of adding vi Δv vf
+ =
vectors can be readily seen when we represent the vectors as
arrows on a graph. (More information on vector addition can a
be found in appendix C.)
If the velocity is decreasing, however, the change in figure 2.11 The velocity and acceleration vectors for
velocity Dv points in the opposite direction to the two veloc- decreasing velocity: Dv and a are now opposite in direction to the
ity vectors, as shown in figure 2.11. Because the initial velocity. The acceleration a is proportional to Dv.
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2.4 Graphing Motion 27
example box 2.3 at different points in the motion. The change in velocity
Dv is the vector that must be added to the initial veloc-
ity vi to obtain the final velocity vf. The vector represent-
Sample Exercise: Negative Accelerations ing the change in velocity points toward the center of the
curve, and therefore, the acceleration vector also points
The driver of a car steps on the brakes, and the velocity
in that direction. The size of the change is represented
drops from 20 m/s due east to 10 m/s due east in a time of
by the length of the arrow Dv. From this we can find the
2.0 seconds. What is the acceleration?
acceleration.
vi 5 20 m/s due east Dv vf 2 vi Acceleration is involved whenever there is a change in
a 5 5
vf 5 10 m/s due east t t velocity, regardless of the nature of that change. Cases like
t 5 2.0 s figure 2.12 will be considered more fully in chapter 5 where
a 5 ? 10 m/s 2 20 m/s circular motion is discussed.
5
2.0 s
210 m/s Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity and is found

5
2.0 s by dividing the change in the velocity by the time required
to produce that change. Any change in velocity involves
5 25 m/s2
an acceleration, whether an increase or a decrease in
speed, or a change in direction. Acceleration is a vector
a 5 5.0 m/s2 due west having a direction corresponding to the direction of the
change in velocity, which is not necessarily the same
Notice that when we are dealing just with the magnitude of direction as the instantaneous velocity itself. The concept
a vector quantity, we do not use the boldface notation. The of change is crucial. The graphical representations in sec-
sign can indicate direction, however, in a problem involving tion 2.4 will help you visualize changes in velocity as well
straight-line motion. as in other quantities.
See clicker questions 2.4 to 2.6 on the instructor

Can a car be accelerating when website.
its speed is constant?
What happens when a car goes around a curve at constant
speed? Is it accelerating? The answer is yes, because the 2.4 Graphing Motion
direction of its velocity is changing. If the direction of the It is often said that a picture is worth a thousand words, and
velocity vector is changing, the velocity is changing. This the same can be said of graphs. Imagine trying to describe
means that there must be an acceleration. the motion depicted in figure 2.4 precisely in words and
This situation is illustrated in figure 2.12. The arrows numbers. The graph provides a quick overview of what took
in this drawing show the direction of the velocity vector place. A description in words would be much less efficient.
In this section, we will show how graphs can also help us to
understand velocity and acceleration.
vi
What can a graph tell us?
vf
How can we produce and use graphs to help us describe
motion? Imagine that you are watching a battery-powered
toy car moving along a meter stick (fig. 2.13). If the car is
a moving slowly enough, you could record the car’s position
while also recording the elapsed time using a digital watch.
At regular time intervals (say, every 5 seconds), you would
note the value of the position of the front of the car on the
vi meter stick and write these values down. The results might
Δv be something like those shown in table 2.2.
vf How do we graph these data? First, we create evenly
spaced intervals on each of two perpendicular axes, one for
figure 2.12 A change in the direction of the velocity distance traveled (or position) and the other for time. To
vector also involves an acceleration, even though the speed may show how distance varies with time, we usually put time on
be constant. the horizontal axis and distance on the vertical axis. Such a
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Confirming Pages
30
Distance (cm)
20
10
0
0 20 40 60
Time (s)
figure 2.13 A toy car moving along a meter stick. Its figure 2.14 Distance plotted against time for the motion of
position can be recorded at different times. the toy car. The data points are those listed in table 2.2.
graph is shown in figure 2.14, where each data point from is not moving. The velocity is zero during that time, which
table 2.2 is plotted and a line is drawn through the points. To is represented by a horizontal line on our graph of distance
make sure that you understand this process, choose different versus time.
points from table 2.2 and find where they are located on the What about the velocity at other points in the motion?
graph. Where would the point go if the car were at 21 centi- The car is moving more rapidly between 0 and 20 seconds
meters at 25 seconds? than it is between 30 and 50 seconds. The distance curve is
The graph summarizes the information presented in the rising more rapidly between 0 and 20 seconds than between
table in a visual format that makes it easier to grasp at a 30 and 50 seconds. Since more distance is covered in the
glance. The graph also contains information on the veloc- same time, the car must be moving faster there. A steeper
ity and acceleration of the car, although that is less obvious. slope to the curve is associated with a larger speed.
For example, what can we say about the average velocity In fact, the slope of the distance-versus-time curve at
of the car between 20 and 30 seconds? Is the car moving any point on the graph is equal to the instantaneous velocity
during this time? A glance at the graph shows us that the of the car.* The slope indicates how rapidly the distance is
distance is not changing during that time interval, so the car changing with time at any instant in time. The rate of change
of distance with time is the instantaneous speed according
to the definition given in section 2.1. Since the motion takes
place along a straight line, we can then represent the direc-
table 2.2 tion of the velocity with plus or minus signs. There are only
Position of the Toy Car along the Meter Stick two possibilities, forward or backward. We then have the
at Different Times instantaneous velocity, which includes both the size (speed)
Time Position and direction of the motion.
0s 0 cm
When the car travels backward, its distance from the
starting point decreases. The curve goes down, as it does
5s 4.1 cm
between 50 and 60 seconds. We refer to this downward-
10 s 7.9 cm sloping portion of the curve as having a negative slope and
15 s 12.1 cm also say that the velocity is negative during this portion of
20 s 16.0 cm the motion. A large upward slope represents a large instan-
25 s 16.0 cm taneous velocity, a zero slope (horizontal line) a zero veloc-
30 s 16.0 cm
ity, and a downward slope a negative (backward) velocity.
Looking at the slope of the graph tells us all we need to
35 s 18.0 cm
know about the velocity of the car.
40 s 20.1 cm
45 s 21.9 cm
50 s 24.0 cm *Since the mathematical definition of slope is the change in the vertical
coordinate Dd divided by the change in the horizontal coordinate Dt, the
55 s 22.1 cm
slope, Dd/Dt, is equal to the instantaneous velocity, provided that Dt is suf-
60 s 20.0 cm ficiently small. It is possible to grasp the concept of slope, however, without
appealing to the mathematical definition.
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2.4 Graphing Motion 29
Velocity and acceleration graphs

These ideas about velocity can be best summarized by plot-
ting a graph of velocity against time for the car (fig. 2.15).
The velocity is constant wherever the slope of the distance-
Acceleration (cm/s 2 )
versus-time graph of figure 2.14 is constant. Any straight-
line segment of a graph has a constant slope, so the velocity
changes only where the slope of the graph in figure 2.14 20 40
changes. If you compare the graph in figure 2.15 to the graph 60
in figure 2.14 carefully, these ideas should become clear.
What can we say about the acceleration from these
graphs? Since acceleration is the rate of change of veloc- Time (s)
ity with time, the velocity graph (fig. 2.15) also provides
information about the acceleration. In fact, the instan-
taneous acceleration is equal to the slope of the velocity-
versus-time graph. A steep slope represents a rapid change figure 2.16 An approximate sketch of acceleration plotted
in velocity and thus a large acceleration. A horizontal line against time for the toy-car data. The acceleration is non-zero only
has zero slope and represents zero acceleration. The accel- when the velocity is changing.
eration turns out to be zero for most of the motion described
by our data. The velocity changes at only a few points in the
motion. The acceleration would be large at these points and upward spike or positive acceleration. At 50 seconds, there is
zero everywhere else. another negative acceleration as the velocity changes from a
Since our data do not indicate how rapidly the changes positive to a negative value. If you could put yourself inside
in velocity actually occur, we do not have enough informa- the toy car, you would definitely feel these accelerations.
tion to say just how large the acceleration is at those few (Everyday phenomenon box 2.2 provides another example
points where it is not zero. We would need measurements of how a graph is useful for analyzing motion.)
of distance or velocity every tenth of a second or so to get
a clear idea of how rapid these changes are. As we will see
in chapter 4, we know that these changes in velocity cannot Can we find the distance traveled
occur instantly. Some time is required. So we can sketch an from the velocity graph?
approximate graph of acceleration versus time, as shown in
What other information can be gleaned from the velocity-
figure 2.16.
versus-time graph of figure 2.15? Think for a moment about
The spikes in figure 2.16 occur when the velocity is
how you would go about finding the distance traveled if you
changing. At 20 seconds, there is a rapid decrease in the
knew the velocity. For a constant velocity, you can get the
velocity represented by a downward spike or negative
distance simply by multiplying the velocity by the time,
acceleration. At 30 seconds, the velocity increases rapidly
d 5 vt. In the first 20 seconds of the motion, for example,
from zero to a constant value, and this is represented by an
the velocity is 0.8 cm/s and the distance traveled is 0.8 cm/s
times 20 seconds, which is 16 cm. This is just the reverse of
what we used in determining the velocity in the first place.
We found the velocity by dividing the distance traveled by
1.5 the time.
How would this distance be represented on the velocity
1.0
graph? If you recall formulas for computing areas, you may
Velocity (cm/s)
0.5 recognize that the distance d is the area of the shaded rect-
angle on figure 2.15. The area of a rectangle is found by
0 multiplying the height times the width, just what we have
20 40 60 done here. The velocity, 0.8 cm/s, is the height and the time,
–0.5 20 seconds, is the width of this rectangle on the graph.
It turns out that we can find the distance this way even
–1.0 when the areas involved on the graph are not rectangles,
although the process is more difficult when the curves are
Time (s) more complicated. The general rule is that the distance
traveled is equal to the area under the velocity-versus-time
figure 2.15 Instantaneous velocity plotted against time for curve. When the velocity is negative (below the time axis on
the motion of the toy car. The velocity is greatest when distance the graph), the object is traveling backward and its distance
traveled is changing most rapidly. from the starting point is decreasing.
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everyday phenomenon
box 2.2
The 100-m Dash
The Situation. A world-class sprinter can run 100 m in a time runner’s maximum speed must be somewhat larger than this
of a little under 10 s. The race begins with the runners in a value, since we know that the instantaneous speed will be
crouched position in the starting blocks, waiting for the sound less than 10 m/s while the runner is accelerating. These ideas
of the starter’s pistol. The race ends with the runners lunging are easiest to visualize by sketching a graph of speed plotted
across the finish line, where their times are recorded by stop- against time, as shown. Since the runner travels in a straight
watches or automatic timers. line, the magnitude of the instantaneous velocity is equal to
the instantaneous speed. The runner reaches top speed at
approximately 2 to 3 s into the race.
12
10
Zero acceleration
s (m/s)
8 Decreasing
6 acceleration
4
Constant acceleration
2
2 4 6 8 10
t (s)
A graph of speed versus time for a hypothetical runner in the

100-m dash.
Runners in the starting blocks, waiting for the starter’s pistol to fire.
What happens between the start and finish of the race? The average speed (or velocity) during the time that the run-
How do the velocity and acceleration of the runners vary dur- ner is accelerating is approximately half of its maximum value if
ing the race? Can we make reasonable assumptions about the runner’s acceleration is more or less constant during the first
what the velocity-versus-time graph looks like for a typical 2 s. If we assume that the runner’s average speed during this
runner? Can we estimate the maximum velocity of a good time is about 5.5 m/s (half of 11 m/s), then the speed through
sprinter? Most importantly for improving performance, what the remainder of the race would have to be about 11.1 m/s to
factors affect the success of a runner in the dash? give an average speed of 10 m/s for the entire race. This can be
seen by computing the distance from these values:
The Analysis. Let’s assume that the runner covers the 100-m d 5 ( 5.5 m/s ) ( 2 s ) 1 ( 11.1 m/s ) ( 8 s )
distance in a time of exactly 10 s. We can compute the average
5 11 m 1 89 m 5 100 m.
speed of the runner from the definition s 5 d/t :
What we have done here is to make some reasonable
100 m
s 5 5 10 m/s. guesses for these values that will make the average speed
10 s
come out to 10 m/s; we then checked these guesses by com-
Clearly, this is not the runner’s instantaneous speed throughout puting the total distance. This suggests that the maximum
the course of the race, since the runner’s speed at the begin- speed of a good sprinter must be about 11 m/s (25 MPH). For
ning of the race is zero and it takes some time to accelerate to sake of comparison, a distance runner who can run a 4-min
the maximum speed. mile has an average speed of about 15 MPH, or 6.7 m/s.
The objective in the race is to reach a maximum speed as The runner’s strategy should be to get a good jump out of
quickly as possible and to sustain that speed for the rest of the blocks, keeping the body low initially and leaning forward
the race. Success is determined by two things: how quickly to minimize air resistance and maximize leg drive. To maintain
the runner can accelerate to this maximum speed and the top speed during the remainder of the race, the runner needs
value of this maximum speed. A smaller runner often has bet- good endurance. A runner who fades near the end needs more
ter acceleration but a smaller maximum speed, while a larger conditioning drills. For a given runner with a fixed maximum
runner sometimes takes longer to reach top speed but has a speed, the average speed depends on how quickly the runner
larger maximum speed. can reach top speed. This ability to accelerate rapidly depends
The typical runner does not reach top speed before travel- upon leg strength (which can be improved by working with
ing at least 10 to 20 m. If the average speed is 10 m/s, the weights and other training exercises) and natural quickness.
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2.5 Uniform Acceleration 31
Even without computing the area precisely, it is possi- a

ble to get a rough idea of the distance traveled by studying
the velocity graph. A large area represents a large distance.
Quick visual comparisons give a good picture of what is
happening without the need for lengthy calculations. This is
the beauty of a graph.
A good graph can present a picture of motion that is rich

in insight. Not only does distance traveled plotted against t
time tell us where the object is at any time, but also its
slope indicates how fast it was moving. The graph of figure 2.17 The acceleration graph for uniform acceleration
velocity plotted against time also contains information on is a horizontal line. The acceleration does not change with time.
acceleration and on the distance traveled. Producing and
studying such graphs can give us a more general picture
upward slope; the velocity increases at a steady rate. A con-
of the motion and the relationships between distance,
stant slope produces a straight line, which slopes upward if
velocity, and acceleration.
the acceleration is positive as shown in figure 2.18. In plot-
See clicker questions 2.7 to 2.15 on the instructor
ting this graph, we assumed that the initial velocity is zero.
website.
This graph can also be represented by a formula. The
velocity at any time t is equal to the original velocity plus
the velocity that has been gained because the car is acceler-
ating. The change in velocity Dv is equal to the acceleration
2.5 Uniform Acceleration times the time, Dv 5 at since acceleration is defined as Dv/t.
These ideas result in the relationship
If you drop a rock, it falls toward the ground with a constant
acceleration, as we will see in chapter 3. An unchanging or v 5 v0 1 at.
uniform acceleration is the simplest form of accelerated
The first term on the right, v0, is the original velocity
motion. It occurs whenever there is a constant force acting
(assumed to be zero in figure 2.18), and the second term,
on an object, which is the case for a falling rock as well as
at, represents the change in velocity due to the acceleration.
for many other situations.
Adding these two terms together yields the velocity at any
How do we describe the resulting motion? The impor-
later time t.
tance of this question was first recognized by Galileo, who
A numerical example applying these ideas to an accel-
studied the motion of balls rolling down inclined planes as
erating car is found in part a of example box 2.4. The car
well as objects in free fall. In his famous work, Dialogues
could not keep on accelerating indefinitely at a constant rate
Concerning Two New Sciences, published in 1638 near the
because the velocity would soon reach incredible values.
end of his life, Galileo developed the graphs and formu-
Not only is this dangerous, but physical limits imposed by
las that are introduced in this section and that have been
air resistance and other factors prevent this from happening.
studied by students of physics ever since. His work pro-
vided the foundation for much of Newton’s thinking a few
decades later.
v
How does velocity vary in uniform v

acceleration?
Suppose a car is moving along a straight road and accel-
erating at a constant rate. We have plotted the acceleration
against time for this situation in figure 2.17. The graph is
very simple, but it illustrates what we mean by uniform v– = 1–2 v
acceleration. A uniform acceleration is one that does not
change as the motion proceeds. It has the same value at any
time, which produces a horizontal-line graph.
The graph of velocity plotted against time for this same
t
situation tells a more interesting story. From our discussion
in section 2.4, we know that the slope of a velocity-versus- figure 2.18 Velocity plotted against time for uniform
time graph is equal to the acceleration. For a uniform posi- acceleration, starting from rest. For this special case, the average
tive acceleration, the velocity graph should have a constant velocity is equal to one-half the final velocity.
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Confirming Pages
example box 2.4 d
Sample Exercise: Uniform Acceleration

A car traveling due east with an initial velocity of 10 m/s
accelerates for 6 seconds at a constant rate of 4 m/s2.
b. How far does it travel during this time?
a. v0 5 10 m/s v 5 v0 1 at
a 5 4 m/s2 5 10 m/s 1 ( 4 m/s2 ) ( 6 s )
t 5 6s 5 10 m/s 1 24 m/s
t
v 5? 5 34 m/s
v 5 34 m/s due east
figure 2.19 As the car accelerates uniformly, the distance
covered grows more and more rapidly with time because the
b. d 5 v0t 1 12 at2 velocity is increasing.
1
5 ( 10 m/s ) ( 6 s ) 1 2 ( 4 m/s2 ) ( 6 s ) 2
5 60 m 1 ( 2 m/s2 ) ( 36 s2 ) The graph in figure 2.19 illustrates this relationship; the
distance curve slopes upward at an ever-increasing rate as the
5 60 m 1 72 m 5 132 m
velocity increases. This formula and graph are only valid if
the object starts from rest as shown in figure 2.18. Since dis-
tance traveled is equal to the area under the velocity-versus-
What happens if the acceleration is negative? Velocity time curve (as discussed in section 2.4), this expression for
would decrease rather than increase, and the slope of the distance can also be thought of as the area under the triangle
velocity graph would slope downward rather than upward. in figure 2.18. The area of a triangle is equal to one-half its
Because the acceleration is then negative, the second term in base times its height, which produces the same result.
the formula for v would subtract from the first term, causing If the car is already moving before it begins to accelerate,
the velocity to decrease from its initial value. The velocity the velocity graph can be redrawn as pictured in figure 2.20.
then decreases at a steady rate. The total area under the velocity curve can then be split in
two pieces, a triangle and a rectangle, as shown. The total
How does distance traveled vary with time? distance traveled is the sum of these two areas,
If the velocity is increasing at a steady rate, what effect does 1 2
this have on the distance traveled? As the car moves faster d 5 v0t 1 at .
2
and faster, the distance covered grows more and more rapidly.
Galileo showed how to find the distance for this situation. The first term in this formula represents the distance the
We find distance by multiplying velocity by time, but in object would travel if it moved with constant velocity v0, and
this case we must use an average velocity since the velocity the second term is the additional distance traveled because the
is changing. By appealing to the graph in figure 2.18, we object is accelerating (the area of the triangle in figure 2.20).
can see that the average velocity should be just half the final
velocity, v. If the initial velocity is zero, the final velocity
v
is at, so multiplying the average velocity by the time yields
1 2
d 5 at .
2 v – v0 = Δv
d = 1–2 at 2
The time t enters twice, once in finding the average veloc-
ity and then again when we multiply the velocity by time to v0
find the distance.*
d = v0 t v0
*Expressing this argument in symbolic form, it becomes t

1 1
the average velocity v 5 v 5 at
2 2 figure 2.20 The velocity-versus-time graph redrawn for
1 1 an initial velocity different from zero. The area under the curve is
d 5 vt 5 a atbt 5 at2.
2 2 divided into two portions, a rectangle and a triangle.
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Confirming Pages
Summary 33
If the acceleration is negative, meaning that the object is meters in the same time. The additional 72 meters comes
slowing down, this second term will subtract from the first. from the acceleration of the car.
This more general expression for distance may seem
complex, but the trick to understanding it is to break it Acceleration involves change, and uniform acceleration
down into its parts, as just suggested. We are merely add- involves a steady rate of change. It therefore represents
ing two terms representing different contributions to the the simplest kind of accelerated motion that we can
total distance. Each one can be computed in a straightfor- imagine. Uniform acceleration is essential to an under-
ward manner, and it is not difficult to add them together. The standing of free fall, discussed in chapter 3, as well as to
two portions of the graph in figure 2.20 represent these two many other phenomena. Such motion can be represented
contributions. by either the graphs or the formulas introduced in this
The sample exercise in example box 2.4 provides a section. Looking at both and seeing how they are related
numerical example of these ideas. The car in this example will reinforce these ideas.
accelerates uniformly from an initial velocity of 10 m/s due
east to a final velocity of 34 m/s due east and covers a dis- See clicker question 2.16 on the instructor
tance of 132 meters while this acceleration is taking place. website.
Had it not been accelerating, it would have gone only 60
summary
The main purpose of this chapter is to introduce concepts that are 3 Acceleration. Acceleration is defined as the time rate of
crucial to a precise description of motion. To understand accelera- change of velocity and is found by dividing the change in veloc-
tion, you must first grasp the concept of velocity, which in turn ity by the time. Acceleration is also a vector quantity. It can be
builds on the idea of speed. The distinctions between speed and computed as either an average or an instantaneous value. A change
velocity, and between velocity and acceleration, are particularly in the direction of the velocity can be as important as a change in
important. magnitude. Both involve acceleration.
1 Average and instantaneous speed. Average speed
is defined as the distance traveled divided by the time. It is the
average rate at which distance is covered. Instantaneous speed is
the rate at which distance is being covered at a given instant in time
and requires that we use very short time intervals for computation. vi Δv vf
+ =
Δv
a = _
t
4 Graphing motion. Graphs of distance, speed, velocity,

and acceleration plotted against time can illustrate relationships
d between these quantities. Instantaneous velocity is equal to the
s=–
t slope of the distance-time graph. Instantaneous acceleration is
equal to the slope of the velocity-time graph. The distance traveled
is equal to the area under the velocity-time graph.
2 Velocity. The instantaneous velocity of an object is a vec-
tor quantity that includes both direction and size. The size of the
velocity vector is equal to the instantaneous speed, and the direc- d v
tion is that of the object’s motion.
t t
v
5 Uniform acceleration. When an object accelerates at a
v = speed and direction constant rate producing a constant-slope graph of velocity versus
time, we say that it is uniformly accelerated. Graphs help us to
gri12206_ch02_017-037.indd 33 10/22/10 4:19 PM

Confirming Pages
understand the two formulas describing how velocity and distance

traveled vary with time for this important special case. The concepts of velocity and accelera-
tion discussed in this chapter are often
v
difficult to understand, particularly since
we use the same terms in everyday life
but often with different meanings. There
are mastery quizzes and other helpful
resources on the publisher’s website
www.mhhe.com/griffith7e that will help
v0
you clarify your understanding of these
ideas. We encourage you to try them.
t
v = v0 + a t
1
d = v0t + – at 2
2
key terms
Speed, 19 Magnitude, 23 Average acceleration, 25
Average speed, 19 Vector, 24 Instantaneous acceleration, 26
Rate, 20 Vector quantity, 24 Slope, 28
Instantaneous speed, 21 Instantaneous velocity, 24 Uniform acceleration, 31
Velocity, 22 Acceleration, 25
conceptual questions
* 5 more open-ended questions, requiring lengthier responses, differently in England than it would be in the United States?
suitable for group discussion Explain.
Q 5 sample responses are available in appendix D Q6. Does the speedometer on a car measure average speed or
Q 5 sample responses are available on the website instantaneous speed? Explain.
Q1. Suppose that critters are discovered on Mars who measure Q7. Is the average speed over several minutes more likely to be
distance in boogles and time in bops. close to the instantaneous speed at any time for a car travel-
a. What would the units of speed be in this system? Explain. ing in freely flowing, low-density traffic or for one travel-
b. What would the units of velocity be? Explain. ing in high-density traffic? Explain.
c. What would the units of acceleration be? Explain. *Q8. The highway patrol sometimes uses radar guns to identify
Q2. Suppose that we choose inches as our basic unit of distance possible speeders and at other times uses associates in air-
and days as our basic unit of time. planes who note the time taken for a car to pass between
a. What would the units of velocity and acceleration be in two marks some distance apart on the highway. What does
this system? Explain. each of these methods measure, average speed or instanta-
b. Would this be a good choice of units for measuring the neous speed? Can you think of situations in which either
acceleration of an automobile? Explain. one of these methods might unfairly penalize a driver?
Q3. What units would have an appropriate size for measuring Explain.
the rate at which fingernails grow? Explain. Q9. Is the term “vehicle density” (as used in everyday phe-
Q4. A tortoise and a hare cover the same distance in a race. The nomenon box 2.1) related to the weight of an individual
hare goes very fast for brief intervals, but stops frequently, vehicle, or does it refer to a property of several vehicles?
whereas the tortoise plods along steadily and finishes the Explain.
race ahead of the hare. Q10. Under what traffic conditions is the average speed of sev-
a. Which of the two racers has the greater average speed eral vehicles equal to the average speed of individual
over the duration of the race? Explain. vehicles within the group? Explain. (See everyday phenom-
b. Which of the two racers is likely to reach the greatest enon box 2.1.)
instantaneous speed during the race? Explain. Q11. At the front end of a traffic jam, is the vehicle density higher
Q5. A driver states that she was doing 80 when stopped by the or lower than at the back end of the traffic jam? Explain.
police. Is that a clear statement? Would this be interpreted (See everyday phenomenon box 2.1.)
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Confirming Pages
Conceptual Questions 35
Q12. A hockey puck is sliding on frictionless ice. It slams against Q22. A car moves along a straight line so that its position
a wall and bounces back toward the player with the same (distance from some starting point) varies with time as
speed that it had before hitting the wall. Does the velocity described by the graph shown here.
of the hockey puck change in this process? Explain. a. Does the car ever go backward? Explain.
b. Is the instantaneous velocity at point A greater or less
Q13. A ball attached to a string is whirled in a horizontal circle
than that at point B? Explain.
such that it moves with constant speed.
a. Does the velocity of the ball change in this process?
d
Explain.
b. Is the acceleration of the ball equal to zero? Explain.
*Q14. A ball tied to a string fastened at the other end to a rigid
support forms a pendulum. If we pull the ball to one side
and release it, the ball moves back and forth along an arc B
determined by the string length.
a. Is the velocity constant in this process? Explain. A
b. Is the speed likely to be constant in this process?
What happens to the speed when the ball reverses t
direction?
Q22 Diagram
Q15. A dropped ball gains speed as it falls. Can the velocity of
the ball be constant in this process? Explain. Q23. For the car whose distance is plotted against time in
Q16. A driver of a car steps on the brakes, causing the velocity of question 22, is the velocity constant during any time inter-
the car to decrease. According to the definition of accelera- val shown in the graph? Explain.
tion provided in this chapter, does the car accelerate in this Q24. A car moves along a straight section of road so that its
process? Explain. velocity varies with time as shown in the graph.
Q17. At a given instant in time, two cars are traveling at dif- a. Does the car ever go backward? Explain.
ferent velocities, one twice as large as the other. Based b. At which of the labeled points on the graph, A, B, or C, is
upon this information, is it possible to say which of these the magnitude of the acceleration the greatest? Explain.
two cars has the larger acceleration at this instant in time?
Explain. v
Q18. A car just starting up from a stop sign has zero velocity at
the instant that it starts. Must the acceleration of the car also
be zero at this instant? Explain. B
Q19. A car traveling with constant speed rounds a curve in the C
highway. Is the acceleration of the car equal to zero in this A
situation? Explain.
Q20. A racing sports car traveling with a constant velocity of 100 2 4 6
MPH due west startles a turtle by the side of the road who
begins to move out of the way. Which of these two objects t (s)
is likely to have the larger acceleration at that instant? Q24 Diagram
Explain.
Q21. In the graph shown here, velocity is plotted as a function of Q25. For the car whose velocity is plotted in question 24, in
time for an object traveling in a straight line. which of the equal time segments 0–2 seconds, 2–4 seconds,
a. Is the velocity constant for any time interval shown? or 4–6 seconds is the distance traveled by the car the great-
Explain. est? Explain.
b. During which time interval shown does the object have Q26. Look again at the velocity-versus-time graph for the toy car
the greatest acceleration? Explain. shown in figure 2.15.
a. Is the instantaneous speed greater at any time during
this motion than the average speed for the entire trip?
v Explain.
b. Is the car accelerated when the direction of the car is
reversed at t 5 50 s? Explain.
Q27. Suppose that the acceleration of a car increases with time.
Could we use the relationship v 5 v0 1 at in this situation?
Explain.
2 4 6 8
Q28. When a car accelerates uniformly from rest, which of these
t (s)
quantities increases with time: acceleration, velocity, and/or
Q21 Diagram distance traveled? Explain.
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Confirming Pages
Q29. The velocity-versus-time graph of an object curves as than, or less than the distance covered during the second
shown in the diagram. Is the acceleration of the object 5 seconds? Explain.
constant? Explain.
Q32. A car starts from rest, accelerates uniformly for 5 seconds,
travels at constant velocity for 5 seconds, and finally decel-
v erates uniformly for 5 seconds. Sketch graphs of velocity
versus time and acceleration versus time for this situation.
Q33. Suppose that two runners run a 100-meter dash, but the first
runner reaches maximum speed more quickly than the sec-
ond runner. Both runners maintain constant speed once they
have reached their maximum speed and cross the finish line
at the same time. Which runner has the larger maximum
speed? Explain. (See everyday phenomenon box 2.2.)
t Q34. Sketch a graph showing velocity-versus-time curves for the
Q29 Diagram two runners described in question 30. Sketch both curves
on the same graph, so that the differences are apparent. (See
Q30. For a uniformly accelerated car, is the average acceleration everyday phenomenon box 2.2.)
equal to the instantaneous acceleration? Explain.
*Q35. A physics instructor walks with increasing speed across
Q31. A car traveling in the forward direction experiences a the front of the room, then suddenly reverses direction and
negative uniform acceleration for 10 seconds. Is the dis- walks backward with constant speed. Sketch graphs of
tance covered during the first 5 seconds equal to, greater velocity and acceleration consistent with this description.
exercises
E1. A traveler covers a distance of 460 miles in a time of E12. The velocity of a car decreases from 30 m/s to 18 m/s in a
8 hours. What is the average speed for this trip? time of 4 seconds. What is the average acceleration of the
car in this process?
E2. A walker covers a distance of 1.8 km in a time of 30 minutes.
What is the average speed of the walker for this distance E13. A car traveling with an initial velocity of 14 m/s accelerates
in km/h? at a constant rate of 2.5 m/s2 for a time of 3 seconds.
E3. Grass clippings are found to have an average length of 4.8 cm
b. What distance does the car travel during this process?
when a lawn is mowed 12 days after the previous mowing.
What is the average speed of growth of this grass in cm/day? E14. A runner traveling with an initial velocity of 2.0 m/s accel-
erates at a constant rate of 1.1 m/s2 for a time of 3 seconds.
E4. A driver drives for 2.5 hours at an average speed of 48 MPH.
a. What is his velocity at the end of this time?
What distance does she travel in this time?
b. What distance does the runner cover during this process?
E5. A woman walks a distance of 360 m with an average speed
E15. A car moving with an initial velocity of 28 m/s slows down
of 1.2 m/s. What time was required to walk this distance?
at a constant rate of 23 m/s2.
E6. A person in a hurry averages 62 MPH on a trip covering a a. What is its velocity after 4 seconds of deceleration?
distance of 300 miles. What time was required to travel that b. What distance does the car cover in this time?
distance?
E16. A runner moving with an initial velocity of 4.0 m/s slows
E7. A hiker walks with an average speed of 1.2 m/s. What down at a constant rate of 21.5 m/s2 over a period of
distance in kilometers does the hiker travel in a time of 2 seconds.
1 hour? a. What is her velocity at the end of this time?
b. What distance does she travel during this process?
E8. A car travels with an average speed of 22 m/s.
a. What is this speed in km/s? E17. If a world-class sprinter ran a distance of 100 meters start-
b. What is this speed in km/h? ing at his top speed of 11 m/s and running with constant
speed throughout, how long would it take him to cover the
E9. A car travels with an average speed of 58 MPH. What is this
distance?
speed in km/h? (See example box 2.1.)
E18. Starting from rest, a car accelerates at a constant rate of
E10. Starting from rest and moving in a straight line, a runner
3.0 m/s2 for a time of 5 seconds.
achieves a velocity of 7 m/s in a time of 2 seconds. What is
a. Compute the velocity of the car at 1 s, 2 s, 3 s, 4 s, and 5 s
the average acceleration of the runner?
and plot these velocity values against time.
E11. Starting from rest, a car accelerates at a rate of 4.2 m/s2 for a b. Compute the distance traveled by the car for these same
time of 5 seconds. What is its velocity at the end of this time? times and plot the distance values against time.
gri12206_ch02_017-037.indd 36 10/22/10 4:19 PM

Confirming Pages
synthesis problems
SP1. A railroad engine moves forward along a straight section SP3. A car traveling due west on a straight road accelerates
of track for a distance of 80 m due west at a constant speed at a constant rate for 10 seconds increasing its veloc-
of 5 m/s. It then reverses its direction and travels 20 m due ity from 0 to 24 m/s. It then travels at constant speed for
east at a constant speed of 4 m/s. The time required for 10 seconds and then decelerates at a steady rate for the next
this deceleration and reversal is very short due to the small 5 seconds to a velocity of 10 m/s. It travels at this velocity
speeds involved. for 5 seconds and then decelerates rapidly to a stop in a
a. What is the time required for the entire process? time of 2 seconds.
b. Sketch a graph of average speed versus time for this a. Sketch a graph of the car’s velocity versus time for the
process. Show the deceleration and reacceleration upon entire motion just described. Label the axes of your
reversal as occurring over a very short time interval. graph with the appropriate velocities and times.
c. Using negative values of velocity to represent reversed b. Sketch a graph of acceleration versus time for the car.
motion, sketch a graph of velocity versus time for the engine. c. Does the distance traveled by the car continually
d. Sketch a graph of acceleration versus time for the engine. increase in the motion described? Explain.
SP2. The velocity of a car increases with time as shown in the graph. SP4. A car traveling in a straight line with an initial velocity
a. What is the average acceleration between 0 seconds and of 14 m/s accelerates at a rate of 2.0 m/s2 to a velocity of
4 seconds? 24 m/s.
b. What is the average acceleration between 4 seconds and a. How much time does it take for the car to reach the
8 seconds? velocity of 24 m/s?
c. What is the average acceleration between 0 seconds and b. What is the distance covered by the car in this process?
8 seconds? c. Compute values of the distance traveled at 1-second
d. Is the result in part c equal to the average of the two intervals and carefully draw a graph of distance plotted
values in parts a and b? Compare and explain. against time for this motion.
SP5. Just as car A is starting up, it is passed by car B. Car B travels
12 with a constant velocity of 10 m/s, while car A accelerates
with a constant acceleration of 4.5 m/s2, starting from rest.
a. Compute the distance traveled by each car for times of
v (m/s)
8
1 s, 2 s, 3 s, and 4 s.
b. At what time, approximately, does car A overtake car B?
4 c. How might you go about finding this time exactly?
Explain.
2 4 6 8 10
t (s)
SP2 Diagram

HE1. How fast do you normally walk? Using a meter stick or a millimeter rule, estimate the speed of growth for one or
string of known length, lay out a straight course of 40 or more of these: fingernails, toenails, facial hair if you shave
50 meters. Then use a watch with a second hand or a stop- regularly, or hair near your face (such as sideburns) that
watch to determine will provide an easy reference point. Measure the average
a. Your normal walking speed in m/s. size of clippings or of growth at regular time intervals.
b. Your walking speed for a brisk walk. a. What is the average speed of growth? What units are
c. Your jogging speed for this same distance. most appropriate for describing this speed?
d. Your sprinting speed for this distance. b. Does the speed appear to be constant with time? Does
the speed appear to be the same for different nails
Record and compare the results for these different cases.
(thumb versus fingers, fingernails versus toenails), or in
Is your sprinting speed more than twice your speed for a
the case of hair, for different positions on your face?
brisk walk?
HE2. The speed with which hair or fingernails grow pro-
vides some interesting measurement challenges. Using a
gri12206_ch02_017-037.indd 37 10/22/10 4:19 PM

Physics of Everyday Phenomena Chapter 1 2 2020

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gri12206_fm_i-xviii.indd i 12/2/10 5:15 PM

THE PHYSICS OF EVERYDAY PHENOMENA: A CONCEPTUAL INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS,

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Vice President, Editor-in-Chief: Marty Lange

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

gri12206_fm_i-xviii.indd ii 12/2/10 5:16 PM

Unit One The Newtonian Revolution 12 Electrostatic Phenomena 236

2 Describing Motion 18 13 Electric Circuits 258

3 Falling Objects and Projectile Motion 38 14 Magnets and Electromagnetism 282

5 Circular Motion, the Planets, and Gravity 80

6 Energy and Oscillations 102

7 Momentum and Impulse 124

8 Rotational Motion of Solid Objects 145

Unit Two Fluids and Heat

9 The Behavior of Fluids 170

10 Temperature and Heat 191

11 Heat Engines and the Second Law

21 Looking Deeper into Everyday Phenomena 457

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about the authors

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The Tablecloth Trick 65

Describing Motion 18 4.5 Applications of Newton’s Laws 71

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5.4 Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation 91

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Unit Three Electricity and Unit Four Wave Motion

Cleaning Up the Smoke 243 15.2 Waves on a Rope 311

Electric Circuits 258

14 Magnets and Electromagnetism

everyday phenomenon box 14.1 Rainbows 362

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20.4 Newton’s Laws and Mass-Energy

Unit Six Relativity and Beyond Glossary G-1

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Chapter 12 The discussion of electric potential has been

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incorporating clicker questions to align to the text coverage

Elastic and inelastic collisions. How can

Collisions at an angle. How can we extend

features described here reinforce this structure so that the

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“The presentation is outstanding: Clear, concise, not too

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The Case of the Malfunctioning Coffee Pot Open end

Measuring Blood Pressure (chapter 9)

pointers on their use of the textbook, tips on applying the

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Example boxes are included within the chapter and contain

Debatable Issues provide open-ended, opinion questions

defined in context. of conservation of momentum. The basic ideas used in

Conceptual Questions Exercises synthesis problems

• Exercises and synthesis problems are intended

ing. The odd-numbered exercises have answers

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• Because many courses for non-science majors do not Links Library