M.tech Thesis Opt Aq

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The document discusses optimizing the design of aqueducts and the challenges faced by designers.

The thesis submitted by S.N. Satyanarayana discusses optimizing aqueduct designs as a challenge to the creativity of designers.

A certificate is provided to certify that the work presented in the thesis was carried out by the student under the guidance of their professor.

OPTIMISING AQUEDUCTS -A CHALLENGE TO

CREATIVITY OF DESIGNERS

S.N.SATYANARAYANA
00012D0122
M.Tech
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, KUKATPALLY


JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
HYDERABAD-28
2008
OPTIMISING AQUEDUCTS -A CHALLENGE TO
CREATIVITY OF DESIGNERS

Thesis / Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment


of the requirement for the award of the degree of
Master of Technology in Structural Engineering
By
S.N.SATYANARAYANA
00012D0122

Under the guidance of


Dr.N.V.RAMANA RAO ,
Professor of Civil Engineering
J.N.T.U. College of Engineering,Hyderabad

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, KUKATPALLY


JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
HYDERABAD-28
2008

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the thesis / dissertation entitled “OPTIMISING
AQUEDUCTS -A CHALLENGE TO CREATIVITY OF DESIGNERS” that is

being submitted by the Mr.S.N.Satyanarayana in partial fulfillment for the


award of the degree of Master of Technology in Structural Engineering
in Civil Engineering to the Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University,
Hyderabad is a record of bonafide work carried out by him under my
guidance and supervision

The results embodied in this thesis have not been submitted to any
other University or Institute for the award of any degree or diploma.

Dr.N.V.RAMANA RAO ,
Professor of Civil Engineering
J.N.T.U. College of Engineering,
Hyderabad
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I express my profound gratitude to Dr.N.V. Ramana Rao, Professor of


Civil Engineering, J.N.T.University,Hyderabad, for his invaluable guidance
and every kind of help received at every state of this dissertation.

I am grateful to the Dr. Viswanadham, Head of Civil Engineering,


J.N.T.University,Hyderabad, and Dr. Damodhar. Director, &Professor of
Computer science, J.N.T.University ,Hyderabad, for their encouragement
and offering a great support to complete this disseration.

I take this opportunity to thank all the staff members of Department


of Civil Engineering, J.N.T.University ,Hyderabad for their encouragement &
suggestions through out this course

I am grateful to the Dr. S.V.L.Narasimham, Professor of Computer


science, J.N.T.University ,Hyderabad, and Sri R.B.R.Prasad, Engineer-in-
Chief (Retd) for their valuable suggestions and constant encouragement
rendered in pursuing my career.

I am grateful to the Sri G. Prasad Rao, Chief Engineer, North Coast,


I & CAD Department and Sri B.Pratap Babu, Superintending Engineer,
T.T.P.R. Circle, Vizianagaram for permitting me to use the data of
Srikakulam branch canal and their encouragement in completing this
course
I thank my colleagues Mr. A.S.N. Reddy, & Mr. M.A. Zaheer, and
Mr. M.W. Ali, Deputy Executive Engineers, Central Designs Organisations
for extending their help in completing this dissertation.
S.N.SATYANARAYANA

ABSTRACT
Thotapalli barrage project across Nagavali River in Vizianagaram
District to irrigate an area about 1,20,000 Acres under E.P.C turn key
system of worth Rs.450 Crores,
Srikakulam branch canal, to irrigate an area of about 42,300 Acres
takes off at KM 96.000 of Thotapalli barrage right main canal, passes over
local valley in between Km 9.00 to KM 10.00 where a 625m length of
aqueduct is proposed to carry water for irrigation purpose.

In this dissertation an attempt is made to study the cost economics


of the possible structural combinations of the aqueduct using
“STAAD PRO” Software. And thus to arrive at a optimum solution of a
functional system by balancing the hydraulic as well as structural aspects
of the design.
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
Hydraulic structures play a significant role in the development of
society because water is a critical substance with a daily global average
consumption of 200 litres per capita. Hydraulic structures are therefore
fundamental to the development of modern society. Besides human
consumption ,a major volume of water is used for other purposes such as
the production of hydroelectric power ,irrigation,transport of people and
goods ,etc. Water can prove to be a destructive force too as manifested
through floods and erosion. Control of these evil is also essential.
Our country encompasses abundant water resources and perennial
rivers flowing in India .About 34 major and minor rivers flow through in our
state. Of those 5 rivers namely Godavari, Krishna, Pennar, Vamsahara,
Nagavali are important.All these rivers annually contribute about 2,746
Tmcft of surface water at 75 percent dependability. Our state government
have been taken up about 59 major and medium projects with an
estimated cost of Rs.1,00,000 Crores. In the above investment, the cost of
canal cross drainage structures are about 40,000 crores. Hence ,it is
necessary to optimizing the design of the canal cross drainage structures .
Most of the major structures in irrigation projects are situated in
typical topographical conditions, which call for a good understanding of the
structural behavior of the structure as well as its hydraulic performance.
Since huge funds are invested in construction of irrigation structures, a
considerable improvement in the design principles and incorporation of
certain relevant factors is of significance in the design of the structures. The
basic requirements for an efficient structural design is that the response of
the structure should be acceptable as per various specifications, i.e., it
should at least be a feasible design. There can be large number of feasible
designs, but it is desirable to choose the best from these several designs.
The best design could be in terms of minimum cost, minimum weight or
maximum performance or a combination of these.
It is fairly accepted fact that one of the most important human activities is
decision making. Optimization techniques play an important role in
structural design, the very purpose of which is to find the best ways so that
a designer or a decision maker can derive a maximum benefit from the
available resources. The feature of the optimal design is that it consists of
only logical decisions. In making a logical decision, one sets out the
constraints and then minimizes or maximizes the objective function (which
could be either cost, weight or merit function).Structural optimum design
methods can also be according to the design philosophy employed. Most
civil engineering structures are even to-day designed on the basis of
permissible stress criterion.
1.2 Existing technology
Aqueducts are being built for the last two thousand years. The Romans built eleven
aqueducts to supply water to Rome and constructed many more in Europe and North Africa.
The water had to flow in open channels by gravity requiring elevated channels. The
structures were typical. On a row of tall piers of stone or brick, rose a series of arches. Above
these lay the water channel with an arched or gabled roof. When an aqueduct crossed a deep
gorge, two or even three tiers of arches were built, one on top of the other.

Pont du Gard, France, a Roman aqueduct built circa 19 BC. It is one of


France's top tourist attractions and a World Heritage Site (figure-1)
The finest surviving examples of aqueducts built around 10 B.C. are ones at
Segonia and Nimes, built under Marcus Agrippa, one of the greatest
builders of ancient times.

Marcus Agrippa had to deal with only simple open channel hydraulics, be
content with the stone and brick masonry as materials of construction and
adopt without option , arches to span relatively small spans. The creativity
and imagination needed to blend and extend the then existing knowledge by
adopting intuitive solutions were still within the limits of what one man
could master - but even then, he was a rare specimen.
Ancient Indian aqueduct in Hampi(figure-2)

Indian subcontinent was one of the earliest builders of aqueducts. More


prominent evidence can be found at the sites of present day Hampi. The
massive aqueducts near river Tungabhadra supplying irrigation water were
once 15 miles long[1].The elegant water ways in royal center supplied water
for royal bath houses
Current Trends in present
The most favoured section for aqueducts carrying 'open channel flows'
has traditionally been the rectangular section of single or multiple cells. It is
simple to design hydraulically and structurally — apart from being easy for
construction. However, for pressure barrels circular/box cross sections have
been mostly favoured. For open sections in certain cases trapezoidal,
segmental circular and even parabolic cross - sections have been used as
illustrated by examples later. The hydraulic design of all such sections has
different hydraulic efficiency, whereas from structural point of view the
efficiency is decided by the optimum use of materials in transverse design
as a primary consideration and longitudinal design as a secondary factor.
The Consultants such as “STUPS pvt Ltd, Mumabai “,P.V.R &CO,
Meltech and Ram kumar raju Associates,Hyderabad, etc, have been adopted
many number of concepts in design of Modern Aqueducts : As an example
of what can be achieved by following the methods described above a case
study of Bhima Aqueduct constructed as a part of Ujgani Project in
Maharashtra is described. Table I below gives the comparative details of the
actually adopted solution against a conventional solution

The design economies achieved in this type of structure have been


discussed below . Apart from the optimised superstructure, the
substructure solution is also structurally efficient. Hollow RCC piers of upto
40m height support 40m spans in groups of 3 span and 4 span continuous
units and total 947m in length. The photograph shows the method of
construction. The match-cast segments are assembled by cantilever
construction method, glued by epoxy and prestressed longitudinally and
transversely. The structure has been acclaimed internationally as an
outstandingconstruction. Bhima Aqueduct(figure-3)
Table I

Solution Adopted Conventional Solution

Cross Section

Waterway 13.79 sq.m 18.00 sq.m

Long Slope 1 in 661.539 1 in 661.539

Discharge 42.5 cumecs 42.5 cumecs

Velocity 3.14 m/ec. 2.36 m/sec.

Area of concrete section 3.45 sq.m 6.37 sq.m

Span 41.50 m 43.00 m

System in longitudinal Continuous over simply 4 to 5 supports


direction supported.

It can be seen that :

(a) Hydraulic efficiency of cross section has permitted higher velocities


and brought down waterway section from 18 sq.mm. to 13.79 sq.mm.
a reduction of 23% in weight of water.

(b) The choice of membrane state of stresses resisted by prestressing


cables combined with the reduction of water load and reduction in self
weight led to the reduction in concrete cross section from 6.37 cu.
m/m to 3.45 cu.m/m i.e. 46% saving of concrete material.

(c) Use of continuous spans over three span and four span units reduced
the longitudinal bending effects making the system cheaper as
compared to the simply supported option.

The net savings over the conventional design were of the order of 40%.
Design & Construction of Road Bridge cum Aqueduct across the river
Narmada near Omkareshwar in Madhya Pradesh State(Figure-4)

The Aqueduct was designed with a trapezoidal cross section and the sub structure
consists of RCC circular Piers with hammer head pier cap

"Tajo Sequra Aqueduct, France"

This is an 8280m long aqueduct with RCC trapezoidal section of 5.6m on


top, 2.5m at bottom and 4.75m height. The segments are match-cast and
connected by gluing with epoxy and prestressing. The 40m continuous
spans are constructed using 150m long launching truss and balanced
cantilever technique.Cellular pier of 30m height were cast by slip forming.
The photograph shows completed portion of the aqueduct as well as the
construction method.
“Warna Aqueduct, Mahasrashtra”

This 940m long aqueduct carries a discharge of 30 cumecs in a classical


rectangular box section o! 3.5m x 4.37m with a service road on lop. In
transverse section it is designed as RCC section. Longitudinally, it spans
over 47m with overhangs on either side meeting at the centre of the
adjoining spans. The Superstructure over the river portion is cast by
standard cantilever construction method in which shuttering is moved
forward while being supported, on the previously cast structure. For
heights, upto 15m above ground, cast-m-situ segments were supported
from staging erected over ground. The piers are of a hollow circular section
which are tapering. The foundations in the dry portion of the valley are
circular RCC footing resting on rock. For the river portion foundations were
constructed by sinking tapered wells upto 20m depth.

In the above examples observed and concluded that the catchments


area of the streams will be small as compared to the length of aqueducts
and the bed level and M.F.L of drain will be very much below the channel to
be crossed. In such cases, naturally, the channel will pass over the ravine
by means of a trough or a conduit. But to support the trough pies will have
to be unusually high. Hence,the cost of the substructure is very much
higher This is not desirable. In all such cases, pressure Aqueducts are
preferred

PRESSURE AQUEDUCT (Figure-5)


1.3 LITARATURE SURVEY

The study is based on the previous study by CH. Satyanarayana


Murthy [3]on Pressure Aqueducts. The Mathematical equations for
hydraulic calculations are taken by work done by various authors and as
spelt out on the relevant is codes of practice is viz 1S:3370[ ], 1S:7784[ ],
(Part I to IV). 1S:7784 Part II[ ] deals exclusively on the design aspects of
aqueducts.
Based on the guidelines as spelt out in the 1S codes the hydraulic
calculation are first carried our for ascertaining the hydraulic efficiency of
the structure together with the losses associated in the conduit flow under
pressure. This calls for extensive calculations known as TEL calculations
taking the stretch of the structure from the start to end for arriving at the
total energy levels and this gives us the overall losses in the structure to be
proposed.
Based on the losses ( or loss of head) due to pressure, a provision
needs to be made in the canal downstream in the hydraulic particulars to
be approved. This aspect needs to be decided before the construction of the
structure so that the required discharges are not compromised.

Further, after ascertaining the hydraulic efficiency, the structure


needs to be checked for the permissible velocities such that it shall be self
cleaning and also non silting . A critical combination of this needs to be
ascertained before taking up the Hydraulic design. Hydraulic design of the
conduits is carried out based on the literature as spelt out in ‘Open channel
flow” by Ven-te- Chow [ ] and other relevant IS codes of practice.After having
carried out the TEL Calculation (Hydraulic Calculation) and ascertaining the
function, the next step is to carry out the transverse and longitudinal design
of the structure.
Transverse design is carried out initially to arrive at the thickness of
the members of the super structure box.After the transverse design is
carried out and the thickness arrived, the longitudinal design involves the
selection of optimum span to ascertain that the stresses thus arrived for
critical combination of loadings as spelt out in IS codes of practice are
within permissible limits.

The other aspects of dimensioning and detailing which is rather


important is the provision of Haunches ( or fillets) at appropriate locations,
generally at junction of members. The thickness of the haunches and the
length depend on the bending moment, shear forces and axial forces at that
locations. The provision of haunches at these locations not only reduce the
self weight of the structure but also make the structure more robust against
bending moments, shear forces and axial forces.

The structural design of the members of the structure are based on


the permissible stresses and design criteria as spelt out in IS 7784 (Part II)[ ]
for design of aqueducts and liquid retaining structures.For analysis of
members for cracked section criteria and other aspects standard text books
authored by O.P Jain & Jaikrishna [ ],B.C.Punimia [ ],Vazirani&Rathwani [ ]
etc., are referred for general formulaic and guidance.

1.4 Scope of the Work

In this dissertation an attempt is made to study the cost economics of


the possible structural combinations of aqueducts and thus to arrive at
optimum solution of a structural system by balancing hydraulic as well as
structural aspects of the design.
As an Aqueduct is a major irrigation structure, therefore an attempt is
made to study the various combinations of super structure to achieve at
overall economy of the project. Super structure is analysed using “STAAD
PRO” software and design is based on the provisions as laid down in the
relevant IS codes and IRC codes of practice in vogue for irrigation
structures.

The design is carried out based on the site investigation reports. A


comparison of three types of super-structures is made. Three different cases

i.e 1) superstructure box with single vent


2)superstructure box with 2 vents
3)superstructure box with 3 vents

In all the three cases rectangular box superstructure running over


the piers, simply supported is considered. The superstructure box is also
analysed for Class-A vehicular loading on top of the box. The loading criteria
is as per the relevalant clauses as given in IRC 6 and IRC 21.In the
Tranverse analysis the box is designed treating the flow under pressure and
relevant formulae adopted as per codal practices. In each case the thickness
of members and coss-sectional area and the reinforcement steel required in
each case is evaluated and compared.

The main focus of this study is thus to arrive at an optimum cross


section of the structure by balancing the hydraulic as well as structural
aspects to achieve a efficient and functional system economically. Since
irrigation projects are generally of very massive magnitude and require
huge amount of funds , optimizing the design to achieve overall economy
plays an important role for the designers.
1.5 Organization of the dissertation

 The first chapter details a general introduction of aqueducts and a


brief account of the existing technology in this area.The scope of the
present work is also detailed.
 The second chapter details a general introduction of conveyance
structures for canal flows. The design principles of aqueduct
structures are also detailed.
 The third chapter deals with the hydraulic design of the actual case
study ,in this case the model studied is the aqueduct across local
valley in the stretch KM.9.000 toKm.10.000 of the Srikakulam Branch
canal of Thothapalli Barrage Project.
 The fourth chapter deals with the detailed structural analysis and
dseign of the three different supestructure boxes.
 In the fifth chapter conclusion and discussions are presented along
with a brief note on scope for further work.
 APPENDIX –A Conept of Optimization in brief
 APPENDIX-B Aqueducts of the past-history

 APPENDIX-C Site investigation report and layout details


Chapter 2

OPTIMISING AQUEDUCTS -A CHALLENGE


TO CREATIVITY OF DESIGNERS
INTRODUCTION

2.0General
2. 1 Conveyance Structures for Canal Flows

A canal conveying water from the head works has to run for large
distances and has to maintain the water levels appropriately, as designed
along its length. It has to run through terrains which generally would have a
different slope smallthan the canal . The surrounding areas would
invariably have its own drainagesystem ranging from small streams to large
rivers . The canal has to carry the water across these water bodies as well as
across artificial obstacles like railwayline or roads .

The main structures of a canal system for conveyance of canal flow


and control of water levels are as follows .

1. Pipe conduits, culverts and inverted syphons to carry flow under railways
and highways .
2. Aqueducts, syphon aqueducts, super-passage, canal siphon or level
crossings
across natural drainage courses or other depressions.
3. Transitions at changes in cross sections.
This topic deals with the concepts of planning, layout and design of canal
structures for flow conveyance across artificial and natural obstacles .
2.2 Structures for crossing canals across roads and railwaylines

These are structural elements to convey canal water under roads or


railway lines. For small roads, carrying relatively less traffic, the pipe
conduit is sufficient. A general view of the pipe conduit is shown in Figure
1 and its typical plan and cross section in Figure2.
For canals crossing under major highways and railway tracks, reinforced
concrete culverts are more commonly adopted.

These roads or railway crossings are usually having a straight profile


along its length. The water level in the canal for this type of crossing is lower
than the level of the obstruction it crosses, as may be noticed from Figure 2
and the flow through the pipe may be free or under mild pressure

Pipe road crossings are relatively economical, easily designed and


built, and have proven a reliable means of conveying water under a
roadway. Pipe installations are normally installed by cut and cover method
below minor roads but for important roads, where traffic cannot be
interrupted, it may be accomplished by jacking the pipe through the
roadway foundation.
The inverted syphons are structures for canal water conveyance below
roads, railway lines and other structures (Figure 3). The longitudinal profile
is not exactly in a straight line and the central portion is seen to sag
beneath the object to be crossed. The inverted syphon, therefore, is provided
where the water level in the canal is about the same as the level of the obstruction
(Figure 4).

The inverted syphon is a closed conduit designed to run full and under
pressure .If made of pressure pipes , they should be able to withstand the
load of cover and wheel from outside and the hydrostatic head from inside .
Transitions for changes in cross sections are nearly always used at inlet and
outlet of a siphon to reduce head losses and prevent erosion in unlined
canals caused by the velocity changes between the canal and the pipe.
2.3 Structures for crossing canals across natural streams
(cross drainage works)
These structural elements are required for conveying the canals
across natural drainage. When a canal layout is planned, it is usually seen
to cross a number of channels draining the area, varying from small and
shallow depressions to large rivers.It is not generally possible to construct
cross-drainage structures for each of the small streams. Some of the small
drainage courses are, therefore, diverted into one big channel and allowed to
cross the canal. However, for larger streams and river, where the cost of
diversion becomes costlier than providing a separate cross-drainage work,
individual structures to cross the canal across the stream is provided.
There could be a variety of combinations of the relative position of the canal
with respect the natural channel that is to be crossed. These conditions are
shown in Figures 5 to 9. The notations used in the figures are as follows:
(a) CBL: Canal Bed Level;
(b) SBL: Stream Bed Level;
(c) FSL: Canal Full Supply Level; and
(d) HFL: Stream High Flood Level

Figure 5 shows the relative position of canal (shown in cross-section) with


respect to anatural stream (shown in longitudinal section), when canal bed
level is higher than stream high flood level.
Figure 6 shows the relative position of a canal whose bed level is below but
full supply level is above the stream high flood level.

Figure 7 shows a canal with full supply level almost matching the high flood
level of the naturalstream.
Figure 8 shows a canal full supply level and bed levels below the levels of
high flood level and bed level of stream, respectively.

Figure 9 shows the relative position of canal with respect to the natural
stream where the canal full supply level is below the stream bed level.
In general , the solution for all the illustrated conditions possible for
conveying an irrigation canal across a natural channel is by providing a
water conveying structure which may:
(a) Carry the canal over the natural stream;
(b) Carry the canal beneath the natural stream; or
(c) Carry the canal at the same level of the natural stream.
These three broad types of structures are discussed further in this lesson .
2.4 Structures to carry canal water over a natural stream
Conveying a canal over a natural watercourse may be accomplished in
two ways:(a) Normal canal section is reduced to a rectangular section and
carriedacross the natural stream in the form of a bridge resting on piers and
foundations (Figure 10) . This type of structure is called a trough type
aqueduct .

Figure 10 .Trough type aqueduct .


(b) Normal canal section is continued across the natural stream but the
stream section is flumed to pass through ‘barrels’ or rectangular passages
(Figure 11). This type is called a barrel type aqueduct.

Figure 11 . Barrel type aqueduct.


Typical sections and plans of a trough type and a barrel type aqueducts are
shown in Figures12 and 13 respectively.
Figures 12. Longitudinal section of Aqueduct

For the aqueducts, it may be observed from Figures 12 and 13 that


the HFL of the natural stream is lower than the bottom of the trough (or the
roof of the barrel). In this case, the flow is not under pressure, that is, it has
a free surface exposed to
atmospheric pressure.
In case the HFL of the natural stream goes above the trough bottom
level (TBL) or the barrel roof level (BRL), then the flow in the natural
watercourse would be pressured and the sections are modified to form
which is known as syphon aqueducts (Figures 14 and 15).
It may be observed that the trough type aqueduct or syphon aqueduct
would be suitable for the canal crossing a larger stream or river, whereas
the barrel type is suitable if the natural stream is rather small. The relative
economics of the two types has to be established on case to case basis.
Further, the following points maybe noted for the two types of aqueducts or
siphon aqueducts:
Trough type: The canal is flumed to not less than 75 percent of the bed
width keeping in view the permissible head loss in the canal .Transitions 3:1
on the upstream and 5:1 on the downstream side are provided to join the
flumed section to the normal canal section . For the trough-type syphon
aqueduct the designer must consider the upward thrust also that might act
during high floods in the natural stream when the stream water flows under
pressure below the trough base and for worst condition , the canal may be
assumed to be dry at that time. The dead weight of the trough may be made
more than that of the upward thrust or it may be suitably anchored to the
piers in order to may be counteract the uplift condition mentioned .
Barrel type:The barrel may be made up of RCC, which could be single or
multi-cell,circular or rectangular in cross section. Many of the earlier
structures were made of masonry walls and arch roofing. Precast RCC pipes
may be economical for small discharges. For barrel-type syphon aqueducts,
the barrel is horizontal in the central portion but slopes upwards on the
upstream and downstream side at about an inclination of 3H : 1V and 4H :
1V respectively. A self-cleaning velocity of 6m/s and 3m/s is considered
while designing RCC and masonry barrels respectively.
2.5 Structures to carry canal water below a natural stream
A canal can be conveyed below a natural stream with the help of
structures like a super-passage or a siphon. These are exactly opposite in
function to that of the aqueducts and siphon aqueducts, which are used to
carry the canal water above the natural stream. The natural stream is
flumed and made to pass in a trough above the canal. If the canal water
flows with a free surface, that is, without touching the bottom of the trough,
it is called a super-passage (Figure 16). Else, when the canal passes below
the trough as a pressure flow, then it is termed as a syphon or a canal
syphon.Instead of a trough, the canal flow may be conveyed below the
natural stream using small pre-cast RCC pipes (for small discharges) and
rectangular or circular barrels,either in single or multiple cells, may be used
(for large discharges), as shown in Figure 17.

Figure 17 a Longitudinal Sections of wellsyphon & syphon


2.6 Structures to carry canal water at the same level as a
natural stream
A structure in which the water of the stream is allowed to flow into the canal from
one side and allowed to leave from the other, known as a level crossing , falls into
this category (Figure 18).

This type of structure is provided when a canal approaches a large sized


drainage with high flood discharges at almost the same level. The flow
control is usually provided on either side of the canal and on the outlet side
of the drain. As such, this type of arrangement is very similar to canal
head-works with a barrage. Advantage may be taken of the flow of the
natural drainage to augment the flow of the outgoing canal. The barrage
type regulator is kept closed during low flows to head up the water and
allows the lean season drainage flow to enter the outgoing canal. During
flood seasons, the barrage gates may be opened to allow much of the silt-
laden drainage discharge to flow down.
Another structure, called an inlet, is sometimes provided which allows the
entry of the stream water into the canal through an opening in the canal
bank, suitably protected by pitching the bed and sides for a certain distance
upstream and downstream of the inlet. If the natural stream water is not
utilized in the canal then an outlet, which is an opening on the opposite
bank of the canal is provided. The canal bed and sides suitably pitched for
protection.

2.7 Transitions at changes in canal cross-sections


A canal cross section may change gradually, in which case suitable flaring
of the walls
may be made to match the two sections (Figure 19).

For more abrupt changes, like a normal canal section being changed to a
vertical walled aqueduct, suitable transitions have been designed which
would avoid formation of any hydraulic with consequent loss of energy. A
typical view of transition of a normal canal bank to a vertical walled flume
section is shown in (Figure 20).
As may be observed, the banks of the normal canal section are first changed
to vertical walls keeping the same canal bed width (B c). Beyond this, the
B

vertical section is reduced gradually to form a reduced sized flume of width


(Bf ). Various formulae have been proposed for deciding the intermediate
B

curve, that is, an equation deciding the width (B x) at any distance x from
B

the start of the fluming, assuming a length L for the transition. One formula
that is commonly used for this kind of transition is the UPIRI method,
commonly known as Mitra’s transition and is given as follows:
B x = (Bc * Bf *L ) / (L * Bc – X (Bc – Bf)) (1)
B

The length L of the transition is assumed to be equal to 2 *(B c – Bf). In


another type of transition, the vertical curved walls of a normal canal
section is both transformed in to vertical walls of a flume as well as its
section is reduced gradually, as shown in Figure 20. This results in
reduction of the canal bed width from B c to Bf and the side slopes from M 0 to
B B

O. The values for the bed width Bx at any length X from the start of the
transition and the corresponding side slope mx are given by the following
expressions
B = Bc + X/L [1- (1- X/L)n] (Bc -Bf ) (2)
m x = m0 [1 – (1- X/L)1/2] (3)
Where n = 0.8 - 0.26(m0)½ and the length of transition L, is expressed as
L = 2.35 (Bc-Bf) + 1.65 m0 h c (4)
Chapter-3
AQUEDUCTS
INTRODUCTION :An aqueduct is an artificial channel that is constructed to convey water
from one location to another. The word is derived from the Latin aqua, "water," and ducere
("to lead"). The word is also used for any bridge that carries water, similar to viaducts,
though they carry water instead of a road or railway. Sufficiently large aqueducts may also be
usable by boats or ships. While a road bridge often carries the roadway at a more elevated
level than the rest of the road, such a variation of height is not possible for an aqueduct.
Roman aqueduct supplying Carthage, Tunisia

Ancient aqueducts
Roman aqueducts
Roman aqueducts were built in all parts of the Roman Empire, from Germany to Africa, and
especially in the city of Rome itself, where they totaled over 260 miles (416 km). The
aqueducts were important for supplying water to large cities across the empire, and they set a
high standard of engineering that was not surpassed for more than

View from inside a Roman aqueduct from the Pools of Solomon to Jerusalem
Although famously associated with the Romans, aqueducts were devised much earlier in the
Near East and Indian subcontinent, where peoples such as the Egyptians and Harappans built
sophisticated irrigation systems. Roman-style aqueducts were used as early as the 7th century
BC, when the Assyrians built a limestone aqueduct 30 feet (10 m) high and 900 feet (300
m) long to carry water across a valley to their capital city, Nineveh. The full length of the
aqueduct ran for 50 miles (80 km).
In the new world, when the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán was discovered in the middle of the
second millennium, it was watered by two aqueducts.
Aqueducts in Persia
In Persia from early times[vague] a system of underground aqueducts called Qanat were
constructed, a series of well-like vertical shafts, connected by gently sloping tunnels. This
technique:
Taps into subterranean water in a manner that efficiently delivers large quantities of water to
the surface without need for pumping. The water drains relying on gravity, with the
destination lower than the source, which is typically an upland aquifer.
Allows water to be transported long distances in hot dry climates without losing a large
proportion of the source water to seepage and evaporation
Aqueducts in India
Ancient Indian aqueduct in Hampi
Indian subcontinent was one of the earliest builders of aqueducts. More prominent evidence
can be found at the sites of present day Hampi. The massive aqueducts near river
Tungabhadra supplying irrigation water were once 15 miles long[1].The elegant water ways in
royal center supplied water for royal bath houses.

Design & Construction of Road Bridge cum Aqueduct across the river Narmada near Omkareshwar in
Madhya Pradesh State-E.P.C.CONTRACT.

Client: Govt. of Madhya Pradesh,    Narmada Valley  Development Authority.


Year of Completion: 2004.

Construction of Aqueduct cum Road Bridge to carry Kharsia Canal Waters across a valley in Chattisgarh.

Client: Govt. of Chattisgarh,  Prasad & Company for  Irrigation Department.


Year of Completion: 2004.

[edit] Modern aqueducts


The Central Arizona Project Aqueduct, the largest and most expensive aqueduct ever
constructed in the United States.
Much of the expertise of the Roman engineers was lost in the Dark Ages, and in Europe the
construction of aqueducts largely ceased until the High Middle Ages. An example of an
extant small scale aqueduct system built in 1202 by Cistercian monks is the Spanish Real
Monasterio de Nuestra Señora de Rueda, whose central heating and waste disposal system
relied upon a series of aqueducts originating from a diversion of the Ebro River. Through
most of the Middle Ages and even up to the 19th century, water was instead usually supplied
through the digging of wells, though this could cause serious public health problems when
local water supplies became contaminated. One notable exception was the New River, a
man-made waterway in England, opened in 1613 to supply London with fresh drinking water
over a distance of 38 miles (62 km). The development of canals provided another spur to
aqueduct building.
The 19th century saw aqueduct building resume on a large scale to supply fast-growing cities
and water-hungry industries. The developments of new materials (such as cast iron) and new
technologies (such as steam power) enabled significant improvements to be made. For
instance, cast iron permitted the construction of larger, more highly pressurised inverted
siphons, while steam- and electrically powered pumps enabled a major increase in the
quantity and speed of water flow. England led the world in aqueduct construction, with
notable examples being built to convey water to Birmingham, Liverpool and Manchester.

Remains of the Schoharie Crossing, an aqueduct that once carried the Erie Canal over the
Schoharie Creek near Amsterdam, New York.
Mathur Aqueduct in Tamilnadu state, India carries irrigation water
In modern times the largest aqueducts of all have been built in the United States to supply
that country's biggest cities. The Catskill Aqueduct carries water to New York over a
distance of 120 miles (190 km), but it is dwarfed by aqueducts in the far west of the country,
most notably the Colorado River Aqueduct, which supplies the Los Angeles area with water
from the Colorado River nearly 250 miles (400 km) to the east, and the 444 mile (714.5 km)
California Aqueduct which runs from the Sacramento Delta to Lake Perris.
[edit] Uses of aqueducts
Historically, many agricultural societies have constructed aqueducts to irrigate crops.
Archimedes invented the water screw to raise water for use in irrigation of croplands.
Another widespread use for aqueducts is to supply large cities with clean drinking water.
Some of the famed Roman aqueducts still supply water to Rome today. In California, USA,
three large aqueducts supply water over hundreds of miles to the Los Angeles area. Two are
from the Owens River area and a third is from the Colorado River.
In more recent times, aqueducts were used for transportation purposes to allow canal barges
to cross ravines or valleys. During the Industrial Revolution of the 18th century, many
aqueducts were constructed as part of the general boom in canal-building.
In modern civil engineering projects, detailed study and analysis of open channel flow is
commonly required to support flood control, irrigation systems, and large water supply
systems when an aqueduct rather than a pipeline is the preferred solution. The aqueduct is a
simple way to get water to other ends of a field.
In the past, aqueducts often had channels made of earth or other porous materials. Significant
amounts of water are lost through such unlined aqueducts. As water gets increasingly scarce,
these canals are being lined with concrete, polymers or impermeable soil. In some cases, a
new aqueduct is built alongside the old one because it cannot be shut down during
construction.
[edit] Notable aqueducts
[edit] Ancient Greek aqueducts
The Eupalinian aqueduct on the Greek island of Samos.
[edit] Roman aqueducts

Segovia, Spain. Roman aqueduct

Aqueduct of Valens, Istanbul, Turkey

Aqueduct near Tokatee Falls in Oregon


The Pont du Gard in southern France
Barbegal aqueduct, France
Eifel aqueduct, Germany
Caesarea Maritima, Israel
Kavala, Greece
Patras, Greece
Aqueduct of Segovia, Spain
Acueducto de los Milagros, Mérida, Spain
Tarragona, Spain
Almuñécar, Spain (5 aqueducts - 4 still in use)
Valens Aqueduct, Istanbul, Turkey
Aqua Augusta, Italy
Aqua Claudia and the Anio Novus, as part of the Porta Maggiore, Rome, Italy
Skopje Aqueduct, Skopje, Republic of Macedonia
See also: List of aqueducts in the Roman Empire
[edit] Other aqueducts
Wignacourt Aqueduct, Malta. This aqueduct was built in the 16th century to transport water
from the old capital city of Malta, Mdina to the new capital city Valletta. Today, only part of
this aqueduct is visible in the localities of Balzan, Birkirkara and Santa Venera.
Aqueduct St-Clément, Montpellier, France - 17th century
Águas Livres Aqueduct, in Lisbon, Portugal (built 1731-1748)
Carioca Aqueduct in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (built 1744-1750)
Aqueduct of Teruel, Spain
Roquefavour aqueduct, France - built between 1842 and 1847
Winnipeg Aqueduct, Manitoba, Canada - built between 1915 and 1919
Canal de l'Aqueduc, Quebec, Canada
Päijänne Water Tunnel is 120 kilometers long underground aqueduct (continuous tunnel)
connecting lake Päijänne to Greater Helsinki.
Wan Mat Saman Aqueduct, Kedah, Malaysia - built between 1900 and 1909
Mathur Aqueduct in Tamilnadu state, India
Surviving Spanish aqueducts in Mexico:
Aqueduct of Querétaro, Mexico - built between 1726 and 1738, 1.3 km long and featuring 74
arches.
Aqueduct of Morelia, Michoacan, built between 1735 and 1738.
Aqueduct of Acámbaro, Guanajuato, built in 1528 [1].
Levadas, 1350 miles of 17th century aqueducts on the Portuguese island of Madeira.
Espada Aqueduct, built 1735, in San Antonio, Texas, United States.
Quabbin Aqueduct, 24.6 miles long tunnel, in Massachusetts, United States.
Chicopee Valley Aqueduct, 13.1 miles long, in Massachusetts, United States.
Central Arizona Project Aqueduct
California Aqueduct, a 444 miles (approx. 714.5 kilometers) long combination of canals,
pipelines and tunnels, United States.
Delaware Aqueduct, in New York State, United States - at 85 miles (137 km) long, the
world's longest continuous underground tunnel.
High Bridge, part of the former Croton Aqueduct, built in 1848, is the oldest surviving bridge
in New York City.
[edit] Navigable aqueducts
See also: List of canal aqueducts in Great Britain

The Longden-on-Tern aqueduct


Navigable aqueducts are bridge structures which carry canals over other rivers, valleys or
railways or roads. They are primarily distinguished by their size, carrying a larger cross-
section of water than most water-supply aqueducts. Although Roman aqueducts were
sometimes used for transport, aqueducts were not generally used until the 17th century when
the problems of summit level canals had been solved and the modern canal system started to
appear.
Pontcysyllte Aqueduct on the Llangollen Canal, Wales. Built for the transport of goods, the
canal is now used for leisure
A canal boat traverses the Pontcysyllte Aqueduct
Early aqueducts such as the three on the Canal du Midi (1683) were stone or brick arches, the
longest span being 18.3m on the Cesse Aqueduct (1686). However the weight of the
construction to support the trough with the clay or other lining to make it waterproof made
these structures clumsy and it was not until 1796 that the first large cast iron aqueduct was
built at Longdon-on-Tern by Thomas Telford on the Shrewsbury Canal. It has a total length
of 57m with 3 intermediate piers. Within 10 years he had completed the far more ambitious
Pontcysyllte Aqueduct over the Dee valley on the Llangollen Canal which has a total length
of 307m. Other cast iron aqueducts followed such as the single span Stanley Ferry Aqueduct
on the Calder and Hebble Navigation in 1839 with its innovative 50m through arch design.
The impact of new materials can be seen in the experience of the Canal latéral à la Loire in
France. It had 2 substantial arch aqueducts on the higher stretches of the Loire, the longest
being 470m completed in 1838, but a river-level crossing was used to cross the Loire to the
Canal de Briare because the consequent obstruction to the river during flooding was
considered unacceptable. This proved troublesome until the 662m long steel Briare aqueduct
was built in 1896, which remained the longest aqueduct in the world until the 21st century
when the Magdeburg Water Bridge in Germany took the title.
[edit] Notable navigable aqueducts
Benjamin Outram's 44ft-long single-span Holmes Aqueduct on the Derby Canal in Derby
was the world's first navigable cast iron aqueduct, narrowly predating Thomas Telford's
186ft-long Longdon-on-Tern Aqueduct on the Shrewsbury Canal, sometimes described as
the world's first large-scale navigable cast iron aqueduct.
Chirk Aqueduct, Wales - built between 1796 and 1801
Pontcysyllte Aqueduct carries the Llangollen Canal over the River Dee valley in north
Wales, and was designed by Thomas Telford and opened in 1805. The same canal, which
includes a tunnelled section crosses a second valley on the Chirk Aqueduct. This navigable
canal also supplies water to the borough of Crewe and Nantwich.
Union Canal in Scotland has many aqueducts, including the Slateford Aqueduct that takes the
canal over the Water of Leith, the Almond Aqueduct over the River Almond at Ratho and the
very impressive Avon Aqueduct over the River Avon. This is the second longest aqueduct in
the United Kingdom.
In recent years the building of the Lichfield Aqueduct prompted the UK government to pass
legislation preventing a road being built in the path of a canal being renovated without
providing a tunnel or aqueduct for it to pass.
Barton Swing Aqueduct - a form of swing bridge that carries the Bridgewater Canal across
the lower Manchester Ship Canal. A 234ft section of the aqueduct rotates through 90 degrees
to allow vessels to pass along the Ship Canal.
Aqueduct near Roelofarendsveen, Netherlands (1961) ( 52°12′55.96″N, 4°37′35.46″E):
carries the Ringvaart canal over the A4 highway and the HSL Zuid being constructed, which
are situated on land below the level of the canal (and below sea level)
Gouwe aqueduct, near Gouda, Netherlands: carries the Gouwe river over the A12 highway,
which is on land below the level of the river
The Ash Aqueduct (1995) carries the Basingstoke Canal over the River Blackwater and
Blackwater Valley Relief Road (A331).
The Magdeburg Water Bridge in Germany (2003) connects the important Mittellandkanal
over the river Elbe to the Elbe-Havel canal . Nearly 1 km long, it is the longest aqueduct in
Europe.
Water channel of the Nanzen-ji aqueduct, Kyoto, Japan

The Magdeburg Water Bridge seen from the shores of the Elbe.
[edit] See also
Aztec the Aztec Empire also used aqueducts
Drought
Earthquake engineering
Flow
Goldfields Water Supply Scheme
Irrigation
Leat
Pipeline - some used to carry water
Roman aqueduct
List of Roman aqueduct bridges
Roman architecture
Roman engineering
Sanitation in Ancient Rome
Viaduct - a similar structure to carry a road or a railway
Water resources

TYPE OF AQUEDUCTS:
Aqueducts arc classified into 3 Types.
Type 1 : In this type the sides are earthen banks. The length of the barrels through
which the drainage water is passed under the canal must be of sufficient length to carry
the entire section of the canal including outer slopes as shown in Fig.

Figure Barrel type Aqueduct


Type 2 : This is similar to type - I but retaining walls are provided to retain the outer
slopes of the earthen channel wholly or partially as shown in above Fig.
Type 3 : In this case the earthen banks of the channel are discontinued and canal water
is carried in trough made of concrete or masonry as shown in Fig. Generally, the canal is
flumed in this type to affect economy.
Figure .Trough type Aqueduct

The selection of the type of aqueduct or syphon aqueduct mainly depends upon the
magnitude of the drainage to be passed and the size of the canal. A very small drainage will
obviously be passed by a work of Type I, which in an extreme case is merely a pipe passing
under the bed of a canal. Over a large river or stream an aqueduct of Type III is obviously
economical. Type II is intermediate. Choice of this type merely depends if it can work out
economical in comparison to Type I. It may be noted that in Type 1 and Type II the canal is
not flumed and therefore is no head loss and Type III needs loss of head due to fluming of
canal cross section.
An Aqueduct consists the following basic structural components

 Trough

 Beams

 Bearings (Over Pedastals)

 Pedastal (Over Pier Cap)

 Pier Cap

 Pier

 Isolated footings or well foundation

 8.Abutment or end pier for land span.

 Wings & Returns

 Toe Wall

 Cut off walls.

IMPORTANT FEATURES OF DESIGN OF AQUEDUCT :

The design of a aqueduct like any other hydraulic structures consists of two phases.

01. The hydraulic Design and

02. The Structural Design.

Hydraulic Design : The following are the mam features of hydraulic design in respect surface
flow.

 Maximum flood Discharge of Drain

 Determination of waterway of the drain.

 Affluxed HFL of the drain.

 Head loss through the cross-drainage works.(“i.e” TEL calculations)


 Pluming or contraction of canal waterway.

 Scour calculations

 Uplift pressures on the trough and the floor.

For the given requirement of discharge and the available hydraulic gradient a large number of
cross sectional shapes will be hydraulically satisfactory and acceptable. The range of
solutions are narrowed down by considerations listed below :

(1) For canals of small cross section and of short length it is preferred not to change the
section and take the canal with its embankments unchanged over the cross drainages.
The waterway for cross-drainage may be a pipe-culvert or masonry arch culvert or
RCC box culvert. This has the advantage of not requiring transition sections and thus
reduce entry and exit losses for the canal If the base width of the embankment is large
it can be restricted as shown in Fig.

(2) For longer lengths of aqueducts and for large cross-sections of canals the above
system becomes uneconomical and one has to resort to minimising the weight of the
water carried over the structure by permitting higher velocities of water. This
reduction in area of the cross-sectional shape of the water body necessitates provision
of entry and exit transition zones.

(3) The hydraulic design of transition zones is an important consideration in the overall
design since the major portion of available gradient is consumed by them. Although,
large body of data is available for estimating the losses, there is scope for additional
studies.

The hydraulic design of the aqueduct proper consists of choosing the maximum
permissible velocities which do not damage the material of the water carrying,
conduit while staying within the overall head loss restrictions taking transition and
aqueduct losses together. Within these limits also a number of alternatives will be
acceptable and further narrowing down of options will have to be on structural
considerations.

(4) The most favoured section for aqueducts carrying 'open channel flows' has
traditionally been the rectangular section of single or multiple cells. It is simple to
design hydraulically and structurally — apart from being easy for construction.
However, for pressure conduits circular cross sections have been mostly favoured.
For open sections in certain cases trapezoidal, segmental circular and even parabolic
cross - sections have been used as illustrated by examples later. The hydraulic design
of all such sections has different hydraulic efficiency, whereas from structural point
of view the efficiency is decided by the optimum use of materials in transverse design
as a primary consideration and longitudinal design as a secondary factor.

Structural design of Aqueduct Section :

The final choice of the section is usually a compromise between hydraulic and structural
efficiency.

The total available depth for accommodating water channel and structure is

governed by the elevation of overall energy line for canal water flow at the higher elevation
and by the requirements of clearances above the HFL of the cross drainage and/or canal bed
levels at the lower elevation. This criteria does not rule out the possibility of allowing partial
submergence of aqueduct box under HFL, although it is to be avoided if possible. The
submergence causes problems of raising the upstream flood levels, apart from putting extra
horizontal forces on the structure and exposing it to impact of floating debris. Provision of
special bearings which can withstand submergence are also called for. Provision of a hump in
the canal bed level can be considered to minimise or avoid the submergence.
The following are the critical conditions to be considered:

Condition I : Canal is running at FSL, drain dry.

Condition II : Canal dry and drain running HFL.

Condition III : Canal @FSL and dram @ HFL.

In other situations the available structural depth can be large, but again 'the amount by which
the canal bed can be locally lowered is limited by considerations of silting. As a general rule,
trying to obtain the maximum possible structural depth within the limits of hydraulically
acceptable range is likely to lead to a more efficient longitudinal design of the structure.
However, the primary sectional choice should be based on the structural design of the cross
section. The use of single or multiple cells is governed by the capacity of the bottom slab to
span horizontally between the vertical webs and, therefore, for large discharges multiple
boxes arc adopted. For a single box section it is common practice to adopt a closed section
where top slab serves to carry the service road. For multiple boxes only one or two boxes
need to have a lop slab to carry the service road and others are left as open troughs. The
compression flanges if located on top may need lateral supports which are provided by the
intermediate struts.

In these designs the elements of transverse section such as bottom slab, side walls, top slab
etc. are primarily proportioned for bending effects. The design criteria given in national
codes for water retaining structures provide the rules for this purpose. If different shapes such
as closed pipes for pressure conduits, or segmental circles for open channel flows or any
other shape is chosen it is normally done to achieve structural efficiency in the design of
members where the membrane forces are exploited as an efficient load carrying' mechanism
taking advantage of the fact that such loads can be efficiently and economically carried by
prestressing. Reference is made to Bhima aqueduct described subsequently. At this stage of
design also, more than one section is found acceptable and are tentatively chosen for further
study.
The Longitudinal Design : The commonly adopted systems for longitudinal spanning are
shown in Fig.

Since the hydraulic continuity of water (low at expansion joints is a functional requirement,
the details of connection of one unit to the other assumes importance. The copper
strip, PVC Joint, neoprene rubble joint etc. arc some of the available solutions. It is obviously
beneficial to make them replaceable. As a first step in the choice of the span and mainly for
achieving economy in the use of materials for the superstructure, an attempt is made to use
the transversely designed section to span along the longitudinal direction. Choosing one of
the solutions indicated in Fig. If a simply supported arrangement is used then closed sections
have an edge over open sections, wherein for the sole purpose of providing compression
flange extra material is required. Spans with overhangs are ideal for open boxes where the
bottom slab carries full longitudinal compressions and need for extra material is avoided.
Closed boxes are also suitable for choice of continuous spans for obvious reasons.

The Spans thus established do not necessarily lead to the most economical solutions but one
gets an important indication about the efficiency of the use of material in the superstructure.
Longer spans than this will call either for extra materials or change in structural shape only
for longitudinal spanning. The shorter spans will indicate that the concrete section provided
for transverse design is not fully exploited for longitudinal spanning. The smaller span does,
however, require less reinforcing steel in a longitudinal direction, but this is only a partial
saving. This knowledge will help in balancing the cost of substructure and superstructure and
achieving overall economy.

Of the arrangements shown in Fig., the simply supported spans are most commonly used.
With the advent of balanced cantilever construction techniques, solutions (c) & (d) are being
increasingly used and are suitable for longer spans. Continuous spans are used in situations
where foundations are the non-sinking type i.e. on rock.
Design of Sub-Structure : The design of substructure involve the design of the bearings, the
piers and the foundations. Of these, the design of piers and foundations lie well within the
experience and expertise of bridge engineers. It is re-emphasised here that a fully balanced
solution achieving overall economy cannot be arrived at without bringing in fully this
knowledge and expertise- the emphasis is due to the fact that it is not proposed to discuss
these aspects at any length in this paper. However, it is not out of place to make a few
observations regarding design of bearings since the bearing for aqueducts need some
additional considerations over bridge-bearing. The differences can be listed as follows :

(a) The normal temperature variation for aqueducts in service are much less severe due to
the presence of water which acts as a moderating medium.

(b) The expected service life of aqueducts can be much longer than bridges where the
changes in traffic needs may make them obsolete earlier. In this increased lifetime if
the cost of replacement of bearings is taken into the economic assessment, the net
cost of bearings will be very high. In fact, some of the studies we have earned out by
amortizing the replacement cost of bearings and comparing the same with solutions in
which bearings are altogether deleted - and designing the structure for such effects - it
is found that it is cheaper to delete bearings altogether.

(c) Situations of bearings getting submerged are more likely to happen for aqueducts
where the raising of structures above HFL is not possible if the canal bed level is low.
For such applications deletion of bearings or use of concrete bearings will be
preferable. Economically also, for very large loads the R.C.C. or Freyssinet type of
concrete bearings are highly competitive.

Some aspects of loading and material properties : It is to be noted that hydraulic structures in
general and aqueducts in particular are subjected to loading conditions which have distinctive
characteristics. The response of materials under these conditions of loading are slightly
different from other applications. Some of the relevant considerations are listed below :
(a) The structures are subjected almost always to the full design load which is a severe
condition of loading.

(b) The fatigue effects are much less severe since the range of live load variation as
compared to total static effects - i.e. dead load plus water load is a much smaller
fraction.

(c) The presence of water has a moderating influence on the range of temperature
variation and hence of temperature stresses. The characteristics of concrete which
depend upon the migration of water from the body of concrete, such as shrinkage and
creep get modified. Also the rate of corrosion of steel can be expected to be different

The presently used design codes in India do not recognize the differences in the strength of
materials for permanent loading and for frequent loading of a relatively short duration - such
as temperature effects, although they differentiate the extremely low frequency phenomena
like earthquakes, However, the international trend is to make such distinction in load
classification and use different levels of allowable stresses/strength as a general design
philosophy for the design of structures.

The use of special protective measures such as water proof paintings, epoxy coated
reinforcements, and many other new ideas are coming up and deserve detailed and careful
consideration to exploit the benefits offered by them.

Construction Technology : The construction technology For bridges and aqueducts is


identical. For this reason it is not proposed to cover this aspect in this paper. But the
importance of construction solutions in achieving the overall optimum solution should not be
under estimated.
An Example of Optimisation : As an example of what can be achieved by following the
methods described above a case study of Bhima Aqueduct constructed as a part of Ujgani
Project in Maharashtra is described. Table I below gives the comparative details of the
actually adopted solution against a conventional solution.

Table I

Solution Adopted Conventional Solution

Cross Section

Depth of Water 3.42 m 3.00 m

Waterway 13.79 sq.m 18.00 sq.m

Long Slope 1 in 661.539 1 in 661.539

Discharge 42.5 cumecs 42.5 cumecs

Velocity 3.14 m/ec. 2.36 m/sec.

Area of concrete section 3.45 sq.m 6.37 sq.m

Span 41.50 m 43.00 m

System in longitudinal Continuous over simply 4 to 5 supports supported.


direction
It can be seen that :

(a) Hydraulic efficiency of cross section has permitted higher velocities and brought
down waterway section from 18 sq.mm. to 13.79 sq.mm. a reduction of 23% in
weight of water.

(b) The choice of membrane state of stresses resisted by prestressing cables combined
with the reduction of water load and reduction in self weight led to the reduction in
concrete cross section from 6.37 cu. m/m to 3.45 cu.m/m i.e. 46% saving of concrete
material.

(c) Use of continuous spans over three span and four span units reduced the longitudinal
bending effects making the system cheaper as compared to the simply supported
option.

The net savings over the conventional design were of the order of 40%.

The principles described hither to can be best understood if one makes detailed case studies
of the outstanding examples which are presented in various technical publications from time
to time. For the purpose of illustrating the various points made in this presentation a selected
number of aqueducts are described below :

"Ashwin Aqueduct, Narmada Main canal, Gujarat "

A number of aqueducts on Narmada Main Canal carrying a discharge of 1130 cumecs are
under construction. The main canal has a trapezoidal section with bottom width of 72.1m and
top width of 108.5 m with IV : 2H side slopes. The depth of water at FSL is 7.6m. This can
with its banking is carried over a number of minor cross drainages without changing its
section. An interesting solution has been evolved for one of the major crossings at Ashwin
river. The canal section has been constructed reducing the bottom width to 50.0m and

maintaining the side slopes at IV : 2H. The sloped sides of the aqueduct structure consist of
RCC continuous slab spanning, over (lie wall type RCC piers. The horizontal portion of the
bed is earned over a series of continuous ROC slab and the arches are cast monolithically
with the pier wall. The span turned out to be an economic span since good rock is available
for foundation almost at the bed level and the pier walls are bout 7.5m in height only. The
foundations are open type strip footings under the walls. The arches are partly submerged
under design flood.

"Syphon Tube Bridge at Tara River, Italy".

This 4240m long syphon tube working at pressure under 2.0 kg/sq.cm. is a precast structure
with 1.6m dia pipe section spanning 16m and simply supported over RCC piers. The pipe is
longitudinally prestressed. The photograph shows the aqueduct under construction which
also illustrates the method of construction.

"Canal Bridge over Rio Forma, Guesa, Italy"

This is a relatively small but interesting structure since it makes use of U-shaped prestressed
concrete shell structure carrying the water load mostly by membrane action. The width on the
top is 18m and the total depth is 6m. It is prestressed transversely and longitudinally. It has
40m central span and 14m overhangs on either side, the photograph shows the bridge under
construction, which is by the cast-in-situ method.

“Warna Aqueduct, Maharashtra”


“Solani Aqueduct, U.P”

Located next (o the existing brick-arch type of aqueduct and carrying 310 cumecs discharge
of parallel Upper Ganga Canal at Roorkee, this transversely reinforced concrete multiple-cell
box section is designed to span over 36.6m. c/c piers as simply supported, longitudinally
prestressed structure of 321m length. It has five rectangular compartments and two end ones
carrying roadway. The three open boxes in the middle have cross ties to act as supports for
compression flanges. The piers are plate type piers supported on well type foundations.

"Tajo Sequra Aqueduct, France"

This is an 8280m long aqueduct with RCC trapezoidal section of 5.6m on top, 2.5m at
bottom and 4.75m height. The segments are match-cast and connected by gluing with epoxy
and prestressing. The 40m continuous spans are constructed using 150m long launching truss
and balanced cantilever technique.

Cellular pier of 30m height were cast by slip forming. The photograph shows completed
portion of the aqueduct as well as the construction method.
"Bhima Aqueduct, Maharashtra"

The design economies achieved in this structure have already been discussed. Apart from the
optimised superstructure, the substructure solution is also structurally efficient. Hollow RCC
piers of upto 40m height support 40m spans in groups of 3 span and 4 span continuous units
and total 947m in length. The photograph shows the method of construction. The match-cast
segments are assembled by cantilever construction method, glued by epoxy and prestressed
longitudinally and transversely. The structure has been acclaimed internationally as an
outstanding construction.
wide at the base, has a water depth of
7.6m and sloping sides

At the crossing, the canal is flumed to a


width of 50m and is taken over a series of
16 barrels, each barrel is 7m wide and
5.03m high

The foundation is in the form of an RCC


raft resting on sandy strata

A meter deep portion of soil below the raft


is replaced by compacted sand to serve
as a uniform cushion The raft is
surrounded by an RCC diaphragm wall,
which confines the soil strata

The design takes into account effects of


foundation strata settlement
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This Syphon Aqueduct is provided where
the Narmada Main Canal crosses the
Men river and has a design discharge of
1,560 cumecs

The Narmada Main Canal is 73.1m wide


at the base, has a water depth of 7.6m
and sloping sides

At the crossing, the canal is flumed to a


width of 50m and is taken over a series of
16 barrels, each barrel is 7m wide and
5.03m high

The foundation is in the form of an RCC


raft resting on sandy strata

A meter deep portion of soil below the raft


is replaced by compacted sand to serve
as a uniform cushion The raft is
surrounded by an RCC diaphragm wall,
which confines the soil strata

The design takes into account effects of


foundation strata settlement

1.7 Planning and design of canal conveyance structures


Though a number of books are available for detailed design of conveyance structures of
a canal, as mentioned in the reference list, one may consult the following Bureau of
Indian Standard codes for planning, initial designs and construction of these structures.
• IS: 7784 “Code of practice for design of cross drainage works”
(1) Part 1 -1975 General features (Reaffirmed 1987)
(2) Part 2-1983 Specific requirements (Reaffirmed 1992) Section1.
Aqueducts
(3) Part 2 - 1980 Specific requirements (Reaffirmed 1992) Section2. Superpassage
(4) Part 2 -1981 Specific requirements (Reaffirmed 1992) Section3. Canal
syphons
(5) Part 2 - 1980 Specific requirements (Reaffirmed 1992) Section4. Level
crossings
(6) Part 2 -1980 Specific requirements (Reaffirmed 1992) Section5. Syphon
aqueducts
• IS: 11385-1985 “Code of practice for subsurface exploration for canals and cross
drainage works” (Reaffirmed 1990)
• IS: 9913-1981 “Code of practice for construction of cross drainage works”
(Reaffirmed 1992)

References
Asawa, G L (1996) “Irrigation engineering”, Second edition, New Age Publications
• Garg, S K (1996) “Irrigation engineering and hydraulic structures”, Twelfth Edition,
Khanna Publishers
Version 2 CE IIT, Kharagpur
• IS: 11385-1985 “Code of practice for subsurface exploration for canals and cross
drainage works” (Reaffirmed 1990)
• IS: 7784 “Code of practice for design of cross drainage works”, Parts 1 to 6
• IS: 9913-1981 “Code of practice for construction of cross drainage works”
(Reaffirmed 1992)
• Varshney, R S, Gupta, S C and Gupta, R L (1993) “Theory and design of irrigation
structures”, Volume II, Sixth Edition, Nem Chand Publication
Version 2 CE IIT, Kharagpur

PRESSURE AQUEDUCT
ORIGINS OF THE PRESSURE AQUEDUCT SYSTEM

In 1936, the Legislature also approved the construction of the high service
Pressure Aqueduct System to deliver water to the Metropolitan area. Two
aqueducts would carry water from the Wachusett Reservoir to the new
Norumbega Reservoir in the Town of Weston. Downstream from Norumbega,
the aqueduct would split forming a loop around the metropolitan area which
would terminate at a greatly expanded Fells Reservoir in Stoneham. A
branch would be constructed off this loop to Quincy, terminating at a new
Blue Hills Reservoir. The Pressure Aqueduct could be operated at a uniform
rate of flow as the distribuation reservoir storage would be sufficient to
dampen out fluctuations in demand during the day. Work began on
schedule in 1939 and by the outbreak of World War II in 1941, the Fells,
Blue Hills and Norumbega Reservoirs had been completed, and the Pressure
Aqueduct had been built from the terminus of the Wachusett Aqueduct to
the terminus of the Weston Aqueduct. This portion of the Pressure
Aqueduct is the Hultman Aqueduct.
In hilly areas, sometimes very deep ravines have to be crossed. Here the catchments area of
the stream will be small and the bed level and M.F.L of drain will be very much below the
channel to be crossed. In such cases, naturally, the channel will pass over the ravine by
means of a trough or a conduit. But to support the trough pies will have to be unusually high.
This is not desirable.

In all such cases, pressure Aqueducts are preferred.

Figure 16.6 shows a typical layout of a pressure Aqueduct. The channel is let into a
well whose diameter suits the average width of the channel.

The foundations are taken to hard ground. The positioning of the wells on eighter side
such that, they it will not get undermined by the scour at future date by the ravine. Piers are
built in the ravine course such that their tops are sufficiently above the M.F.L of the drain.
They are taken deep to rest on hard foundation. The span is so chosen that the ravine is
crossed with minimum number of spans.

On top of the piers a pressure conduit is run resting on steel trusses, or a concrete T-
beam. The conduit could be either a steel pipe, or R.C.C. pipe capable of taking the pressure
of the flowing water in it. The difference in levels between the bottom of the conduit and the
F.S.L of channel upstream of the aqueduct will be the pressure in the conduit.

This conduit is connected to another well on the downstream side as shown in figure
16.6. The channel after crossing takes off from the top of this well. The difference between
the channel F.S.Ls. upstream-side and downstream-side of the crossing will be the loss of
head in the conduit. This will depend upon the velocities to which we design the cross-
sectional area of the conduit. This loss of head can be calculated by using Bermouli’s
theorem or by ‘Flow Through Pipes’

However in cases of canals, carrying sufficiently big discharges, it will not be


possible to cross by pressure pipes as indicated above. Above are pictures of two such
aqueducts, first carrying the discharge in R.C. troughs, supported by R.C.C columns and
braces supported on Arch ribs (open spandirl Arch). In both cases, the foundations are rocky,
and for the arch aqueduct, the abutments are solid rock (Granite)

Figure 16.8 shows, a typical super-passage. In this case, a distributory is taken over a
branch canal with an R.C.C trough supported on piers and abutments.

In case of a drainage crossing with supper-passage, the only difference will be that
the drainage take the place through the R.C.C trough instead of the distributory.
ORIGINS OF THE PRESSURE AQUEDUCT SYSTEM

In 1936, the Legislature also approved the construction of the high service
Pressure Aqueduct System to deliver water to the Metropolitan area. Two
aqueducts would carry water from the Wachusett Reservoir to the new
Norumbega Reservoir in the Town of Weston. Downstream from Norumbega,
the aqueduct would split forming a loop around the metropolitan area which
would terminate at a greatly expanded Fells Reservoir in Stoneham. A
branch would be constructed off this loop to Quincy, terminating at a new
Blue Hills Reservoir. The Pressure Aqueduct could be operated at a uniform
rate of flow as the distribuation reservoir storage would be sufficient to
dampen out fluctuations in demand during the day. Work began on
schedule in 1939 and by the outbreak of World War II in 1941, the Fells,
Blue Hills and Norumbega Reservoirs had been completed, and the Pressure
Aqueduct had been built from the terminus of the Wachusett Aqueduct to
the terminus of the Weston Aqueduct. This portion of the Pressure
Aqueduct is the Hultman Aqueduct.
In hilly areas, sometimes very deep ravines have to be crossed. Here the catchments area of
the stream will be small and the bed level and M.F.L of drain will be very much below the
channel to be crossed. In such cases, naturally, the channel will pass over the ravine by
means of a trough or a conduit. But to support the trough pies will have to be unusually high.
This is not desirable.

In all such cases, pressure Aqueducts are preferred.


Figure 16.6 shows a typical layout of a pressure Aqueduct. The channel is let into a
well whose diameter suits the average width of the channel.

The foundations are taken to hard ground. The positioning of the wells on eighter side
such that, they it will not get undermined by the scour at future date by the ravine. Piers are
built in the ravine course such that their tops are sufficiently above the M.F.L of the drain.
They are taken deep to rest on hard foundation. The span is so chosen that the ravine is
crossed with minimum number of spans.

On top of the piers a pressure conduit is run resting on steel trusses, or a concrete T-
beam. The conduit could be either a steel pipe, or R.C.C. pipe capable of taking the pressure
of the flowing water in it. The difference in levels between the bottom of the conduit and the
F.S.L of channel upstream of the aqueduct will be the pressure in the conduit.

This conduit is connected to another well on the downstream side as shown in figure
16.6. The channel after crossing takes off from the top of this well. The difference between
the channel F.S.Ls. upstream-side and downstream-side of the crossing will be the loss of
head in the conduit. This will depend upon the velocities to which we design the cross-
sectional area of the conduit. This loss of head can be calculated by using Bermouli’s
theorem or by ‘Flow Through Pipes’

However in cases of canals, carrying sufficiently big discharges, it will not be


possible to cross by pressure pipes as indicated above. Above are pictures of two such
aqueducts, first carrying the discharge in R.C. troughs, supported by R.C.C columns and
braces supported on Arch ribs (open spandirl Arch). In both cases, the foundations are rocky,
and for the arch aqueduct, the abutments are solid rock (Granite)

Figure 16.8 shows, a typical super-passage. In this case, a distributory is taken over a
branch canal with an R.C.C trough supported on piers and abutments.

In case of a drainage crossing with supper-passage, the only difference will be that
the drainage take the place through the R.C.C trough instead of the distributory.
Model of a siphon
HT = Header tank (left)
RT = Receiving tank (right)
VB = Venter bridge (bottom)
G = Geniculus (bend)

ORIGINS OF THE PRESSURE AQUEDUCT SYSTEM

In 1936, the Legislature also approved the construction of the high service Pressure Aqueduct System to
deliver water to the Metropolitan area. Two aqueducts would carry water from the Wachusett Reservoir
to the new Norumbega Reservoir in the Town of Weston. Downstream from Norumbega, the aqueduct
would split forming a loop around the metropolitan area which would terminate at a greatly expanded
Fells Reservoir in Stoneham. A branch would be constructed off this loop to Quincy, terminating at a
new Blue Hills Reservoir. The Pressure Aqueduct could be operated at a uniform rate of flow as the
distribuation reservoir storage would be sufficient to dampen out fluctuations in demand during the day.
Work began on schedule in 1939 and by the outbreak of World War II in 1941, the Fells, Blue Hills and
Norumbega Reservoirs had been completed, and the Pressure Aqueduct had been built from the
terminus of the Wachusett Aqueduct to the terminus of the Weston Aqueduct. This portion of the
Pressure Aqueduct is the Hultman Aqueduct.

To pay for the new program, water rates were doubled from $50 to $100 per million gallons.

QUABBIN SYSTEM SUMMARY


Transmission Storage
Source Elevation/Yield Means Destination
Quabbin Quabbin Wachusett
530'/155 mgd
Reservoir Aqueduct Reservoir

InveGreek and Roman Siphons


Overview:
 Introd
uction
 Quota
tions
 Literat
ure
source
s

 List of
over
70
siphon
s
Examples: Model of a siphon HWest part of the The receiving Male side of a
 Almu HT = Header tank (left) e venter bridge in tank and ramp of stone cut block /
a Beaunant of the the siphon of the pipe of the siphon
necar RT = Receiving tank (right) d Gier aquaduct of Brévenne in the Roman
VB = Venter bridge (bottom)
(Spain G = Geniculus (bend) e Lyon (France) aqueduct of Lyon aqueduct in Cadiz
) r (France) (Spain)
 Cadiz t
(Spain a
n
) k

 Lyon a
(Franc n
e) d

r
a
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p

o
f
t
h
e

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o
n

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e

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More literature on more


HOME Last modified: July, 2007 - (W.D. Schram)
aqueducts

Introduction to siphons in aqueducts


Tunnels, bridges and arcades are means to adjust the trace of an aqueduct to the
specific conditions of the landscape. In antiquity aqueducts operated by gravity flow and
the engineers normally followed the countourlines around hills and mountains. This may
have meant building very long masonry conduits, but it was in most cases cheaper than
the alternative: tunnels to cross mountains and hills, substructions, bridges, arcades or
inverted shiphons to cross valleys. Where valleys were too broad or too deep and where
a detour was impossible or inpractical, one had recourse to a so-called siphon )1.

Principle and elements of siphons


In the pre-Greek eras one had discovered that water in an U-shaped tube in both legs
rises to the same level: the law of the communicating vessels. This principle was applied
in ancient siphons - as far as we know the first time in the royal palace in Knossos
(Crete) - where the water in an open channel was poured into one or more closed pipes.
These pipes descended to the bottom of a depression or valley and climbed up the other
side to almost the original level. The water was then again transferred into an open
conduit following its original course, see drawing above.
The most important elements of a siphon are the transition of an open channel into one
or more pipes: the influx basin or header tank, the two bends in between hills and
valleys: geniculi in Latin, the substructure to support the pipes in the valley: the so-
called venter )2 (belly), and the transition of the pipe(s) into the open channel again:
the outflux basin or receiving tank. Commonly the pipes in the bottom of a valley were
laid down on a siphon-bridge so that the river in the valley could pass below without
damaging the aqueduct.
The deeper the valley, the deeper was the (static) pressure in the pipes at the bottom. A
siphon in a valley of 10m deep contains a water column of the same height which exerts
1 atmosphere extra pressure. The siphon in the Greek (!!) Madradag aqueduct crossing
a valley of 200m deep caused a pressure of some 20 atmospheres in the lead pipe, a
pressure which equals that in 'modern' steam engines.

Pipes
The Greeks often used cut-stone or terracotta pipes and the same applies for the
Romans in Spain. In France in particular the Romans used lead pipes. These pipes had a
small diameter which were easier to produce than the bigger ones: commonly a series of
pipes were applied in siphons with lead pipes. The most striking example is the 8 - 10
pipes parallel in the nine (!) siphons in the four aqueducts of Lyon (France). Another
interesting example is the Greek siphon of the Madradag aqueduct of Pergamon
(Turkey) where only one lead pipe was applied encased in concrete (??). The Roman
Angitia-siphon (Italy) was equipped with one pipe of masonry (!) which is quite
exceptional.

Problems
The application of a siphon was not without problems. One had to be sure that the whole
system was 100% watertight, since leaks and / or air-bubbles in the pipe(s) could harm
the whole process and make it impossible to start the siphon.
A second problem was the high static (and dynamic) pressure on the pipe(s). A third
problem could be caused by the accumulation of debris and calcareous deposits (sinter)
inside the pipes at the bottom of the valley.

Choice and application


Under which circumstances were siphons applied? In some cases there was no other
choice: a detour was impossible or far from realistic. On the other hand: we think that
the Romans were reluctant to built aqueduct bridges of more that 50m high (the Pont du
Gard in France is 49m high) because of possible stability problems. A siphon was a good
alternative. Cost-effectiveness will have been an other major element in the decision
process to apply a siphon. Particularly the Greek built their siphons in valleys which were
less deep than 50m - maybe because they were already used to stone and terracotta
pipes?
How often were siphons used? In ancient times people were used to fall back on or near
well-defendable hilltops which structurally lacked sufficient fresh water sources. This
automatically led to the need for an aqueduct. To overcome the valleys down the hill an
aqueduct bridge was built or a siphon constructed, in order to get enough fresh water to
the people on the acropolis. The same applies to Roman forts for example along
Hadrians Wall, because of defensibility, were built on hill tops too. Therefore the
determining factors in favor of a siphon will - among other - have been a combination of
economy, landscape and location.

Conclusion?
The overview below lists some 60 Greek and Roman siphons. Elsewhere on this website
literature was collected on more than 600 Roman and Greek aqueducts. This leads to
the suggestion that 1 out of 10 aqueducts were equipped with a siphon.
Wilke Schram, March 2006

Notes:

)1 Stricktly speaking the term 'inverted' siphon should be used since a siphon brings
water over a hill or other obstacle, while an inverted siphon leads it through a
depression.
)2 Sometimes the word venter is also used to indicate the complete siphon, see
Kessener2001.

For those who want to know more:


 Hodge1983: Siphons in Roman aqueducts (in: PBSR Vol 51 (1983) pag 174) -
A.T. Hodge
 Lewis1999: Vitruvius and the Greek aqueducts (in: PBSR vol 67 (1999) p145ff) -
M. Lewis
 Kessener2001: Vitruvius and the conveyance of water (in: Bulletin Antieke
beschaving vol 76 (2001) pag 139 ff) - H.P.M. Kessener
 the website of Waterhistory.org on Aspendos
 Kessener2004: Moderne persleidingen en Romeinse hydraulische technieken (in:
Rioleringswetenschap vol 4 nr 5 (2004) pag 13) - H.P.M. Kessener (in Dutch)

Top

Quotations

Vitruvius book 8.6


5. An aqueduct which is made of lead, should be thus constructed; if
there be a proper fall from the spring head to the city, and hills high
enough to cause an impediment do not intervene, the low intervals must
be brought to a level by means of substructions preserving the fall
directed for channel aqueducts, or by means of a circuitous course,
provided it be not too much about; but if there be long valleys, and when
it arrives at the bottom, let it be carried level by means of a low
substruction as great a distance as possible; this is the part called the
venter, by the Greeks koilia; when it arrives at the opposite acclivity, the
water therein being but slightly swelled on account of the length of the
venter, it may be directed upwards.

6. If the venter were not made use of in valleys, nor the level
substruction, but instead of that the aqueduct were brought to an elbow,
the water would burst and destroy the joints of the pipes. Over the venter
long stand pipes should be placed, by means of which, the violence of the
air may escape. Thus, those who have to conduct water through leaden
pipes, may by these rules, excellently regulate its descent, its circuit, the
venter, and the compression of the air.

Section A-A (exploded scale):

For ease of fabrication, all siphon inverts can be located at the elevation of the lowest siphon
invert.

 
Register to fully enable the "Click to Calculate" button in the calculation below:

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should be here.

Units: cm=centimeter, cfs=cubic feet per second, ft=feet, gpm=US gallons per minute,
gph=US gallons per hour, gpd=US gallons per day, m=meters, MGD=Millions of US gallons
per day, s=second

Links on this page:  Introduction   Equations   Variables  Manning n coefficients 


                               Glossary   Error messages and validity    References

Introduction 
Stormwater and wastewater sewers often encounter obstructions such as rivers, other pipes,
subways, tunnels, or valleys. To pass these obstructions, a common method is for the sewer
pipe to drop sharply, then run horizontal under the obstruction, and finally rise to the desired
elevation. The piping going under the obstruction is traditionally called an "inverted siphon",
but since the pipe is not actually acting as a siphon, a better term is "depressed sewer"
(Metcalf and Eddy, 1981).

Unlike the main sewer pipe, the siphon pipe(s) flow under pressure. Special care must be
taken in inverted siphon design since losses are greater for pressurized flow, and the velocity
in each siphon pipe must be at least 3 ft/s (0.9 m/s) for sewage or 4 ft/s (1.2 m/s) for storm
water (Metcalf and Eddy, 1981). Therefore, even if there is only one main sewer pipe,
several siphons may be required.

Equations and Methodology             Back to calculation


Equations are primarily from Metcalf and Eddy (1981) but are supplemented by equations in
Chow (1959) and Viessman and Hammer (1998).  Note that Manning's equation is empirical,
and its form in the following equations requires use of meters and seconds for the units.

Compute the maximum flow in the main sewer pipe using Manning's equation for full pipe
flow:

Compute the diameter of each siphon, Di, or the flow through each siphon, Qi, using
Manning's equation for full pipe flow through each siphon:
Compute the wall heights, yj (relative to main invert), in the inlet box.  The walls separate the
siphons from each other.  The wall heights are the same height as the water depths, yj, in the
main pipe corresponding to the discharge through the siphons.  Here, Qj=1 is the discharge
through siphon 1, Qj=2 is the discharge through siphons 1 and 2, and so on.   Manning's
equation for a partially full main pipe is used, but is solved backwards (numerically) in order
to compute yj.  We allow up to five siphons (four walls).

Compute the siphon invert elevations in the inlet chamber.  According to Metcalf and Eddy
(1981), there is no loss in the inlet box for flow going from the main culvert to the first
siphon since the flow travels in a straight path.  However, for siphons 2 through n the flow
must turn 90o to go over the chamber wall (a head loss of 1.5 velocity heads) and has an
additional head loss of one velocity head as the flow enters siphon i.   Therefore, for i=2 to n
siphons and j=2 to n-1 walls:

where Ei is relative to the invert of the main pipe.  Note that for the first siphon, Hi=0, and for
the last siphon yj is replaced by Dm.  Often, all siphon inverts are located at the same
elevation (the elevation of the lowest siphon) for ease of construction.

Variables             Back to calculation


Aj=Flow area in the main pipe for computing height of wall j [m2].
Di=Diameter of siphon i [m].
Dm=Diameter of main pipe [m].
E=Main invert's elevation drop from inlet chamber to outlet chamber [m].  Used to compute
hydraulic grade line, Ss, for siphon pipes.
Ei=Siphon i inlet invert elevation relative to invert of main culvert [m].  These are maximum
elevations.  Any siphon can be placed lower than Ei.   For ease of fabrication, all siphon
inverts are often placed at the elevation of the lowest siphon invert.
Hi=Head loss for flow from main pipe to siphon i [m].
Ls=Total length of one siphon [m].  Assumes all siphons are approximately the same length.
Lw=Wall length inside inlet chamber [m].  Also known as weir length.
nm=Manning's n coefficient of main pipe.
ns=Manning's n coefficient for the siphon pipes.
Pj=Wetted perimeter of main pipe for computing height of wall j [m].
Qi=Flowrate (discharge) through siphon i [m3/s].
Qm=Flowrate (discharge) through main pipe when flowing full [m3/s].
Qj=Flowrate (discharge) through main pipe where j represents the sum of siphons 1 through j
[m3/s].  For instance, if j=3, then Qj=Q1+Q2+Q3.   Used to compute height of wall j.
Rj=Hydraulic radius of main pipe for computing height of wall j [m].
Sm=Slope of main pipe [m/m].  Vertical/Horizontal.
Ss=Allowable hydraulic grade line for siphon pipes [m/m]
Tj=Top width of main pipe for computing height of wall j [m].
Vi=Velocity of water flowing through siphon i [m/s].
Vm=Velocity of water flowing through main pipe when flowing full [m/s].
Vj=Velocity of water flowing through main pipe for computing wall heights j [m/s].
yj=Water depth in main pipe for computing wall heights j [m].  yj is measured relative to the
main invert.  Therefore, if the bottom of the inlet chamber is below the main invert, the wall
will actually be yj plus the elevation difference between the main invert and the bottom of the
chamber.  In the figure titled "Section A-A" at the top of this page, the physical wall heights
are y1+E1 and y2+E1, since siphon 1 has the lowest invert of the three siphons shown in the
figure.

Manning n Coefficients                                            Back to calculation


Manning n values are from Metcalf and Eddy (1981), AISI (1980), and footnoted items in
references for pipes in good condition.

Pipe Material Manning n Pipe Material Manning n


Uncoated cast iron 0.013 Coated cast iron 0.012
Commercial wrought iron - 0.013 Commercial wrought iron - 0.014
black galvanized
Smooth lockbar and welded
Smooth brass and glass 0.010 0.011
"OD"
Riveted and spiral steel pipe 0.015 Corrugated Metal 0.022*
Common clay drainage tile 0.012 Vitrified sewer pipe 0.013
Brick in cement mortar, brick
0.013 Glazed brickwork 0.012
sewers
Cement mortar surfaces 0.012 Neat cement surfaces 0.011
Wood stave pipe 0.011 Concrete pipe 0.013
Corrugated Polyethylene (PE) with smooth inner walls a,b 0.009-0.015
Corrugated Polyethylene (PE) with corrugated inner walls c 0.018-0.025
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) with smooth inner walls d,e 0.009-0.011

* Corrugated metal pipe n value can vary significantly with pipe diameter and type of
corrugations (values can range from 0.012 to 0.033) - AISI (1980).

Glossary                                                             Back to calculation


Inlet chamber - usually concrete manhole where main culvert branches into several siphon
pipes.
Invert - inside bottom of pipe.
Main - culvert through which flow occurs before and after the siphon.
Siphon - pipe or pipes flowing full and under pressure which go underneath the obstruction. 
Not siphons by the true definition.  True siphons flow uphill then back down.  Siphons used
here go down then back up.

Error Messages and Validity                               Back to calculation


Initial input checks.  The following messages are generated from improper input values:
"Need 1e-9<Dm<1e9 m".  Main culvert diameter must be between these limits.
"Need 1e-9<E<1e9 m".  Elevation drop from the inlet chamber to the outlet chamber must be
between these limits.
"Need 1e-9<Ls<1e9 m".  The length of each siphon pipe must be between these limits.
"Need 1e-9<Lw<1e9 m".  The lengths of the inlet chamber walls must be between these
limits.
"Need 1e-9<Main S<1e9".  The slope of the main culvert must be between these limits.

"Need 1e-9<Main n<1e9", "Need 1e-9<Siphon n<1e9".  The Mannings n values for the
main culvert and siphons must be between these limits.

"Need 1e-9<D1<1e9 m", "Need 1e-9<D2<1e9 m", "Need 1e-9<D3<1e9 m", "Need 1e-
9<D4<1e9 m", "Need 1e-9<D5<1e9 m".  If siphon diameters are input, they must be between
these limits.

"Need 1e-9<Q1<1e9 m3/s", "Need 1e-9<Q2<1e9 m3/s", "Need 1e-9<Q3<1e9 m3/s", "Need 1e-
9<Q4<1e9 m3/s".   If siphon flows are input, the flows must be between these limits.

Run-time errors.  The following messages may be generated after performing some
calculations:
"Need 1e-9<Qm<1e9 m3/s".  Discharge computed in main culvert must be in this range for
calculations to continue.

"Need siphon Q>0".  If diameters are being computed, the flowrate through the last siphon is
automatically computed such that the sum of the flow through all siphons is equal to the
discharge through the main culvert.  If the siphon flows input by the user exceed the
discharge in the main culvert, then the flow in the last siphon will be negative, which will
generate the error message.  You should reduce the flows in the siphons so that there is
positive flow in the last siphon.  Or, you could reduce the number of culverts.

"Siphons under-designed".  Shown only if siphon flows are being computed and
Qs/Qm<0.95.  You need to increase the siphon diameters.  This message will not be
generated if diameters are being computed - because diameters are computed so that the total
flow through the siphons is exactly equal to the discharge through the main culvert.

"Siphons over-designed".  Shown only if siphon flows are being computed and
Qs/Qm>1.05.  Since wall heights cannot be computed for flows grossly exceeding that of the
main culvert, the calculation stops.  You need to decrease the siphon diameters.  This
message will not be generated if diameters are being computed - because diameters are
computed so that the total flow through the siphons is exactly equal to the discharge through
the main culvert.

References and Bibliography                               Back to calculation


AISI (American Iron and Steel Institute).  1980.  Modern Sewer Design.
a
Barfuss, Steven and J. Paul Tullis.  Friction factor test on high density polyethylene pipe. 
Hydraulics Report No. 208.  Utah Water Research Laboratory, Utah State University. 
Logan, Utah.  1988.
c
Barfuss, Steven and J. Paul Tullis.  Friction factor test on high density polyethylene pipe. 
Hydraulics Report No. 208.  Utah Water Research Laboratory, Utah State University. 
Logan, Utah.  1994.
e
Bishop, R.R. and R.W. Jeppson.  Hydraulic characteristics of PVC sewer pipe in sanitary
sewers.  Utah State University.  Logan, Utah.  September 1975.

Chow, V. T.  1959.  Open-Channel Hydraulics.  McGraw-Hill, Inc. (the classic text)

Hammer, M. J. and M. J. Hammer, Jr.  1996.  Water and Wastewater Technology.   Prentice
Hall, 3ed.

Metcalf and Eddy, Inc.  1981.  G. Tchobanoglous, editor.  Wastewater Engineering:


Collection and Pumping of Wastewater.  McGraw-Hill, Inc.  (Note that there are some errors
in the invert elevations computed on p. 175.)
d
Neale, L.C. and R.E. Price.  Flow characteristics of PVC sewer pipe.   Journal of the
Sanitary Engineering Division, Div. Proc 90SA3, ASCE.  pp. 109-129.  1964.
b
Tullis, J. Paul, R.K. Watkins, and S. L. Barfuss.  Innovative new drainage pipe. 
Proceedings of the International Conference on Pipeline Design and Installation, ASCE. 
March 25-27, 1990.

Viessman, W. and M. J. Hammer.  1998.  Water Supply and Pollution Control.  Addison-
Wesley, 6ed.

© 2002 LMNO Engineering, Research, and Software, Ltd. (All Rights Reserved)

LMNO Engineering, Research, and Software, Ltd.


7860 Angel Ridge Rd.   Athens, Ohio  45701   USA   (740) 592-1890
LMNO@LMNOeng.com    http://www.lmnoeng.com/
Aqueduct
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search


For other uses, see Aqueduct (disambiguation).

Pont du Gard, France, a Roman aqueduct built circa 19 BC. It is one of France's top tourist
attractions and a World Heritage Site.

The Aqueduct in Kavala, Greece. 25 meters height with 60 arches. It was built in AD 1530
on a Roman model during the reign of Süleyman the Magnificent.
Water portal

Contents
[hide]
 1 Ancient aqueducts
o 1.1 Aqueducts in Persia
o 1.2 Aqueducts in India
o 1.3 Roman aqueducts
 2 Modern aqueducts
 3 Uses of aqueducts
 4 Notable aqueducts
o 4.1 Ancient Greek aqueducts
o 4.2 Roman aqueducts
o 4.3 Other aqueducts
 5 Navigable aqueducts
o 5.1 Notable navigable aqueducts
 6 See also
 7 References

 8 External links
[edit] Ancient aqueducts

View from inside a Roman aqueduct from the Pools of Solomon to Jerusalem

Although famously associated with the Romans, aqueducts were devised much earlier in the
Near East and Indian subcontinent, where peoples such as the Egyptians and Harappans built
sophisticated irrigation systems. Roman-style aqueducts were used as early as the 7th century
BC, when the Assyrians built a limestone aqueduct 30 feet (10 m) high and 900 feet (300 m)
long to carry water across a valley to their capital city, Nineveh. The full length of the
aqueduct ran for 50 miles (80 km).

In the new world, when the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán was discovered in the middle of the
second millennium, it was watered by two aqueducts.

[edit] Aqueducts in Persia

In Persia from early times[vague] a system of underground aqueducts called Qanat were
constructed, a series of well-like vertical shafts, connected by gently sloping tunnels. This
technique:

 Taps into subterranean water in a manner that efficiently delivers large quantities of
water to the surface without need for pumping. The water drains relying on gravity,
with the destination lower than the source, which is typically an upland aquifer.
 Allows water to be transported long distances in hot dry climates without losing a
large proportion of the source water to seepage and evaporation.

[edit] Aqueducts in India

Ancient Indian aqueduct in Hampi


Indian subcontinent was one of the earliest builders of aqueducts. More prominent evidence
can be found at the sites of present day Hampi. The massive aqueducts near river
Tungabhadra supplying irrigation water were once 15 miles long[1].The elegant water ways in
royal center supplied water for royal bath houses.

[edit] Roman aqueducts

Main article: Roman aqueduct

Roman aqueducts were built in all parts of the Roman Empire, from Germany to Africa, and
especially in the city of Rome itself, where they totaled over 260 miles (416 km). The
aqueducts were important for supplying water to large cities across the empire, and they set a
high standard of engineering that was not surpassed for more than a thousand years.

[edit] Modern aqueducts

The Central Arizona Project Aqueduct, the largest and most expensive aqueduct ever
constructed in the United States.

Much of the expertise of the Roman engineers was lost in the Dark Ages, and in Europe the
construction of aqueducts largely ceased until the High Middle Ages. An example of an
extant small scale aqueduct system built in 1202 by Cistercian monks is the Spanish Real
Monasterio de Nuestra Señora de Rueda, whose central heating and waste disposal system
relied upon a series of aqueducts originating from a diversion of the Ebro River. Through
most of the Middle Ages and even up to the 19th century, water was instead usually supplied
through the digging of wells, though this could cause serious public health problems when
local water supplies became contaminated. One notable exception was the New River, a
man-made waterway in England, opened in 1613 to supply London with fresh drinking water
over a distance of 38 miles (62 km). The development of canals provided another spur to
aqueduct building.

The 19th century saw aqueduct building resume on a large scale to supply fast-growing cities
and water-hungry industries. The developments of new materials (such as cast iron) and new
technologies (such as steam power) enabled significant improvements to be made. For
instance, cast iron permitted the construction of larger, more highly pressurised inverted
siphons, while steam- and electrically powered pumps enabled a major increase in the
quantity and speed of water flow. England led the world in aqueduct construction, with
notable examples being built to convey water to Birmingham, Liverpool and Manchester.

Remains of the Schoharie Crossing, an aqueduct that once carried the Erie Canal over the
Schoharie Creek near Amsterdam, New York.

Mathur Aqueduct in Tamilnadu state, India carries irrigation water

In modern times the largest aqueducts of all have been built in the United States to supply
that country's biggest cities. The Catskill Aqueduct carries water to New York over a
distance of 120 miles (190 km), but it is dwarfed by aqueducts in the far west of the country,
most notably the Colorado River Aqueduct, which supplies the Los Angeles area with water
from the Colorado River nearly 250 miles (400 km) to the east, and the 444 mile (714.5 km)
California Aqueduct which runs from the Sacramento Delta to Lake Perris.

[edit] Uses of aqueducts


Historically, many agricultural societies have constructed aqueducts to irrigate crops.
Archimedes invented the water screw to raise water for use in irrigation of croplands.

Another widespread use for aqueducts is to supply large cities with clean drinking water.
Some of the famed Roman aqueducts still supply water to Rome today. In California, USA,
three large aqueducts supply water over hundreds of miles to the Los Angeles area. Two are
from the Owens River area and a third is from the Colorado River.

In more recent times, aqueducts were used for transportation purposes to allow canal barges
to cross ravines or valleys. During the Industrial Revolution of the 18th century, many
aqueducts were constructed as part of the general boom in canal-building.

In modern civil engineering projects, detailed study and analysis of open channel flow is
commonly required to support flood control, irrigation systems, and large water supply
systems when an aqueduct rather than a pipeline is the preferred solution. The aqueduct is a
simple way to get water to other ends of a field.

In the past, aqueducts often had channels made of earth or other porous materials. Significant
amounts of water are lost through such unlined aqueducts. As water gets increasingly scarce,
these canals are being lined with concrete, polymers or impermeable soil. In some cases, a
new aqueduct is built alongside the old one because it cannot be shut down during
construction.

[edit] Notable aqueducts


[edit] Ancient Greek aqueducts

 The Eupalinian aqueduct on the Greek island of Samos.

[edit] Roman aqueducts

Segovia, Spain. Roman aqueduct

Roman aqueduct supplying Carthage, Tunisia

Aqueduct of Valens, Istanbul, Turkey


Aqueduct near Tokatee Falls in Oregon
 The Pont du Gard in southern France
 Barbegal aqueduct, France
 Eifel aqueduct, Germany
 Caesarea Maritima, Israel
 Kavala, Greece
 Patras, Greece
 Aqueduct of Segovia, Spain
 Acueducto de los Milagros, Mérida, Spain
 Tarragona, Spain
 Almuñécar, Spain (5 aqueducts - 4 still in use)
 Valens Aqueduct, Istanbul, Turkey
 Aqua Augusta, Italy
 Aqua Claudia and the Anio Novus, as part of the Porta Maggiore, Rome, Italy
 Skopje Aqueduct, Skopje, Republic of Macedonia

See also: List of aqueducts in the Roman Empire

[edit] Other aqueducts

 Wignacourt Aqueduct, Malta. This aqueduct was built in the 16th century to transport
water from the old capital city of Malta, Mdina to the new capital city Valletta.
Today, only part of this aqueduct is visible in the localities of Balzan, Birkirkara and
Santa Venera.
 Aqueduct St-Clément, Montpellier, France - 17th century
 Águas Livres Aqueduct, in Lisbon, Portugal (built 1731-1748)
 Carioca Aqueduct in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (built 1744-1750)
 Aqueduct of Teruel, Spain
 Roquefavour aqueduct, France - built between 1842 and 1847
 Winnipeg Aqueduct, Manitoba, Canada - built between 1915 and 1919
 Canal de l'Aqueduc, Quebec, Canada
 Päijänne Water Tunnel is 120 kilometers long underground aqueduct (continuous
tunnel) connecting lake Päijänne to Greater Helsinki.
 Wan Mat Saman Aqueduct, Kedah, Malaysia - built between 1900 and 1909
 Mathur Aqueduct in Tamilnadu state, India
 Surviving Spanish aqueducts in Mexico:
o Aqueduct of Querétaro, Mexico - built between 1726 and 1738, 1.3 km long
and featuring 74 arches.
o Aqueduct of Morelia, Michoacan, built between 1735 and 1738.
o Aqueduct of Acámbaro, Guanajuato, built in 1528 [1].
 Levadas, 1350 miles of 17th century aqueducts on the Portuguese island of Madeira.
 Espada Aqueduct, built 1735, in San Antonio, Texas, United States.
 Quabbin Aqueduct, 24.6 miles long tunnel, in Massachusetts, United States.
 Chicopee Valley Aqueduct, 13.1 miles long, in Massachusetts, United States.
 Central Arizona Project Aqueduct
 California Aqueduct, a 444 miles (approx. 714.5 kilometers) long combination of
canals, pipelines and tunnels, United States.
 Delaware Aqueduct, in New York State, United States - at 85 miles (137 km) long,
the world's longest continuous underground tunnel.
 High Bridge, part of the former Croton Aqueduct, built in 1848, is the oldest
surviving bridge in New York City.

[edit] Navigable aqueducts


See also: List of canal aqueducts in Great Britain

The Longden-on-Tern aqueduct

Navigable aqueducts are bridge structures which carry canals over other rivers, valleys or
railways or roads. They are primarily distinguished by their size, carrying a larger cross-
section of water than most water-supply aqueducts. Although Roman aqueducts were
sometimes used for transport, aqueducts were not generally used until the 17th century when
the problems of summit level canals had been solved and the modern canal system started to
appear.

Pontcysyllte Aqueduct on the Llangollen Canal, Wales. Built for the transport of goods, the
canal is now used for leisure
A canal boat traverses the Pontcysyllte Aqueduct

Early aqueducts such as the three on the Canal du Midi (1683) were stone or brick arches, the
longest span being 18.3m on the Cesse Aqueduct (1686). However the weight of the
construction to support the trough with the clay or other lining to make it waterproof made
these structures clumsy and it was not until 1796 that the first large cast iron aqueduct was
built at Longdon-on-Tern by Thomas Telford on the Shrewsbury Canal. It has a total length
of 57m with 3 intermediate piers. Within 10 years he had completed the far more ambitious
Pontcysyllte Aqueduct over the Dee valley on the Llangollen Canal which has a total length
of 307m. Other cast iron aqueducts followed such as the single span Stanley Ferry Aqueduct
on the Calder and Hebble Navigation in 1839 with its innovative 50m through arch design.

The impact of new materials can be seen in the experience of the Canal latéral à la Loire in
France. It had 2 substantial arch aqueducts on the higher stretches of the Loire, the longest
being 470m completed in 1838, but a river-level crossing was used to cross the Loire to the
Canal de Briare because the consequent obstruction to the river during flooding was
considered unacceptable. This proved troublesome until the 662m long steel Briare aqueduct
was built in 1896, which remained the longest aqueduct in the world until the 21st century
when the Magdeburg Water Bridge in Germany took the title.

[edit] Notable navigable aqueducts

 Benjamin Outram's 44ft-long single-span Holmes Aqueduct on the Derby Canal in


Derby was the world's first navigable cast iron aqueduct, narrowly predating Thomas
Telford's 186ft-long Longdon-on-Tern Aqueduct on the Shrewsbury Canal,
sometimes described as the world's first large-scale navigable cast iron aqueduct.
 Chirk Aqueduct, Wales - built between 1796 and 1801
 Pontcysyllte Aqueduct carries the Llangollen Canal over the River Dee valley in
north Wales, and was designed by Thomas Telford and opened in 1805. The same
canal, which includes a tunnelled section crosses a second valley on the Chirk
Aqueduct. This navigable canal also supplies water to the borough of Crewe and
Nantwich.
 Union Canal in Scotland has many aqueducts, including the Slateford Aqueduct that
takes the canal over the Water of Leith, the Almond Aqueduct over the River Almond
at Ratho and the very impressive Avon Aqueduct over the River Avon. This is the
second longest aqueduct in the United Kingdom.
 In recent years the building of the Lichfield Aqueduct prompted the UK government
to pass legislation preventing a road being built in the path of a canal being renovated
without providing a tunnel or aqueduct for it to pass.
 Barton Swing Aqueduct - a form of swing bridge that carries the Bridgewater Canal
across the lower Manchester Ship Canal. A 234ft section of the aqueduct rotates
through 90 degrees to allow vessels to pass along the Ship Canal.
 Aqueduct near Roelofarendsveen, Netherlands (1961) ( 52°12′55.96″N,
4°37′35.46″E): carries the Ringvaart canal over the A4 highway and the HSL Zuid
being constructed, which are situated on land below the level of the canal (and below
sea level)
 Gouwe aqueduct, near Gouda, Netherlands: carries the Gouwe river over the A12
highway, which is on land below the level of the river
 The Ash Aqueduct (1995) carries the Basingstoke Canal over the River Blackwater
and Blackwater Valley Relief Road (A331).
 The Magdeburg Water Bridge in Germany (2003) connects the important
Mittellandkanal over the river Elbe to the Elbe-Havel canal . Nearly 1 km long, it is
the longest aqueduct in Europe.

Water channel of the Nanzen-ji aqueduct, Kyoto, Japan

The Magdeburg Water Bridge seen from the shores of the Elbe.

[edit] See also


 Aztec the Aztec Empire also used aqueducts
 Drought
 Earthquake engineering
 Flow
 Goldfields Water Supply Scheme
 Irrigation
 Leat
 Pipeline - some used to carry water
 Roman aqueduct
 List of Roman aqueduct bridges
 Roman architecture
 Roman engineering
 Sanitation in Ancient Rome
 Viaduct - a similar structure to carry a road or a railway
 Water resources

[edit] References
1. ^ http://books.google.ca/books?id=_kc3LKI_slEC

 Sextus Julius Frontinus, De Aquaeductu Urbis Romae (On the water management of the city
of Rome), Translated by R. H. Rodgers, 2003, University of Vermont
 Aqueduct entry from Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition
 Chanson, H. (2002). Certains Aspects de la Conception hydrauliques des Aqueducs Romains.
('Some Aspect on the Hydraulic Design of Roman Aqueducts.') Journal La Houille Blanche,
No. 6/7, pp. 43-57 (ISSN 0018-6368)
 Chanson, H. (2008). "The Hydraulics of Roman Aqueducts: What do we know? Why should
we learn ?" in Proceedings of World Environmental and Water Resources Congress 2008
Ahupua'a, ASCE-EWRI Education, Research and History Symposium, Hawaii, USA, Invited
Keynote lecture, 13-16 May, R.W. BADCOCK Jr and R. WALTON Eds., 16 pages (ISBN-
13: 978-0-7844-0976-3)

[edit] External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to:


Aqueduct
 Imperial Rome Water Systems
 600 Roman aqueducts with 25 descriptions in detail
 The Roman aqueduct at Kavala (Greece) - Encyclopedia Britannica

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqueduct"

Alberta Transportation Water Control Structures – Selected Design Guidelines


Alberta Environment Page 17-1
November 2004
17.0 MAIN CANAL CONVEYANCE STRUCTURES
17.1 General
Conveyance structures typically employed on main canal systems include inverted syphons, flumes,
check structures, and drop structures.
Alberta Transportation Water Control Structures – Selected Design Guidelines
Alberta Environment Page 17-2
November 2004
joint testing device. This test is used to verify that adjacent pipes have been properly joined and
that the joint gasket is properly seated. Where steel bell and spigot joint rings are used, particular
attention should be given to protecting the joint rings against corrosion (e.g. galvanizing, filling the
joint gap with a rich mix of cement mortar, etc.) The resulting loss in joint flexibility and its ability to
accommodate differential movements should be considered if cement mortar is used to infill the
joint gap.
Once construction of the conduit has been completed, hydrostatic testing of the entire installation is
normally performed to verify that the leakage rate does not exceed permissible values.
The conduit is normally buried to protect it against frost and other thermal effects and floatation.
Where a natural drainage course crosses over the syphon conduit, riprap or other erosion
protection is provided to protect it from scour.
17.3 Flume
In general, a flume is an open channel structure used to convey water over a depression (coulee)
where conditions and costs favour it over a high embankment canal or a syphon.
A rectangular or semi-circular channel configuration is usually used for the flume. The flume is
typically divided into a series of segments that are supported on piers. Watertight expansion joints
are ordinarily provided between the segments to accommodate thermal expansion/contraction
movements.
The flume may be constructed of steel or reinforced concrete. Where reinforced concrete is to be
used, crack widths, particularly under Usual Conditions of loading, should be reviewed in order to
minimize leakage as discussed in Section 9.1.1.
At the expansion joints, prefabricated joint systems, if required, may be used to provide a watertight
seal. The advantage of this system is that the seal can be removed and replaced. An example of
the system used on the Lethbridge Northern Irrigation District (LNID), Oldman River Flume is
shown
on Figure 17-4.
Neoprene and Teflon bridge-type bearing assemblies are typically incorporated at the supports to
allow longitudinal movements to occur without inducing excessive stresses in the structure.
17.4 Check Structure
A check structure is used to raise the water level within a section of the main canal during periods
when the flow is below its design discharge. The higher water level is required to provide adequate
head to divert sufficient water at turnout structures.
Overflow gates as described in Section 19.1.4, are typically provided for controlling water levels. A
typical check structure equipped with bottom-hinged leaf gates is shown on Figure 17-5. For

Alberta Transportation Water Control Structures – Selected Design Guidelines


Alberta Environment Page 17-3
November 2004
installations where the overall length of the check structure is being governed by earthworks (i.e.
top of bank widths, side slopes, etc.) and not hydraulic requirements, consideration may be given to
incorporating downstream wingwalls, if found to be more cost effective. In cases where the
structure is located at a change in the canal bed elevation, a combined check drop structure or a
drop (vertical or chute) structure incorporating a fixed weir, as discussed in Sections 17.5 and 17.6,
may be appropriate.
As part of the stability analyses, the sliding stability for the case of minimum discharge in the canal
and the gates checked to provide FSL should be considered.
In general, the structure components should be designed for the governing loading combinations
that may occur during construction, normal operation (gates fully down or checked, where
applicable), flood, and rapid drawdown conditions (end of operating season). The invert of the
basin should be set at the canal bed elevation so that it is drained when the canal is shutdown. As
discussed in Section 17.5, the small unbalanced uplift pressures due to the plunging nappe, which
occurs when the gate is raised high enough, are invariably less than the submerged weight of the
structure basin.
A stillwell is normally provided upstream of the check structure to measure the water level and
establish the proper gate position. In situations where the tailwater would affect upstream water
levels and flow measurements, two stillwells, one upstream and the second downstream of the
check structure, may be needed. Details of a typical stillwell normally used in main canals are
shown on Figure 17-6. The 1.2 m diameter stillwell provides room for installing equipment and for
maintenance purposes. For a specific installation, guidelines for sizing the stillwell and inlet pipe is
available from USBR (2001).
A control building, as discussed in Section 18.4.2 and shown on Figure 18-14, is usually provided to
house the controls and electrical equipment.
Downstream of the basin, riprap is normally provided as discussed in Section 12.7.1. However, the
riprap may have to be extended further downstream to resist waves that may be formed during flow
conditions which produce a supported jet.
17.5 Vertical Drop Structure
A vertical drop structure can be used to accommodate changes in the canal bed elevation. A typical
vertical drop structure with an uncontrolled crest is shown on Figure 17-7. This type of structure is
generally more economical than a chute drop structure particularly for drops of up to around 2.5 m,
Smith (1995). For installations where the overall length of the drop structure is being governed by
earthworks (i.e. top of bank widths, side slopes, etc.) and not hydraulic requirements, consideration
may be given to incorporating downstream wingwalls, if found to be more cost effective. At
locations where checking capabilities are also required, an overflow gate can be added to the crest
as shown on Figure 17-8.

Alberta Transportation Water Control Structures – Selected Design Guidelines


Alberta Environment Page 17-4
November 2004
As part of the stability analyses, the sliding stability for at least the following cases should be
considered:
• Headwater level and tailwater level based on the canal operating at its design discharge.
• Headwater level at the crest elevation and no tailwater.
• Headwater level and tailwater level based on the canal operating at its design discharge
plus the design flood.
In general, the structure components should be designed for the governing loading combinations
that may occur during construction, normal operating, flood, and rapid drawdown conditions (end of
operating season). Whenever possible, the invert of the basin should be set at the canal bed
elevation so that it is drained when the canal is shutdown. Due to the relatively small drop and the
energy loss that occurs within the basin, the nappe will be submerged by tailwater. Furthermore,
the depth of the nappe roller which forms under the nappe (i.e. upstream side) is always greater
than the depth on the downstream side. The combined effect of the deep nappe roller, downward
jet impact, and tailwater submergence normally means that the unbalanced uplift force will be small
and likely less than the submerged weight of the structure basin.
Downstream of the basin, riprap is normally provided as discussed in Section 12.7.1.
17.6 Chute Drop Structure
A chute drop structure is usually used to accommodate large changes in the canal bed elevation. It
is also commonly used as a reservoir inlet or a wasteway structure.
The chute drop structure generally consists of a weir crest section, a sloping chute section, and a
hydraulic jump stilling basin.
In general, ogee, trapezoidal or vertical weirs have been employed. The trapezoidal weir is
commonly used instead of an ogee weir because it is much easier to form, and provides similar
hydraulic characteristics. The vertical weir results in a much shorter crest section; however, the
adverse effects of a plunging nappe on the performance of the stilling basin, particularly for a short
structure, should be considered.
It is preferred that the sloped chute section not be steeper than 3H:1V. A typical chute drop
structure with an uncontrolled crest is shown on Figure 17-9. At locations where checking
capabilities are also required, overflow gates can be added to the crest.
Transverse contraction joints are usually incorporated to provide some differential movement
capability between the components, and to reduce cracking due to thermal and shrinkage effects.
Additional joints may be required along the sloping chute section depending on its length.

Alberta Transportation Water Control Structures – Selected Design Guidelines


Alberta Environment Page 17-5
November 2004
As part of the structure stability analyses, the sliding stability of the weir crest section with the canal
operating at its design discharge and bank full discharge should be considered. Adequate factor of
safety against a deep-seated foundation failure should also be provided.
In general, the structure components should be designed for the governing loading combinations
that may occur during construction, normal operating, flood, and rapid drawdown conditions (end of
operating season).
The design of the hydraulic jump stilling basin, including erosion protection requirements, is
described in Section 12.7.1.
Wall overtopping at the start of the basin (i.e. at the chute blocks) by splash and spray that leads to
bank erosion has been a common problem particularly for main canal chute drop structures, which
operate on a continuous basis during the irrigation season. As a result, the provision of greater
freeboard or erosion protection on the backfilled slope adjacent the walls at this location should be
considered. Whenever possible, the invert of the basin should be set at the canal bed elevation so
that it is drained when the canal is shutdown.
For reservoir inlet chutes, the sloping chute is normally extended and designed to accommodate the
hydraulic jump, which could occur at various locations on the slope (due to fluctuations in the
reservoir water level), rather than providing a horizontal hydraulic jump stilling basin. Extending the
chute generally results in a simpler design and shorter overall structure length; however, the
elevation at the downstream end of the structure will be lower.
17.7 Pipe Drop Structure
A pipe drop structure may be used to accommodate changes in elevation for smaller discharges.
Structure components typically consist of an intake structure, conduit, and terminal structure. An
impact basin is generally used for energy dissipation.
The design should also consider the potential for blockage to occur and the need to provide
emergency overflow provisions at a suitable location upstream of the structure.
17.8 Baffled Chute Drop Structure
Baffled chute drop structures, as discussed in Section 13.7.4, have been employed at locations
where reliable tailwater conditions did not exist. It has been found that these structures tend to trap
debris and weeds, which results in a high degree of maintenance. Consequently, they should not
be used in situations where significant amounts of debris and weeds occur.
A Gorgeous Expansion Joint
l Brooks Aqueduct Page

ures used on this site are compliments of the Eastern


ict. Many thanks to them! Feel free to download either
d on this page of the jpegs that they lead to. These are
action of the archival pictures that are located at the
osk at the Brooks Aqueduct.
Photo Archive
 

Copyright 1996 by StarWorks


http://www.starworks.ab.ca
strworks@eid.awinc.com

Structural Design Optimization

Optimization in Structural design


"Optimization techniques play an important role in structural design, the very purpose of
which is to find the best solutions from which a designer or a decision maker can derive a
maximum benefit from the available resources. "

This example shows how to apply our iterative mesh generator on structural design
optimization problems. In [1] and [2], the level set method was used to track the
interface during structural shape optimization. Here, we use the same technique for
the interface, but solve the physical problem by updating an unstructured mesh and
using the finite element method. Some of the advantages with this approach
includes:
 The Neumann boundary conditions are easily implemented by using natural
boundary conditions with the finite element method.
 Graded meshes allow for more efficient solvers (but the two examples below
use uniform meshes).
 The finite element method is more developed for structural problems, allowing
for example specialized elements and connection to existing software
packages.

 Here we minimize the compliance for a structure that is loaded vertically at


the right side, and we use a minimum-area constraint. The small hole in the
initial configuration is required to obtain a correct topology.

Initial Final

MSMpeg4 AVI (2.0MB)
 Again we minimize the compliance subject to a minimum-area constraint. Note that
the level set method can merge holes to create different topologies, but as before we
need an initial configuration with holes.

Initial Final
Bric s

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