Isovist Analysis assumptions behind these elements are that (1)

human beings move according to axial sightlines;

(2) they interact in convex spaces; and (3) they
AKKELIES VAN NES
Western Norway University of Applied Sciences,
see changeable panoptical views when moving
Norway; Delft University of Technology, Netherlands around in the built environment.
A convex space is defined as a space such that
“all points within that space can be joined to all
others without passing outside the boundary of
Visibility can be defined as the extent to which
the space” (Hillier 1988, 68). It is mostly used for
the spaces between walls and obstacles are visible
studying the occupation of various functions and
to one another in excavated towns or buildings.
place-bound human activities such as standing
Since the millennium, the space syntax method,
and sitting. Convex maps are used for analyzing
developed by Bill Hillier and colleagues at Uni-
buildings and the public spaces between a group
versity College London, has been applied to
of buildings in neighborhoods or smaller villages.
archaeological studies in order to explore this
More recently, point depth and all-lines analyses
property. This method consists of calculating the
have replaced the convex space analysis (see
various degrees of visibility of the built environ-
below).
ments’ public spaces and spaces inside buildings.
An isovist field represents the panoptical view a
For analyzing built environments, space syn-
tax consists of four things. First, it gives a concise person has from a given point in an urban space. It
definition of urban space. Second, space syntax is used for orientation or way-finding in the urban
is a family of techniques for analyzing built envi- fabric. According to Benedikt, an isovist is “the
ronments as the networks of space formed by the set of all points visible from a given vantage point
placing, grouping, and orientation of buildings. in space and with respect to an environment”
Third, in the field of archaeology, space syntax (Benedikt 1979, 47). It visualizes the panoptical
offers a set of techniques for observing how these view from the viewer from a particular standing
networks of space relate to functional patterns point in a built environment, where borders are
such as the dispersal of functions, area differ- defined by walls and freestanding objects such as
entiation, and the location of various identified trees, bushes, and statues. When moving around,
artifacts. Fourth, based on empirical results, space the shape and size of the isovist change. It is thus
syntax is a set of theories about how urban space possible to visualize the sequence of scenes or
networks relate in general to the social, economic, panoptical view arrows from particular points
and cognitive factors that shape them and are along the movement routes.
affected by them. Underlying this is the theory The 180-degree isovist field shows the panop-
of the natural movement economic process which tical view when entering a place, while the
states that the spatial configuration of the built 360-degree isovist field shows the panoptical
environment influences the movement pattern view when turning around on the spot. Consider
from everywhere to everywhere else and the loca- person A entering a place, as shown in Figure 2.
tion pattern of economic-related activities (Hillier A is a visitor and wants to have an overview over
et al. 1993), and the techniques have been applied the area. Behind a building, person B is hiding
to a large number of cities in different parts of from person A. An isovist field of 180 degrees is
the world. In this way, a substantial database now made for visualizing A’s direct view. Person B has
exists of cities that have been studied at some to know that A cannot see him or her. Therefore
level using space syntax (Hillier et al. 2007). an isovist field of 360 degrees is made from B’s
The space syntax method offers three basic position. The isovist field for person A is larger
elements for analyzing visibility: convex space, than that for person B, because person A is stand-
isovist field, and axial line (Figure 1). The main ing at a place with a large overview. Person B is

The Encyclopedia of Archaeological Sciences. Edited by Sandra L. López Varela.

© 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2018 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
DOI: 10.1002/9781119188230.saseas0336
2 I SOV I ST A NA LYSI S

The axial sight line The convex space The isovist filed
for movement for interaction for orientation
Figure 1 Three basic elements for analyzing visibility.

hidden behind a building, which affects his or her in gaining understandings of socioeconomic
isovist field. activities based on the information encoded in
Point depth analyses show the degree of visi- the physical form of excavated towns or past built
bility from every point to all others in the public environments.
spaces of a neighborhood. This method is useful Figure 2 shows a point depth and all-line
to test out where the most visible and less visible analysis. The large open space in the square is
areas are in urban squares with freestanding the most integrated one (colored in black), while
objects. In practice, all public spaces in a built spaces behind buildings and trees are the most
environment are rasterized by a grid. Each point segregated ones (colored in light gray). An axial
for the visibility analyses is taken from the center analysis carried out on Pompeii’s street network
of each cell’s square. How integrated each point revealed that shops were located along the highest
is in relation to all other points is calculated. integrated streets.
Obstacles like walls, fences, and trees contribute The degree of visibility between buildings and
to increasing the visual relationships between streets can also be measured. Degree of intervisi-
various cells. bility between entrances influences the degree of
An axial line represents the longest visual social control. In practice, the number of inter-
sightline in an urban space, and also represents visible doors and windows is divided by the total
the way human beings move in lines through the number of houses in each street segment. The
urban street network. It is the basis for analyzing percentages can be grouped in 100, 75, 50, 25,
degree of spatial integration. Direction change and 0 percent intervisibility for each registration.
analyses measure the to-movement potential, Thus, two buildings with two entrances facing
while angular deviation analyses with metrical towards each other indicate 100 percent intervis-
radiuses measure the through-movement poten- ibility of doors. Conversely, a street segment with
tial. Each of these two types of relational pattern a high density of entrances on only one side of the
can be weighted by three different definitions of street segment is defined as 0 percent intervisible.
distance. The metric distance measures a town’s These values can then be interpreted in order to
street and road network as a system of shortest shed light upon socioeconomic life. For example,
paths, while the topological distance calculates a high density of entrances directly facing a street
a town’s street and road network as a system segment on only one side can be an indicator
of fewest-turn paths. Finally, the geometrical of an active street life, yet one lacking in social
distance calculates a town’s street and road net- control (Van Nes and López 2010).
work as a system of least angle change paths. When applying space syntax to excavated sites
Each type of relation can be calculated at dif- it is important to clarify the chronological con-
ferent radii from each street segment, defining text of the analysis. Often, changes to the street
radius again in terms of either shortest, fewest network and buildings through time are layered
turns or least angle paths (Hillier and Iida 2005, upon each other, like, for example, Ostia (Stöger
557–558). Together these spatial measurements 2009). Some layers might be lost, while others are
can show the degree of spatial inequalities on highly visible. While archaeologists aim to under-
various scale levels, and the results are useful stand how the various spaces on an excavated site
 I SOV I ST A NA LYSI S 3

B B

A A

Example on a 180° isovist Example on a 360° isovist

Point depth analysis All lines analysis

Figure 2 Examples of isovist fields, point depth, and all-lines analyses.

were used through the identification of excavated away from main routes, the more silent street life
artifacts, visibility analyses enrich this by giving tends to be.
indications on the degree of street life, location of Take, for example, studies of Pompeii. Here
economic activities, and degree of social control shops and bakeries are seen to locate in the most
between buildings and the spaces between them. integrated streets, with a high number of connec-
The results of the application of visibility tions to other streets in a short metrical distance.
analyses on excavated towns and buildings show Likewise, these streets have a high density of
many similarities with present built environ- intervisible entrances connected to them. Reli-
ments. When a street segment is on a spatially gious buildings and political institutions locate
integrated main route, more buildings are directly themselves one direction change away from the
connected to streets, and the entrances on each most integrated streets. They are seldom located
side of the street are intervisible to one another. along or at the end of the integrated main streets.
Conversely, the further away a street segment is Brothels locate in side streets metrically close to
from a main route, the more building entrances the integrated main streets. In contrast, work-
are hidden away from streets and the degree of shops, taverns, and drinking places are located
intervisibility between them is lower. The further along the main streets and in side streets close to
4 I SOV I ST A NA LYSI S

main streets. Conversely, the public baths, the- Hillier, B., A. Penn, J. Hanson, T. Grajewski, and J. Xu.
atres, inns or hotels, sport, and leisure facilities 1993. “Natural Movement: Or, Configuration and
are spread throughout the town’s street network. Attraction in Urban Pedestrian Movement.” Envi-
The challenges for applying visibility analyses on ronment and Planning B: Planning and Design 20:
29–66. DOI:10.1068/b200029.
excavated sites are as follows: in the first instance,
Hillier, B., A. Turner, T. Yang, and H. Tae-Park. 2007.
a reconstruction of a town’s street pattern must
“Metric and Topo-Geometric Properties of Urban
be available. Second, precise mapping of walls Street Networks.” In Proceedings of the 6th Space
and entrances provides the basis for measuring a Syntax International Symposium, edited by A. S.
street’s degree of intervisibility. In cases where it Kubat, June 12–15, Istanbul. Istanbul: Istanbul Tech-
is impossible to ascertain a site’s street network, nical University Faculty of Architecture.
visibility analysis between buildings and streets Stöger, H. 2009. “Clubs and Lounges at Roman Ostia.
can to some extent give spatial indications as to The Spatial Organisation of a Boomtown Phe-
how lively or quiet a street probably was in the nomenon.” In Proceedings of the 7th Space Syn-
past. To some extent, various visibility analyses tax International Symposium, edited by D. Koch, L.
can also indicate functions in adjacent buildings Marcus, and J. Steen, June 8–11, Stockholm. Stock-
holm: School of Architecture, KTH.
where identifiable artifacts are lacking.
van Nes, A., and M. López. 2010. “Macro and Micro
Scale Spatial Variables and the Distribution of
SEE ALSO: Visibility Modeling Residential Burglaries and Theft from Cars: An
Investigation of Space and Crime in the Dutch Cities
of Alkmaar and Gouda.” Journal of Space Syntax 2:
REFERENCES 296–314.

Benedikt, M. L. 1979. “To Take Hold of Space: Iso-

vists and Isovist Fields.” Environment and Plan- FURTHER READINGS
ning B: Planning and Design 6: 47–65. DOI:10.1068/
b060047. Hillier, B. 1996. Space Is the Machine. Cambridge: Cam-
Hillier, B. 1988. “Against Enclosure.” In Rehumanising bridge University Press.
Housing, edited by N. Teymus, T. Markus, and T. Laurence, R., and D. J. Newsome. 2011. Rome, Ostia and
Woaley, 63–85. London: Butterworths. Pompeii: Movement and Space. Oxford: Oxford Uni-
Hillier, B., and S. Iida. 2005. “Network Effects and Psy- versity Press.
chological Effects: A Theory of Urban Movement.”
In Proceedings of the 5th International Space Syn-
tax Symposium, edited by A. van Nes, June 1, Delft.
Amsterdam: Techne Press.