Biocide in Wastewater

Case Study: Biocide in Wastewater Treatment System
EFFECTS OF BIOCIDE CONCENTRATIONS IN WASTEWATER
TREATMENT SYSTEM: A CASE STUDY
Student name: Manvika Mehta
Student ID: 12137665
Length: 3000
1
Executive Summary
Throughout the society, an extensive use of different substances and
materials has led to different source emissions which cause an unrestrained spread
of hazardous elements, largely through the wastewater treatment channels into the
surrounding environment (Liu et al., 2017). In order to make this wastewater more
ecologically advantageous, several chemicals like biocides are introduced into these
wastewater plants by chemical dosing companies. Adjusting dosing levels of these
chemicals and rates according to the evaluative findings of the substances present in
the wastewater is an integral part of introducing biocides. However, such
concentrations are mismanaged leading to effusions of biocides in the water bodies,
deteriorating the ecological systems. This case study will revolve around all the
potential hazards of immense concentrations of biocides in the wastewater treatment
systems. The report will move onto highlighting one chemical and one biological
hazard, its transmission, impacts, exposure, specific monitoring and analysing
techniques and finally the legislature revolving around these specific hazards in
Australia. At last, the case study will recommend potential control systems for
removing these hazards related to high concentration dosing of biocides in the
wastewater treatment system.
The case study aims to educate and bring into attention the
deteriorative effects of large concentrations of these innovative biocides being
introduced into the water chains throughout the world.
2
Table of Contents
Effects of Biocide Dumping in Wastewater Treatment System: A Case Study..5
1.0 Introduction.............................................................................................5
2.1 Hazard identification.................................................................................8
2.2 Potential effects........................................................................................9
2.3 Monitoring and analysis.............................................................................9
2.4 Legal requirements and standards..............................................................11
2.5 Recommended control.............................................................................11
3.0 Chemical Hazard....................................................................................12
3.1 Hazard identification...............................................................................12
3.2 Potential effects......................................................................................13
3.3 Monitoring and analysis...........................................................................14
3.4 Legal requirements and standards.............................................................15
3.5 Recommended control.............................................................................16
4.0 Conclusion.............................................................................................16
5.0 References.............................................................................................18
3
Effects of Biocide Dumping in Wastewater Treatment System: A Case Study
1.0 Introduction
There are 26 million people living in Australia, and 94% of them have access
to a primary water supply. Presently, more than 700 municipal effluent treatment
facilities are accessible to about 85% of the population. Approximately 170 of which
are lagoons, 45 are based on primary purification, and close to half of them are
based on organic filtration (Ziajahromi et al., 2021). This wastewater is treated with
biocides through the process of chemical dosing. As much particulates as practicable
must be eliminated during treating wastewater before the leftover water, known as
effluent, is released into the surrounding environment. The oxygen that is required by
the aquatic organisms and plants is depleted during the breakdown of solid matter,
hence biocides are introduced by chemical dosing.
A chemical modification known as a biocide is designed to efficiently limit
growth of microorganisms. Unchecked microbial growth can lead to a variety of
issues, including health risks, chemical degradation, the formation of bio films, heat
exchange losses, circulation restrictions, and under layer oxidation. In order to keep
the microbes number under control in a variety of systems, which include drinkable
water, off the water utilities, workflow waters, closed circuits, aquatic environment,
and open chillers, it is crucial that the proper biocidal treatment regime be applied
and routine inspections are carried out (Paijens et al., 2021). In order to prevent
hazardous concentrations of these biocides in the wastewater, chemical dosing is
4
applied.
Chemical dosing is the practise of wastewater treatments with compounds to
eliminate the high levels of pollutants contained in it, including iron, aluminium, and
even a few minerals (Nasuhoglu et al., 2018). To eliminate undesirable components
from the wastewater and render them useable once more, this chemical dosing is
carried out in precise doses. Dosing chemicals is a crucial step in the process of
water treatment.
Recent times have seen a rise in the detection of biocides in grounds
modified with bio solids, groundwater, sedimentation, and at maximum
concentrations of up to microgram/L and microgram/g, dry mass, respectively
(Hernández-Moreno et al., 2019). Numerous creatures, including humans, may
experience negative consequences from the high concentrations of biocides
prevalent in the receiving water bodies, including general toxicity, bioaccumulation,
and neuroendocrine disruption.
These chemical substances not only are harmful to pathogens, but also have
deteriorating effects on non-pathogens, including humans. These varieties of
chemical substance may be endocrine disturbing, persistent, extremely toxic to the
marine life even having carcinogenic abilities. The professionals involved in the use
of these biocides may also face issues due to exposure, either directly or indirectly.
Direct or primary exposure may occur when the workers are using these biocides
actively whereas, indirect or secondary exposure may be by the contaminated PPE
5
or other tools (de Campos et al., 2021). However, generally this exposure to biocides
may either be dermal contact or inhalational. Inhalational exposure may either be due
to volatile nature, evaporation or when sprayed as an application. Whereas, dermal
exposure occurs when biocide contaminated articles are used, transported or even
cleaned.
These chemicals not only pose threat to the professionals and the marine life
but may affect pregnant women, the foetus, very small children or people already
having a chronic illness. These have effects on the eyes, the dermis, respiratory tract
and the neuroendocrine system.
The biggest drawback of using these biocides is that they tend to build up in
the ecological cycles in large concentrations, becoming a toxic part of the food
chains. Effluents from the wastewater treatment systems, flows into the water bodies
carrying large and uncontrolled concentrations of biocides in them (Zhao et al.,
2018). This affects the marine life and may even be consumed by the human
population through the food chain. Hence, at the beginning small concentrations of
these biocides tend to build up in the society, later on due to unchecked control on
these biocides and no concept of chemical dosing, large concentrations become
visible through contagious health symptoms. This also explains the high prevalence
of different types of cancers in the past decade, a product of high concentrations of
carcinogens in the diet.
2.0 Biological Hazard
6
Only microbiological entities that can replicate cause infection, or other
disorders are considered biological entities, according to the literature. Based on the
severity of the causal link between exposure and illness, pathogens are divided into
four risk classes when it comes to the possibility of infection. In principle, group 1
agents are those that are unlikely to cause disease in humans, group 2 agents have
the potential to do so, and group 3 compounds have the potential to do so and pose
a major risk to employees. Group 4 agents are likewise capable of causing significant
illness and posing a serious risk to workers, but they typically lack access to
appropriate prevention or treatments.
2.1 Hazard identification
The most common occupational disorders, according to recent research, are
microbial infections. The study of occupational health and occupational medicine
were greatly impacted by the identification of workplace infectious illnesses. The
scope of used diagnostic and certification processes can be restricted by
occupational diseases, including parasitic infections, exclusively to illnesses brought
on by exposures to potential pathogens or by exposures that take place at work.
Sometimes it becomes impossible or extremely difficult to determine the true source
of a patient's problems. Use of biocides or samples of a microorganism, virus, or
toxin from the workplace environment can also be considered occupational
biohazards (Rim and Lim, 2014). Occupational biohazardous material are human
pathogens or dangerous biological materials that have an adverse effect on workers'
7
wellbeing, either immediately through infection or by indirect means through harm to
the workplace environment.
2.2 Potential effects
Bacteria, viruses, parasites, and moulds or fungi are examples of biological
health risks. Whenever they come into touch with skin, are ingested, or are aspirated,
they can be harmful to the worker's health. They have the potential to spread
diseases such parasite illnesses, tetanus, lung infections, and food poisoning
(Munusami and Ramasamy, 2022). These microorganisms have the potential to
harm people's health, causing illness, intoxication, and even death. When microbes
penetrate the body and proliferate there, infection results. When bacteria generate
toxins that have an effect on the body, poisoning results.
2.3 Monitoring and analysis
By taking into account target organisms and the goals of use, utilising
information of biocidal goods in occupational settings is to be researched in order to
acquire the incidence of using chemicals, the exposure length of products, and the
exposed quantity per application.
Four main methods can be employed for monitoring and analysing this
exposure to biocides amongst workers while using them in wastewater treatment
systems. These include personal monitoring, environmental monitoring, biological
monitoring or checking for the health surveillance results of the workers. Personal
monitoring includes sampling the amount of exposure on each usage or application.
8
An investigation should be run to determine the precise quantity of product utilised
per application in order to examine the exposure level of biocidal agents for
occupational consumers. The weight of the product should be evaluated both before
and after usage in order to determine the amounts of items consumed (g/use)
(Hashimoto et al., 2018). Environmental monitoring would include placing specific
devices as monitors in the area of application, meaning the wastewater treatment
plants to keep a check on the amount of exposure per application.
Biological monitoring is also linked with the detailed sampling of health status
of the workers by conducting routine blood or fluid tests like ABGs and VBGs in order
to determine the concentrations of these biocides in their bodies. Whereas, overall
health surveillance results are the results of ongoing health checks that are carried
out over a time period in the workers at these wastewater treatment systems. These
samples can be collected by long term sampling (LTS), which determined collection
of the samples over a full shift of a worker, according to Australian laws this may be
an 8-hour shift.
These values are then counterchecked or compared with reference values
proposed by the Safe Work Australia in their guides relating to hazardous substance
exposure in workers. The standards for biocides exposure should be according to
Work Health and Safety (WHS) Regulations (Safe Work Australia, 2021).
9
0
2.4 Legal requirements and standards
Safe Work Australia has issued workplace exposure standards (WES) which
is a list of harmful substances that workers are exposed to, and their acceptable
limits for exposure (Safe Work Australia, 2021). There are three strict laws on the
exposure of these biocides for workers under the work health and safety (WHS)
regulations (Safe Work Australia, 2021):
 a worker's average airborne exposure for any 8-hour work shift during
a 40-hour work week
 If the significant effect occurs after one brief or acute exposure levels,
such as a 15-min contact, it is short-term or abrupt.
 peak restriction: not more than 15 minutes.
2.5 Recommended control
A biocidal substance is any compound or mixture with an active component
that is required to eliminate dangerous insects or microorganisms in order to avoid
infection that could have local or systemic consequences. This raises several crucial
issues related to the workers' health. These items must be harmless in their intended
usage, with a wide enough safety margin to eliminate any danger of negative usage
effects. Direct professional worker's exposures to biocidal products may arise at
workplace (Ta, Gosa and Nathanson, 2018). The quantity of contact to biocidal
agents for professional workers is determined by the frequency and volume of
contact. Consequently, it is important to calculate the health and exposure risk that
10
1
users of biocidal agents face.
3.0 Chemical Hazard
Chemical and toxic compounds can cause a variety of health and physical
risks, including irritability, hypersensitivity, and carcinogenic effects (Scott, 2020).
Workplace contact to drugs or mixes can happen through breathing, absorption
through the skin, or swallowing. The majority of exposure happens when someone
inhales vapours, particles, vapours, or gases. Skin penetration could also be a
substantial cause of exposure to some substances. The type of the drug, the
potential health consequences, and the quantity of the substance or the mixture
taken into the body all affect how the body reacts to exposure to chemicals and
combinations.
3.1 Hazard identification
There are chemical qualities that have negative health implications. Exposure
often happens when something is inhaled, touched, or consumed. Acute (brief) or
persistent negative health impacts are also possible (long term). Symptoms of
chronic illness include allergies, dermatitis, nerve damage, and malignancy, whereas
common acute health symptoms include migraines, vomiting or nausea and skin
deterioration. Hazardous materials (poisons), which are substances that can cause
cancer, and carcinogenic are examples of chemicals with health risks.
Carcinogens are chemicals that are linked to cancer. A carcinogen exposure
does not guarantee cancer development. In addition to other factors, it relies on what
11
2
you have been subjected to, how frequently, and in what amount. The quantity,
duration, frequency, and timing of a person's exposure to these substances all affect
their likelihood of developing cancer. It matters if you are subjected because, for
instance, a modest exposure while you are still in the womb could be more harmful
than a similar exposure when you become an adult.
Chemical exposure in the work can be more hazardous even if it is typically
too low to have a negative impact on health. Occupational chemical hazards can
occur at high concentrations and over extended periods of time. Because of this,
certain jobs mandate that workers put on protective gear, outerwear, and/or breathing
masks. Uranium mining, asbestos employees, dockworkers, some employees of
factories and chemical plants, and those employed in the nuclear industry are among
the occupations that place employees at a greater risk of developing cancer.
Furthermore, employees who share a residence or vehicle run the danger of bringing
contaminated home on their skins, shoes, or garments.
3.2 Potential effects
Between about 7% and 19% of cases of cancer in people, as according
estimates from the World Organization (WHO) and the International Agency for
Research on Cancer (IARC), environmentally damaging exposures occur (Fox et al.,
2018). Through interactions with DNA that result in gene disorders or genomic
destruction, as well as secondarily through the disruption of cellular control
12
3
frameworks and the host surroundings, carcinogens can increase the risk of cancer.
The three carcinogens that individuals have been most constantly exposed to at work
are benzene, asbestos, and indirect smoking. The most frequent malignancies
brought on by workplace exposure to cancer-causing substances include leukaemia,
mesothelioma, bladder cancer, and lung cancer.
Any condition known as cancer occurs when healthy cells are harmed and do
not experience programmed cell death as quickly as they divide through mitosis. By
disrupting cell functions or directly harming DNA in cells, toxins can raise the chance
of developing cancer. This can cause biological mechanisms to break down and
cause unregulated, aggressive cell proliferation, which eventually results in tumour
growth. Severe DNA damage often results in programmed cell death, however if the
pathway for scheduled cell death is broken, the cells cannot halt it from turning
into cancerous cells.
3.3 Monitoring and analysis
When controlling specific hazards, duty holders are required by the WHS
Regulations to follow the hierarchy of control measures; nevertheless, it can be used
with any risk (Safe Work Australia, 2022). The pyramid lists control methods in order
of decreasing degree of safety and dependability. To the greatest extent practical, it is
necessary to: first, eliminate risks through reducing risks, since this is the most
efficient control measure; then use ergonomic principles to eliminate any risks that
haven't been eradicated, segregate hazards from humans, and/or use appropriate
13
4
controls to limit any risks that persist, and then use personal protective gear (PPE) to
reduce any risks that linger (WHS Regulation 44). The chosen control measures
could alter how work is done. In such circumstances, it is necessary to consult
the employees to design safe work methods, as well as to train, advise, educate, and
supervise the employees on the modifications.
These values are then counterchecked or compared with reference values
proposed by the Safe Work Australia in their guides relating to hazardous substance
exposure in workers. The standards for biocides exposure should be according to
Work Health and Safety (WHS) Regulations (Safe Work Australia, 2021).
3.4 Legal requirements and standards
As according present understanding, exposure guidelines are determined on
the atmospheric quantities of specific compounds that shouldn't harm employees'
health or bring them undue pain. They don't serve as a clear line delineating between
a healthy and unsafe workplace. The Workplace Exposure Standards for Airborne
Contaminants contains a list of chemicals with occupational exposure limits. It is
important to make sure that no one at the work is subjected to a mixture of
substances in an atmospheric quantity that surpasses the exposure limit for the
chemical or mixture, as stated in Section 1.5 of WHS Regulation 49 Code (Safe Work
Australia, 2022). To make sure that employees are not subjected to airborne
concentrations that exceed the substance's exposure limit, air monitoring may be
required.
14
5
3.5 Recommended control
Workers' exposure-related hazards must be identified and evaluated by
companies, and where dangers exist, exposure must be avoided. The method or
agent in question must, whenever it is technologically possible, be replaced with a
less risky or nontoxic process or agent (Kuhlbusch, Wijnhoven and Haase, 2018).
When replacement is not an option, worker contact must be lowered to the lowest
amount that is physically feasible or chemical carcinogens/mutagens must be utilised
in a closed environment.
The fundamental strategy for protecting workers from work related
carcinogenic substances is to either regulate exposure to a standard where the
hazard is satisfactory small, in which the permissible exposure level that is deemed
reasonable, or to completely remove the use of the substance, as has been
accomplished in a small number of cases. The population risk resulting from
exposure, i.e. estimations of the amount of people predicted to die in the coming
years from forms of cancer or the multitude of life wasted years from current
exposure at work, presuming that it proceeded into the years ahead, would likely be
the most rational way to choose work - related carcinogens for prioritised
interference.
4.0 Conclusion
A thorough understanding of the fight against undesirable or hazardous
15
6
organisms, as well because it is currently impossible to determine the influence of
biocides. Until now, there has been a sizable informational gap about the impacts of
exposure in the industry and use data, or the effects on the environment and human
health, as well as viable or superior alternatives. Because of this, it's crucial to
produce important data and maintain accountability in the concentrations and amount
of biocides used for the purpose of wastewater treatment. Rather than using the
dumping strategy it is necessary to find alternatives or use in controlled way.
Numerous biocides are readily available in shops and pharmacies (e.g. wood
additives, antiseptics, or insecticides used in homes but not subjected to tight sales
rules), it is important to highlight and spread awareness on how such man-made
products may have an influence on the environment and our wellbeing.
16
7
5.0 References
de Campos, B., Figueiredo, J., Perina, F., Abessa, D., Loureiro, S. and
Martins, R., 2021. Occurrence, effects and environmental risk of antifouling biocides
(EU PT21): Are marine ecosystems threatened?. Critical Reviews in Environmental
Science and Technology, 52(18), pp.3179-3210.
Fox, M., Spicer, K., Chosewood, L., Susi, P., Johns, D. and Dotson, G., 2018.
Implications of applying cumulative risk assessment to the workplace. Environment
International, 115, pp.230-238.
Hashimoto, H., Yamada, K., Hori, H., Kumagai, S., Murata, M., Nagoya, T.,
Nakahara, H. and Mochida, N., 2018. Guidelines for personal exposure monitoring of
chemicals: Part IV. Journal of Occupational Health, 60(2), pp.103-110.
Hernández-Moreno, D., Blázquez, M., Andreu-Sánchez, O., Bermejo-
Nogales, A. and Fernández-Cruz, M., 2019. Acute hazard of biocides for the aquatic
environmental compartment from a life-cycle perspective. Science of The Total
Environment, 658, pp.416-423.
Kuhlbusch, T., Wijnhoven, S. and Haase, A., 2018. Nanomaterial exposures
for worker, consumer and the general public. NanoImpact, 10, pp.11-25.
Liu, W., Yang, Y., Liu, Y., Zhang, L., Zhao, J., Zhang, Q., Zhang, M., Zhang, J.,
Jiang, Y. and Ying, G., 2017. Biocides in wastewater treatment plants: Mass balance
analysis and pollution load estimation. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 329, pp.310-
320.
Moayedi-Nia, S., Pasquet, R., Siemiatycki, J., Koushik, A. and Ho, V., 2022.
17
8
Occupational Exposures and Lung Cancer Risk—An Analysis of the CARTaGENE
Study. Journal of Occupational & Environmental Medicine, 64(4), pp.295-304.
Munusami, R. and Ramasamy, M., 2022. Recent Trends Toward the
Development of Biosensors for Biosafety and Biohazards. Miniaturized Biosensing
Devices, pp.333-349.
Nasuhoglu, D., Isazadeh, S., Westlund, P., Neamatallah, S. and Yargeau, V.,
2018. Chemical, microbial and toxicological assessment of wastewater treatment
plant effluents during disinfection by ozonation. Chemical Engineering Journal, 346,
pp.466-476.
Paijens, C., Bressy, A., Frère, B., Tedoldi, D., Mailler, R., Rocher, V., Neveu, P.
and Moilleron, R., 2021. Urban pathways of biocides towards surface waters during
dry and wet weathers: Assessment at the Paris conurbation scale. Journal of
Hazardous Materials, 402, p.123765.
Rim, K. and Lim, C., 2014. Biologically Hazardous Agents at Work and Efforts
to Protect Workers' Health: A Review of Recent Reports. Safety and Health at Work,
5(2), pp.43-52.
Safe Work Australia, 2021. WHS-PRO-012 Occupational Hygiene
Management Procedure. [online] Jcu.edu.au. Available at:
<https://www.jcu.edu.au/policy/procedures/hse-procedures/whs-pro-012-
occupational-hygiene-management-procedure> [Accessed 4 September 2022].
Safe Work Australia, 2022. Workplace exposure standards review. [online]
Engage SWA. Available at: <https://engage.swa.gov.au/workplace-exposure-
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standards-review> [Accessed 4 September 2022].
Scott, R., 2020. CHEMICAL HAZARDS in the WORKPLACE.
Ta, L., Gosa, L. and Nathanson, D., 2018. Biosafety and Biohazards:
Understanding Biosafety Levels and Meeting Safety Requirements of a Biobank.
Methods in Molecular Biology, pp.213-225.
Zhao, G., He, C., Zhou, W., Hooper, J., Imler, G., Parrish, D. and Shreeve, J.,
2018. Control of Biohazards: A High Performance Energetic Polycyclized Iodine-
Containing Biocide. Inorganic Chemistry, 57(14), pp.8673-8680.
Ziajahromi, S., Neale, P., Telles Silveira, I., Chua, A. and Leusch, F., 2021. An
audit of microplastic abundance throughout three Australian wastewater treatment
plants. Chemosphere, 263, p.128294.
19

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Case Study: Biocide in Wastewater Treatment System

EFFECTS OF BIOCIDE CONCENTRATIONS IN WASTEWATER

TREATMENT SYSTEM: A CASE STUDY

Student name: Manvika Mehta

Student ID: 12137665

Throughout the society, an extensive use of different substances and

wastewater plants by chemical dosing companies. Adjusting dosing levels of these

the wastewater is an integral part of introducing biocides. However, such

concentrations are mismanaged leading to effusions of biocides in the water bodies,

potential hazards of immense concentrations of biocides in the wastewater treatment

hazard, its transmission, impacts, exposure, specific monitoring and analysing

removing these hazards related to high concentration dosing of biocides in the

wastewater treatment system.

deteriorative effects of large concentrations of these innovative biocides being

introduced into the water chains throughout the world.

2.1 Hazard identification.................................................................................8

2.2 Potential effects........................................................................................9

2.3 Monitoring and analysis.............................................................................9

2.4 Legal requirements and standards..............................................................11

2.5 Recommended control.............................................................................11

3.0 Chemical Hazard....................................................................................12

3.1 Hazard identification...............................................................................12

3.2 Potential effects......................................................................................13

3.3 Monitoring and analysis...........................................................................14

3.4 Legal requirements and standards.............................................................15

3.5 Recommended control.............................................................................16

Effects of Biocide Dumping in Wastewater Treatment System: A Case Study

biocides through the process of chemical dosing. As much particulates as practicable

hence biocides are introduced by chemical dosing.

A chemical modification known as a biocide is designed to efficiently limit

growth of microorganisms. Unchecked microbial growth can lead to a variety of

hazardous concentrations of these biocides in the wastewater, chemical dosing is

Chemical dosing is the practise of wastewater treatments with compounds to

even a few minerals (Nasuhoglu et al., 2018). To eliminate undesirable components

Recent times have seen a rise in the detection of biocides in grounds

modified with bio solids, groundwater, sedimentation, and at maximum

concentrations of up to microgram/L and microgram/g, dry mass, respectively

(Hernández-Moreno et al., 2019). Numerous creatures, including humans, may

experience negative consequences from the high concentrations of biocides

prevalent in the receiving water bodies, including general toxicity, bioaccumulation,

and neuroendocrine disruption.

deteriorating effects on non-pathogens, including humans. These varieties of

chemical substance may be endocrine disturbing, persistent, extremely toxic to the

actively whereas, indirect or secondary exposure may be by the contaminated PPE

to volatile nature, evaporation or when sprayed as an application. Whereas, dermal

and the neuroendocrine system.

carrying large and uncontrolled concentrations of biocides in them (Zhao et al.,

these biocides and no concept of chemical dosing, large concentrations become

of different types of cancers in the past decade, a product of high concentrations of

carcinogens in the diet.

2.0 Biological Hazard

Only microbiological entities that can replicate cause infection, or other

appropriate prevention or treatments.

2.1 Hazard identification

The most common occupational disorders, according to recent research, are

microbial infections. The study of occupational health and occupational medicine

were greatly impacted by the identification of workplace infectious illnesses. The

scope of used diagnostic and certification processes can be restricted by

occupational diseases, including parasitic infections, exclusively to illnesses brought