SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

FOR

STANDARD 8

Page 1 of 42
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

UNIT PAGE

UNIT 1 SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS 3

UNIT 2 THE HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 5

UNIT 3 THE HUMAN BREATHING SYSTEM 7

UNIT 4 IMPROVING THE NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF FOOD 10

UNIT 5 MEALS FOR INVALIDS, CONVALESCENTS, VEGETARIANS AND ELDERLY PEOPLE 11

UNIT 6 IMPROVING A TRADITIONAL KITCHEN 13

UNIT 7 IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF PRODUCTS 17

UNIT 8 FOOD PROCESSING 19

UNIT 9 REPRODUCTION IN HUMAN BEINGS 20

UNIT 10 SOLUTIONS AND MIXTURES 28

UNIT 11 METHODS OF COOKING 30

UNIT 12 TECHNOLOGIES FOR CONSERVING THE ENVIRONMENT 33

UNIT 13 ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 34

UNIT 14 FAMILY SIZE INCOME AND FOOD SUPPLY 37

UNIT 15 LAUNDERING CLOTHES AND BED LINEN 37

UNIT 16 HIV AND AIDS 38

REFERENCES 40

FIRST EDITION 2018

Page 2 of 42
UNIT 1 SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS

Scientific investigation is the process in which a scientist designs and carries out experiments to
obtain information

PLANNING A SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION

There are a number of things that are involved when planning a scientific investigation. Planning
a scientific investigation involves the following things:
 Identifying the problem
 Stating the problem in the form of a question
 Predicting the possible solution to a problem
 Identifying what to observe or measure (variables)
 Identifying and collecting the resources that would be required to carry out the investigation.
 Deciding the steps to be followed in the process of collecting data

CONDUCTING A SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION

Once the investigation has been planned, it is then carried out.

This is when the hypotheses are tested by carrying out experiments.

Also, the variables to be investigated are deliberately changed while keeping the other variables
constant.

This is what is meant by controlling and manipulating variables.

The variables that are changed are observed and recorded as the investigation is being conducted.

The purpose of carrying out an investigation is to collect data through observation.

If one is not satisfied with the data collected, it is necessary to repeat the procedures.

When the data has been collected, it should be organised in such a way that it is meaningful.

The data may be presented in the form of tables.

The procedures of organising data are referred to as data analysis.

One of the ways of analysing data is the use of graphs.

Page 3 of 42
After the data has been analysed, there is need to interpret it.

This may involve determining the relationship between variables using the analysed data.
The determination of the relationships between variables include:
 looking for patterns of data in a table
 interpreting the shapes of graph lines

Once the data has been analysed and interpreted, a conclusion can be drawn based on the results of
the investigation.

The conclusion then becomes the solution to the problem investigated.

Conducting a scientific investigation involves:

• carrying out the investigation according to what has been planned
• collecting data and presenting it in a meaningful way
• analysing the data that have been collected
• interpreting the analysed data
• drawing a conclusion based on the results of the investigation writing a report of the
investigation

REPORTING THE FINDINGS OF A SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION

After the scientific investigation has been completed, it is important to write a report.

The report can include:

 Topic of the investigation
 An introduction
 The methodology (methods used to conduct the investigation)
 The results (findings)
 The discussion of the results
 The conclusion

The possible solution to the problem is called a hypothesis.

Examples of the questions that can be investigated in science and technology:

 why does a fresh egg sink and a rotten one float on water?

Page 4 of 42
  what is the speed of sound in air?
 what are the factors that affect the speed of sound in air?
 how different is the life cycle of grasshopper from that of a housefly?
 how can a particular variety of maize be improved in terms of yields?
 how is the pitch of sound affected by different sizes of bottles?
 which is the most effective biological control of aphids?
 how can the components of a given mixture be separated?

Variables are factors that would affect the results in the investigation.

Variables is anything that can change.

THE PURPOSE OF WRITING A REPORT AFTER CONDUCTING A SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION

 to communicate the findings of the investigation to those who did not take part in the
investigation.
 It acts as a record of what was done
 It gives people the opportunity to learn the findings, ask questions and comment on the
investigation.

UNIT 2 THE HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The main parts of human circulatory system and their function

PARTS FUNCTION
The Heart It pumps blood around the body
The Arteries They carry blood away from the heart
The Veins They carry blood to the heart
The Capillaries They connect the arteries to the veins

THE HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

 Blood comes into the heart from all parts of the body through Posterior and Anterior vena
cava and from the lungs through the Pulmonary vein.
 The blood goes out of the heart through the aorta to all parts of the body and through the
pulmonary artery to the lungs.

Page 5 of 42
  When blood comes from different parts of the body it is dark red in colour because it contains
less oxygen and more waste products such as carbon dioxide and urea.
 The heart then pumps the blood to the lungs through the pulmonary artery.
 In the lungs, carbon dioxide is excreted while oxygen is added to the blood making it look
bright red.
 The blood then goes back to the heart through the pulmonary vein where it is pumped to all
parts of the body.

When the blood is circulating throughout the body, some of the following things happen:
• excretion of waste products such as urea from the kidneys

Page 6 of 42
 • diffusion of digested food particles around the intestines from where they are transported to
the liver

It is the liver regulates or controls how much food should be transported by the blood.

The liver also stores excess food.

COMPOSITION OF BLOOD Blood

is composed of:
• Plasma which is the liquid part of the blood
• Red blood cells which transport oxygen
• White blood cells which defend the body against disease causing organisms Platelets which
help in the process of blood clotting.

BLEEDING
Bleeding is the process whereby blood oozes from the body.

CAUSES OF BLEEDING
• High blood pressure rapturing blood vessels especially in the nostrils
• Disease
• Tissue damage (injury)

EFFECTS OF EXCESSIVE BLOOD LOSS FROM THE BODY

• Anaemia
• Death

WAYS OF CONTROLLING BLEEDING

 Applying direct pressure on the injured part of the body
 Raising the injured part so as to reduce the amount of blood flowing to it. 
Clotting of blood (this is done naturally by the body)

Where there has been excessive loss of blood, a person may be given blood from other people
through a process called blood transfusion.
Page 7 of 42
This is why it is important that people should donate blood to hospitals so as to save the lives of
others in cases of emergency.

UNIT 3 THE HUMAN BREATHING SYSTEM

Breathing is a process through which air is pushed in and out of the lungs.

The air which enters the body contains a lot of oxygen which later diffuses into the blood stream
through the lungs.
The air which goes out of the body contains a lot of carbon dioxide which has diffused from the blood
into the lungs.

For breathing to take place, there are several parts and structures that are involved.

For example, nostrils, windpipe (trachea), lungs, ribs, and the diaphragm.

pleural sac

BREATHING MECHANISM The breathing mechanism works in two phases which are
Inspiration and Expiration.

INSPIRATION
This is a process of breathing in air and is also referred to as inhalation.

During inspiration, the diaphragm contracts and becomes flat, the ribs move up and out due to the
contraction of the external intercostal muscles.

Due to the movement of the ribs, the volume of the thorax (chest cavity) increases.

Page 8 of 42
Air pressure inside the chest cavity decreases thereby making it lower than the atmospheric pressure.

This causes the air to rush into the lungs

EXPIRATION
This is a process of breathing out air and is also referred to as exhalation.

During expiration, the diaphragm relaxes and moves upwards into the thorax, forming a dome shape.
The ribs move down and inwards due to the relaxation of the external intercostal muscles

Due to the inward movement of the ribs, the volume of the thorax decreases.

The air pressure inside the chest cavity therefore increases, making it higher than the atmospheric
pressure.

This forces air out of the lungs.

When the air enters through the nose (nostrils), it passes through the trachea (windpipe), then
through the bronchus, then into the lungs through the bronchioles.

Finally, it goes to air sacs or alveoli where the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place.

PROBLEMS AND CARE FOR THE HUMAN BREATHING SYSTEM

Problems that can affect breathing system are:

A. Smoking
B. Air pollution
C. Diseases
D. Suffocation
E. Smothering

WAYS OF CARING FOR THE HUMAN BREATHING SYSTEM

A. Avoid Smoking
• Tobacco smoking is dangerous to the breathing system
• It can lead to diseases such as lung cancer, asthma, bronchitis and tuberculosis
• Tobacco also contains a dangerous chemical known as nicotine
• Smoking other substances such as Indian hemp and traditional medicines can lead to the
same effects. So smoking is hazardous to health and must be avoided.

Page 9 of 42
 B. Avoid air pollution
• Being in a places where air is heavily polluted can lead to problems that can affect the
breathing system.
• It is important to avoid areas where the air is polluted.

C. Eat a balanced diet and go for regular medical check-ups to prevent diseases that can affect
breathing system
Diseases such as cancer, asthma, bronchitis and tuberculosis (TB) can affect breathing
system

D. Live in well ventilated places to avoid suffocation

Suffocation is a situation whereby air cannot pass out of the lungs either through choking or
strangulation

E. Avoid covering oneself with air proof materials to prevent smothering

• Smothering is a situation where air cannot get into the mouth or nose, for example, if clothing
or plastic bag covers the face.

UNIT 4 IMPROVING THE NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF FOOD

IMPROVING THE NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF FOOD

Various foods contain different types of nutrients.

For instance, meat contains proteins, fats, vitamins and mineral elements.

The nutritional value of food refers to the major nutrients the food contains.

Improving the nutritional value of food means enriching the food with other nutrients by preparing
the foods together.

Ways of improving the nutritional value of food

• Combining several foods when cooking
• Adding enriching food to dishes
• Overcooking fish to soften the bones so that they can be eaten together with the flesh
• Cooking some foods in their skins or together with the skin
• Using one pot meals

Page 10 of 42
Factors to consider when planning, preparing, cooking and serving dishes with improved nutritional
value
• The method of cooking
• Colour, texture and flavour of food
• Season of the year
• Ensure that the meals are nutritionally balanced

THE NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF POOR NUTRITION ON THE FAMILY, COMMUNITY AND THE NATION
• Malnutrition
• Stunted growth among children
• Poor mental capacity
• Increased risk of chronic illnesses
• High mortality rate among children
• Low productivity in everyday activities
• Strain on the economy of the country
• Low standards of living

THE POSITIVE EFFECTS OF GOOD NUTRITION ON THE FAMILY, COMMUNITY AND THE NATION
• Healthy population
• Proper growth in children
• High productivity in everyday activities
• Good nutritional status of the population
• High standards of living

UNIT 5 MEALS FOR INVALIDS, CONVALESCENTS, VEGETARIANS AND ELDERLY PEOPLE

People can be categorized into different groups depending on their nutritional needs.

These include:
• Invalids
• Convalescents
• Vegetarians
• The elderly
Page 11 of 42
 a. Invalids
Invalids are people who are ill

b. Convalescents
Convalescents are people recovering from an illness

c. Vegetarians
Vegetarians are people who do not eat meat or animal products

d. The elderly
The elderly are people above the age of 65 years
MEALS FOR INDIVIDUAL NUTRITIONAL NEEDS

INVALIDS
Invalids use less energy therefore they require fewer carbohydrates and fats.

Their meals should contain more proteins and protective foods for the replacement of damaged
tissues and cells.

GUIDELINES TO CONSIDER WHEN PLANNING MEALS FOR AN INVALID

• The meal should be easy to digest
• Liquid diet should be given
• Following doctor's instructions on meals
• Taking into account particular likes and dislikes for food
• Not serving leftover food to avoid contamination
• Paying careful attention to food hygiene
• Preparing food away from the patient
• Serving meals in a tray and in small portions

Convalescents
The guidelines for planning meals for convalescents are similar to those of the invalids.

The only difference is that the convalescent's appetite is better and serving is easier.

Page 12 of 42
Vegetarians
There are two types of vegetarians.
1. Lacto-vegetarians
2. Strict vegetarians

Lacto-vegetarians are those who eat vegetables and animal products such as eggs, milk, cheese,
yoghurt, ghee and sour milk (chambiko).

Strict vegetarians are people who eat vegetables only.

Reasons for becoming vegetarians

• Religion
• Health
• Animal welfare
• Taste
• Allergy
Planning meals for vegetarians can be difficult because of lack of proteins, vitamins A and D, calcium
and iron from animal sources.

POINTS TO CONSIDER WHEN PLANNING MEALS FOR VEGETARIANS

• Providing sufficient proteins from animal products for lacto-vegetarians
• Using plenty of vegetable proteins such as peas, beans and groundnuts for strict vegetarians
• Providing foods rich in oils and fats from plant sources
• Using a variety of methods of cooking and serving with different combinations to bring variety
to vegetarian diets
• Serving large portions for maximum supply of proteins

Elderly people
Elderly people need a special diet because their bodies do not function as efficiently as when they
were young.

GUIDELINES FOR PREPARING PLANNING MEALS FOR THE ELDERLY PEOPLE

• An adequate supply of calcium and vitamins is needed for healthy bones and preventing
infections
• Iron is needed as elderly people may suffer from anaemia

Page 13 of 42
 • Food should be easy to eat because their teeth may not be very strong
• Ensuring a good supply of dietary fibre to help in the digestion of food
• Meals should contain more fruits, vegetables and less fat
• Providing plenty of fluids in the form of water and other beverages Meals should be served
attractively

UNIT 6 IMPROVING A TRADITIONAL KITCHEN

TYPES OF KITCHENS
 The modern kitchen
 Traditional kitchen

These kitchens are found in both urban and rural areas.

THE MODERN KITCHEN

The modern kitchen is part of the main house.

It is found inside the house.

Though a modern kitchen is built as part of the main house, the outside walls must have sufficient
windows for good lighting and ventilation to avoid eye strain.

The kitchen should also be closed off from the rest of the house to prevent cooking odours from
entering the rest of the rooms in the house.

MAIN FEATURES OF A MODERN KITCHEN

• Preparing centre
• Cooking centre

Page 14 of 42
 • Storage centre
• Washing centre

THE TRADITIONAL KITCHEN

The traditional kitchen is the most common type of kitchen in Malawi.

TYPES OF TRADITIONAL KITCHENS

 The open-air kitchen
 An enclosed kitchen

THE OPEN-AIR KITCHEN

This type of kitchen is usually in the open outside the house.

It is common in the dry season mainly to boil water for domestic purposes and cook food.

The following illustration on the next page shows an open-air kitchen.

AN ENCLOSED KITCHEN
This kitchen is in the form of a hut and is located outside the main house.

It is constructed of materials such as poles, bricks, reeds and mud.

The roof is made of poles and thatched with grass.

In some cases, the kitchen does not have windows.

As such, the main source of ventilation is the door.

The three-stone fireplace is the one commonly used as the cooking centre.

Page 15 of 42
Both open and enclosed kitchens have the kitchen centres located far away from each other.

This arrangement is not good.

A lot of time and energy is spent walking between the centres.

This makes the traditional kitchen not efficient.

The centres are:

• The storage centre
• The preparation centre
• The cooking centre
• The washing centre
COMPARISON OF A MODERN AND A TRADITIONAL KITCHEN
Modern kitchen Traditional kitchen
• expensive to construct • it is cheap and easy to construct
• adequate ventilation and lighting • sometimes there is little ventilation
• enough space • poor lighting
• has working surfaces • sometimes there is limited space
• expensive to maintain • no working surface
• easy to maintain

STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF A TRADITIONAL KITCHEN

The strengths of a traditional kitchen are;

 easy to construct
 easy to maintain

LIMITATIONS OF TRADITIONAL KITCHEN

 a lot of smoke is produced
Page 16 of 42
  the food cooked in a three-stone fireplace can have a smoky flavour if not cooked properly
 there is wastage of fuel energy
 space is limited
 the traditional kitchen does not have work surfaces and there is no running water.

WAYS OF IMPROVING THE TRADITIONAL KITCHEN

• making a kitchen with a window and a chimney
• fixing surfaces and shelves to an already existing kitchen
• making a drying rack outside the kitchen for drying pots and plates
• constructing a mud stove with more than one cooking place to save fuel and time

CONSTRUCTING A MUD CUPBOARD

The materials and equipment required for constructing a mud cupboard are:
• Poles
• Soil
• Bamboo
• Water
• Nails
• Panga knives
• Buckets
• Strings
• A piece of rope
• A hoe

CONSTRUCTING A SHELF
The materials and equipment required for constructing a shelf are
• Bamboo strips
• Reeds
• Grass
• Millet or maize stems
• Sticks
• Poles
• Pieces of string

Page 17 of 42
CONSTRUCTING A DRYING RACK WITH A SOAK PIT
The materials and equipment required for constructing a drying rack are:
• Poles
• Bamboo strips
• Pieces of string
• A hoe
• Chilaya (a tool for digging hoes)
• Panga knives
• Nails
• A hammer

UNIT 7 IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF PRODUCTS

Some of the locally produced products in the community such as wood carvings, mats, clay pots,
mortar and hoe handles may not be of high quality.

It is therefore important to improve their quality.

Quality guarantees that the products are of a high standard.

There are many ways of improving the quality of a product.

These ways include:

• improving the smell
• improving the taste
• improving the appearance
• improving the colour
• improving the volume
• improving the shape
• packaging
• decorating
• labelling

The following table shows some suggestions of how the quality of products can be improved:

Page 18 of 42
THE IMPORTANCE OF IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF PRODUCTS
• Products of high quality can help to build confidence in the consumer.
• The producer is assured of high sales at a better price.
• Quality assurance ensures that the products are manufactured consistently and are attractive.

NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF PRODUCTS

• the products may become expensive and slow to sell
• some materials used for improving the quality of the products may not be found locally and
can be expensive
UNIT 8 FOOD PROCESSING

Food processing refers to the methods that are used to change raw ingredients into food products for
human and animal consumption.

REASONS FOR PROCESSING FOOD

• improving flavour, texture and appearance
• preserving the food
• improving the quality of food

Page 19 of 42
 • preventing wastage
• improving the livelihood of people

WAYS OF PROCESSING FOOD

There are two main ways of processing food.

These are primary and secondary processing.

PRIMARY PROCESSING
Primary processing involves raw ingredients for sale, consumption or making them ready for cooking.

Examples include:
• grinding grain into flour
• sorting and washing vegetables
• extracting oil from seeds and nuts
• soaking cassava
• fermenting cereals such as millet, sorghum and making for making chimera
• soaking mphale to make flour
• pounding cereals such as rice and maize

SECONDARY PROCESSING
Secondary processing involves turning basic processed foods into new products.

Examples include:
• making margarine from oil
• making bread, cakes and biscuits from flour
• making jam from fruits
• making juices from fruits
• making thobwa from chimera
• making thobwa, starch, nsima from cassava flour
• making chambiko/cheese from milk
• making peanut butter from groundnuts

ADVANTAGES OF FOOD PROCESSING

• improving the taste, flavour and appearance of food
Page 20 of 42
 • preserving the food
• improving the quality of food

DISADVANTAGES OF FOOD PROCESSING

• loss of nutrients during processing
• some of the methods used in processing food are not hygienic
• some methods used in processing can lead to wastage
• food processing can lead to increase in the cost of food

UNIT 9 REPRODUCTION IN HUMAN BEINGS

THE PROCESS OF CONCEPTION IN HUMAN BEINGS Human

life begins at the moment of conception.

During sexual intercourse, a man ejaculates millions of sperms contained in a liquid called semen.

The sperms are deposited in the vagina.

From there, they swim up to the uterus through the cervix into the fallopian tubes to meet the egg
(ovum).

The sperm unites with the egg.

This is called conception or fertilisation.

The union of the sperm and egg results in the formation of a single cell called a zygote.

Once the successful sperm has entered the egg, no other sperm can get in.

Eventually, all the unsuccessful sperms die.

Page 21 of 42
DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMBRYO Once fertilisation has taken place, the zygote passes from
the fallopian tube to the uterus.

As it does so, it develops into an embryo.

It takes about five days for the embryo to reach the uterus to which it is attached.

This is called implantation

A membrane known as the amnion encloses the embryo in a fluid-filled cavity.

The fluid protects the embryo, supports it and allows it to move freely during growth.

During birth the fluid lubricates and reduces friction in the vagina.

During implantation the placenta develops in the walls of the uterus.

The embryo is attached to the placenta by a tube called the umbilical cord.

Page 22 of 42
FUNCTIONS OF THE PLACENTA
• it allows dissolved food substances and oxygen to diffuse from the mother's blood into that of
the embryo
• it allows waste products such as urea and carbon dioxide to diffuse from the blood capillaries
of the embryo to the mother's blood stream
• it allows antibodies to diffuse from the mother's blood into the blood capillaries of the
embryo. The antibodies protect the embryo against diseases.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FOETUS

The embryo continues to grow and forms tissues and organs.

After eight weeks, when all the organs are formed, the embryo is called foetus.

By the fifth month, the heart can be heard beating through a stethoscope.

By the end of the sixth month, the baby has grown eyelashes and eyebrows.

During the first six to seven months, the foetus moves freely in the uterus and its movements can be
felt by the mother.

The placenta continues to grow as the foetus grows bigger.

About nine months from conception, the baby is ready to be born.

Page 23 of 42
THE SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF PREGNANCY
• menstruation stops to occur
• morning sickness
• increase in body weight
• enlargement of breasts and abdomen

In some cases the following signs and symptoms of pregnancy can also occur
• vomiting
• nausea
• being choosy about food
• feeling dizziness
• swelling of legs
• craving for unusual food and other substances like soil and sour things
• change in appetite
• teeth problems due to loss of calcium to the baby
• changing moods
• changes in the pigmentation of the skin
Page 24 of 42
 • anaemia
• maternal morbidity

Some of the signs and symptoms will disappear in the early stages of pregnancy, but others will
disappear soon after delivery.

While the above signs and symptoms are indicators of pregnancy, it is important to have a medical
examination for confirmation.

THE NEEDS OF A PREGNANT WOMAN AND AN UNBORN BABY

DIETARY NEEDS
 a balanced diet
 plenty of clean and safe drinking water and other fluids but not alcoholic drinks

HEALTH NEEDS
• undergoing regular medical check-ups at antenatal clinics
• taking regular baths and wearing clean clothes
• not smoking or taking of drugs without prescription by a medical doctor

PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS
 love
 care
 understanding from all people around her

PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS
 proper attire such as loose clothes and flat shoes
 regular moderate physical exercises

CARE FOR THE BABY

Caring for the baby involves:

 following good feeding habits
 the provision of complementary feeding at the appropriate age of the baby
 weighing the baby to monitor growth and development at a clinic or health centre
Page 25 of 42
  immunisation against diseases such as polio, tuberculosis (TB) and measles
 provision of vitamin A and deworming tablets
 diagnosis and treatment of infections
 regular baths and wearing of clean clothes
 adequate sleep

THE COMMON DISEASES OF CHILDREN AND THEIR EFFECTS

COMMON DISEASES OF CHILDREN

 whooping cough
 tetanus
 TB
 malaria
 diphtheria
 polio
 measles
 diarrhoeal diseases such as dysentery

EFFECTS OF THE DISEASES IN CHILDREN

 paralysis and deformity of limbs in the case of polio
 deafness in the case of measles
 dehydration in the case of diarrhoeal diseases
 pneumonia
 anaemia
 death resulting from any of these diseases

PREVENTION OF THE COMMON DISEASES OF CHILDREN

• immunisation against polio, whooping cough, TB, tetanus, diphtheria and measles
• following general rules of hygiene against diarrhoeal diseases sleeping under a treated
mosquito net to prevent malaria

THE IMPORTANCE OF UNDER-FIVE CLINICS

• routine check-ups on the health of children
• routine monitoring of the weight of children

Page 26 of 42
 • giving advice on feeding, vaccination and nutrition for both the mother and the baby
• administering BCG vaccine to prevent TB, DPT vaccine to prevent diphtheria, whooping cough
and tetanus, and other vaccines to prevent polio and measles
• provision of vitamin A
• treatment of common infections

FAMILY PLANNING
Family planning is practicing some form of birth control to space out births and limit the size of the
family.

SOME REASONS FOR FAMILY PLANNING

• it can improve the well-being of families because couples can have fewer children who can be
provided with enough food, clothing and schooling
• women can protect themselves from unplanned pregnancies
• it helps to save the lives of children because parents can properly take care of them
• it can help nations to develop because the people's economic situation improves greatly in
countries where women have fewer children

FAMILY PLANNING METHODS

• natural methods
• use of condom
• use of contraceptive pill
• Vasectomy
• Spermicides
• The diaphragm
• Intra-uterine device (IUD)
• Tubal ligation (TL)
• Norplant implants

NATURAL METHODS The natural methods of family planning depend on knowing

when ovulation occurs.

USE OF CONDOM A male condom is worn on an erect penis before

sexual intercourse.

Page 27 of 42
 or

A female condom is inserted in the vagina before sexual intercourse.

This prevents sperm from reaching the egg.

USE OF CONTRACEPTIVE PILL

Contraceptive pills are taken each day between menstrual periods. The
pills suppress ovulation and so prevent conception.

VASECTOMY
This involves a surgical operation in which the man’s sperm ducts are cut and the ends sealed or tied.

SPERMICIDES
Spermicides are chemicals in the form of a cream, gel or foam that are used to kill or immobilise
sperms.

THE DIAPHRAGM
This is a rubber disc that can be placed in the vagina before sexual intercourse. It
covers the cervix and so prevents sperms from entering the uterus.

INTRA-UTERINE DEVICE (IUD)

This is a small metal or plastic strip bent into a loop or coil that is inserted in the uterus where it
prevents implantation of the embryo.

Page 28 of 42
TUBAL LIGATION (TL)
This involves sterilising a woman by an operation in which the oviducts are cut and tied.
This operation does not affect the ovaries, sexual desire or menstruation, but sperms cannot reach
the egg.
The eggs that are released break down in the upper part of the oviduct.

NORPLANT IMPLANTS
This is a set of six small plastic capsules that are placed under the skin of a woman’s upper arm.

UNIT 10 SOLUTIONS AND MIXTURES

MIXTURES
When two or more types of substances are put together, a mixture can be formed.

Mixtures can be formed in a number of ways.

These include:
 mixing a liquid with another liquid
 mixing a solid with another solid
 mixing a solid and a liquid
 mixing a liquid and a gas
 mixing a gas and another gas
Page 29 of 42
In some mixtures, the components can easily be seen like a mixture of maize flour and water. Such
mixtures are called suspensions

In some mixtures, like salt and water, its components cannot be recognised. Salt disappears in water.
The mixture appears as if it were one substance. Such mixtures are called solutions.

When sugar is mixed with water and stirred, it disappears in the water. The visible particles of sugar
break down into invisible particles. These particles spread throughout the water producing a clear
solution. This process is called dissolving.

A substance that dissolves in another substance is called a solute.

A substance in which something dissolves is called a solvent.

Substances that dissolve in water are said to be soluble in water.

Those that do not dissolve in water are said to be insoluble in water.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF SOLUBILITY OF SUBSTANCES IN WATER

• size of particles
• temperature
• stirring
• nature of substance
SEPARATION OF MIXTURES
Components that form mixtures can be separated using different methods.

METHODS OF SEPARATING MIXTURES

• handpicking
• winnowing
• sieving
• decanting
• filtration
• evaporation
• distillation
• magnetism

HANDPICKING
Page 30 of 42
Large components in a mixture can be separated by picking.
For example beans can easily be handpicked from a mixture of beans and sand.

WINNOWING
This method is used to separate solid mixtures.
During winnowing the lighter solids are carried away by sand. The
heavier ones remain in the winnower.

SIEVING
Solid mixtures can be separated using this method.
Smaller particles pass through the sieve while the bigger ones remain behind.
Solid particles can also be separated from a liquid using this method. For
example tea leaves from tea.

DECANTING
When a liquid forms a clear boundary with another liquid one liquid can be poured off leaving the
other liquid behind.
A mixture of water and paraffin or suspensions can be separated using this method.

FILTRATION
Filtration is a method of separating a solid substance from a liquid or a gas using a filter.
The liquid or gas passes through the filter while the solid ones remain behind.
The substance that passes through a filter is called a filtrate.
The substance that does not pass through a filter is called a residue.

EVAPORATION
A solution is heated gently to evaporate the liquid part and leave behind the solid part in the
container.
For example a solution of salt and water can be separated using this method.

DISTILLATION
This is used to separate liquid mixtures with components of different boiling points.

Page 31 of 42
The liquid that boils first evaporates and its gas is passed through a delivery tube via a condenser
where it is cooled and changed into a liquid again.
This liquid is then collected in the container as a distillate, for example kachaso.

MAGNETISM
Magnetism can be used to separate magnetic materials from non-magnetic ones.
The magnet attracts magnetic materials only from the mixture leaving the non-magnetic ones
behind.
For example iron particles cab be removed from sand in this way.

UNIT 11 METHODS OF COOKING

Methods of cooking can be categorized into dry and moist heat methods.

Dry methods include frying, baking and roasting.

Moist methods include boiling, steaming and stewing.

BAKING METHOD This is a method of cooking food using dry heat in

an oven or in a pot.

When baking using a pot, hot charcoal is placed on top and underneath or hot sand is placed beneath
and hot charcoal on top.

Examples of the food that can be cooked using baking method include scones, cakes,
chigumu/chikondamoyo, chimimina, biscuits, pudding, fish and root vegetables.

Page 32 of 42
ADVANTAGES OF BAKING FOOD
• food does not break up if cooked well
• no soluble nutrients are lost
• the food looks attractive
• flavour is improved

DISADVANTAGES OF BAKING FOOD

• uses a lot of fuel
• most baking ingredients are expensive
• needs careful attention
• not suitable for cooking food for the sick

ROASTING METHOD
Roasting is cooking food with a little oil or fat in an oven or saucepan or without oil or fat over
glowing charcoal fire.
Page 33 of 42
Examples of food that can be roasted include meat, fish, green maize, potatoes and cassava.

ADVANTAGES OF ROASTING
• the food looks attractive
• a cheap method of cooking food
• only few soluble nutrients are lost
• the flavour of the food is improved

DISADVANTAGES OF ROASTING FOOD

• incorrect roasting can harden the inside proteins
• roasting causes food to lose much of its moisture
• not suitable for cooking food with a high percentage of water like root vegetables
• does not make food tender
• the method demands more attention
• the food shrinks during roasting
• over-roasting burns or spoils the food

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN BAKING AND ROASTING FOOD

• they are both dry methods of cooking food
• cooking can be done inside an oven or in a saucepan over a fire
• in both methods cooked food is attractive
• the flavour of the food is improved

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BAKING AND ROASTING FOOD

Page 34 of 42
 • oil in baking is used for greasing baking tins so that the food does not stick to the tin whereas
oil in roasting is used to aid stewing
• ingredients in baking are more expensive than in roasting
UNIT 12 TECHNOLOGIES FOR CONSERVING THE ENVIRONMENT

MEANING OF ENVIRONMENT The term 'environment' refers to the

total surrounding of living things.

It includes land, soil, water, air, vegetation, animals and buildings.

IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENT The environment is

vital for the survival of living things.

All living things depend on the environment for basic necessities such as food, shelter, air, warmth
and water.

For living things to survive, they need a sustainable environment.

ACTIVITIES THAT CAN LEAD TO THE DESTRUCTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT

• deforestation
• setting bushfires
• overgrazing
• poor land husbandry practices
• poor waste disposal
• excessive use of inorganic fertilisers, herbicides and pesticides
• emissions of harmful gases
• poaching
• charcoal production
• use of inefficient energy stoves
• discharge of untreated sewage into water bodies

EFFECTS OF DESTROYING THE ENVIRONMENT

• desertification
• erratic rains leading to droughts and floods
• global warming
• adverse change in weather and seasons
• outbreak of diseases such as cancer and cholera

Page 35 of 42
 • low agricultural output leading to famine
• soil erosion
• scarcity of water
• decrease of animal population
• siltation
• loss of tourism
TECHNOLOGIES FOR CONSERVING THE ENVIRONMENT
• solar driers
• solar cookers
• biogas
• fuel saving stoves
• compositing
• solar panels (photovoltaics)
• solar heaters
• A-frame
• paper recycling
• briquettes
• dam

MAKING A SOLAR HEATER/COOKER

Materials needed for making a solar hear or cooker are:

• Two cardboard boxes, one slightly bigger than the other
• One cardboard sheet for the lid. This must be large enough to cover the top of the finished
heater
• One roll of aluminium foil
• Black paint or charcoal paste
• 1 cup of glue
• A sheet of glass or transparent plastic paper
• A knife

UNIT 13 ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY

Page 36 of 42
There are many sources of electricity.

These are primary and secondary sources.

Primary sources produce electricity directly, that is, by connecting a source to a load.

Secondary sources produce electricity through an intermediary such as a generator.

Some of the sources of electricity are:

• wind power
• geo-thermal power
• hydro-power
• chemical energy
• thermocouple which is a junction of two different metals solar energy

USES OF ELECTRICITY
• heating
• ironing
• cooking
• lighting
• cooling
• cleaning
• drying
• communication
• entertainment
• mixing things
• propelling machines
• air conditioning
• washing

Devices that use electricity must be part of a complete circuit.

The symbols are used to represent parts of the electric circuits such as cells, bulbs, switches, wires or
connectors and fuses.

Page 37 of 42
The symbol for a cell has one long line representing the positive terminal and the short one for the
negative terminal.

A cell

SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS

A series circuit is constructed by connecting components such that they lie along one conducting path.

If an electric circuit has more than one conducting path, it is called a parallel circuit.

A series circuit a parallel circuit

A parallel circuit is better than a series circuit because in a parallel circuit:

• the components can be controlled separately
• each component uses the total voltage from the source

HOW BULBS GIVE LIGHT A bulb gives light when, for example,
it is connected to a cell.

The electric current that flows in the electric circuit causes the bulb to give light.

Page 38 of 42
The electric current in the tungsten wire in the bulb meets resistance which results in the production
of heat.

The tungsten wire glows and gives off light because of the heat.

WAYS OF GENERATING ELECTRICITY USING LOCALLY AVAILABLE RESOURCES Electricity

can be generated by using locally available resources.

UNIT 14 FAMILY SIZE, INCOME AND FOOD SUPPLY

FAMILY SIZE
Family size refers to the number of people in a family.

Some families are generally big while others are small.

INCOME
This is the amount of money one gets regularly as payment for work or from trading, sale of farm
produce or other forms of livelihood.

FOOD SUPPLY
This is the amount of food available for consumption.

Food can be made available to a family by producing their own or buying.

This can ensure food security at the household level.

RELATIONSHIP AMONG FAMILY SIZE, INCOME AND FOOD SUPPLY

Family size determines the amount of food to be available to family members for consumption.

The amount of food available to a family depends on the amount of money available for buying food
or how much food the family can produce.

Page 39 of 42
UNIT 15 LAUNDERING CLOTHES AND BED LINEN

TYPES OF FABRICS
Fabrics from which clothes and bed linen are made are classified into two main groups.

These are natural and synthetic fibres.

NATURAL FIBRES
These are made from plants, animals and minerals.

For example:
 plant fibres - cotton and linen
 animal fibres - wool, silk and leather
 mineral fibres - fibreglass, aluminium and asbestos
SYNTHETIC FIBRES
These are fibres that are made by people.

Examples include polyester, nylon, rayon and acetate.

These are made from chemicals.

LAUNDERING CLOTHES AND BED LINEN

When laundering clothes and bed linen, the following are required: water, soap, bleaches, starch and
stain removals.

Laundry equipment that can be used include pails, basins, bathtubs, sinks, pegs, line on which clothes
can be dried, pressing iron, ironing table or ironing board, mats, ironing stands, angers, ironing
blankets and sheets.

The main processes in laundry are sorting, mending, soaking, washing, drying, pressing, airing and
storing.

It is important to sort out articles according to colour, degree of dirt, types and uses of fabric.

UNIT 16 HIV AND AIDS

Page 40 of 42
AIDS is a killer as well as a contagious disease.

AIDS stands for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome.

The disease is caused by a virus called HIV.

HIV stands for Human Immunodeficiency Virus.

The virus destroys the immune system of the body making it prone to different infections.

The word human means that the disease affects people only.

HIV TRANSMISSION

HIV can be transmitted in the following ways:

• unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected person
• infected pregnant mother passing the virus to the child during pregnancy, birth or
breastfeeding
• through blood transfusion when the donor is infected
• transfer of the virus through the blood of an infected person to an uninfected person through
sharing of skin cutting objects such as razor blades and needles

COMMON INFECTIONS ASSOCIATED WITH HIV AND AIDS

o TB o meningitis o cancer o skin infections

HIV AND AIDS PREVENTION

HIV and AIDS can be prevented in the following ways:

• abstinence from sex
• being faithful to one life-long uninfected sexual partner
• using condoms correctly and consistently during sexual intercourse
• avoiding having more than one sexual partner
• avoiding certain behaviours such as taking intoxicating drugs and substances
• avoiding sharing skin cutting objects such as razor blades and needles
• infected females should avoid getting pregnant or should seek medication so that the virus is
not transmitted to the unborn child
• avoiding cultural practices that can lead to the transmission of HIV such as chokolo and
kulowa kufa

Page 41 of 42
HOW TO TAKE CARE OF PEOPLE LIVING WITH HIV AND AIDS
A person with HIV and AIDS should have a balanced diet that can help one to remain strong and
healthy.

The following should be avoided:

 processed foods
 foods containing preservatives, artificial flavours or artificial colourants
 canned foods
 junk food
 alcoholic drinks
 smoking

People living with HIV and AIDS should be given food such as the following:
• meat
• dairy products
• fish
• seafood
• cereals
• food containing fats and oils
• vegetables, garlic and onions

REFERENCES

Malawi Institute of Education (2009), Science & Technology Teachers` Guide for standard 8, Domasi

Malawi Institute of Education (2009), Science & Technology Learners Book for standard 8, Domasi
Page 42 of 42