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Thamer Ahmed Mohammed, Yousef

Abulaziz Al-Molhem, Megat Johari
Megat Mohd. Noor (2013) Rainwater
Harvesting: Qua...
Megat Johari Megat Mohd Noor

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International Journal of Engineering and Technology, Vol. 10, No.2, 2013, pp. 62-66 62

RAINWATER HARVESTING: QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS

Thamer Ahmed Mohammed1, Yousef Abulaziz Al-Molhem2*, Megat Johari Megat Mohd. Noor3
1
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia
2
King Faisal University, Al-Ehsaa, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
3
Malaysia Japan Institute of Technology, Universiti Technology Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
*Email: yalmolhem@kfu.edu.sa

ABSTRACT
Water demand is increasing due to population growth, development and global weather change. Also, there is
growing interest on applying sustainable solutions and green technology. Rainwater harvesting is a sustainable
technique for using rainwater to meet the growing demand on water at both urban and rural areas. It is
essential to assess the suitability of the rainwater for both potable and non-potable uses. In this study, a
rainwater harvesting system was installed at the Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia in order to
conduct qualitative and quantitative and qualitative analysis for the system. Quantitative analysis showed that
on average, about 85% of the total daily demand can be obtained from the rainwear harvesting system. Also, the
qualitative analysis show that the rainwater was slightly acidic (average pH= 6.15). So, it is recommended to
use the rainwater for non-potable purposes such as watering gardens, washing floors and flushing toilets.

Keywords: rainwater harvesting, quantitative analysis, qualitative analysis

INTRODUCTION

Rainwater harvesting has been the main source of water supply for potable and non-potable uses in the olden
days as the water supply systems were not developed yet. The method of harvesting rainwater at that time was
simple and primary. Usage of the harvested rainwater was direct and without any treatment. The rainwater was
collected mostly from roofs and some directly. Presently, the water supply systems have improved but the
demand is increasing due to the population growth. The available water resources are limited and/or seasonal,
which drives the need to search for solutions to the water shortage. Many countries around the world are facing
water shortages. Optimization of water usage and the conservation of water can help to overcome the water
shortages. Malaysia is a tropical country and has an average annual rainfall of about 2500 mm. Although this
amount is considered as high but development and increasing water demand resulted in the stored water at upper
catchment inadequate to meet the demand particularly during the dry season. During the rainy season, it is
observed that the intensity of the rainfall at the upstream catchment (rural areas) is less than the rainfall intensity
at the densely populated cities. As such, the volume of stored water in the upstream reservoirs is limited and not
enough to cater for the demand in a prolonged dry period. For example, in 1997 the prolonged dry period caused
a severe water shortage in the Klang valley, Selangor. Rainwater harvesting can help in overcoming the water
shortage and promotes self-sufficiency and fosters an appreciation for water as a resource. It is suitably applied
for both rural areas and in the cities. Rainwater harvesting also has the environmental advantages since it can
reduce the erosion, waterways degradation and flooding, which are caused by runoff from impervious cover,
such as pavement and roof as some rain water is instead captured and stored. The harvested rain can be used for
potable supply (drinkable) and non-potable uses. Example of non-potable uses are watering gardens, cleaning
the floors, and flushing toilets. For potable uses, rain water must be treated to remove pathogenic organisms.
Today, many parts of the world, including Germany, Japan, Hawaii, and the entire continent of Australia,
promote rainwater harvesting to supplement the household water supply. On many Caribbean islands where
rainwater is the most viable water supply option, public buildings, homes, and resorts collect rainwater to supply
their needs. In Hong Kong, rainwater is collected from skyscrapers to supply water for various needs. Rupp [1]
gave the design and costing for the rainwater harvesting system for Montana, USA. In Malaysia, Government
agencies, independent research centers, and universities are currently doing collaboration research on rainwater
harvesting and utilization for domestic, office complex, industry, and agricultural uses. To encourage the public
to use the rainwater harvesting system in their houses, the Ministry of Housing and Local Government issued
guidelines for this purpose.

In this study, quantitative and qualitative analysis for the rainwater harvesting system is conducted. An
experimental house is used for this purpose.

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International Journal of Engineering and Technology, Vol. 10, No.2, 2013, pp. 62-66 63

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this study, a rainwater harvesting system is installed at a selected site at the Faculty of Engineering, Universiti
Putra Malaysia. The system is composed of roof (catchment), gutter, PVC pipe and storage tank. The roof
(catchment) size is 100 m2 and it is made of corrugated steel sheets and sloped towards the gutter. The gutter is
made of steel and fixed tightly to the roof and its dimensions are 140 mm x 140 mm ( width x depth). The gutter
is discharging to a 100 mm diameter PVC pipe and this pipe is connected to the storage tank. The storage tank is
made of steel and contains drain and depth monitoring scale. The dimensions of the tank are 0.85 m x 4.0 m x
1.2 m (width x length x depth) and its maximum capacity is 4.08 m3. A drain is used to empty the tank after rain
in order to prepare the tank for the next rain event. The rational formula is used for quantifying the volume of
the rainwater. The urban stormwater management manual for Malaysia are followed for rainwater estimation.

Samples of rainwater were collected from the system every minute and for 20 minutes. The samples were taken
to the Public Health Laboratory, Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra
Malaysia for quality analysis. Selected parameters were tested and these parameters are turbidity, pH, BOD5,
TSS, and temperature. The procedure required by the standard tests for water and wastewater are fulfilled in
determining the above parameters in rainwater samples.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Quantitative Analysis

In this study, a computation was made to estimate the collected volume form the rainwater harvesting system.
The computation was based on the guidelines given by the Department of Irrigation and Drainage, Malaysia [2].
The modified formula also used to compute the average daily volume of the rainwater in Malaysia. The formula
is modified for Malaysia from that proposed by Texas National Resource Conservation Commission for Austin
city, Texas, USA [3]. The modified formula is described as

V  0.00685xAxE (1)

where V is the average daily volume in m3, A is the roof area in m2, and E is the system collection efficiency.

Equation (1) is applied to the roof catchment of the experimental house and the resulted volume is 0.5 m 3. This
volume is based on an average annual rainfall intensity of 2500 mm, roof area of 85 m2, and system efficiency
of 85%. According to the guide lines of the Ministry of Housing, Malaysia [4], an average of 5 persons normally
occupies a house in a Selangor state and the estimated household needs are shown in Table 1. This estimation is
based on experience and some figures are calculated based on TNRCC recommendations [3]. The estimated
household needs for water per day for domestic and non-domestic uses for one housing unit which is occupied
by 5 persons is found to be 1.25 m3 per day while the estimated volume of the rainwater harvesting using the
guidelines given by the Department of Irrigation and drainage, Malaysia [2] is found to be 1 m3 for 1 year ARI
and a roof area of 85 m2. This volume can meet 80% of the household needs. Equation (1) gave a volume of 0.5
m3 only. But, Shaaban et al. [5] found the average water use for facilities using rainwater in Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia is equal to 0.445 m3. This volume represents the rainwater consumption for washing clothes, toilet
flushing, and general cleaning only the rainwater was not subjected to any treatment.

Table 1: Estimation of household needs

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International Journal of Engineering and Technology, Vol. 10, No.2, 2013, pp. 62-66 64

Domestic Uses
Fixture Use Flow Rate Number Water
of Users Consumption
l/day
Toilet Flushing 5 flushes/ person/day 15 l/flush 5 375
Cistern
Shower 5 minutes/ person/day 12.5 l/minutes 5 312.5
Faucets 3 (Two in the Toilet and one 60 l/day/faucet ---------- 180
in the kitchen)
Washing
Machine 2 125 ---------- 250

Nondomestic uses
Watering Garden Assume the area of the garden is 10 m2 with lawn 35

Washing floor and Lump sum 100

cars
Total 1252.5 l/day

Qualitative Analysis

The quality of the rainwater exceeds the quality of other available sources, namely, the groundwater and surface
water. This is because it does not come into contact with soil or rocks where it can dissolve minerals and salts
nor does it come into contact with many of other pollutants that are often discharged into local surface waters or
contaminate ground water supplies. Rainwater falling in different areas has different quality. For example,
rainfall in areas where heavy industry or crop dusting is prevalent may not have the same purity as rain falling in
other areas. So it is important to investigate the rainwater quality to determine the nature and type of the
treatment required for the rainwater harvesting system. According to Texas National Resource Conservation
Commission [3], the rainwater is soft water, so there is no need for a water softening unlike treating well water.
Once rain contacts a collection surface like a roof it can wash many types of contaminants off that surface into
the storage tank. Contaminants can include mould, bacteria, algae, protozoa, dust, pollen, bird feaces and
feathers, leaves, and dead insects. Health concerns regarding rainwater for potable use include microorganisms
such as salmonella, e-coli, and legionella, and contaminants such as pesticides, lead, and arsenic [3].

If the collected rainwater is to be used in a house for potable uses, then it must be treated to remove the
contaminants. But if it is to be used for non-potable uses like flushing toilets, watering garden and washing
floor, then treatment is not required. For drinking purposes, rainwater must go through several treatment steps:
screening, settling, filtering, and disinfecting. Screening prevents leaves and other debris from entering the
storage tank. Settling in the storage tank helps remove fine particles of dirt and dust by allowing them to settle to
the bottom of the tank. Filtering can remove sediment and contaminants, and trap particulate matter depending
on what types of filters are used. Disinfecting with chlorine, ozone, or ultraviolet light kills microorganisms [3].
Shaaban et al. [5] analyzed the quality of the rainwater collected in the tank of the rainwater harvesting system
installed for a double story terrace house at Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia and they found that the rainwater is
slightly acidic. Although the rainwater can be treated for potable uses, it is advisable that treated rainwater
should not be used for drinking unless tested and certified complying with the local standards or criteria.In this
study, samples of rain were taken from the rainwater discharge pipe at fixed time intervals and then analyzed in
the laboratory to determine variation of rainwater quality with the time. Selected parameters of rainwater
samples which were tested in the laboratory were turbidity, pH, BOD 5, TSS and temperature. Figures 1 to 3
show the variation of turbidity, pH, and BOD5 with time. The pH for rainwater samples ranges from 6.73 to
5.94 and this means that the rainwater is slightly acidic. In this study, pH values obtained from chemical
analysis of the rainwater samples were found in agreement with that obtained by Shaaban et al. [5]. The
turbidity of rainwater samples was found different from that given by Shaaban et al.[5]. The difference can be
attributed to the location where samples of rainwater were collected for turbidity measurement. In the present
study the rainwater samples were collected from the discharge pipe while Shabban et al. [5] collected the
samples from the rainwater collection tank. The results of the rainwater quality analysis showed that it is
important to have the first flush mechanism to improve the rainwater quality before any treatment will be done
to it.

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International Journal of Engineering and Technology, Vol. 10, No.2, 2013, pp. 62-66 65

25

20

15
Turbidity (mg/l)

10

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Time (minute)
Figure 1 : variation of turbidity with time for rain samples

6.8

6.6

6.4

6.2
pH

5.8

5.6

5.4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Time (Minute)
Figure 2: Variation of pH with time for rain samples

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International Journal of Engineering and Technology, Vol. 10, No.2, 2013, pp. 62-66 66

4.5

3.5

3
BOD5 (mg/l)

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Time (Minute)
Figure 3 : Variation of BOD5 with the time for rain samples

CONCLUSIONS

Although Malaysia is a tropical country with abundant rainfall but due to development, there is an increasing
demeaned on water supply and during the dry season a water shortage is faced. Rainwater harvesting is an old
practice but with improvement in technology a new modern simple system can be used with many potential
benefits. The new rainwater harvesting system can produce safe water for potable and non-potable uses. Many
trials had been made in Malaysia to use rainwater harvesting for domestic and non-domestic supplies but these
trials concentrate on the promoting the use of the rainwater harvesting technique. The present study concentrates
on the quantity and quality analysis of rainwater collection using a rainwater harvesting system in an
experimental house. The quantitative analysis showed that the collected volume of water from a single rain can
be used successfully for non-potable uses since the volume collected can cover activities like flushing toilets,
cleaning the floor and watering the gardens in the experimental house. Notably, a conservative method is used
for computing the rainfall quantity. However, the qualitative analysis showed the need to include a first flush
mechanism to be used with the rainwater harvesting system to reduce the turbidity of the harvested rainwater
particularly at the first 5 to 10 minutes from the beginning of the rainfall event.

REFERENCES

[1] Rupp, G., 1997. “Rainwater Harvesting System for Montana” Report by Montana State University, ontana,
USA.
[2] Department of Irrigation and Drainage Malaysia, DID, 2000. “Urban Stromwater Management Manual for
Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
[3] Texas National Resources Conservation Commission, TNRCC 2003. “ Rainwater Harvesting or Collection”
Austin, Texas, USA.
[4] Ministry of Housing Malaysia, 1997. “Guidelines for Installing a Rainwater Collection and Utilization
System” Putra Jaya, Malaysia.
[5] Shaaban, A. J., Kardi J., and Awang, S., 2002. “ Rainwater Harvesting and Utilization System for A
Double Story Terrace House at Taman Wangsa Melawati, Kuala Lumpur” Workshop of Rainwater
Harvesting as a Tool for Sustainable Water Supply and Stormwater Management, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia.

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