RAILWAY ENGINEERING (CENG 5242)

CHAPTER 3
RAILWAY TRACK STRUCTURES
Contents
1. Component and
function of track
structure
2. Rail support:
sleepers/ties, ballast
3. Ballasted track
4. Slab track
5. Rail fastening system
 3.1 Component and function of track structure
In contrast to road transport, where vehicles merely run on a
prepared surface, rail vehicles are also directionally guided by
the tracks they run on.
Track usually consists of steel rails installed on sleepers/ties
and ballast, on which the rolling stock, usually fitted with
metal wheels, moves.
Components of track structure
 TRACK LOADS
The requirements for the bearing strength and quality of the
track depend to a large extent on the load parameters:
 axle load: static vertical load per axle;
 tonnage borne: sum of the axle loads;
 running speed
The static axle load level, to which the dynamic increment is
added, in principle determines the required strength of the
track.
The accumulated tonnage is a measure that determines the
deterioration of the track quality and as such provides an
indication of when maintenance and renewal are necessary.
The dynamic load component which depends on speed and
horizontal and vertical track geometry also plays an essential
part here.
 Structural design of track
The Principle:-
– Components do not function independently!
– Each component layer must protect the one below.

Main design components

1. Rail
2. Rail pad/plate
3. Sleeper
4. Ballast
 Deflection Profile

Source: Selig and Waters, Track Geotechnology and Substructure Management, 1994
 Static vs. Dynamic Loads
 Dynamic loads higher
– Acceleration from speed
– Downward rotation of wheel
– Smaller wheels, faster rotation, more acceleration
 Speed/wheel influence
– Pv= P + θP (AREMA)
Where, Pv= Vertical Dynamic Load (lbs)
D = Wheel diameter (in)
V = Speed (MPH)
P = Static Load (lbs)
–Larger wheels impose less influence
 Additional dynamic loads from impacts such as caused by wheel
flat spots, rail discontinuities (e.g. frog flange ways), track
transitions (e.g. bridge approaches), track condition, etc.
 Track Stiffness
•Rail is assumed to be a beam on an elastic foundation
•Modulus of Track Elasticity, u (or k) (Track Modulus)
u = P/Δ
Where, u = Modulus of Track Elasticity (lbs/in/in)
P = Wheel load per unit length of rail (lbs/in)
Δ = Unit of Track Deflection (in), less “play” or track
“looseness”
or
u = P/S
Where, u = Modulus of Track Elasticity (lb/in/in)
P = Wheel load (lbs) required to deflect the track 1 inch on
one tie
S = Tie spacing (in)
 Classic Approach to Track Analysis and Design
Continuously supported beam

Notes:
a = tie spacing “s”
w(x) = deflection “y”

Source: Kerr, A.D., Fundamentals of Railway Track Engineering, 2003

 Talbot equations
Rail Moment: Mo= 0.318Px1
Deflection: Yo= 0.391P/ux1
Rail Seat Load: Qo= 0.391PS/x1
where: P = Wheel Load (lbs)
u = Track Modulus (lbs/in/in)
S = Tie spacing (in)
x1= (π/4)(4EI/u)¼(in)
EI = Flexural rigidity of rail
with: E = Modulus of Elasticity of Rail (30x106psi)
I = Rail Moment of Inertia (in4)
Load Deflections and Bending Moments
 Determination of Rail Seat Forces (Q or F)

Pressure p(x)[lb/in] Curve

 Design Steps (AREMA and Others)
(Generalized)
1. Select design wheel load based on most common, heaviest
car and desired track speed. Consider all wheels in a truck
and proximity of adjacent cars.
2. Select a Track Modulus, u or k, based on desired design
deflection
3. Select rail size and section
4. Determine moment and loading coefficients
5. Check rail bending stress
6. Choose trial tie spacing and calculate maximum rail seat load
7. Select tie size
8. Check tie bending stress
 Design Steps (AREMA, U.S. DoD, and Others)
(Generalized)…

9. Determine and select plate size based on minimum area

10. Determine ballast surface stress
11. Determine ballast depth based on allowable subgrade stress
12. Calculate track deflection under load and check on
acceptability
13. If deflection is unacceptable, re-do design

Always consider economics!

 Upper structures

- Rail, fasteners, tie and ballast

 The upper part consists of two
parallel steel rails, anchored
perpendicular to members called
ties (sleepers) of timber, concrete,
steel, or plastic to maintain a
consistent distance apart, or
gauge.
 The track guides the conical,
flanged wheels, keeping the
vehicles on the track without
active steering and therefore
allowing trains to be much longer
than road vehicles
 1. Rail
Rail guides the conical, flanged
wheels, keeping the vehicles
on the track without active
steering and therefore
allowing trains to be much
longer than road vehicles

a) Characteristics Rail
rigidity
tenacity
hardness
roughness of top surface
 1. Rail…
b) Functions:
Supports the loads of vehicles (cars) and locomotives and
guides their movements
The excellence of the track determines the permissible wheel
loads, speeds, safety and dependability of railroad operation
support and guide the wheels
provide a surface with smaller resistance

No modern railroad can hope to

survive in a competitive economy if its
track is a hindrance to safe, dependable,
on-time service
bear the force of the wheels and
spread it to sleeper
used as track circuit in electrified
railways and automatic block segments
 1. Rail…
C) Profile
The rail profile is the cross sectional
shape of a railway rail, perpendicular to
the length of the rail.
A rail is hot rolled steel of a specific
cross sectional profile (an asymmetrical
I-beam) designed for use as the
fundamental component of railway
track.

• Composed of rail head, rail rail head

web and rail base rail web
• The rail head and base must
be large and thick
rail base
 1. Rail…

CN 60 kg/m rail (unit: mm)

CN 75 kg/m rail (unit: mm)
1. Rail…
 1. Rail…
d) Types and length
Determining factor for rails strength and hence axle loads and speeds
is weight of a rail per length . So rail types are divided by its unit
weight in China, such as 75, 60, 50, 43 kg/m.
• Weights are measured in kilograms-per-meter or pounds per yard;
the pounds-per-yard figure is almost exactly double the
kilograms-per-meter figure.
• types: 75 kg/m 、60 kg/m 、50 kg/m and so on.

• Standard rail length: 12.5m and 25m.

 1. Rail…
The following rail forms are in use at present:
 Vignoles rail (standard railway rail with head, web and foot),
 double-head rails with head, web and foot (obsolete)
 grooved rails for tram ways,
 switch rails and
 crane rails etc
 1. Rail…
e) Rail gap
To adapt to the needs of expanding with heat and contracting with
cold, the rail gap can not too big or too small.
1
  0.0118L  t2  t0    q
2
• δ — size of rail gap(mm)
• L—length of track(m)
• δq— structural joint gap, track of 38kg/m、43kg/m 50kg/m
、60kg/m、75kg/m are 18mm
• t0 — temperature of rail gap(oC)

1
t2   tmax  tmin 
2
 1. Rail…
e) Continuous welded track (CWR)
The 25 m rail are welded into 100-200m long rail in factory,
and then be welded again into1000-2000m long rail in the laid
place

Advantages:

smooth driving
low maintenance cost
long life
 1. Rail…
f) Rail requirement
• The rail is running surface, carrier and guiding element at the same
time.
• It is subject to equal static and dynamic stress. In heavy haul traffic,
axle loads up to 35t are applied.
• Depending on the topography rails are laid with radii as low as
300m, therefore, they have to bear very high lateral forces exerted by
the wheel flange striking against the gauge corner of the outer rail.
To be able to withstand manifold and high forces, the rails must meet
the following requirements:
 high resistance to wear,  good weld ability,
 high resistance to compression, high degree of purity
 high resistance to fatigue good surface quality
evenness and observance of profile and
 high yield strength, tensile strength low residual stress after manufacturing
and hardness
 high resistance to brittle fracture
 1. Rail…
g) Composition
Unlike some other uses of iron and steel, railway rails are
subject to very high stresses and have to be made of very
high quality steel. It took many decades to improve the
quality of the materials, including the change from iron to
steel.

Minor flaws in the steel that pose no problems in reinforcing

rods for buildings, can, however, lead to broken rails and
dangerous derailments when used on railway tracks
 1. Rail…
Rail Analysis and Design
(weight and section selection)
• Bending stress
S = Moc/I or S = Mo/Z
Where, S = Bending stress, psi
Mo= Max bending moment, in-lbs
c = Distance to base from neutral axis, in
I = Moment of inertia of rail, in4
Z = Section modulus, I/c (properties of rail section)

Allowable bending stress, typically is:

–32,000 psi for jointed rail
–25,000 psi for continuously welded rail (CWR)
 1. Rail…
Rail Analysis and Design(weight and section selection)
Maximum bending moment, Mo
Mo= P(EI/64u)1/4 (Mo= 0.318Px1)
Where, Mo= Max bending moment
P = Max wheel load, lbs (static or dynamic)
E = Modulus of elasticity = 30 x 106psi
I = Moment of inertia, in4
x1= (π/4)(4EI/u)¼(in)
u = track modulus, lbs/in/in
Note: Must account for moments from adjacent wheels. Compute from Master
Diagram, computer code, or EXCEL.
I and c are a function of design: –Greater weight -greater I
–Increase height -greater I (limiting factor is web height -
thickness ratio)
maximum bending stress <= allowable bending stress!!!
 2. Sleeper
(a) Function
 bear the force of track
 Act as elastic medium to absorb
blows & vibrations
 Longitudinal & lateral stability
 spread the force to ballast bed and  Supporting signal engineering
roadbed and other safety related equipment
 keep the direction, position and such as trip cocks and point
motors.
gauge of track
 Supporting conductor rails,
 Supporting wheels and/or jacks electrical bonds and feeder cables.
direct (in a derailment situation).  Reducing noise and vibration on
 Acting as transverse beams when non-ballasted bridge decks
sitting on temporary ‘way beams’.
 2. Sleeper…
(b) Characteristic
It is solid, flexible, reasonably
cost, convenient for
manufacturing and
maintenance.
 2. Sleeper…

c) Requirements
Moderate weight- easy to handle
Fixing and removing of fastening should be easy
Sufficient bearing area
Easy maintenance and gauge adjustment
Track circuiting must be possible
Able to resist shocks and vibrations
Minimum maintenance and initial cost
 2. Sleeper…

（c）types
• Traditionally, ties have been made of wood, but concrete is
now widely used. Steel ties and plastic composite ties are
currently used as well, although far less than wood or
concrete ties

• According to production material: reinforced concreted

sleeper, wooden sleeper, steel sleeper

• According to their usage: regular sleeper, switch sleeper

and bridge sleeper.
 2. Sleeper…

1. Wooden Sleeper
• Timber ties are usually of a variety of hardwoods, oak
being a popular material.

• They have the advantage of accepting treatment more

readily, they are more susceptible to wear. They are often
heavily creosoted. Creosote treating can reduce insect
infestation and rot. However, creosote is also carcinogenic
and environmentally damaging.

• Less often, ties are treated with other preservatives,

although some timbers are durable enough that they can be
used untreated.
2. Sleeper…
 2. Sleeper…

2. Concrete Sleeper

• Concrete ties have become more common mainly due to

greater economy and better support of the rails under
high speed and heavy traffic than wooden ties
 2. Sleeper…

Wooden sleeper
concrete sleeper
2. Sleeper…
 2. Sleeper…
3. Steel sleeper
• In past times steel ties (sleepers) have suffered from poor
design and increased traffic loads over their normal long
service life. These aged and often obsolete designs limited
load and speed capacity but can still, to this day, be found in
many locations globally and performing adequately despite
decades of service.

• The steel sleepers’cost benefits together with the ability to

hold rail gauge, lower long-term maintenance costs, increase
the life of other track components, reduce derailments and
meet ever growing and stricter environment standards provide
railroad companies with savings and capital to redirect to other
areas of maintenance-of-way and business projects.
 2. Sleeper…steel sleepers
Advantages:
– Long life
– Better lateral rigidity
– Free from decay and fire hazards
– Good scrap value
– Lesser damage during handling /transportation
– Less maintenance problems
– Easy to maintain gauge
Disadvantages:
• Liable to corrosion
• Unsuitable to track circuiting
• Becomes center bound due to sloping ends
• Rail specific
2. Sleeper…steel sleepers
 Other sleepers
Switch sleeper Bridge sleeper

Short sleeper long sleeper

 2. Sleeper…
Wide sleeper
 Concrete monoblock sleepers have also been produced in
a wider form (e.g. 57 cm (22 in))
 there is no ballast between the sleepers;
 wide sleeper increase lateral resistance and
 reduces ballast pressure.
2. Sleeper…
 2. Sleeper…
Y-shaped sleepers
• An unusual form of sleeper is the Y
shaped sleeper.
• First developed in 1983
• Compared to conventional sleepers the
volume of ballast required is reduced
due to the load spreading characteristics
of the Y-sleeper.
• Noise levels are high
• The resistance to track movement is
very good.
• For curves the three point contact of a Y
steel sleeper means that an exact
geometric fit cannot be observed with a
fixed attachment point.
 2. Sleeper…
Bi-block sleepers

• Bi-block (or twinblock) sleepers consist of two concrete rail

supports joined by steel
• Advantages include
 increase lateral resistance
 lower weight than monoblock concrete sleepers
 eliminate damage from torsional forces on the sleeper
centre due the more flexible steel connections
• Bi-block sleepers are also used in ballastless track systems
2. Sleeper…Bi-block
 2. Sleeper…
Mono-block vs. twin block sleepers

The advantages of the twin-block The advantages of the mono-

sleeper block sleeper
• Well-defined bearing surfaces • low price
in the ballast bed; • less susceptibility to
• high lateral resistance in the cracking
ballast bed • can be pre-stressed
 2. Sleeper…
d) Arrangement

• Configuration number at each kilometer is decided by volume,

speed and line level
The rule:
• wooden sleepers must no more than 1920 per 1km and no
less than 1440
• Reinforced concreted sleepers must no more than 1840 per
1km and no less than 1440
 2. Sleeper…
Tie Analysis and Design(size and spacing)
• Action under load
–Earlier tie reaction was considered as uniform

–Talbot found that stress concentrated under rail seat

 2. Sleeper…
Theoretical Design
• Force diagram (close to center-bound condition)

• Look at bending moments under center and rail seat

Qo must account
for adjacent wheels.
Recall, pressure
distribution and
principle of
superposition.
 2. Sleeper…
Maximum allowable bending moment
(e.g. wooden sleeper)
–Simple beam moment
S = Mc/I or M = SI/c
Where, M = bending moment, inch-lbs
I = moment of inertia = bh3/12, in4
c = dist from base to neutral axis = h/2, inches
S = allowable wood fiber bending stress, lb/in2
h = tie height, inches
b = tie width, inches
Then, M = (bh3S/12)/(h/2) = bh2S/6
–S varies by wood specie (e.g., 1000 psi for shortleaf yellow
pine, 1200 psi for longleaf yellow pine, 900 psi for Douglas
fir, and 1400 psi for oak)
 2. Sleeper…
Practical Design
•Load distribution
–Bearing area is ⅔ of tie length (tamping zone), so
A’b= ⅔Lb
and unit load on ballast will be
pa= 2Qo/A’b
Thus, pa= 3Qo/Lb
Where, pa= unit tie pressure on ballast
(<65 psi wood, <85 psi concrete)
A'b= total tie bearing area, in2
L = tie length, inches
b = tie width, inches
Qo= Rail seat load, lbs (static or dynamic), based on trial
tie spacing
 2. Sleeper…
Plate Analysis and Design(size selection)
Two basic types
–Single shoulder
–Double shoulder
Size
–Width sized to fit tie
–Length to keep stress on wood
tie <200 psi
–Stress = Qo/Plate Area
–Limited set of fixed sizes
(generally choose smallest size
possible for economics)
• Distance between shoulders
(double shouldered plates) spaced
to match rail base width
 3. Ballast and sub ballast
1. Ballast- it is a layer of broken stones, gravel, moorum or any
other gritty material placed and packed below and around
sleepers.
– for distributing the load from the sleepers to the formation and
– for providing drainage
– as well as giving longitudinal and lateral stability to the track.

A layer of loose, coarse grained

material which, as a result of
internal friction between the
grains, can absorb considerable
compressive stresses, but not
tensile stresses.
 3. Ballast and sub ballast
a) Functions
The six most important functions of ballast:
– To resist vertical & longitudinal forces and hold the track
in position
– To provide energy absorption for the track
– To provide voids for storage and movement of fouling
material in the ballast
– To facilitate the adjustment of track geometry
– To provide immediate drainage of water falling on to the
track
– To reduce pressures on underlying materials by
distributing loads
 3. Ballast and sub ballast
(b)Requirements
– Tough and resist wear
– Hard enough
– Cubical with sharp edge
– Non porous, non-water absorbent
– Resist attrition
– Durable
– Good drainage
– Cheap and economical
 3. Ballast and sub ballast
Ballast Analysis and Design(depth determination)

Source:-AREMA
 3. Ballast and sub ballast
Ballast depth determination
(ballast and subballast combined) = f(applied stress, tie reaction,
and allowable subgrade stress)
–Talbot Equation, h = (16.8pa/pc)4/5
Where, h = Support ballast depth
pa= Stress at bottom of tie (top of ballast)
pc= Allowable subgrade stress
Note: Stress distribution independent of material
–Japanese National Railways Equation
pc= 50pa/(10+h1.25)
–Boussinesq Equation
pc= 6P/2h2 where P = wheel load (lbs)
–Love’s Formula
pc= pa{1-[1/(1+r2/h2)]3/2}
where r = Radius of a loaded circle whose area equals the effective
tie bearing area under one rail
 3. Ballast and sub ballast
Minimum depth of ballast

Stress distribution is assumed as 45o

-Consider stress overlap area
-Provide adequate depth of ballast
-Thickness of ballast is a function of sleeper spacing, sleeper
size etc
 3. Ballast and sub ballast
2. Sub ballast
-Is a layer of material between the top ballast and sub grade
with a gradation finer than the top ballast and coarser than the
sub grade
a) Function
• Used to reduce total ballast cost
• Provide a filter layer between the top ballast and a fine
grained sub grade
b) Application
A sub ballast layer is recommended for most new construction. In
addition to providing filter to keep sub grade particle from
working up in to and fouling the ballast, it provides a good mat
to distribute loads from the ballast and prevents ballast
particles from being pushed in to the sub grade
 3. Ballast and sub ballast
A sub ballast layer is required whenever:

i. The sub grade contains 85% or more (by weight) of silt

and clay sized particles or,
ii. The sub grade material has a liquid limit greater 50 and a
plasticity index grater than 20

c) Material

Sub ballast should be hard, angular, non cementing material,

primarily of sand sized particles
 3. Ballast and sub ballast

d) Gradation
To function as a filter layer, the sub ballast particles should
range in size from the smallest ballast particles to the largest
sub grade particles

e) Depth

i. During structural analysis, the sub ballast layer is

considered as part of the total ballast depth
ii. A sub ballast layer may comprise up to 40% of the total
ballast thickness on main running tracks and up to 50% on
auxiliary and terminal tracks
 4. Rail fastening system/ Union piece

• A Rail fastening system is a means of fixing rails to

railroad sleepers.
• The terms rail anchors, tie plates, chairs and track fasteners
are used to refer to parts or all of a rail fastening system.
Various types of fastening have been used over the years.

• Union pieces are divided into rail joint

fastenings and middle joint fastenings.
a) Function:
The purpose of the rail fastenings:
 To maintain the track gauge
 Offer sufficient resistance in a vertical direction, each pair
of rail fastening elements has to be able to take over the
weight of the concrete sleeper and the respective rail
section without excess deformation.
 To transmit forces acting on and in the rails to the
sleepers (cross, longitudinal, concrete plates etc.)
 Electrically insulate the sleeper against the remaining
track grid, to minimize the loss of signals of the direct-
current circuits
b) Types
(1) rail joint fastenings
Rail joint fastenings are used at the end of the two tracks.
(2) Middle joint fastenings
• They are used to connect the track with the sleeper

• According to the character of sleeper, middle joint fastenings

can divided into reinforced concreted joint fastenings and

wooden joint fastenings .

wooden joint fastenings
Reinforced concreted joint fastenings
Reinforced concreted
joint fastenings
 5. Ballasted and slab track
a) Ballasted track
Advantages:
Lower cost, small noise emission scope, short construction
period, easy repair when failure occurs, high efficiency of
maintenance work due to its mechanization, easy to adjust its
geometrical unevenness
 Ballasted track…
• Experience from Japan and France shows:
 Ballast has tendency of deterioration, wear due to traffic
loading, railway lines thus need to be repaired time after time
• On high-speed railways, the time for repairing lines is limited
due to fast speed and short interval between trains, it is
unpractical to do high-frequency maintenance work.
 Ballasted track…

Disadvantages
In comparison to slab track:
 The tendency of the track to “float” in both longitudinal and lateral
direction after a period of time
 Limited non-compensated lateral acceleration in curves caused by
the limited lateral resistance provided by ballast
 Pulverization of the ballast grains in the ballast bed resulting in
particles damaging the rail and wheels
 Problems with ballast churning with high speed
 Reduced permeability due to contamination, the wear of the
ballast, and intrusion of fine particles from the sub grade
 Limited non-compensated lateral acceleration in curves caused by
the limited lateral resistance provided by ballast
 Pulverization of the ballast grains in the ballast bed resulting in
particles damaging the rail and wheels
 b) Slab track

 In slab track, ballast as the load distributing element is replaced

by another material which has a stable position, such as
concrete or asphalt.
 The necessary elasticity has to be provided by inserting elastic
elements below the rail or the sleeper, as the concrete or
asphalt layer is very stiff.
 In comparison to ballasted track, the advantages of slab track
are in general reduction of maintenance and a higher
stability of the track
Slab track design
Slab track
Advantages:
– Less or free maintenance, costs 20%~30%
– better line evenness
– Increased service life, and possibility of almost full
replacement at the end of the service life
– Increased lateral resistance and stability
– Reduced structure height and weight
– The excess of super elevation and cant deficiency of the
track with mixed used of freight- and passenger trains
does not cause altering of the track position
– Track accessibility to road vehicles
– Preventing the release of dust from the ballast bed into
the environment
Disadvantages:
– Higher construction costs and
– Higher airborne noise reflection
– Adaptability to larger sink age in the embankment is relatively
small
– In case of derailment, repair works will take much more time
and effort
– Transitions between ballasted track and slab track require
attention
– Large attentions in track position and super elevation can only
be made possible by substantial amounts of work
– The application of slab track may require extensive measures
concerning the preparation of the foundation.
– The sub layers must be homogenous and capable of bearing the
imposed loads without significant settlements.
Types
Main types of non-ballasted track:
– Embedded in concrete
– Prefabricated slabs
– Monolithic slab
– AC(asphalt concrete)-road bed
– Embedded rail
 LVT (Sonneville Company)

Rheda (Germany)- sleepers

embedded in concrete

Floating Slab Track on springs

(Gerb Company)

Slab track (Japan)- prefabricated

 Practical uses of slab track

• Metro, urban rail transit

• Bridge
• Repair inconvenience, small
space, traffic density
• Tunnels, subways, elevated
crossing, stations & terminals
• High speed railway
Rheda 2000
Comparison of ballasted and slab track
Thanks!