Prepared by:

Ballesteros, Allyn Jireh T.

Caso,Jayssi Onel R.
Khadapi, Hamid M.
Ligon, Kim Caleb D.
Solera, Wilhem Andre F.
Torrenueva, Joshua D.
A Short History of Geotechnical Engineering
- Geotechnical engineering uses principles of soil and rock
mechanics to design structures and foundations. It is a sub-
discipline of civil engineering and has been applied for hundreds of
years to myriad projects. To get an idea of the geotechnical
engineering timeline, let's take a look at the history of geotechnical
engineering starting in-the 18th century.

The start of the geotechnical engineering timeline

- While the first use of soil in construction is not documented, the
application of geotechnical engineering as we define it today
started in the 18th century. We do know that ancient civilizations
were able to build and flourish along river banks such as the Nile,
the Tigris and the Huang Ho. However, we have more details about
the geotechnical engineering timeline beginning in the 1700s.
Based on the known history of geotechnical engineering, we can
divide the geotechnical engineering timeline into four periods: Pre-
Classical, Classical Soil Mechanics Phase I. Classical Soil
Mechanics Phase Il and Modern Soil Mechanics.

FOUR GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING TIMELINE PERIODS

The Pre-Classical period (1700-1776)

-During this period, the focus was on natural slope and the weights
of different types of soils. Engineers also studied earth pressure
theories. The first results from a lab test in this field of study were
reported by a French engineer in 1746. Francois Cadroy had
observed slip planes. During this period, another engineer, Jean
Rodolphe Perronet, documented the difference between fills and
intact ground.

Classical Soil Mechanics Phase I (1776-1856)

-France continued to lead in the field of geotechnical engineering
during this phase. Scientists started to apply principles of calculus
to sliding surfaces and retaining walls. Advances were made in
backfills as well as determining the magnitude of pressure on
retaining walls. Toward the end of this period, Alexandre Collin
made advances in approximating actual failure of surfaces.

Classical Soil Mechanics Phase II (1856-1910)

-The end of Phase I and the start of Phase Il is marked by the
publication of a study that provided insight into the equilibrium of
earth masses and earth pressure. During Phase I1, experiments
produced new insights into sand and sand filters. The term
"hydraulic conductivity" was also introduced during this period. This
term is still an important component of geotechnical engineering
today.

Modern Soil Mechanics (1910-1927)

-During this period, researchers established the fundamental
properties of clay. Work was done to develop and confirm theories
regarding the pressure and resistance of clay and its bearing
capacity. A paper published in 1926 provided solutions for clay
slopes and slip surfaces.

What is Geotechnical Engineering?

• Geo - means earth

• Technical - having special knowledge

Geotechnical engineering can be defined as a branch of civil

engineering concerned with the engineering behavior of the earth's
materials. The knowledge of theoretical geotechnical engineering,
assuming the soil to be an ideal elastic isotropic and homogeneous
material, helps in predicting the behavior of the soil in the field.

Branches of Geotechnical Engineering

•Soil Engineering
•Rock Engineering
Soil Engineering is the application of the principles of soil
mechanics to practical problems.

*Soil Mechanics is the branch of geotechnical engineering that

deals with the physical properties of soil and behavior of soil
masses subjected to various types of forces. It applies the basic
principles of mechanics including kinematics, dynamics, fluid
mechanics and the mechanics of materials to soils.

Rock Engineering is the application of the principles of rock

mechanics to practical problems.

WHAT IT IS INCLUDES?
•It includes investigating existing subsurface conditions and
materials.
•Determining their physical/mechanical and chemical properties
that are relevant to the project considered and assessing the risks
posed by site conditions.
•Designing earthworks and structure foundations and monitoring
site conditions, earthwork and foundation construction.

Careers in Geotechnical Areas

•Civil Engineer
•Geotechnical Engineer
•GIS Analyst
•Land Surveyor
•Construction representative Assistant

Pa
Geotechnical Applications
Geotechnical Engineering - a branch of civil engineering that
deals with soil, rock, and underground water, and their relation to
the design construction and operation of engineering projects.
Soil Mechanics - a discipline of engineering science that applies
the principle of engineering mechanics to soils to predict the
mechanical behavior of the soil.

SHALLOW FOUNDATION - It is used for small and light buildings,

and mostly used for firm soils also.

TYPES OF SHALLOW FOUNDATION:

INDIVIDUAL FOOTING - the most common type of foundation used
for building construction.

STRIP FOOTING - a footing like a concrete slab that spreads the

load of the load bearing wall above it.

MAT FOUNDATION - a large continuous rectangular or circular

concrete slab that carries the entire load of the superstructure and
spreads it over the whole area beneath the building.

COMBINED FOOTING - a two or more columns in a straight line

are carried on a single spread footing.

DEEP FOUNDATION - is required when building on sand and other

soft soil that will not be able to absorb the lead of the building. It is
also used for large structures.

TYPES OF DEEP FOUNDATION:

PILE FOUNDATION – a series of columns constructed or inserted
into the ground to transmit loads to a lower level of subsoil.

CAISSON FOUNDATION - also known as pier foundations, are

prefabricated hollow substructures designed to be constructed on
or near the surface of the ground, sunk to the desired depth and
then filled with concrete.

TRANSCONA GRAIN ELEVATOR - It is an agrarian facility

designed to store a large quantity of grain from the city of Winnipeg,
Canada. They filled the tanks with 875,000 bushels of grain. The
structure collapsed because of geological conditions,
miscalculations, human errors, and identifying what kind of soil
where the structure built.

RETRAINING WALLS - Retaining walls are often found in places

where extra support is needed to prevent the earth from moving
downhill with erosion. The most basic function of a retaining wall is
to battle gravity; the lateral force of the slope must be offset in the
retaining wall's design. Retaining walls can also: Provide usable
land.

REINFORCED EARTH WALL - Reinforced earth walls are

designed as reinforced soil (or mechanically stabilized earth (MSE)
structures with a choice of facing: modular concrete blocks,
segmental panels, full-height concrete panels or wire mesh
options.

GABIONS- A gabion is a cage, cylinder or box filled with rocks,

concrete, or sometimes sand and soil for use in civil engineering,
road building, military applications and landscaping. For erosion
control, caged riprap is used. For dams or in foundation
construction, cylindrical metal structures are used.
TIE-BACK -Tiebacks are used to provide the lateral resisting force
for many of the excavation support systems and anchored retaining
walls that Schnabel builds. They are constructed by grouting a high
strength steel bar or strand bundle into the soil or rock behind the
failure surface of the retaining wall.

SHEET PILES - Sheet pile walls have been used to support

excavations for below-grade parking structures, basements, pump
houses, and foundations, to construct cofferdams, and to construct
seawalls and bulkheads. Permanent steel sheet piles are designed
to provide a long service life.

TUNNELING - also known as "port forwarding," is the transmission

of data intended for use only within a private, usually corporate
network through a public network in such a way that the routing
nodes in the public network are unaware that the transmission is
part of a private network.

EARTH DAMS - earth-fill dam, also called earth dam or

embankment dam, dam built up by compacting successive layers
of earth, using the most impervious materials to form a core and
placing more permeable substances on the upstream and
downstream sides.

EARTH WORKS - Earthwork is also involved in the construction of

most buildings and would involve the removal of overburden to
reach structurally capable earth or soil, excavation for basements
and other underground structures, and to make structural fills to
support floors.

GEOFABRICS - Geotextiles are woven or non-woven fabrics

which are used to provide to separation, filtration, reinforcement,
protection, or drainage of soils in construction and engineering
applications.
GEOSYNTHETICS - Geosynthetics are man-made materials used
to improve soil conditions. The word is derived from: Geo = earth
or soil + Synthetics = man-made. Geosynthetics are typically made
from petrochemical-based polymers ("plastics") that are
biologically inert and will not decompose from bacterial or fungal
action.

GEOENVIROMENTAL ENGINEERING - Overview. Geo-

environmental Engineering is an evolving field of study, involving
diverse fields as geotechnical, environmental and chemical
engineering, geology, hydrogeology, chemistry, microbiology and
soil sciences, dealing with pollutants in the environment, protecting
ecological and human health.

SOILTESTING - The goal of soil testing is to provide an accurate

assessment of the soil's fertility to make fertilizer
recommendations. With the increasing awareness of fertilizer
effects on environmental quality, soil tests also can be used to
determine where fertilizers or manure should not be applied.

FOUR MACHINES USED FOR SOIL TESTING:

•VANE SHEAR TEST

•STANDARD PENETRATION TEST
•CONE PENETRATION TEST
•TRIXIAL TEST
Geotechnical Hazards

Geologic Hazards are naturally occurring or man-made geologic

conditions capable of causing damage or loss of property and/or
life.
How will the groundwater conditions impact the engineering
project?
Groundwater has an influence on the project through influencing
the facility's function and design, as well as the cost of construction.
The presence of ground water beneath a foundation might limit the
soil's permitted bearing pressure.

Teton Dam Failure (1975).

Engineers must consider the zoned earth-fall when building the
embankment. The Dam failed during its first initial filling in less than
a year. The dam's designers did not appear to have taken site-
specific geological factors into consideration while designing the
project, which resulted into dam failure.
What will be the impact of excavations, grading, or filling?
To set out the plan of minimum standards and requirements for
land grading, excavations, and fills. Ensuring proper drainages, soil
safeness and land balance.
Collapse of Nicoll Highway, Singapore, 2004
The accident happened as a result of the tunnel's temporary
retaining wall collapsing. The collapse is the result of "major design
faults". Another significant finding was the absence of a safety
culture in the construction project.
Are natural or proposed earth slope stable?
Slope failures occur when driving forces overcome resisting forces.
When assessing a slope's stability look for indications that physical
processes are decreasing shear strength. Changing the slope of
the land can lead to dangerous consequences.
If a slope is too weak to resist movement, then it is considered
unstable; if it is too strong for movement to make it stable, it is said
to be unstable.
Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering
Effects of Earthquake
Most earthquake-related building damage. When the ground
shakes at a construction site, the foundations of the structure
vibrate similarly to the nearby ground. Earthquakes are natural
phenomena which cannot be controlled, but their effects can be
minimized. Designers and contractors should consider the
influence of seismic forces on building to be able to set prevention
measures against failures and collapses. The main aspects are to
review the liquefaction in dams and tunnels, the cracking and tilting
of roads and buildings, and the live-load and scour-depth effects
on bridges.

Geotechnical Solutions
Ground improvement - is the method or process in which we are
using mechanical means to improve the quality of the ground. There
are a few techniques involving this process such as dynamic
compaction, ground freezing and deep soil mixing.

Soil improvement - is the alteration of any element of a soil to improve

its strength. It could be temporary measure or could be used as a
permanent measure to improve the condition of the building that is built
on it. Soil improvement also involves a few techniques. Stone
columns, Jet grouting, Compact grouting and Chemical injection.
TRENDS OR TECHNOLOGIES IN GEOTECHNICAL
ENGINEERING

Penetrometer (Soil Compaction Tester)- Is a diagnostic tool to

measure the extent and depth of subsurface compaction iThis tool
can help producers determine if subsoiling might be beneficial and
at what depth the subsoiler should be set.

Lead-Rubber Bearing- is applied to building and bridge

constructions, is a practical and cost-effective choice for seismic
isolation. It is composed of laminated elastomeric bearing pad, top
and bottom sealing & connecting plates and lead plug inserted in
the middle of the bearing.
Tunnel Boring Machine- A tunnel boring machine, also known as
a "mole", is a machine used to excavate tunnels with a circular
cross section through a variety of soil and rock strata. They may
also be used for micro-tunneling. They can be designed to bore
through hard rock, wet or dry soil, or sand.

Dredger Machine- A marine vessel fitted with a device to scrap or

suck the sediment deposition over a sea bed is known as a dredger
(The device used for excavation and scraping of the sea bed is
called the Dredge).