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Forensic Ballistics
 
 
 
 
 
College of Criminal Justice Education
BS Criminology
 
 
 
 
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Module No. 9

Firearms Characteristics

1st Semester AY 2022-2023

Hilda B. Espadilla
Assistant Professor II

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Table of Contents

Contents Page

TITLE PAGE ---------------------------------------------------------------------

1

TABLE OF CONTENTS --------------------------------------------------------- 3

INSTRUCTION TO THE USER ----------------------------------------------- 4

CHAPTER 9 – Firearms Characteristics

Lesson 1 – Definition of Gun Barrel --------------------------------

Lesson 2 – Stages in the manufacture of barrel -----------------

Lesson 3 – Types of Rifling --------------------------------------------

Lesson 4 - Types of Characteristics of Firearms ----------------

Lesson 5 – Marks found in the fired bullets ----------------------

Lesson 6 - Marks Found on Fired Cartridge Cases -------------

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INSTRUCTION TO THE USER

This module would provide you an educational experience while

independently accomplishing the task at your own pace or time. It aims as
well to ensure that learning is unhampered by health and other challenges. It
covers the topic about ____________________________________.

Reminders in using this module:

1. Keep this material neat and intact.

2. Answer the pretest first to measure what you know and what to be
learned about the topic discussed in this module.
3. Accomplish the activities and exercises as aids and reinforcement for
better understanding of the lessons.
4. Answer the post-test to evaluate your learning.
5. Do not take pictures in any parts of this module nor post it to social
media platforms.
6. Value this module for your own learning by heartily and honestly
answering and doing the exercises and activities. Time and effort were
spent in the preparation in order that learning will still continue
amidst this Covid-19 pandemic.
7. Observe health protocols: wear mask, sanitize and maintain physical
distancing.

Hi! I’m Blue Bee, your WPU Mascot.

Welcome to Western Philippines University!

Shape your dreams with quality learning
experience.

STAY SAFE AND HEALTHY!

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Introduction

Firearm identification is the process that deals with analyzing the bullets and
the cartridge cases that are left behind at the scene of the crime to determine if they
came from a particular firearm. Class and Individual Characteristics of a
Firearm decide if the bullet is fired from a suspected firearm.

The basis of firearm identification follows the principle of Locard’s principle of

exchange. Firearm The surfaces of the firearm that come in contact with the softer
cartridge case and bullet contain few marks common to a group of firearms and
certain unique marks that make it different from the other firearms- even those of
the same model.

Thus, class characteristics are characteristics that remain constant in a group

of classes, while individual characteristics are unique to a particular object.

CHAPTER 9

FIREARMS CHARACTERISTICS

LESSON

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of the lesson, you can:

1. Define the gun barrel;
2. Understand the stages in the manufacture of the barrel;
3. Differentiate the types of rifling and types of characteristics of firearms;
4. Understand the marks found on fired bullets and fired cartridge cases; and
5. answer the given exercises in the lesson.

Time Allotment: 2 hours

Discussion:
Firearms Characteristics

A gun barrel is a tube, usually metal, through which a controlled explosion

or rapid expansion of gases is released in order to propel a projectile out of the end at
a high velocity. All barrels irrespective of the type of weapons for which they are
made are manufactured from a solid piece of metal. The metal from which the barrel
is made is carefully selected for its chemical and metallurgical properties, thus
assuring a high-quality product after the various machine operations and heat
treatment are completed.

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The Following are the Stages in the Manufacture of the Barrel

A. Drilling

A special deep hole is used and through the center of which lubricating oil is forced
under pressure. This operation results in a comparatively rough hole of uniform
diameter from one end of the barrel to the other. At this stage, the interior surface of
the barrel will bear numerous scars and scratches resulting from the irregular cutting
of the drill and the metal chips which mark the finish. It is also the stage at which the
bore diameter (caliber) of the firearm is determined.

B. Reaming

In this process, some of the scars or scratches left by the drilling operation are
removed. The reamer removes the metal from the entire surface because it is slightly
larger in diameter than the drill which completes the bore operations. It includes
roughly finishing and burnishing the reamer to have a smooth bore barrel.

C. Rifling

This process is necessary for the making of the holiday proves inside the
barrel and such can be performed in any of the following methods:

1. Hook—cutter system (cutter)

2. Scrape—cutter system (scraper)
3. Broaching system — (broach)
4. Button — system (button)

Rifling in the bore of the firearm is a helical groove consisting of the

depressed portion (grooves) and an elevated portion (lands) which is responsible for
the rotation motion of the projectile as it leaves the gun muzzle.

Figure 48. Barrel rifling

D. Lapped

This is the polishing operation in which a lead plug closely fitting the inside
of the barrel is drawn back and forth on a rod carrying with it a polishing compound.
This will remove large imperfections on the inside surface of the barrel both to the
lands and the grooves. What is important about this process is that no matter how

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many times we polish or finish the barrel, only the large imperfections may be
eliminated but not the minute imperfections making a series of striations that will be
impressed on every bullet that will pass through it. This is the basis for which
firearms are identified.

The Breech face

Just like any barrel of every firearm, the breech face also bears with it the
same importance. It is that portion of the firearms against which the shell or the
cartridge case and the primer are pressed backward every time that a cartridge is
fired in the chamber. If this happens, the base of the cartridge will be marked by the
breech face of the gun.

Types of Characteristics of Firearms

A. Class Characteristics - are those properties or attributes of a firearm that

can be determined even before the manufacture of the gun. This is true for such
characteristics are considered to be a manufacturer’s designs or specifications and
security.

B. Individual Characteristics = are meant for those characteristics which are

being determined only after the firearm has already been: manufactured. They are
the product Of machine imperfections while others are subsequently produced after
the firearms have been used.

Figure 49. Bore Diameter Measurement

Class Characteristics of Firearms

1. Bore diameter (caliber or gauge)

It is the diameter to which the bore was reamed, and it is the

distance measured between two opposite lands inside the bore in hundredths or
thousandths of an inch. In most cases, it is expressed in either caliber in inch or in
millimeters such as cal .22, .25, .30, .32, .38, .380, .357, .44, .45, .50 etc. or 5.56mm,
6.35mm, 9mm, Timm, etc. In shotguns, they are either in gauge or an inch, such as
10 gauge (.775), 12 gauge (.729), 20 gauge (.615), 24 gauge (.579), 30 gauge (.537) 36
gauge (.506), and the smallest of which is gauge .410.

2. Number of lands and grooves

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The number of lands and grooves inside the barrel of a given

firearm are always the same or equal. It may run from 3 to 8, but the most in the
modern firearm are five and six.

> Lands - are the elevated portion of the bore of the firearm.

> Grooves -are the depressed portion of the bore between the lands.

3. Width of the lands

It is dependent upon the bore diameter of the gun, grooves, width,

and number. The lands are the remains of the circumference after subtracting all the
groove’s width.

4. Width of the Grooves

It is measured as the shortest distance between the two dies or the

edge of a groove.

5. Direction of Twist

Rifling inside the barrel of the gun Is either twisted to the left or to
the right which causes the bullet to rotate as it passes through the bore, in order to
ensure gyroscopic stability in its flight.

6. Pitch of Rifling

The pitch of rifling is the measure of the twisting of the lands and
grooves. It refers to the measure of the distance advance by the rifling in order to
make a complete turn inside the barrel.

7. Depth of the Grooves

The groove’s depth is measured on the radius of the bore. Grooves

are usually a few thousandths of an inch deep, which is equal to the height of the
land.

Types of Rifling

1. Steyer Type - is the type of rifling having four (4) lands and grooves, right twist,
and the width of the grooves of the land. (4 RG=L)

2. Carbine Type - rifling having (4) lands and grooves, right twist, the width of the
grooves is two (2) times the width of the lands (4RG2X).

3. Smith and Wesson - rifling having (5) lands and grooves, right-hand twist, the
width of the land and grooves are equal. (S5RG=L)

4. Colt – a type of rifling having six (6) lands and grooves, left twist, the width of the
grooves is twice (2) the width of the lands. (6LG2X)

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5. Browning - type of rifling having (6) lands and grooves, right-hand twist, the
width of the grooves is twice the width of the lands. (GRG2X)

6. Webley - Rifling having seven (7) lands and grooves, right-hand twist, the width of
the groove is three times larger than the border of the lands. (7RG3X)

7. Winchester - Rifling having six (6) lands and grooves, right-hand twist, the width
of the grooves is three times larger than the width of the lands.

Individual Characteristics in firearms are usually determined by the test

firing which will give us both the test bullet and the test shell that will show the
individuality of its property based on the marks that are left on every bullet and shell
fired from it. Such marks are so minute that the use of the lens with high
magnification is necessary to discover individuality.

Marks left on fired shells or fired bullets are generally categorized as either
Accidental or Repetitive. Accidental marks are those marks that bare some
importance to the investigation but are considered to be not of significant value in
the identification of a particular firearm or weapon since they are not regularly
formed in the operation of the gun. On the other hand, repetitive marks are those
marks that are very useful in identifying a firearm. They show the identity of
performance.

Marks Found on Fired Bullets:

A. Land Marks - marks left on a fired bullet caused by its contact with the
elevated portion (lands) of the bore of the firearm. It appears as slight
depressions or scratches on the cylindrical surface of the fired bullet.

B. Groove Marks - marks found on a fired bullet caused by the grooves of

the barrel which is the same number as that of the landmarks.

Figure 50. Land Mark and Groove Mark

C. Skid Marks = Marks that are generally found on a fired bullet from a
revolver. It is more or less located at the anterior portion of the fired
bullet due to its forward movement from the chamber to the barrel of the
gun before it initially rotates.

D. Stripping Marks = marks found on those bullets fired from a “loose-fit”

barrel wherein the rifling is already badly worn out.

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Worn-out in the rifling of the firearms can be caused by either a

chemical reaction brought about by rust (corrosion) or through excessive
use (erosion)
E. Shaving Marks = marks commonly found on bullets fired from a
revolver caused by its forward movement to the barrel that is poorly
aligned to the cylinder.

F. Slippage Marks = marks found on fired bullets passing through either

an oily or oversized barrel.

Marks found on Fired Shell

1. Firing Pin Mark = mark generally found at the base portion of the cartridge case
more specifically near the center of the primer cup in a centerfire cartridge or at the
rim cavity of a rim-fire cartridge. It is considered one of the most important marks
for the identification of firearms using the fired shell.

Figure 51. A photomicrograph Comparison of Firing Pin Marks

2. Breech Face Mark = mark found at the base portion of the shell caused by
backward movement to the breech face of the block of the firearm. This is also one of
the important marks in shell identification.

(a) (b)

Figure 52. (a) Breech Face and (b) Breech Face Mark

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3. Extractor mark = mark mostly found at the extracting groove of the fired cartridge
case caused by its withdrawal from the chamber.

(a) (b)

Figure 53. (a) Extractor and (b) Extractor Mark

4. Ejector mark = mark generally found on cartridge case fired from an automatic
firearm. It is located near the rim of the case caused by the throwing of the shell from
the firearm to the area of the shooting.

(a) (b)

Figure 54. (a) Ejector and (b) Ejector Mark

5. Shearing Mark = sometimes called “Secondary Firing Pin mark’ found in the
primer near the firing pin mark.

6. Magazine Lip Mark = marking found at the two sides of the rim caused by the
magazine lips during the loading of the cartridge into the magazine for firing.

7. Chamber Mark = mark mostly found around the body of the fired cartridge case
caused by the irregularities of nips inside the walls of the chamber.

In a fired cartridge case, either the Firing pin mark or the Breech face marks
can be used as the basis for identification. In the absence or non-usage of these two,
both the ejector and extractor marks can be utilized as secondary choices.

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Activity

Learning Check

I. What are the stages in the manufacture of barrels? Briefly discuss each.

II. Differentiate Class from individual characteristics and give examples.

Reference:

Manlusoc, A. C. (2016). Forensic Ballistics. Wiseman’s Books Trading, Inc.

De Guzman, R.D., & Villacarlos M.B. (2017). Fundamentals of Forensic Firearms
Identification, 2nd Edition. Chapter House Publishing Incorporated.
Duyogan, Z. A. (2011). Forensic Ballistics, Guide for Criminal Lawyers, Police
Officers, Students and Reviewees, First Edition. Wiseman’s Books Trading, Inc.

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